Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century, is a

Chinese historical novel based upon events in the turbulent years near the end of the Han
Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era of China, starting in 169 and ending with the
reunification of the land in 280.
It is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, with a grand
total of 800,000 words, nearly a thousand characters, most of them historical, in 120
chapters.
Overview
Myths from the Three Kingdoms era existed as oral traditions before any written
compilations. With their focus on the history of Han Chinese, the stories grew in popularity
during the reign of the foreign Mongol emperors of the Yuan Dynasty. During the succeeding
Ming Dynasty, an interest in plays and novels resulted in further expansions and retelling of
the stories.
The earliest attempt to combine these stories into a written work was Sanguozhi Pinghua (
; Snguzh Pnghu), literally "Story of Sanguozhi", published sometime
between 1321 and 1323. This version combined themes of legend, magic, and morality to
appeal to the peasant class. Elements of reincarnation and karma were woven into this
version of the story.
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms is traditionally attributed to Luo Guanzhong, who lived
sometime between 1315 and 1400 (late Yuan to early Ming period). Some scholars argue for
an origin from around the second half of the fifteenth century (mid-Ming) based on
characteristics of the text. This theory is extensively developed in Andrew Plaks' Four
Masterworks of the Ming Novel.It was written in partly vernacular and partly Classical
Chinese and was considered the standard text for 300 years. The author made use of
available historical records, including the Records of the Three Kingdoms compiled by Chen
Shou, which covered events from the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 up to the unification of
the three kingdoms under the Jin Dynasty in AD 280. The novel also includes material from
Tang Dynasty poetic works, Yuan Dynasty operas and his own personal interpretation of
elements such as virtue and legitimacy. The author combined this historical knowledge with
a gift for storytelling to create a rich tapestry of personalities, and initially published it in 24
volumes. It was copied by hand until first printed in 1522 as Sanguozhi tongsu yanyi In the
1660s, during Kangxi's reign in the Qing Dynasty, Mao Lun (; ) and his son Mao
Zonggang (; ) significantly edited the text, fitting it into 120 chapters, and
abbreviating the title to Sanguozhi yanyi. The text was reduced from 900,000 to 750,000
characters; significant editing was done for narrative flow; use of third party poems was
reduced and shifted from conventional verse to finer pieces; and most passages praising
Cao Cao's advisers and commanders were removed. Scholars have long debated whether
Mao's viewpoint was anti-Qing (identifying Southern Ming remnants with Shu-Han) or proQing.The previous version was almost completely supplanted by Mao's edition, which is
considered to be the superior literary work.
This novel reflects the Confucian values that were prominent at the time it was written.
According to Confucian moral standards, loyalty to one's family, friends, and superiors are
important measures for distinguishing good and bad people. In the novel, characters who
were not loyal to the collapsing Han Dynasty are portrayed as bad people; on the contrary,
modern mainstream ideology in Communist China would say that the deeply suffering
masses were trying to overthrow the ruling feudal lords.
Story
One of the greatest achievements of Romance of the Three Kingdoms is the extreme
complexity of its stories and characters. The novel contains numerous secondary stories. As
such, the following only serves as a summary of the central plot.

Three Heroes of Three Kingdoms, silk painting by Sekkan Sakurai (17151790), depicting Liu
Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. This painting is usually hung in the offices of businessmen to
show that they are trustworthy, just as these brothers were to each other.
Yellow Turban Rebellion
In the final years of the Han Dynasty, incompetent eunuchs deceive the emperor and
persecute good officials. The government has become extremely corrupt on all levels,
leading to widespread deterioration of the empire. During the reign of the penultimate Han
emperor, Emperor Ling, the Yellow Turban Rebellion breaks out under the leadership of
Zhang Jiao.
The rebellion is barely suppressed by troops under the command of He Jin, the Commanderin-Chief of the imperial armies. Fearing his growing power, the eunuchs led by Zhang Rang
lure He Jin into the palace and murder him. He Jin's stunned guards, led by Yuan Shao,
respond by charging into the palace to kill all eunuchs for revenge, which turned into an
indiscriminate slaughter. In the ensuing chaos, the child Emperor Shao and the Prince of
Chenliu disappear from the palace.
Dong Zhuo's reign of terror
The missing emperor and prince are found later by soldiers of the warlord Dong Zhuo, who
proceeds to seize control of the capital city Luoyang under the pretext of protecting the
emperor. Dong deposes Emperor Shao later and replaces him with the Prince of Chenliu, who
becomes known as Emperor Xian. Dong usurps state power and starts a reign of terror in
which innocents are persecuted and the common people suffer under his rule. Wu Fu and
Cao Cao attempt to assassinate Dong Zhuo but both of them fail.
Cao Cao manages to escape and issues an imperial edict in the emperor's name to all
regional warlords and governors, calling them to rise up against Dong Zhuo. Under Yuan
Shao's leadership, eighteen warlords form a coalition force in a campaign against Dong
Zhuo, but undermined by poor leadership and conflict of interest, they only manage to drive
Dong from Luoyang to Chang'an. Dong Zhuo is eventually betrayed and killed by his foster
son L Bu in a dispute over the beautiful maiden Diao Chan.
Conflict among the various warlords and nobles
In the meantime, the empire is already disintegrating into civil war. Sun Jian finds the
Imperial Seal and keeps it secretly for himself, further weakening royal authority. Without a
strong central government, warlords begin to rise and fight each other for land, plunging
China into a state of anarchy. In the north, Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan are at war, and in
the south, Sun Jian and Liu Biao. Many others, even those without title or land, such as Cao
Cao and Liu Bei, are also starting to build up power.
Cao Cao rescues Emperor Xian from Dong Zhuo's followers and establishes the new imperial
court in Xuchang. Cao Cao proceeds to defeat his rivals such as L Bu, Yuan Shu and Zhang
Xiu before scoring a tactical victory over Yuan Shao in the Battle of Guandu despite being
vastly outnumbered. Through his conquests, Cao unites the Central Plains and northern
China under his rule, and the lands he controlled would serve as the foundation for the state
of Cao Wei in the future.
Sun Ce builds a dynasty in Jiangdong
Meanwhile, an ambush had violently concluded Sun Jian's life in a war with Liu Biao, fulfilling
his own rash oath to heaven. His eldest son Sun Ce delivers the Imperial Seal as a tribute to
the rising royal pretender, Yuan Shu of Huainan, in exchange for reinforcements. Sun secures
himself a state in the rich riverlands of Jiangdong, on which the state of Eastern Wu will
eventually be founded. Tragically, Sun Ce also dies at the pinnacle of his career from illness
under stress of his terrifying encounter with the ghost of Yuji, a venerable magician whom he
had falsely accused and executed in jealousy. However, his younger brother Sun Quan, who
succeeds him, proves to be a capable and charismatic ruler. Sun, assisted by skilled advisors
Zhou Yu and Zhang Zhao, inspires hidden talents such as Lu Su to join his service, and builds
up a strong military force.
Liu Bei's ambition
Liu Bei, along with his sworn brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, swear allegiance to the Han
Dynasty in the famous Oath of the Peach Garden and pledge to do their best for the country.
However, their goals and ambitions are not realized until the later part of the novel. Liu is
not recognized for his efforts in quelling the Yellow Turban Rebellion and is merely appointed
as a junior magistrate. They join Gongsun Zan and participate in the campaign against Dong
Zhuo. Liu Bei becomes the governor of Xu Province after Tao Qian passed on the post to him.
Liu loses the province when L Bu seizes control of it with the help of a defector and he joins
Cao Cao in defeating L at the Battle of Xiapi. While Cao Cao subtly reveals his intention to
usurp state power, Liu Bei is officially recognised by Emperor Xian as the Imperial Uncle and
seen as a saviour to help the emperor deal with Cao.
Liu Bei leaves Cao Cao eventually and seizes Xu Province from Cao's newly-appointed
governor Che Zhou. In retaliation, Cao attacks Xu Province and defeats Liu, forcing Liu to
seek refuge under Yuan Shao for a brief period of time. Liu finds a new base in Runan after
leaving Yuan but is defeated by Cao Cao's forces once again. He retreats to Jing Province to
join Liu Biao and is placed in charge of Xinye. At Xinye, Liu recruits the genius strategist
Zhuge Liang personally and builds up his forces.
Battle of the Red Cliffs
Cao Cao declares himself Chancellor and leads his troops to attack southern China after
uniting the north. He is defeated twice at Xinye by Liu Bei's forces but Liu loses the city as
well. Liu leads his men and the civilians of Xinye on an exodus southwards and they arrive at
Jiangxia where Liu establishes a foothold against Cao Cao.

To resist Cao Cao, Liu Bei sends Zhuge Liang to persuade Sun Quan to form an alliance.
Zhuge succeeds in his diplomatic mission and remains in Jiangdong as a temporary advisor
to Sun Quan. Sun places Zhou Yu in command of the armies of Jiangdong (Eastern Wu) in
preparation for an upcoming war with Cao Cao. Zhou feels that Zhuge will become a future
threat to Eastern Wu and he tries to kill Zhuge on a few occasions but he fails and decides to
co-operate with Zhuge for the time being. Cao Cao is defeated at the Battle of Red Cliffs by
the allied forces of Sun Quan and Liu Bei and he is forced to retreat north.

Traditional site of the Red Cliff

Sun Quan and Liu Bei begin vying for control of Jing Province after their victory and Liu
seizes the province from Cao Cao after following Zhuge Liang's strategy. Sun Quan is
unhappy and sends emissaries to ask Liu Bei for Jing Province, but Liu dismisses the envoys
each time with different excuses. Sun uses some strategies proposed by Zhou Yu to take the
land, of which the most famous is the "Beauty Scheme." Sun intends to lure Liu Bei to
Jiangdong to marry his sister Lady Sun and hold Liu hostage to exchange his freedom for Jing
Province, but the plot fails and the newly-wed couple return home safely. Zhou Yu tries to
take Jing Province repeatedly but his plans are foiled three times by Zhuge Liang. Zhou Yu is
so infuriated the last time that he coughs blood and dies.
Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province
After Zhou Yu's death, relations between Liu Bei and Sun Quan gradually deteriorate but not
to the point of open conflict. In accordance with Zhuge Liang's Longzhong Plan, Liu Bei leads
his troops into Yi Province in the west and takes over the land from the incompetent noble
Liu Zhang. By then, Liu Bei rules a vast area of land from Jing Province to Yi Province in the
west, which will serve as the foundation for the future state of Shu Han. He proclaims
himself "King of Hanzhong" after his victory over Cao Cao at the Battle of Hanzhong.
At the same time, Cao has also been granted the title of "King of Wei" by the emperor while
Sun Quan is known as the "Duke of Wu". In the east, Sun Quan and Cao Cao's forces clash at
the Battle of Ruxukou and Battle of Hefei with victories and defeats for both sides. The
situation among the three major powers reaches a stalemate after this until Cao Cao's
death.
Death of Guan Yu
Meanwhile, Sun Quan plots to take Jing Province after tiring of Liu Bei's repeated refusals to
hand the land over. He makes peace with Cao Cao and becomes a vassal of Cao with the
title of "King of Wu". Guan Yu, who is in charge of Jing Province, leads his troops to attack
Cao Ren in the Battle of Fancheng. Sun Quan sends L Meng to lead his troops to seize Jing
Province while Guan is away, as part of his secret agreement with Cao Cao. Guan is caught
off guard and lost Jing Province before he knew it. He retreats to Maicheng, where he is
heavily surrounded by Sun Quan's forces, while his army gradually shrinks in size as many of
his troops desert or surrender to the enemy. In desperation, Guan attempts to break out of
the siege but fails and is captured in an ambush. He is executed on Sun Quan's orders after
refusing to renounce his loyalty to Liu Bei.
Shortly after Guan Yu's death, Cao Cao dies of a brain tumor and his son Cao Pi usurps the
throne, effectively ending the Han Dynasty and Cao renames his new dynasty "Cao Wei". In
response, Liu Bei proclaims himself emperor, to carry on the bloodline of the Han Dynasty.
While Liu Bei is planning to avenge Guan Yu, his other sworn brother Zhang Fei is
assassinated in his sleep by his subordinates, who have defected to Sun Quan.
Battle of Xiaoting
As Liu Bei leads a mammoth-size army to attack Sun Quan to avenge Guan Yu, Sun attempts
to appease Liu by offering him the return of Jing Province. Liu's advisers, including Zhuge
Liang, urge him to accept Sun's tokens of peace, but Liu persists in vengeance. After initial
victories, a series of strategic mistakes due to the impetuosity of Liu leads to the
cataclysmic defeat of Shu Han in the Battle of Xiaoting. Lu Xun, the commander of Sun
Quan's forces, refrains from pursuing the retreating Shu Han troops after encountering
Zhuge Liang's Stone Sentinel Maze.
Liu Bei dies in Baidicheng from illness shortly after his defeat. In a moving final conversation
between Liu on his deathbed and Zhuge Liang, Liu grants Zhuge the authority to take the
throne if his successor Liu Shan proves to be an inept ruler. Zhuge refuses and swears that
he will remain faithful to the trust Liu Bei had placed in him. This promise is to be a raison
d'tre for the rest of Zhuge Liang's life.

Zhuge Liang's campaigns

After Liu Bei's death, as advised by Sima Yi, Cao Pi induces several forces, including Sun
Quan, turncoat Shu general Meng Da, Meng Huo of the Nanman and the Qiang tribes, to
attack Shu Han, in coordination with a Cao Wei army. Zhuge Liang manage to send the five
armies retreating without any bloodshed. An envoy from Shu Han named Deng Zhi
subsequently persuades Sun Quan to renew the former alliance with Shu Han. Zhuge Liang
personally leads a southern campaign against the Nanman barbarian king Meng Huo. Meng
is defeated and captured seven times, but Zhuge releases him each time and allows him to
come back for another battle, in order to win Meng over. The seventh time, Meng refuses to
leave and decides to swear allegiance to Shu Han forever.
After pacifying the south, Zhuge Liang leads the Shu Han army on five military expeditions
to attack Cao Wei in order to restore the Han Dynasty. However, Zhuge's days are numbered
as he had been suffering from chronic tuberculosis all along, and his condition worsens
under stress from the campaigns. His last significant victory over Cao Wei is probably the
defection of Jiang Wei, a promising young general who is well-versed in military strategy.
Zhuge Liang dies of illness at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains while leading a stalemate battle
against his nemesis, the Cao Wei commander Sima Yi. Before his death, Zhuge orders his
trusted generals to build a statue of himself and use it to scare away the enemy in order to
buy time for the Shu Han army to retreat safely.
End of the Three Kingdoms
The long years of battle between Shu Han and Cao Wei sees many changes in the ruling Cao
family in Cao Wei. The influence of the Caos weakens after the death of Cao Rui and the
state power of Cao Wei eventually falls into the hands of the Sima clan, headed by Sima Yi's
sons Sima Shi and Sima Zhao.
In Shu Han, Jiang Wei inherits Zhuge Liang's legacy and continues to lead another nine
campaigns against Cao Wei for a bitter three decades, but he fails to achieve any significant
success. Besides, the ruler Liu Shan is incompetent and places faith in treacherous officials,
further leading to the decline of Shu Han. Shu Han is eventually conquered by Cao Wei. Jiang
Wei attempts to restore Shu Han with the help of Zhong Hui but their plans are exposed and
both of them are killed by Sima Zhao's troops. After the fall of Shu Han, Sima Zhao's son
Sima Yan eventually forces the last Wei ruler, Cao Huan, to hand over his rulership,
effectively ending the Cao Wei dynasty. The new domain is called Jin Dynasty.
In Eastern Wu, there is internal conflict among the nobles ever since the death of Sun Quan,
with Zhuge Ke and Sun Lin making attempts to usurp state power. Although stability is
restored temporarily, the last Wu ruler Sun Hao appears to be a tyrant who does not make
any efforts to strengthen his kingdom. Eastern Wu, the last of the Three Kingdoms, is
eventually conquered by Jin after a long period of struggle. The Three Kingdoms period
concludes after almost a century of civil strife following that.
Historical accuracy
See also: List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms
The novel draws from historical sources, including Chen Shou's Records of Three Kingdoms.
Other major influences include Liu Yiqing's Shishuo xinyu or A New Account of Tales of the
World, published 430, and the Sanguozhi pinghua, a chronological collection of eighty
fictional sketches starting with the peach garden oath and ending with Zhuge Liang's death.
Some fifty or sixty Yuan and early Ming plays about the Three Kingdoms are known to have
existed, and their material is almost entirely fictional, based on thin threads of actual history.
The novel is thus a return to greater emphasis on history, compared to these dramas. The
novel also shifted towards better acknowledgement of the Southland's historical importance,
while still betraying some prejudice against them. Zhang Xuecheng wrote that the novel
consists of 70% history and 30% non-history. The "non-history" parts have different sources,
besides unofficial historical records, folk stories and Sanguozhi pinghua, some were created
by the author on his own. Nonetheless, the description of the social conditions and the logic
that the characters use is accurate to the Three Kingdoms period, creating "believable"
situations and characters, even if they are not historically accurate.
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, like the dramas and folk stories of its day, features Liu Bei
and his kingdom as the protagonist; hence the depiction of the people in Shu-Han was
glorified. The antagonists, Cao Cao, Sun Quan and their kingdoms, on the other hand, were
often denigrated. This suited the political climate in the Ming Dynasty, unlike in the Jin
Dynasty, when Cao Wei was considered the legitimate successor to the Han Dynasty.
Some non-historical scenes in the novel have become well-known and entered traditional
Chinese culture.