User:Doolan12/sandbox
Empoasca fabae, belongs to family Cicadellidae and genus Empoasca, within order Hemiptera.[1] They are more commonly referred to as the potato leafhopper.[1] In North America they are a serious agricultural pest.[2] Every year millions of dollars are lost from reduced crop yields and on pest management.[3] Crops that are impacted the most are potatoes, clover, beans, apples and alfalfa .[4]
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Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hemiptera |
| Suborder: | Auchenorrhyncha |
| Family: | Cicadellidae |
| Genus: | Empoasca |
| Species: | E. fabae
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| Binomial name | |
| Empoasca fabae | |
Appearance
[edit]Adults have a pale to iridescent green bodies with 6 or 8 white spots on their pronotum. [4] They have a distinctive white H shape mark between their head and wing base.[5] Adults grow to approximately 3 mm long and have on their front wings near its tip a crossvein. [4] Adults and nymphs move by hopping among host plants.[5] However, it’s only the adults that can fly .[6]
Diet
[edit]They are able to feed and reproduce on at least 200 different plant species across twenty-six families.[1] Herb genera represents 64% of their hosts .[7] Adults prefer to feed on the leaves and stems, while the nymphs prefer the leaves .[8] Their specialized mouth parts are able to pierce into the plant tissue and remove its sap.[9] The ability to inhabit a wide range of hosts, is due to the variation in their feeding behaviors .[10]
Migration
[edit]E. Fabae is a seasonal migration species.[11] They are able to reach their summer range by flying at night for two or three days .[12] Research suggests that they are using winds as a passive means to help migrate. .[11]The direction of the winds influence their distribution within their summer range.[11] Factors such as warm temperatures and lack of Precipitation increases their range .[12] Typically, the winds blow in a north-northeast direction towards Northern and Midwest United States .[11] Cold temperatures, major precipitation, and unsuitable environmental conditions are factors that will stop migration to continue more north .[12] In late summer cold fronts start to appear sending cues for them to leave .[11] As they leave they get caught up in these fronts and carry south to southwest to their overwintering range.[11]
Habitat and Range
[edit]Winter
[edit]Due to their inability to tolerate the cold winter temperatures they must migrate south.[11] Adults overwinters on hosts in the pine and mixed hardwood forests along the Gulf of Mexico and in the Southern United States.[13] Eastern Texas and Oklahoma, Virginia, Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi, have documented populations. .[13] Before migrating back to their summer range they change their hosts to herbaceous legumes then to new spring foliage of deciduous trees .[13]
Summer
[edit]Their summer range extends across the Midwest and eastern parts of Canada and the United States.[14] In Canada, they are found only in the Great Lakes region .[11] They are able to inhabit a wide range of habitats .[10] Only about 32% of individuals actually occupies croplands. [10] The remaining individuals will reside in fields, woodlands, scrublands, waste places, and parks. [10] Precipitation will deposit individuals upon plant hosts where they will quickly re-establish themselves .[15]
Development and Reproduction
[edit]Dispause
[edit]Before migrating they mate and enter reproductive diapause .[13] E. Fabae will begin to enter into reproductive dispause at the end of July .[16] The entire population will remain in this state for the migration and overwintering period .[13] This diapause period ends between mid-January and February, and they begin to sexually mature .[13]
Egg laying
[edit]During the spring migration north the majority of the individuals are females .[17] When they return if temperatures are above 10°C they can start oviposition and populations will grow and re-establish themselves .[18] E fabae arrives back to their summer ranges during April or early May depending on the location. [19]
During the summer months they can on average lay eggs over a span of 96 days.[20] Peak population densities occur during late May to late June .[9] Many overlapping generations will appear.[9] After this their population densities begin to decline slowly .[19] Individuals have a tendency to aggregate as their populations increase .[19] At the end of the summer individuals will either die or migrate south .[21]
Eggs and hatchlings
[edit]Eggs are laid on their hosts, they are transparent and small in size .[5] Every day females will lay 2 or 3 eggs a day on the plant’s stem and leaf veins .[22] The egg’s incubation period ranges from 4 to 23 days, the hatchings are called nymphs.[20] New hatchlings are white in colour and will develop their green colouring as they age .[20] The nymphs undergo five instars before becoming fully mature adults.[17] As they develop they lose their skin and develop their wings .[5] E fabre evolves into adults after 8 to 37 days. .[20] Their entire lifecycle is a month long .[22]
As a Pest
[edit]Hopperburn
[edit]Hopperburn in plants is caused by E. Fabae’s feeding on its hosts .[17] As they feed their saliva mechanically injures the phloem and parenchyma cells .[2] The plant also suffers damage to its vascular cambium, and to its vascular bundles .[17] Within 24 hours of being infested rates of photosynthesis,and transpiration are reduced, leaves accumulate starch, and transport of photoassimilates are reduced .[7]
The first symptoms of hopperburn is that the leaflet margins will start to curl up.[7] As plant infestation increases the leaves cup downward and they start to turn from green to yellow .[23] In severe infestations this leads to leaf necrosis where the leaf margins and intervein areas will turn brown.[23] Older plants will completely lose their leaves.[24] Young plants will display tip-wilting and will be stunted in normal height.[24] Plants that were damaged by stem feeding suffered more damaged to its physiology than those who were damaged by leaf eating .[8]
Research has shown that water stressed plants increase nymph's development time .[6] This causes sever hopperburn due to the increase plant stress response .[22]
Economic Impacts
[edit]Hopperburn leads to reduced plant growth and reproduction .[25] In some heavily infested fields up to 75% of the yield is lost, it depends on what stage of development the plants are in .[14] Obviously, this leads to reductions in crop yields and large economic losses .[25] For example in 1988 the losses of alfalfacrops in Northeast United states ranged from $32-$66 per hectare .[26] The amount of crop damage is directly proportional to the population density .[14] Most crop damage comes from the future generations of the initial arrivals back to the summer range .[12]
Climate Change
[edit]Research has indicated that over the last 62 years they have been arriving back to their summer range earlier by ten days.[27] Warmer temperatures increases the time and speed of egg hatching and nymph development .[18] There is increasing concern that climate change will shift the overwintering and summer ranges more northward.[27] This will exacerbate the problem of pest management and increase economic losses. .[27]
Pest Management
[edit]Usually, crop detection of E. Fabae is too late as hopperburn is the first visual symptom of a major infestation .[22] Regular crop inspections with a sweep net is essential to help reduce massive economic losses .[22] Another visual cue is the death of leaves with small pits holes throughout it resulting from their eggs .[5] Host expansion is likely caused from the loss of natural resistance through extensive plant breeding .[1]
Currently, the only effective method that exists for controlling E. Fabae’s infestations is the heavy application of insecticides .[14] Short-lived insecticides such as carbaryl are commonly used; however they require costly reapplications .[15]
Research is indicating the possibility of being able to control populations by increasing E. Fabae’s natural enemies as part of pest management plan .[28] Percent mortality has been shown to be highest in individuals in younger instars [16] Research has shown that natural resistance and pesticide use are just as effective, but neither is capable to fully contain populations .[29]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d ”Lamp, W., D., Miranda, L., Culler & Alexander, L. (2011) “Host Suitability and Gas Exchange Response of Grapevines to Potato Leafhopper (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)”. Journal of Economic Entomology 104 (4): 1316-1322.
- ^ a b ”Delay, B., P, Mamidala, A, Wijeratne., S, Wijerante, O, Mittapalli, J, Wang., and Lamp, W. (2012). “Transcriptome analysis of the salivary glands of potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae”. Journal of Insect Physiology 58 (12): 1626-1634.
- ^ ”., M, Serrano., & Ranger, C. (2005). “Mechanisms of Hopperburn: An Overview of Insect Taxonomy, Behavior, and Physiology.” Annual Review Entomology 50(1): 125-151..
- ^ a b c "Bland R.G., Jaques H.E. (2010). How to Know the Insects 3rd Edition. Waveland Press Inc. p.163.
- ^ a b c d e ”Dudley, J. (1921). “The Potato Leafhopper and its control”. United States Department of Agriculture: Farmers Bulletin 1225, 1-16..
- ^ a b ” Hoffman, G., D, Hogg, & Boush, M. (1991). “Potato Leafhopper (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Life History Traits on Water-Stressed Alfalfa in the Early Regrowth and Bud Stage”. Environmental Entomology 20(4): 10581066 .
- ^ a b c ” Lamp, W., Nielsen, G., Fuentes, C., & Quebedeaux, B. (2004) “Feeding Site Preference of Potato Leafhopper (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) on Alfalfa and its Effect on Photosynthesis”. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 21 (1): 25-38
- ^ a b ”Lamp, W., Nielsen, G., Fuentes, C., & Quebedeaux, B. (2004) “Feeding Site Preference of Potato Leafhopper (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) on Alfalfa and its Effect on Photosynthesis”. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 21 (1): 25-38
- ^ a b c ”Potter, D., & Spicer, P. (1993). “Seasonal Phenology, Management, and Host Preferences of Potato Leafhopper on Nursery-Grown Maples” Journal of Environmental Horticulture 11(3): 101-106..
- ^ a b c d ” Lamp, W., G, Nielson., & Danielson, S. (1994). “Patterns among Host Plants of Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae.” Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 67(4): 354-368.
- ^ a b c d e f g h ”Taylor, R., & Reling, D. (1986). Preferred Wind Direction of Long-Distance Leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) Migrants and its Relevance to the Return Migration of Small Insects. Journal of Animal Ecology 55(3): 1103-1114 Cite error: The named reference "TaylorReling1986" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c d ”Carlson, J., M, Whalon., D, Landis., & Gage, S. ( 1992). “Springtime weather patterns coincident with long-distance migration of potato leafhopper into Michigan.” Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 59(3-4): 183-206
- ^ a b c d e f ”Taylor, P., & Sheilds, E. (1995). “Phenology of Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in its Overwintering Area and Proposed Seasonal Phenology”. Environmental Entomology 24 (5): 1096-1108.
- ^ a b c d ”Medeiros, A., W, Tingey., & De Jong, W. (2004). “Mechanisms of Resistance to Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris), in Potato”. American Journal of Potato Research 81(6): 431-441..
- ^ a b ”Van Timmeren, S., J, Wise, C, Vandervoort., & Isaacs, R. (2011). “Comparison of foliar and soil formulations of neonicotinoid insecticides for control of potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), in wine grapes.” Pest Management Science 67(5): 560-567.
- ^ a b ” Erlandson, W., & Obrycki, J. (2015). “Population Dynamics of Empoasca fabae (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Central Iowa Alfalfa Fields.” Journal of Insect Science 15(1): 1-6.
- ^ a b c d ”Maletta, M., M, Henninger, & Holmstrom, K. (2006). “Potato Leafhopper Control and Plastic Mulch Culture in Organic Potato Production”. HortTechnology 16 (2): 199-204.
- ^ a b ”Sidumo, A., E, Sheilds., & Lembo, A. (2005). “Estimating the Potato Leafhopper Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Overwintering Range and Spring Premigrant Development by Using Geographic Information System.” Journal of Economic Entomology 98 (3): 757-764.
- ^ a b c ”Bentz, J., & Townsend, A. (2004). “Spatial and temporal patterns of abundance of the potato leafhopper among red maples.” Annal of Applied Biology 145(2): 157-164. .
- ^ a b c d ”Poos, F. (1932). “Biology of the Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca Fabae (Harris), and Some Closely Related Species of Empoasca.” Journal of Economic Entomology 25(3): 639-646.
- ^ ”Taylor, P., E, Sheilds., M, Tauber., & Tauber, C. (1995). “Induction of Reproductive Diapause in Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) and Its Implications Regarding Southward Migration”. Environment Entomology 24 (5): 1086-1095.
- ^ a b c d e ”Townsend, L. (2012). “Potato Leafhoppers.” University of Kentucky. Version 2012.2. ENT facts http://www2.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef115.asp Retrieved 28 November 2015
- ^ a b "Murray, J., M, Paul., & Schaafma, A. (2001) “Determination of traits associated with leafhopper (Empoasca fabae and Empoasca kraemeri) resistance and dissection of leafhopper damage symptoms in the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)”. Annals of Applied Biology. 139(3): 319-327.
- ^ a b ” Backus, E., M, Serrano., & Ranger, C. (2005). “Mechanisms of Hopperburn: An Overview of Insect Taxonomy, Behavior, and Physiology.” Annual Review Entomology 50(1): 125-151.
- ^ a b " Backus, E., M, Serrano., & Ranger, C. (2005). “Mechanisms of Hopperburn: An Overview of Insect Taxonomy, Behavior, and Physiology.” Annual Review Entomology 50(1): 125-151.
- ^ Lamp,W., Nielsen, G., & Dively, G. (1991)“Insect Pest-Induced Losses in Alfalfa: Patterns in Maryland and Implications for Management.” Journal of Economic Entomology 84(2): 610-618..
- ^ a b c ” Baker, M., P, Venugopal., & Lamp, W. (2015). “Climate Change and Phenology: Empoasca fabae (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) Migration and Severity of Impact”. Plos One 10 (5): 1-12
- ^ ”Erlandson, W., & Obrycki, J. (2010). “Predation of Immature and Adult Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) by Three Species of Predatory Insects.” Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 83(1): 1-6.
- ^ Ghidiu, G., D, Douches., K, Flecher., & Coombs, J. (2011). “Comparing Host Plant Resistance, Engineered Resistance, and Insecticide Treatment for Control of Colorado Potato Beetle and Potato Leafhopper in Potatoes.” International Journal of Agronomy 11(6): 516-523 To create more effective management programs and reduce pesticide use it’s essential to understand their dispersion, temporal and spatial patterns .<ref name=BentzTownsend2004 .