The Middle Ages 650-1550 The Architecture of PDF

THE ARCHITECTURE
OF EUROPE
THE MIDDLE AGES

650-1550
Doreen Yarwood
The Architecture of Europe
The Middle Ages, 650-1550
Also by Doreen Yarwood
Published
English Costume
The English Home
The Architecture of England
The Outline of English Architecture
English Houses
The Outline of English Costume
The Architecture of Italy
Robert Adam
European Costume
The Architecture of Britain
Encyclopedia of World Costume
Costume of the Western World
The British Kitchen
Five Hundred Years of Technology in the Home
English Interiors
Encyclopedia of Architecture
Chronology of Western Architecture
Fashion in the Western World
Volume i The Ancient Classical and Byzantine
World 3000 bc-ad 1453
Volume 2 The Middle Ages 650-1550
Volume 3 Classical Architecture 1420-1800
Volume 4 The 19th and 20th Centuries
The Middle Ages, 650-1550
Doreen Yarwood
Volume 2
B.T. Batsford Ltd, London

Doreen Yarwood 1992
First published 1992
Reprinted 1994
All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without permission from the Publisher.
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Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Longsight, Manchester
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available from the British Library
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Publishers' Note
The figure numbers run consecutively through Volumes 1 to 3.

Inhalt
Preface vi
i Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque: Seventh

Century to Thirteenth Century
Pre-Romanesque c. 650-1050 1; Carolingian 4;
Lombardic 5; Scandinavia, Croatia, Moravia 5;
Anglo-Saxon 5; Visigothic 6; Romanesque c. 1050-1250 8;
France///; Italy 22; Sicily 31; England 33;
Spain and Portugal 37; Germany 47;
Austria and Switzerland 55; The Low Countries 59;
Eastern and Central Europe 6i\ Scandinavia 65
2 Gothic 1 150-1600
France 83; England 95; Belgium 108;
The Germanic Influence: Germany 116; Switzerland 125;
Austria and Hungary 125; Czechoslovakia 130;
The Baltic Region 136; Holland 138;
Northern Germany 141; Poland 145;
Northern U.S.S.R. 149; Scandinavia: Denmark 150;
Norway 152; Finland 155; Sweden i$j\ Europe South of
the Alps, Pyreneesand Carpathians: Italy 161;
Yugoslavia i6y\ Rhodes iyi; Spain iyi; Portugal 187;
Eastern Europe: Rumania 188; The U.S.S.R. IQ2
Glossary ig3
Bibliography 195
Index 198
Preface
There are many books available on the architecture style, to France, England and the Hanseatic area of
of Europe. Most of these cover a specific area or the Baltic coastal regions.
period and a number present the subject in a Half the space is devoted to illustration, for
general way. It is rare for one in the English architecture is a visual subject. My husband, John
language to deal with Europe as a whole; generally Yarwood, and have travelled some 67,000 miles
I
only western Europe is discussed and, within this in Europe, mainly by

car, visiting each of the
context, a carefully chosen selection of western countries, many of them several times. My hus-
European countries. This is understandable, band has taken over 25,000 photographs from
especially in the light of the older, academic which the illustrations, both line drawings and
approach to the subject, for it was long considered photographic plates, have been made.
that only countries such as France, Italy and In Europe, as on a small scale in England, great
possibly Germany and the Low Countries had buildings are constantly in process of demolition
been instrumental in influencing and forming and alteration. Even today few of the books
British architectural history. available on European architecture provide a
Since 1945, with increasing leisure time, the reliable guide to the present state of such monu-
expansion of higher education and, above all, a ments. I hope that at least for a few years, this book
greater facility of travel, the whole of Europe has will provide an up-to-date guide on the condition
become opened up to tourists and students and and existence of interesting architectural work. In
academic study has broadened itsbase. There are our travels we have encountered many discrepan-
still some difficulties and frustrations in visiting cies from written descriptions; some buildings
eastern Europe, but it is now easier for people to referred to as intact were totally destroyed in the
visit the Soviet Union and the satellite countries. Second World War, others have been demolished,
In the light of these factors, the publishers and I adapted, restored or altered. This is a continuous
decided that I should write a book which which process and only constant study can present an
would narrate simply and chronologically the accurate overall picture.
history of European architecture within the geo- I hope that one of the uses of this book may be to
graphical boundaries of modern Europe, showing encourage readers to go to see buildings in situ.
the architectural development and interdepen- With this in mind, I have not followed the common
dence of the 23 countries concerned from the time tradition of naming buildings and places according
of Ancient Greece to the present day. to the time of their construction, but have referred
This is an immense canvas even for a work of this to them by the names used currently in their
size and there can be no pretence of comprehensi- present countries, names to be found readily in
veness or detail. The aim is to present as clear a standard atlases and guide books.
picture as possible of the general evolution of style I should like to express my appreciation to
and taste in different areas, illustrating which colleagues and friends who have provided me with
trends — whether they be, for example, political, data and photographs for areas which I was not
social or climatic — influenced certain areas at able to visit. should like to thank especially
I
certain times. I have given greater space in each Professor Robert Clothier for his photographs of
chapter to the countries which were of paramount Aigues Mortes in France and Mr. Vjachaslav
importance in leading certain movements and Orelski and his colleagues from the Union of
which produced the finest work of that age. The Architects in Moscow, who assisted me greatly in
areas concerned vary from century to century: and provided me with material on the
that city
Greece and Rome in the classical world, France in more remote cities in the Soviet Union which lack
the Middle Ages, Italy in the Renaissance, Ger- of time made it impossible for me to visit. Most of
many and Finland in the twentieth century. I have all wish to express my appreciation to my
I
also given especial coverage to countries in eastern husband, Professor John Yarwood, not only for
and northern Europe which tend to have been left accompanying me on all the travels and taking the
out of books on European architecture. In this photographs, but for developing and printing
volume predominance is given to French, Italian them which was much more of a chore.
and German Romanesque work and, in the Gothic East Grinstead 1992 Doreen Yarwood
—
Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque:

Seventh Century to Thirteenth Century
ith the gradual emergence of Europe from the Romanesque style of architecture shows itself
isorders and chaos of the Dark Ages and the and, since emerged in many different countries
it
stablishment of a Medieval society the story of of Europe which were not in all these years under
rchitecture becomes more complex. In the the influence and direction of one empire, as
receding three chapters the styles of work and previously, developed
it in different ways. Thus,
he surviving examples discussed came from German Romanesque has various characteristics
different parts of Europe, but, in Volume i, only which define and distinguish it from French or
one basic source of inspiration and culture was Italian, for example. Climate was a decisive
affecting building design and function. Thus, in factor in establishing these differences as was
studying the baths, bridges and temples of Ancient the availability of building materials, the degree
Rome, the differences between those in the Imper- of culture of the peoples, their beliefs and needs.
ial city and remains from France, for instance, are For the student, therefore, the story becomes a
noteworthy but not very great. Similarly, in more complicated one. Not only does he need
buildings from Ancient Greece and those of to understand features basic to the Romanesque
Byzantine origin, the fundamental characteristics style — a pre-requisite —
but he will want to trace
remain the same even though Sicilian Byzantine the backgrounds leading to the differing crystal-
churches differ in several respects from Greek or lisation of one country's Romanesque from that
Serbian Byzantine ones. of another.
With Romanesque architecture and with its The process of development of architectural
preceding movements in Saxon England, Visi- style, however, is a continuous one. It will be
gothic Spain and Carolingian Germany, the noticed that the dates of buildings covered in
situation is quite different. The collapse first of Volume i overlap with those in Volume 2. Byzan-
the Roman Empire in the fifth century and tine architecture indeed continued to expand and
consequent withdrawal of protection and in- change Europe during the
in lands in Eastern
fluence from the states of the Empire —
England, same centuries Medieval architecture was
that
France, Germany, Spain —
and, later, the phased spreading across western countries. There is no
withdrawals of the Eastern half of the Roman definite dividing line, either geographical or chro-
Empire eastwards to Byzantium, left behind nological, between Byzantine and Romanesque,
chaos, disruption and the total collapse of Roman pre-Romanesque and Romanesque or Romanes-
civilised life in the countries of western Europe. que and Gothic. These styles and modes of
The Dark Ages, once thought to be of extensive building merged and developed one into another
duration lasting until Norman influence estab- at different dates in different countries. Thus, for
lished itself or even beyond, are now becoming instance, Italy begain building in a Romanesque
less 'dark'. Through archaeological and other style earlier than most nations —
for its emergence
studies, buildings and other remains are yielding from Roman work was a natural corollary
up information of centuries which were not, as continued it later, produced little Gothic work
thought by our grandfathers, representative and then burst forth into the Renaissance a
solely of barbarianism and the negation of culture. century and more before the rest of Europe.
The fifth, sixth and early seventh centuries are England, on the other hand, had a comparatively
still scantily represented in remains and know- short Romanesque period of development follow-
ledge, but from then onwards more and more is ing an extensive Saxon one but a very long and a
being learnt. From about iooo a.d. the true unique building period in Gothic architecture
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE I 7-13™ CENTURY
emerging into a tardy Renaissance, nearly the last before the arrival of the Saracens. Influences are
in Europe except for that of the Iberian peninsula. very mixed and, though travel was not easy,
Germany's Romanesque work is extensive, of ideas spread with remarkable speed. Specific
long duration and outstanding quality but her features such as the horseshoe arch, vault designs,
Gothic work is more restricted. France, in con- interlacing in ornamental carving and the circular
trast, had some fine Romanesque architecture, church design appear in widely separated places
especially of Norman character, but established
— Scandinavia, Britain, north Germany, Yugo-
Gothic construction very early, producing proba- slavia, Bohemia, example and are not
for —
bly the finest quality of building in this style to be Roman features so they would, one presumes,
found anywhere in the world. The story, therefore, have percolated through from northern Europe
from the seventh century onwards becomes an in- rather than southern. Equally, in central Italy, as
creasingly complex one as more countries sought opposed to Lombard Italy which shows similar
out individual ways of satisfying their own needs, influences to northern Europe, and in southern
techniques, modes of living and religious beliefs. France the Ancient Roman pattern reigned
To endeavour to simplify this complexity, in each supreme. Pre-Romanesque Europe produced
chapter fromnow onwards, a general description buildings of considerable interest and capability
of the fundamentals and similarities of the style and created methods of construction certainly not
is given first and the contributions of each all due either to Roman, Byzantine or later
country are then dealt with individually. Also, a Romanesque knowledge as our forefathers
larger proportion both of text and drawings has believed. This study has yet far to go and it would
been allocated to the countries whose contribution be unwise to be too dogmatic about sources and
to that style has been most notable, for instance, influences at this stage.
France in Gothic architecture, Italy in Renais- By the sixth and early seventh century civilisa-
sance designs. tion inEurope had declined to its lowest point.
Urban communities gave place to rural ones and
the Roman influence became attenuated though
Pre-Romanesque c. 650-1050
the language at least did not perish. Christianity
Only some European countries possess remains and the emerging monastic orders began to be a
of buildings, decoration, sculpture, pottery, civilising, educating influence and, even after
burial and so on which enable us to trace the the twelfth century, culture and learning were the
evolution of architecture during these centuries. monopoly of these orders and centres. At the
This does not mean, of course, that the others did same time, different peoples, sometimes referred
not have such buildings. They may have been of to as barbarians, began to establish themselves in
impermanent materials, such as wood, or the different parts of Europe and evolve their own
countries may have suffered greater devastation culture, sometimes Christian, sometimes not,
than their neighbours. Study and research into but the former was not necessarily more civilised
pre-Romanesque architecture is still compara- than the latter. The Goths, who came from
tively recent and more is being found out each Gotland in the late third century divided and
decade. At one time it was thought that the only merged with other peoples. They established
inspiration for pre-Romanesque Europe was themselves as Visigoths in Spain, Ostrogoths in
Ancient Rome and Byzantium. For Italy, South- Italy and, in further movements of peoples, the
ern France and Dalmatia this is largely true. But Merovingians became paramount in modern
in countries furtherwest a stronger inspiration France and the Vandals in north Africa. In so far
comes from indigenous sources. Examples of as this affects the contemporary architecture, the
this tendency are the timber constructions of Ostrogothic work in Italy has already been dis-
Scandinavia, Britain and Germany with their cussed (see Volume 1, Ravenna) but the Visi-
timber roofing (later Romanesque
leading to gothic work in northern Spain was influential as
stone vaults), the stone churches of Moravia and was the effect of the Merovingian culture in
Croatia, and also the Visigothic churches of northern France leading to the Carolingian
Spain displaying horseshoe arch forms long dynasty in northern Europe under Charlemagne.
PRE-ROMANESQUE IN ENGLAND, GERMANY AND YUGOSLAVIA
250 Brixworth Church, England, seventh and tenth

centuries, Saxon
early
251 Earl's Barton Church tower, England,
eleventh century, Saxon
early
252 Church of S. Donato, Zadar, Yugoslavia,
ninth century, Croatian
Fulda, Germany,
253 Interior, Church of S. Michael,
c. 820
254 Plan, S. Michael, Fulda

Cathedral,
255 Plan, Palatine Chapel, Aachen
Germany, begun 7Q2
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE : 7-13TH CENTURY
Carolingian originally symmetrical and had a western entrance

with atrium and two-storeyed gallery the court- ;
In a.d. 800 Charlemagne (771-814) was crowned

yard here was large and had a capacity of 7000.
Holy Roman Emperor. Under his leadership
Apart from this it is not greatly altered, with its
northern Europe became more settled and a
16-sided exterior (105 feet in diameter) and
period of building activity was begun, though it
octagonal interior. It is decorated in Italian
was not of long duration. In style it owed much
mosaic and marbles and above has an octagonal,
to AncientRome but was not only a copy of it;
domical vault which, like much of the interior,
it showed Byzantine influence and also new
is reminiscent of Rome at its most imperial. The
ideas, adapting itself to its own period. Charle-
cathedral has been enlarged in later times around
magne himself was an energetic, cultured patron.
this chapel which is now a central feature in the
Stone and brick buildings were initiated of which
architectural mass (255).
considerable portions exist. The Monastery of
Also a Palatine group was the lay-out at
Lorsch, Germany, was begun in 774 (the three-
Germigny-des-Pres in France, near Orleans, where
arched gatehouse, 810, is extant); S. Michael's
in 806 a palace and church was built. The palace
Church at Fulda, Germany, a monastic burial
has almost disappeared and the church has been
chapel, dates from c. 820 and is typical of its time,
poorly restored and does not give a good im-
being a circular construction with ambulatory
pression of the original. Other examples of
and based upon the Holy Sepulchre Church in
French work of the ninth century showing par-
Jerusalem. A strong Byzantine influence is visible
ticularly early examples of the French contri-
here in the drilled hole capitals (253 and 254).
bution in apse development towards later chevet
Charlemagne's most famous building enterprise
designs are S. Germain at Auxerre (crypt, 859)
was the Palatine Chapel (part of the Cathedral) at
and S. Philibert-de-Gardlieu, 847.
Aachen, the seat of his court and site of his palace
in Germany. Owing much in design to S. Vitale
in Ravenna but on more elaborate lines, it was
256 The Island of Reichenau, in Lake Constance,

Germany. S. George, Oberzell. Interior towards western
257 The Minister, Mittelzell, ninth century to 10,
apse, ninth century and c. 1000
(later belfry)
;
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE: 7-13TH CENTURY
Reichenau, Lake Constance, Germany Scandinavia (see p. 5) and the outstanding one
Of slightly date are the three basilican
later at Zadar. These churches have a circular exterior
churches on this island, part of the monastic and interior plan with an interior row of columns
centre here first established in 724. The Minster supporting a dome; some versions have eastern
at Mittelzell is the chief church, built first just semi-circular apses. S. Donato at Zadar in
after 800 but added and altered a number of
to Yugoslavia is an early church of this type from
times since (257). The Church of 5. George at c. 812-876. Its inner row of granite columns
Oberzell and that of 55. Peter and Paul at supports a circular inner wall which is pierced
Niederzell have more remaining from the early by eight narrow high arches. There are three
work. At S. George, which was a small abbey apses at the east end (252) and these contain
founded in 840, most of the present church dates niche recesses. The nave is barrel vaulted and on
from the ninth to tenth century with the ninth its north side a staircase leads to the upper
century crypt as the earliest part. The western storey which has a round gallery. The high,
apse is of about the year 1000 and the narthex conical cupola above the centre is lit by small
is later. The church, like the others on the windows in the drum. This is a particularly
island, is a three-aisled basilica with its western complete example, though the decoration has
apse extending the full height of the church. not survived. Square planned churches also exist
The choir is still raised over the vaulted crypt in these areas, though both designs are in a more
which contains primitive, baseless columns (399). fragmentary state in the western Slavonic dis-
Inside, the roof is of the nineteenth century but tricts. All examples show similar characteristics;
the fresco painting on the walls is one of the they are generally stone vaulted — an unusual
oldest decorative schemes in Germany, dating feature in so early a period and rare in southern
from c. 1000. The nave arcade is also very —
Europe the majority have cupolas supported
old, with green sandstone columns and Tuscan on squinches and/or intersecting barrel vaults
bases (256). At Niederzell the Church of SS. the stonework is solid but crude ornament ;
Peter and Paul was begun in 799. It is also generally includes interlacing in bands of carving
basilican and parts remain of the earlier work. on stone borders and the patterns are made up
The nave and columns,
arcade, with its capitals from circles, diamonds or zig-zags the inter- —
is the most interesting and dates from the lacing is like a prototype of the later Romanesque
eleventh century (401). basket work patterns. Animals and birds are
sometimes included in the interlacing.
Italy
Here the pre-Romanesque examples are not England
numerous and much of the work is Lombardic, Much of the Saxon work was in timber and was
in the north. The basilican Church of S. Vincenzo destroyed in Viking raids. A number of stone
in Prato in Milan dates from is more c. 833. This churches survive in whole or in part and these
an early Romanesque church than a pre-Roman- date from two different periods of building: the
esque example, has three parallel apses and is seventh to eighth century and the tenth to
vaulted with brick wall supports. Outside are eleventh. These buildings show characteristics
pilaster strips and there are also arched corbel differentfrom later Romanesque work. Generally
tables. Further south is the interesting Church of they have thinner walls and are unbuttressed,
5. Pietro at Tuscdnia, deriving from Roman and having pilaster strips and long-and-short work
Lombard sources. Here is a very early crypt quoins. The windows and doorways are distinc-
dating from the seventh century and a five aisled tive with their round and triangular heads and
nave with varied finely carved capitals (420). baluster openings to the former. Some
shaft
churches are of basilican plan with semi-circular
Scandinavia, Croatia, Moravia eastern apse (though the altar might still be at the
Occurring in many, widely separated places is west end) and a western or central tower standing
the circular plartned, stone church, like that on the ground. Roofs were usually of timber.
already mentioned at Fulda. Other examples Among the surviving examples are Brixworth
include several on the Island of Bornholm in Church (where Roman bricks have been re-used
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE I 7-I3TH CENTURY
but without radiating voussoir construction) The columns and capitals are a mixture of genuine
(250 and 392), Earl's Barton, tower (251), Visigothic versions of Corinthian capitals and of
Sompting Church, eleventh century tower, S. original antique capitals and columns taken from
Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon, tenth century, Roman building in the area (258 and 393). A
Worth Church, tenth century (386), also those at later example is the remotely situated 5. Comba
Greensted, Barton-on-Humber Escomb, Boarhunt, at Bande of the eighth century, which is a granite
(426) and Bradwell. church on Greek cross plan with a square
chancel. It also has a horseshoe arch entrance to
Spain the sanctuary, but its decoration is poorer than
It is ironic that the most interesting group of pre- that at S. Juan.
Romanesque churches in Europe should be in a After the Moslem occupation was complete
country largely taken over by the Moslems. In the small area left to Christian Spain consisted of
the eighth century the Moors moved rapidly the north-west mountain district in Galicia and
over Spain from their base in North Africa and Asturias. An interesting architectural style
occupied the whole country except for a small evolved here, generally called Asturian, which
area in the north-west, between the Cantabrian came from Visigothic designs but also embodied
Mountains and the sea. The religious freedom of Carolingian features of construction. This small
Christians in Spain, however, was not suppressed area was centred around Oviedo on the northern
and they were permitted to retain their churches coast. Two particularly fine examples, very close
and worship in them. Moslem Spain was the together, are S. Maria Naranco (842—50) and
most cultured society in Western Europe at the S. Miguel de Lino (848). S. Maria was originally a
time. The peoples who survived in the north- church built adjacent to a palace and was part of
west area gained greatly from the mixture of arts it, which probably accounts for its extensive and
and race but retained their individuality also unusual character. It consists of two rectangular
until the tide turned once more and the north- halls one above the other, giving a lower and
western island increased its influence eventually upper church. The lower one is barrel vaulted;
over the whole of Spain. the upper hall is approached via steps and lofty
Visigothic architecture had established itself porches (the south one is now destroyed) and
before the Moslem invasion and was flourishing these porches gave a cruciform plan to the build-
from c. 450-720. A few examples are extant from ing. Inside, the upper part consists of a hall 35
this early period but most of these have been by 14 feet, with a rectangular tribune at each end
greatly altered. These include the episcopal divided from the hall by double arcades good —
palace at Merida and the baptistery of the Church examples of stilted arches and mixed piers and
of S. Miguel at Tarrasa. The most interesting columns. The capitals are carved diversely with
feature of Visigothic architecture is the use of human figures, animals and dragons. Outside,
the horseshoe arch, employed both construction- buttresses decorate and support the double
ally and decoratively. This early use shows that vaulted storeys and these extend the whole
its introduction is owed here not to the Moslems, height of the building (259). S. Miguel, nearby, is
who arrived much later, but probably to Syria also a fine example both in construction and
and Persia. (The Romans had used it also but decoration, but only the western end exists,
only in decorative form.) Visigothic decoration is consisting of a two-storeyed narthex and part of
primarily Roman in character but in simplified the nave. The decoration of windows, doorways,
form; cable borders, rosettes, circles, stars and panels and nave capitals is exceptionally good
types of Corinthian capitals were in general use. (260 and 381). Both these churches illustrate the
The finest Visigothic church extant is 5. Juan Asturian characteristics of the round-headed
Bautista at Banos de Cerrato, near Palencia, built rather than the horseshoe arch construction (the
in 661. (The date is inscribed over the sanctuary Carolingian influence is evident), and Roman
arch.) It is a three-aisled basilica of stone with a type decoration and capitals, though the Visi-
four-bay nave which has clerestory windows gothic cable pattern is also used. Other nearby
above the nave arcade and a timber roof. The examples include 5. Julian de los Prados (c. 830)
sanctuary is covered by a horseshoe tunnel vault. (near Santullano), S. Salvador de Priesca (921)
PRE-ROMANESQUE VISIGOTHIC AND ASTURIAN CHURCHES IN SPAIN
260 S. Miguel de Lino, near Oviedo, Asturian, 842-850

258 S. Juan Bautista, Banos de Cerrato, near Palencia.
261 S. Miguel de la Escalada, near Leon, Mozarabic,
Interior towards chancel. Visigothic, 661
also Roman and Visigothic, 913
25g S. Maria de Naranco, near Oviedo, Asturian,
842-850
—
(400), and S. Salvador de Fuentes (1023), both although the latter was often payment in kind.
near Villaviciosa. The Church gave to everycommunity, large or

Towards a.d. 900 refugees coming north from small, refuge from persecution and pillage,
Moslem-occupied Spain settled near Leon and provided education and learning, medical aid
established in that area an architectural style and a basis for life by which were allayed the
part Christian and part Arabic, called Mozarabic. superstitious fears of the individual, which
The buildings were based upon late Roman stemmed from his lack of experience and know-
designs but also displayed Oriental features ledge of health, life and death, understanding of
especially in decoration and their use of brickwork the world and of man himself.
in constructional and ornamental forms. A very Appreciation of the vital place which the
good example here is the Church of S. Miguel de Church had in Medieval life is necessary to an
la Escalada, built as part of a monastery in 912- understanding of the buildings which we have
13. This overlooking the river Esla, is
basilica, inherited from this time. In the eleventh and
70 feet long and has a five bay nave separated from twelfth centuries to build in stone, granite or
the aisles by marble columns with mixed capitals marble was a prodigious undertaking, particularly
— Roman, Visigothic and tenth century if the area concerned did not possess the materials
Mozarabic (these last-named are palm leaf close to hand. Early Medieval peoples were not,
designs as in the Cordovan Mosque). The nave as the Empires which had preceded them had
has a wooden roof. It terminates in a magnificent been, living in slave states (though one people
chancel arcade of horseshoe arches. Outside, the might be in subjugation to another). The vast
beautiful 12-bay portico was added c. 930—40 constructions built up on slave labour by the
(261, 380 and 403). Ancient Egyptians or Romans were therefore
not possible in Romanesque Europe. Yet, with
Romanesque c. 1050-1250
only a slowly emerging technical understanding
Although the regional and racial interpretations of how to build on the large scale in durable
of the true, mature Romanesque style were materials and with immense difficulties of trans-
varied, there are a number of basic features port, lack of communications and inadequacy of
common to all Romanesque buildings. Those power, vast buildings were erected and these
which have survived have, not unnaturally, been cathedrals and churches of Romanesque Europe
altered and added to in a greater or lesser degree still stand as testimony to the determination of
and entirely Romanesque examples are not man when his spirit is sufficiently aroused.
numerous. Nevertheless, in Europe as a whole, From this period of time the great majority of
there is a great quantity of Romanesque work and extant work is ecclesiastical. These churches were
much of it in buildings where a considerable built in honour of God and to provide shelter and
portion is in the original style, though perhaps succour in times of need. Everyone contributed
restored. The greater part of building in this to their building. The churches also carried out
period was, of course, wholly or partly in timber the function of education in spiritual guidance to
and little of this exists. Our knowledge is derived a population largely illiterate. Though the ex-
from work constructed in more permanent tensive story telling of the Bible and Gospels was
materials— stone, marble, mosaic, brick and — developed especially in Gothic architecture, in
such buildings were naturally the more important the great portals and walls, Romanesque work too
ones and not necessarily typical of the whole. tells this story. It is, however, not only a story of
The overriding influence in the Middle Ages was what happened in the Old and New Testament
a religious one and, in Europe, the religion was but also provides guidance on how to live, tells
Christianity. The Church, both as an organisa- of the life to come and gives protection against
tion and in its buildings, was of supreme im- spirits and devils. Romanesque capitals, in
portance to all European communities, not only particular, abound with terrifying monsters
for the spiritual but physical and intellectual —
devouring hapless victims animal and human
succour which it provided. In return for this and the different animals: lions, dragons, oxen,
support in times of need, it demanded contri- etc., all have their appointed place and meaning
butions from everyone, in labour and in wealth. in this mythology and language.
8
Plate 4T Plate 42
The prophet Isaiah. Church of S. Mary Apostles. Portico dela Gloria, Cathedral of
Souillac, France, c. 1130 Santiago de Compostela, Spain. 1 166-88, Mateo
W -**
—
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE I 7-13TH CENTURY
The differences in Romanesque style of various southern France and in Italy and the crossing
nations will be dealt with individually; the main was covered by a dome or tower. Bell towers were
reasons for the differences are climate and important features of most churches, serving as
availability of materials. In general, in the north, places of refuge, means of raising the alarm and
roofs slope more steeply to throw off rain and giving notice of events.
snow, windows and doorways are larger to let in Knowledge of architectural features of style
available light and walls thick to keep out the cold. was dispersed partly by the monastic orders and
In Mediterranean areas the openings are small partly by the great pilgrimages. The cult of relics
to exclude the sun and roofs are flatter as a steep was important and great churches were built to
pitch is superfluous. Stone buildings abound in house such relics. Pilgrims then came on foot and
much of France, especially Normandy, also in horseback for hundreds of miles across many
England, the German Rhineland and southern countries to pay homage to these relics and
Italy; in and central France volcanic
Sicily churches were erected along the routes to such
materials are much
in evidence; along the whole pilgrimage centres. The most famous instance is
Baltic coastal plain, brick is the predominant the great Church of S. James at Santiago de
material as building knowledge developed, and Compostela in north-west Spain, said to contain
elsewhere timber was in prime use. The tradi- the remains of the apostle. Pilgrims to Santiago
tional building in these materials led to variations came from France, Germany, England, Italy
in styleand construction. All areas have a few and even further afield, from the tenth century
stone buildings which were of vital importance onwards, along established pilgrimage routes
but, in a district like northern England or across the Pyrenees. As a result there are pil-
Normandy, where stone is easily accessible and grimage churches right across northern Spain
in abundance, understanding of construction in and on the main routes traversing France, Ger-
masonry developed much earlier. many and Italy. Such pilgrimage churches tended
The dominant power behind the movement in to follow similar architectural patterns due to
church building lay with the monastic orders who their similar needs. They are generally large to
developed their own individual style (on Roman- accommodate the and resemble the
pilgrims
esque patterns) to suit the needs of the order. church which was the pilgrimage goal. The
These styles transcended frontiers and thus one richness of such churches, their decoration
Benedictine church is much like another whether and sculpture, particularly the portals, is tribute
in France, England or Italy. The Abbey Church to their important position on the routes. Famous
evolved from the early Christian basilica and French examples include such churches as -S.
early examples still had the altar at the west end. Trophime at Aries (389) or S. Front at Perigueux
Churches in southern Europe continued to be (Vol. 1). The typical pilgrimage church has a long,
influenced by Roman methods of construction in aisled and galleried nave, wide transepts and a
style and even used parts of Roman buildings large sanctuary. Commonly the whole church is
columns, decoration, etc. but further
capitals, — barrel vaulted at one height throughout and these
north a newer style was produced which was vaults have transverse arches carried on piers.
monumental, austere and strong. The plan was The aisles and galleries continue round the whole
generally based on the Latin cross and roofing building. The crossing is covered by a dome or
was of timber. The fire hazards of such roofs led lantern. The use of the choir (if the church is
to the rediscovery of how to vault in stone. Barrel monastic) is retained for the clergy while the
vaults were developed first and remained satis- pilgrims occupy the nave and transepts. The
factory in the south where their immense thrust exterior is large, forceful in design and has an
on the walls could be borne by the use of small impressive facade with tall towers. The Church at
windows to avoid weakening the structure. In Santiago itself, the pattern for the rest, is shown
the north, however, where larger windows were in Fig. 319 and S. Madeleine at Vezelay in 267.
essential, the intersecting and later the groined Apart from pilgrimage churches, most ex-
and ribbed vaults were evolved at a comparatively amples follow certain general lines. The nave is
early date and walls were thickened to solve this lofty and divided into nave arcade, triforium and
problem. Domical vaults developed in parts of clerestory. The middle stage is often arcaded but
—
not often lit (its alternative name is the blind bardic influences, was the earliest to develop the
storey which is more descriptive). On each side trueRomanesque— as opposed to Roman— style.
of the nave is a single aisle (though this may be The Northmen (Norsemen) settled here and by
double in larger churches) and the divisions are the early tenth century were converted to
made by arcades of piers or columns. The aisle is Christianity and began to build churches. Little
roofed at a lower level than the nave and the of the early work— such as the original Abbey of
triforia have the function of masking the lean-to Jumieges— survives, but in Caen itself exist
roofs which cover these vaults. In Mediterranean among other work, the two famous churches of
countries, particularly southern Italy, the tri- William I of Normandy (William the Conqueror
forium omitted and replaced by solid wall
is of England). These are the Church of S. Etienne
decorated in mosaic or fresco painting. From the (L'Abbaye-aux-Hommes) and the Church of La
eleventh century onward the eastern arm was Trinite (L'Abbaye-aux-Dames). S. Etienne, built
developed and extended, partly to provide more originally 1066-77, has a magnificent exterior
space for chapels and relics and partly to seclude illustrating the best of Northern Romanesque
the clergy from the laity. Such arms were grouping masses and towers. The west front is
in
generally apsidal in one or three apses and these vertical in emphasis with two tall towers capped
designs led to the later development of the chevet, by Gothic spires and with a plain facade decorated
particularly seen in France; also, in order to only by round-headed windows and doorways
retain their privacy, the monks re-established the (265 and 398). The east end was altered in mid-
nave altars east of the crossing, so confirming the twelfth century by an early chevet design with
eastern altar position. An ambulatory generally turrets and flying buttresses which blends ad-
circumnavigates the whole of the east end of such mirably with the earlier work (264). Inside, the
churches, providing communication throughout long nave is vaulted in sexpartite fashion in the
the building with access to the nave aisles. typically French vaulting manner, comprising
one nave bay to two aisle bays, retaining the
square compartment and with an intermediate
France
transverse rib introduced to the springing from
Alone of the countries of Europe during this time the aisle vaulting shaft, thus giving extra support
England presented a more or less single, unified to the vault. The church is lofty, with three stages
group. Elsewhere, the modern names and regions and, over the crossing, has a lantern with its
are difficult to reconcile with the Romanesque octopartite rib vault. La Trinite, founded in 1062
ones. The area that is modern France displayed by William's Queen, Matilda, of Bayeux Tapestry
within its boundaries a great variation on the fame, has retained its original pattern better. It
Romanesque architectural theme, since it was is a massive, very Romanesque building with a
not one nation but a number of states whose monumental facade of twin western towers in
buildings were influenced by climate, materials arcaded stages and, between, a gabled centrepiece
and purpose. Even with drastic simplification it is with deeply recessed round-headed doorway
necessary to sub-divide the country. below; there is a square tower over the crossing
with stumpy spire. The interior is finely pre-
Northern France served (263) and has a long nave, with barrel
Taking the river Loire as a boundary the lands vaulted aisles, broad transepts and a fine apse
north of this reflected the Norman influence with groined vault. In the nave, the upper part
that same influence which produced England's above the ground arcade is a little later and has a
Norman architecture also that of Sicily and decorative triforium and arcaded clerestory. The
southern Italy. Here, in modern Normandy sexpartite styled vault is of twelfth century
and Brittany, Roman remains were scanty and a construction. Fig. 262 shows the existing Roman-
new Romanesque style evolved. Stone, particu- esque parts of the nave of the Abbey Church of
larly of the Caen neighbourhood, enabled the Mont S. Michel, not far away. The eastern part
techniques of masonry to be understood early. of this church is Gothic but this portion illustrates
Churches are tall, monumental and austere. clearly the typical Romanesque wall pattern
Norman architecture, owing something to Lom- divided into its three parts of nave arcade, tri-
ROMANESQUE IN FRANCE: NORMANDY
262 Abbey Church of Mont S. Michel, nave, 1022-1135

263 Abbaye-aux-Dames (La Trinite) Caen, looking
,
east, 1063-1125
264 Abbaye-aux Hommes (S. Etienne), Caen, from the
east, 1066-1166
265 Abbaye-aux-Hommes, west front
forium and clerestory with wooden roof above. situated on the summit of a hill its facade has
;
The piers, arches, aisles and proportions present only one western tower complete and, between,
here a good guide to the classic pattern of such is a gable containing a fine, five light, sculptured
interiors. window with portal below. Inside is a palely

polychrome effect with the striped semi-circular
Burgundy transverse arches separating the quadripartite
In Romanesque times this was a very large, vaulting bays. The church is high and light so
flourishing province with a strong monastic that the vistafrom narthex to eastern apse is clear
influence in its ruling house. The Burgundians and uninterrupted. The capitals display amazing
were great church builders, in varied style, but vividness and variety in subject and handling:
chiefly based on the design of the great Abbey of neo-Corinthian, animal, bird and human sub-
Cluny. The third building on the site was begun jects (267, 411 and 412).
in 1089 but has been largely demolished. Churches
on this pattern have barrel vaults and particularly
Central France
fine nave porches with narthex in front. Two
particular examples are Autun Cathedral and the In this broad extent a number of influences are
Abbey Church of S. Madeleine at Vezelay. The apparent from the domed churches of Perigord
Cathedral at Autun was begun in 11 20 and con- with their Byzantine inspiration to the richly
siderable parts of the Romanesque building coloured buildings in volcanic materials in the
remain. The two finest parts of these are the Auvergne. In the northern part of the region the
narthex and the nave interior. The west facade, Abbey of Fleury, now 5. Benoit-sur- Loire, pre-
flanked by two towers, approached up a flight
is sents a fine, mature example. This large monastery
of steep steps into a magnificent, open narthex was begun about 1070 and, though the abbey
(1178) where is situated the west portal. This buildings have gone, the church remains. It
portal is famed for its rich, vivid sculpture by
Gislebertus. The tympanum is exceptionally large
and, with the lintel below, depicts the Last
266 Interior, Autun Cathedral, France, 1120-1140
Judgement. In the centrepiece is Christ, seated
on a throne, and the remainder illustrates with
extraordinary clarity and detail the Romanesque
conception of heaven and hell, with the celestial
delights for the fortunate and the demons clawing
upwards to capture the souls of the damned.
Inside, the cathedral is barrel vaulted with
transverse arches and the east end is triapsidal.
The nave, still a fine example of Burgundian

Romanesque, shows the influence of Ancient
Rome on its classically fluted pilasters and piers
(266). Many of the famous capitals, decorated by
animals, biblical scenes, demons, etc., have been
removed for safety from the vibration of the bells
to an upstairs museum where they can be studied
at leisure and at a more accessible height. Copies
have replaced them in the cathedral nave.

Like Autun, the Abbey Church of S. Madeleine
at Vezelay, has a magnificent narthex and
western porch. The exterior portal has been
restored with modern sculptural decoration but
inside the narthex the originalwork of 1128-32
survives this has three bays
; and is a very early,
typically Burgundian example. This church is
13
ROMANESQUE IN FRANCE: LOIRE, AQUITAINE, BURGUNDY
267 Abbey Church of S. Madeleine, Vezelay, Burgundy, nave, c. 1104

268 Basilica of S. Benoit-sur- Loire, choir, iojo-1130
26Q Pilgrimage Church of S. Sernin, Toulouse from the north-west, 1080-1150. Tower and
,
spire 12 50-1435
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE: 7-I3TH CENTURY
possesses a most interesting tower porch (clocher-

porche) originally three-storeyed but now only
two as the bell chamber has disappeared. The
upper storey is now a disused chapel but below is
an unusual and magnificent entrance porch. It
has four rows of four columns and piers, each
with different capitals, representing biblical
scenes with human figures, monsters, demons
and a type of Corinthian design. The original
purpose of this large porch was to shelter pil-
grims. The church itself, now partly restored, is
cruciform with a quadripartite nave vault (Gothic)
and barrel vaulted choir. There is no triforium to
the nave but in the eastern arm is a stubby tri-
forium arcade and a fine apse with ambulatory
and radiating chapels. The clerestory continues
all round the church. The central dome is raised
on squinches above the wide pointed crossing

arches (268). The Cathedral at Angers is a good
example of the massive, domical building of
Anjou, though parts of it were rebuilt in Gothic
times. It retains, however, its Roman simplicity, 2 jo Interior of nave, Abbey Church of Fontevrault,
particularly in the interior which is large scale France, 1104—1150
and spacious. The cathedral was begun in the

eleventh century and completed in the thirteenth. example of the style (270). Probably of greater
It is aisleless, cruciform and the nave is of the renown than the church is the great kitchen here
twelfth century with three large domical vaulted with its eight oven shelters each containing a
square bays in ashlar construction and is very central fireplace and with a great vault in the
wide, having a vault spanning 54 feet and which middle. On the exterior (276) is the high pyramid
is 80 feet high —
a remarkable achievement for so surrounded by smaller ones all covered with the
early an example. The transept and crossing have scaled roofing tiles so typical of the region. In
Angevin rib vaults in octopartite divisions. Poitiers aretwo churches in particular 5. Hilaire
:
Further west in the area from the Loire down begun 1025 and rebuilt 1165 and the more
to Perigueux are a number of well-known famous Notre Dame La Grande (271) which
churches and cathedrals of the domed and domical dates from 11 30. This is the richest of the in-
vault type. Still on the Loire is the impressive digenous churches of the district where limestone
Abbey of Fontevrault, founded in 1098 and is plentiful and masonry developed early. The
originally covering a tremendous area with four facade is decorated all over with carving and
convents and supporting buildings of which a sculpture; the recessed doorway is enclosed in
number remain. The abbey church is a magnifi- four orders of short columns and the arches
cent example of these domed churches it is 275;
have carved, decorative voussoirs. On either side
feet long. Like most other examples of this type are arcades capped by a sculptured corbel table
it has no aisles but a short, wide nave, covered by and above is a further arcading and a central
four domes. These are replacements but are still window. The other regional feature of the
carried on the original pendentives. At the cross- exterior displayed here is the fish-tail roofing of
ing is a domed
covering under the tower, sup- turretsand lantern, which has an oriental appear-
ported on high piers. The transepts have barrel ance and is like that at Fontevrault kitchen (276)
vaults and the east end a semi-circular vault. and Angouleme Cathedral (273 and 376), also
Round the eastern end is an ambulatory with the Spanish Cathedral of Zamora (316). Poitiers
radiating chapels. Though further north than was on one of the pilgrimage routes to Santiago
the other churches of this type, it is a perfect and the interior of Notre Dame shows this in its
15
ROMANESQUE IN FRANCE: THE BYZANTINE INFLUENCE
2ji Church of Notre Dame La Grande, Poitiers, from the south-west, eleventh and twelfth centuries
272 Abbey Church of Solignac, near Limoges, c. 1145
2J3 Angouleme Cathedral from the east, 1 100— 11 28 (restored nineteenth century)
layout and barrel vaulted roofs. There is neither church is domed over the nave and crossing
triforium nor clerestory; the crossing dome is (though only the latter dome can be seen from
conical and unusual. the exterior as the others are covered by timber
Further south are some of the outstanding roofing) and the chancel and transepts have
examples of the Byzantine influenced Roman- barrel vaults. The facade is beautifully decorated
esque churches of France. 5. Front at Perigueux all over with Romanesque carving, representing
has already been described (Volume 1, p. 122), the Ascension and Second Coming in arcading
but at Angouleme and Solignac is further work. and sculpture, and the remaining tower is
The Abbey Church of Solignac is a large building similarly decorated (376 and 422). Inside, the
in a small village; it was also on one of the pil- nave has no aisles; it is covered by three stone
grimage routes. Built on Latin cross plan, it has a domes and the crossing dome is raised on a drum
polygonal eastern apse with three smaller apses which has 16 windows. The cathedral, which
and there are two more on the transepts. The stands in a commanding position on a hill over-
interior, built of large blocks of reddish stone, is looking the wide valley below, was begun in the
wide and spacious, its nave covered by two early twelfth century. It has been extensively
plastered domes and others over the crossing and restored but retains much of its original form
one transept (while a barrel vault covers the (273 and 384).
other). The domes are carried on pendentives
and below are rectangular piers without capitals. Auvergne Churches
The wide pointed arches have no mouldings. In this volcanic region the Byzantine influence is
There are no aisles or triforium (272). The Abbey shown not so much in construction as in decora-
Church of Souillac, now chiefly famous for its tion, which displays diaper designs and striped
magnificent Romanesque sculpture, is nearer to polychrome inlaid in lava and red and white
Perigueux. The best of these are now set on the Like the southern Italian and Sicilian
stone.
interior of the west wall (plate 41). The Priory Norman churches, there is also an eastern in-
of Moissac (further south still) is likewise best fluence seen in the use of horseshoe arches often
known for its beautiful sculpture in figures and with trefoil and cinquefoil cusping. Two interest-
carved decoration, chiefly on the portal. The ing examples are the cathedrals at Issoire and Le
Cathedral Cahors is also a domed, Byzantine
at Puy. S. Austremoine, the Cathedral at Issoire, is,
type structure with its domes supported on like a number of churches in the area, based on
pendentives, but the building in general is now a nave and aisles of equal height).
hall pattern (with
mixture of styles with a largely Gothic facade. There is nave arcade and no clerestory.
a tall
The north doorway has a remarkable tympanum Round arches are used throughout, as are barrel
deeply set in the porch like that at Autun. vaults. The interior is simple, its chief decoration
The two most outstanding examples of this being in colour and in variation of capitals like
Byzantine-Romanesque style are S. Front at those at S. Pierre in Chauvigny ( plate 43). These
Perigueux and Angouleme Cathedral. The former capitals at Issoire are also very large, painted all
is based on Greek cross plan and has been in- over and represent animals, human figures and
cluded in Volume 1 but Angouleme, despite its foliage. The columns and arches are painted in
layout and domes, is fundamentally Romanesque. diaper and other patterns in indian red, black and
The domes, like the others of this area already white. The east end is apsidal and the church is
mentioned, are pointed in form and are supported blockish, building up in an impressive com-
position to an octagonal tower (275). The
on pendentives. The construction and the pointed
shape are Byzantine, but the Aquitaine versions Cathedral of Le Puy is unusual in its setting and
possess a type of curved silhouette indigenous to layout and reflects Moorish influence strongly.
the region. The cathedral is on Latin cross plan The volcanic area is formed into steep cliffs with
with projecting transepts these are square ended
;
outcrops of rock and the cathedral is perched on
a ledge near the top of one of these, above
the
with towers over them (though the upper part of
sixteenth town, which clings to platforms on the hillside
one of these was destroyed in the
(274). One approaches the west
facade of the
century). The east end is apsidal with four smaller
apses grouped round the centre one (273). The cathedral up steep flights of steps and the triple
i7
Plate 43
Choir capital. Church
of S. Pierre,
Chauvigny, France,
1 2th century
Plate 44
Exterior carving.
Urnes stave church,
Sognfjord,
Norway, c. 1125—40
Plate 45
Kilpeck Church,
England. South
doorway
detail, c. 1 140
Plate 46
Wheel window of marble plates
Troia Cathedral, Italy
Plate 47
Doorway capital detail, Bitonto Cathedral, Italy,
1 175-1200
Plate 48
Column support, west doorway. Church of
S. Nicola, Bari, Italy, nth century
ROMANESQUE IN FRANCE: LOIRE, PUY-DE-DOME, AUVERGNE
274 he Puy Cathedral from the south-west,
twelfth century
275 Cathedral of S. Austremoine, Issoire,
twelfth century
276 The kitchen, Abbey of Fontevrault.from
the eleventh century
277 The cloisters, he Puy Cathedral
entrance porch leads, not into the nave due to the century and the facade a little later. It is cruciform
steepness of the hillside, but below it and one with a long, double-aisled nave, aisled transepts
must ascend further steps inside to reach the nave and a central, octagonal tower over the crossing;
above the porch. The facade, like the rest of the the steeple is mainly thirteenth century with a
building, is built of red and black granite and spire, 215 feet high, built in 1475 (269).
decorated in lava and coloured stone in shades of In Provence the Romanesque architecture is
pink, grey and black. Inside, the nave vaults are different from that in most other parts of France.
octagonal domical shape and the central dome is Here, the influence isfrom Ancient Rome not
carried on pseudo-pendentives rather like Normandy or Byzantium. The classical tradition,
squinches. On the south-east side of the cathedral as in Italy itself,never died and the churches of
is a fine porch (porche du For) of Transitional this region, though indubitably Romanesque,
design with the same polychrome decoration and have a classical interpretation of the style and use
interesting capitals. On the north side is an classical columns, capitals, mouldings and
exceptional cloister in black and white stone with decoration often, as in Italy, incorporating actual
walls above the arcade decorated in lozenge Roman fragments from ruined buildings. The
mosaic patterns in red, black and white. The facades, especially the entrance porches, and the
capitals are mainly foliated and are varied (277). cloisters show the magnificent decoration of such
The which was begun in the eleventh
cathedral, churches at its best. Two particular examples are
century, shows clearly its Moorish influence <S. Trophime at Aries and 5. Gilles nearby. At
throughout in its zebra striped patterns, lozenge S. Trophime Roman influence is very strong
the
and diamond inlay and cusped arches. Nearby in the west porch, which is based on a Roman
is the unusually situated Chapel of 5. Michel de triumphal arch. The Romanesque development
VAiguilhe on top of its pinnacle of rock. It is built shows, however, in the deeply recessed mouldings
of the same materials and shows the same and jambs and in the columns which stand on
Moorish features of decoration and construction lions' backs. The sculptural decoration here is
(415). The interior is unusual with columns set very rich in figures and picture carving. The
on circular plan but with flatter, straight sides to tympanum represents Christ as Judge of the
the exterior walls. It is reminiscent of circular World and, below, the architrave has a row of
interiors like S. Michael at Fulda in Germany. sculptured figures above the larger figures of
saints which alternate with the columns (389 and
Southern France 419). Thecloisters are equally fine and on the
At Toulouse, towards the Pyrenees, is the famous north side date from 1170 like the portal. They
pilgrimage church of S. Sernin, which is one of have round arches and varied, beautiful carved
France's largest, barrel vaulted churches. It was capitals. The Church at S. Gilles-du-Gard, near
begun about 1077, the first construction being at Aries, possesses the most impressive of these
the east end, so that the nave is early twelfth portal entrances in Provence, this time in triple
(originally 22 arches now only 4)

278 Le Pont du Benezet, bridge over the Rhone at Avignon, 1177-1185
21
arched design, connected by colonnades. The adhered to. Likewise, the early Christian ground
church was part of a great Cluniac priory and a plans and arrangements had a strong influence.
pilgrimage centre. The facade dates from 1140 The altar remained at the west end in a number of
(39i)- cases. Separate baptisteries continued to be
Among the few secular constructions of the built for many years and separate, free-standing
Romanesque period in France is the famous campaniles were the general rule; these features
bridge Provence at Avignon, the Pont S.
in acted as watch towers and were symbols of local
Benezet, built in 1 177-85 by the Sacred Guild of importance. Many examples were very tall up —
Bridge Builders across the river Rhone. It is a to 250 feet high. In a constructional sense the
good example of construction in masonry though arch never dominated Italian Romanesque work
it now possesses only four of the original 22 as it did in northern Europe; it remained as in
arches which spanned the river. S. Nicholas' Roman times, more decorative than construc-
Chapel still remains at the end of the existing tional in its purpose. It is simple and rarely
structure (278). deeply moulded. Arcading, using round arches,
is a popular feature in Italian Romanesque
buildings but it is always decorative in its applica-
Italy
tion except in a number of instances in northern
Even more than French, Italian Romanesque Italy. The elevation of Italian churches, unlike
architecture was subjected to varied influences in those of northern Europe, is low, with the
different parts of the peninsula. In the north, emphasis on the horizontal lines. Inside, the
building design had much in common with triforium is often omitted or is just a decorative
northern Europe and primarily evolved from band, while the nave arcade is of great importance.
Lombard styles; in central Italy, particularly Over the crossing, a cupola raised on a drum is
Tuscany, coloured marbles were used as veneers more usual than a tower, particularly in Lom-
in decoration both on the outside and inside of bardy and Tuscany. Italian Romanesque archi-
the buildings giving a colourful rather than tecture is of a very high standard of craftmanship
Southern Italy
plastic effect to the decoration. and beauty, differing from French, English or
was under Norman domination and architecture German examples but in general, ahead of these
here has much in common with Norman build- on contemporary development. Churches such
ings in France and England, taking into account as S. Miniato in Florence, built in 1013, show a
the different climatic conditions and needs of the sophistication unknown at this early date in
area. Sicily is, like southern Italy, especially rich northern Europe.
in Romanesque work, but in this region the
Norman which was dominant, was tem-
style, Northern Italy
pered by the mixed heritage of the island — The Lombard Plain is a natural corridor flanking
Saracenic and Byzantine, in particular and the — the riverPo at the foot of the Alps. The Teutonic
architecture is an exciting and enchanting race of Langobards (Lombards) were conquered
amalgam of these influences and a unique study by Charlemagne in 774. They were then un-
in its own right. skilled builders but quickly developed in tech-
In general, however, Italian Romanesque nique and understanding. Most of the existing
architecture has, as in other European countries, remains are of the eleventh and twelfth centuries
common features. As in Provence in southern though built on sites of earlier buildings from the
France, links with the were Roman tradition eighth century onwards. The natural communica-
never wholly severed so that arches, arcades, tions of the region, the navigable Po and the
entablatures, columns
and capitals tend to Alpine passes, made this a suitable area for an
approach the classical form more than the exchange of ideas with Germany, France and
Medieval. In churches, the basilican plan is most Spain architecturally a movement was estab-
;
common while stone vaulting is the rarity rather lished here which led the way for other regions.
than the rule.The Roman technique of timber By the eleventh century a number of towns
roofing to nave and choir, with lower, sloping, existed along the valley and important civic and
timber coverings to the aisles, was commonly ecclesiastical buildings were erected. Milan was
22
ITALIAN ROMANESQUE
281 Church of S. Miniato al Monte, Florence, 10 13 to

279 Trani Cathedral, Apulia, from the south-east,
begun iog4 thirteenth century
2S0 The Baptistery, Parma, Iig6-i2g6 282 Old Cathedral of S. Corrada, Molfetta, Apulia,
twelfth century
283 Church of S. Zeno,
Verona, Italy from the
,
west, c. 1140
one such centre others included Parma, Cremona,

; square bay pattern. Generally the vaults have
Como, Pavia and Ferrara. Brick was the regional replaced the original wooden roofs in the churches
building material, with stone or marble facing, here and so are later than the rest of the building.
though a few buildings were entirely of stone. Octagonal cupolas covered by flat pitched roofs
Two particular characteristics of regional build- were still normal crossing space covering.
ing style were the tall towers — either for churches A particular feature of northern Italian churches
or civic buildings — and the development of the was the facade projecting porch built in two or
rib vaultwhich, in Italy, was unusual. The towers three stages. It was vaulted and this vault was
were very tall, unbuttressed and were decorated carried on columns which in turn were supported
by pilaster strips and corbel tables. Usually, as —
on the backs of animals lions or oxen. Above the
in most Italian towers, the window and belfry porch was usually a decorative circular window
openings increased in number of lights as the in the facade gable which lit the nave behind.
stages ascended —
commonly from one to five. One of the best of early Romanesque churches
Good examples exist at Pomposa Church 1063 in this region is S. Ambrogio in Milan, which set
and at the Cathedrals of Ivrea and Aosta. Twin a pattern for Lombard churches. It was built in
towered churches in German style are found in brick over a long period the east end dates from
;
the lower Alpine areas, as at 5. Abbondio in Como the ninth century and the west from the tenth
which is an outstanding specimen of a stone and eleventh while the vaults are mainly twelfth
church begun in 1063. century. In front of the west facade is a large
Vaulting was being developed all over Europe cloistered atrium and the narthex is flanked by
by the later eleventh century, but in Italy the towers, an older one on the south and a typical
wooden roof and/or the domical covering were twelfth century pilaster strip one on the north
the usual method. In Lombardy, however, the side. Inside, the building is well lit by the ring of
rib vault was experimented with and a number of windows in the later, central, octagonal lantern.
examples were built. The usual church design The nave is covered in double bays of domical
had aisles which were half the nave width and rib vaults supported on piers while the aisles have
there was an intermediate column between each groined vaults.
pier. Thus, nave and aisles could be vaulted on There are a number of cathedrals along the Po
24
284 Palazzo Loredan,
Venice, Italy, twelfth
century
valley with similar characteristics to one another, porch of the twelfth century with infedels sup-
particularly those at Parma and Cremona which porting the columns and vault. Modena Cathedral
each comprise the basic threefold group of also has an impressive facade with wheel window
buildings —campanile, baptistery and cathedral in the gable (383) and porch below, on either side
-all separate. At Parma, the twelfth century of which are four panels by Guglielmo depicting
cathedral exterior is of brick in simple design. the Bible story from the Creation to the Flood
It has continuous loggias all round the building (390). The magnificent 300 feet campanile — the
and panelled walls and apses; there is a low Torre Ghirlandina — dates from the thirteenth
octagonal cupola with small lantern. The facade century. The interior is in simple, brick design
is gabled with towers (only one completed) and with high vaults and brick piers and marble
three open loggias. The campanile, nearly 200 columns. The pulpit and gallery are beautifully
feet high, is later, 1284, and is of brick with stone sculptured ; the columns are supported on in-
faced pilasters at the corners. It is topped by a fedels and lions— the latter devouring their prey
cone. The baptistery stands separately at the and possessing a sad but demoniac appearance.
south-west corner of the cathedral and was begun Piacenza is another interesting Cathedral.
in 1 196. It is faced with stone on the outside and Among the churches of the region, 5. Zeno at
red marble inside. It is octagonal (16-sided on Verona and S. Michele at Pavia are exceptional.
the interior) and has fine, carved sculpture and At S. Zeno Maggiore the facade is simple but very
decorative doorways by Benedetto Antelami (280). impressive. It is beautifully proportioned with
At Ferrara the cathedral has been much altered, central, projecting porch, itscolumns supported
but the facade remains with its lower part on the backs of crouching lions, and with marble,
Romanesque and the upper stages Gothic. The sculptured panels on either side of the magnifi-
three Romanesque doorways are magnificently cent bronze doors by Niccolo and Gugliemo.
carved and the centre one has a typical projecting Above is the gable wheel window which lights
25
;
the nave. The whole decorated by

facade is The is good,
climate not too hot but with
pilaster strips connected by corbel tables. Beside brilliantsunshine to set off the vivid colouring
the church is the free-standing, lofty campanile, and give shade and modelling to the arcade!
also beautifully proportioned. It has no buttresses treatment of facades. Vaulting is unusual, most
and has alternate courses of marble and brick. roofs are timber spanned,windows are not large,
The bellchamber provides the only openings near walls unbuttressed and roof pitches shallow
the top which is surmounted by a high, pitched The influence of Papal Rome largely prevailed
roof (283). The interior of the church has no and the basilican church plan was usual. The
triforium and only a small clerestory. The choir campaniles were separate but not generally as tall
is raised high above the crypt in which, according as Lombard ones.
custom, the saint's tomb is
to the early Christian
placed immediately underneath the altar in the
The Pisan School
choir above. S. Michele at Pavia (424) shows
Byzantine influence in its east end and central Here developed in the eleventh and twelfth
cupola, but the facade is a cliff-like gable wall centuries a centre for the arts which attracted
with fine Romanesque carving on three door- artistsand craftsmen from all over Italy. The
ways (408) though, unfortunately, this is now typical Tuscan church of the region has exterior
somewhat weathered. The gable is wide and arcading and open galleries over its facades, often
typically Italian in its stepped arcade following all round the building. The arches spring from
the gable angle. Below are shafts and dosserets low projection pilasters and engaged shafts. The
which form shallow buttresses. facades are rarely, as in Lombardy, divided into
bays and masses but are evenly decorated all over
Venice with arcading, up to four or five rows on the west
Venetian Romanesque architecture was domin- side.
ated by the city's eastern contacts and Byzantium The most outstanding example of this type of
continued to have more influence than Lombardy work is the Pisan complex, the Piazza dei Miracoli
or Pisa.Mosaic decoration was more usual than in the city (285 and 286). This consists of four
carved stonework and this type of ornament was separate buildings: the baptistery, the cathedral,
still carried out predominantly by Byzantine the campanile and the cemetery (this last, the
Greek craftsmen. Not many buildings of this Camposanto, was badly damaged in the Second
period survive unaltered; the palace in Fig. 284 World War but is now largely rebuilt apart from
shows a Grand Canal facade of the time with the beautiful frescoes which were for the most
cubiform capitals and stilted as well as semi- part beyond repair). The building of the complex
circular arches, while the finest complete example spanned a long period, from the foundation of the
is the Cathedral of 55. Mary and Donato on the cathedral in 1063 to the completion of the cam-
Island of Murano in the Venetian Lagoon. This panile in 1350, but the whole group is one
building is more Romanesque than other works stylistic unit. All the buildings are faced with
it is cruciform and has a particularly fine galleried marble panelling and decorated with arcading
and arcaded apse dating from about 1 140. which still gleams white and sparkling in the
sunshine. The basilican Cathedral has a double-
Central Italy aisled nave, transepts and apsidal east end. The
In this region exists the finest Romanesque oval dome over the crossing is supported on
architecture in Italy in quality and development. squinches and shallow pendentives. Apart from
It is also an area which produced several varia- the interior triumphal arch, which is pointed,
tions in style from the Pisan school centred on the other arches are semi-circular. The facade is
Pisa and Lucca to the work in Florence with its very fine, with typical Tuscan arcading in four
coloured marble facings and the districts further rows to the top of gable while below are three
south in Assisi and Rome where contacts with the doorways set in a marble panelled and inlaid
Lombard style are notable. There was no short- front. The columns and capitals derive from
age of excellent building materials from varied classical rather than Romanesque sources. The
marbles to stone, brick and volcanic substances. original doors of 1 180 by Bonanno were replaced
26
ITALIAN ROMANESQUE: PIAZZA DEI MIRACOLI,
PISA
I
in the seventeenth century. His work on the that it can be appreciated without the distraction
transept doorway is, however,
extant (287).still of heavy traffic and commercial buildings. The
The baptistery is circular, 1 14 feet in diameter, very fine work in this same style at Lucca, for
and is covered by a later cupola. The truncated example, should not be missed, for it is of high
cone, which extends upwards through this cupola, quality and is equally typical Tuscan Roman-
is the original roof. The interior consists of two esque. There are three outstanding churches in
concentric, circular forms, the outer walls in the city: the cathedral of S. Martino and the
white marble, banded in grey and black and, churches of S. Michele and S. Frediano. Thel
inside these, an inner circle of Corinthian Cathedral, begun 1160, has a beautiful Roman-
columns and piers. The classical influence is esque facade (1 196— 1204) with a narthex, gal-
even more marked here (414). The pulpit of 1260 leried and arcaded with screen gable and, besidel
by Nicola Pisano is a masterpiece. It is hexagonal it, a tall bell tower with typical Italian openings,
and stands on seven columns; the central one has increasing in number of lights towards the top.
a base of human figures and animals while the There is some fine carving and inlay decoration!
others are supported on the backs of lions. on this facade. Inside, the cathedral is Gothic.
The campanile, the famous leaning tower, is S. Michele (289) is the best of the three. It was I
cylindrical, 52 feet in diameter and, like the begun c. 1140, but the impressive arcaded|
cathedral, is marble faced and arcaded up to six facade dates from the early thirteenth century.
storeys. It settled even while building was in Like the others, it is covered with white andl
progress and the fourteenth century bellchamber coloured marble sheathing with marble carvingl
was differently angled in an attempt to right the and decoration. 5. Frediano, 12— 47, which is
11
inclination. The tower is nearly 180 feet high and similar, is noted for its on thel
striking mosaic
over 13 feet from the vertical at the top (288). gable facade ; the church shows a Byzantine and|
The Pisa group is so superb that it overshadows Roman influence.
the rest of the work in this district. Also, it is so Further south the Romanesque architecture isl
situated, in a piazza on the fringe of the town, traditional but strongly tinged with classicall
289 Church of S.
Michele, Lucca, Italy,
begun c. 11 40, facade
c. 1239
forms from Rome. The Cathedral of 5. Rufino at atAmalfi and Salerno. Amalfi Cathedral has been
Assisi, begun 11 44 (now overshadowed by S. partly rebuilt but still has its beautiful campanile
Francesco) has a beautiful facade, very simple and eleventh century facade doors (377). At
ind dominated by its circular windows and Salerno the original rectangular atrium fronts the
iculptured doorways. Of the three windows, the cathedral with its Saracenic styled arches and
arge central one is carried on carved figures, an Roman capitals and columns. The Porta dei
inusual design, which has much in common with Leoni, the eleventh century entrance, is still
the facade at Spoleto Cathedral, of similar date, intact.
ut witH a later porch in front. 5. Maria in The Tuscan work of the Florence School is a
'osmedin in Rome still has its elegant tower of c. separate study because its characteristics are so
1200 in seven storeys, each of which is arcaded, differentfrom those of Pisa or Rome despite its
nd has a brick cornice. The tower is the least geographical nearness.The Church of 5. Miniato
ltered part of the church where the interior, al Monte, perched on a hill above the city is an
especially, has been much restored, but it is still early but mature and perfect example. It in-
nteresting and retains its ancient atmosphere. It corporates three influences : Roman, Byzantine
s a basilican church which incorporates the and Romanesque. Antique Roman columns and
)riginal building on the site —
a Roman corn hall, capitals have been used, in some cases of ill-
îke most Roman churches, the building is of matching sizes, in the nave. The Byzantine in-
>rick and is fronted by a porch and open narthex. fluence is seen in the mosaic decoration inside
South, on the coast, are two interesting cathedrals and out and in the marble facing patterns while
zgo The Baptistery, Florence Cathedral,

—
viewed from campanile black and white
marble, fifth-thirteenth century
&•::.•;•:•;:;•:::".• •.;••
the Romanesque provides the general construc- succeeding 100 years. Apulian Romanesque
tional layout.The facade, begun in 1013, is faced architecture is individual ; it has the Norman
in white and green marble, with five arches on characteristics of power and solidity but also
the lower part supported on composite columns. Saracenic arch Byzantine
construction and
Above is a gable with window and mosaic decoration. Because of the brilliant hot sun,
decoration. The whole facade is faced with windows are small, roofs flat and walls thick.
coloured marbles. Inside, the same vivid colour Buildings are of the plentiful stone from the
treatment is used on walls, columns, roof and and the sculpture is of as high quality as
district
pavement. The apse is mosaic-covered in its in thenorth of Italy at this time. The churches
semi-dome above the decorative arcade. There is have short naves with high clerestory but (no
a beautiful, marble pulpit (281). The baptistery triforium), single aisles, triapsidal east end, timber
of Florence Cathedral shows the same marble roofs and, on the exterior, large twin towers and
decorative treatment. Partly Byzantine and partly one or more cupolas over the crossing, nave and
Romanesque, it was altered in the Gothic period transepts. The eastern and Byzantine influence
by Arnolfo di Cambio when he was working on is also noticeable in the lack of portrayal of the
the cathedral. The exterior view (290) is still human figure in decoration; facades are orna-
primarily Romanesque ; it is octagonal, 90 feet in mented with plant and geometrical forms. The
diameter, and covered by an internal dome, 103 great stone Cathedrals of Apulia have suffered
feet high. The facades are in three stages in from neglect over the centuries of impoverish-
black and white marble, surmounted by a low ment since the Norman civilisation crumbled,
roof and lantern. also from alterations and additions in eighteenth
Apart from the ecclesiastical buildings of century Baroque work. In a number of cases,
northern and central Italy, there are many towers though, their magnificent bronze doors remain.
surviving from the Romanesque and Medieval These are often of solid cast bronze rather than
periods when they were places of refuge, for- bronze plates fixed to wooden doors as was more
tresses and, later, status symbols. Many towns common in the north. Among such examples are
were a forest of such towers but most of these those at Trani, Troia and Ravello, all of late
have now been demolished. S. Gimignano, near twelfth century date and still in good condition.
Siena, is the outstanding instance where a Trani Cathedral was a large pilgrimage church
number of towers still survive and these date from built by the edge of the sea in a setting which
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They are appears to have changed little over the centuries.
square in plan and rise sheer to varying heights It was begun in 1084 and built over a seventh
without ornament, abutment and with few century church which now forms a crypt. It is
openings. Two particular towers remain in tall, of golden stone and has a powerful, lofty
Bologna, the Asinelli Tower of 1 109, 320 feet high eastern central apse with two smaller ones on
and the Garisenda Tower of 11 10. Both of these either side of it, all lit by high windows (382).
are inclined, from four to ten feet out of plumb, The transepts have large circular windows. There
but they remain intact, the city traffic milling is only one tower (recently restored) at the south-
round them. They are survivors of about 180 west corner; the facade is arcaded and has three
such towers in Medieval Bologna. doorways, the central one finely sculptured. The
bronze doors are by Barisano da Trani and have
Southern Italy 33 panels decorated with foliage, animals and

figures, depicting mythological and biblical
Although Calabria has always been a poor region, scenes (279). Troia Cathedral, begun in 1093, is
Apulia, in the years from the ninth to twelfth built high up in the small hill town and is visible
century, was rich. It was a large area, with its for miles as it stands out of the surrounding flat
capital at Bari. From 870 to the mid-eleventh plain. It is not large but is of high quality. One
century it was a Byzantine colony where the of unusual features is the later window in the
its
Eastern Emperors held power despite Saracen facade which is filled with decorative marble
attacks. In 1040 the Normans took over the area plates instead of glass (plate 46). The sculpture
and its great cathedral churches date from the here, inside and out, is very fine and vigorous;
30
the bronze doors are unusual and interesting. At the greatest of the Byzantine ones. A favourite
the east end the main apse is decorated by two exterior wall decoration here with lava and
is
ows of free-standing columns. coloured stone inlay giving a cream, red and
Other noteworthy cathedrals in Apulia include black scheme in geometrical shapes of lozenges
that at Canosa (now unfortunately somewhat and zig-zags like the volcanic decoration in-
derelict), the Old Cathedral at Molfetta (so- fluenced by Byzantine work at Le Puy in France.
alled to distinguish it from the Baroque one) Decorative motifs in Sicily, however, were
nd Bitonto Cathedral. Molfetta Cathedral has a immensely varied from Byzantine lozenges to
fine site on the edge of the harbour. It has two Norman billet, Roman acanthus and Greek
all Lombardic towers and three domes over the key patterns. The important cathedral founda-
lave. It dates from the twelfth century and tions on the coast were begun between 1130 and
effects the essence of Norman power and 1200. Palermo Cathedral, begun in 1 135, is the
strength in architecture (282). Bitonto is different largest of the Norman royal buildings on the
ut equally massive. has a gabled facade with
It island but it has since been much altered. The
wheel window at the top and two-light windows facade and south porch are now Gothic and the
>elow. The central of the three portals is sculp- interior and cupola were transformed in the
ured in amasterly manner with birds above the eighteenth century. Only the east end remains
;apitals (417 and PLATE 47) and with columns typical of Sicilian Romanesque work, with inter-
supported on the backs of crouching (rather laced arcading on the apses decorated ornately
worn) lions. The nave is long and aisled with the in inlaid lava and coloured stone. At Cefalu the
isles projecting to transept width. The interior Cathedral, built 1 131— 48, is impressively sited
3 most noteworthy. The stone church of S. on the side of a mountain overlooking the sea;
Nicola at Bari is one of the few ancient buildings it appears to be growing out of the mountainside
n the city to survive. It is the oldest important (292). Like Apulian cathedrals, it has a massive,
:hurch in southern Italy and was the prototype stone exterior with apsidal east end and tiny
or many others. It was planned as a pilgrimage windows, also western towers. The choir and
:hurch with a large crypt for the relics and with transepts are immensely lofty with the main apse
stairways leading to it from the aisles. It was built rising to the full height of the building but the
nainly between the late eleventh century and nave is considerably lower. The facade is fronted
[197. The gable facade has three portals, the by a narthex which is supported on Norman
:entre one of which (388) has columns supported columns and capitals. Inside, the most spectac-
)n the backs of oxen (plate 48). Inside, the ular part is at the east, where the apse and vault
:ransept opens behind a triumphal arch which are covered by high quality Byzantine mosaic
rames the apse with its altar. The famous Bari
:
pictures,showing the form of the Pantocrator
Bishop's) throne is here; this is a magnificent with angels above and the Virgin, archangels
iece of sculpture, 1098, by Guglielmo (425). and apostles below. The cloisters are fine and
have varied and original carved columns and
capitals.
Jicily
Monreale is the most notable of the Norman
monuments in Sicily, situated in the hills above
he great cathedrals here, particularly those at
efalu, Palermo and Monreale, are also of Palermo. It is a mixture of influences: Norman
mixed ancestry Christian, Byzantine, and Oriental Saracenic.
orman origin but, owing to the
f the island's peoples, illustrate varied in- The (1172-89) of the abbey church are
cloisters
uences. Both Byzantine and Saracenic civilisa- beautiful; they are enclosed on four sides by
ions left their mark here, the former in decorative coupled columns of stone and marble, inlaid
osaics and carvings and the latter in the con- with brilliantly coloured glass mosaic in patterns
duction of stilted, horseshoe and pointed* on the shafts and have richly varied carved
rches and stalactite vaulting. The standard of capitals. The main doors of the cathedral are the
original bronze ones, 1186, by Bonanno of Pisa,
:raftmanship in these fields was high especially
n glass mosaic design and application. Some of which have 42 sculptured panels depicting the
glow with rich colour like
:he Sicilian interiors Old and New Testament; they are similar to the
* The pointed arch was used here long before it appeared
n early Gothic buildings in Europe.
ROMANESQUE CATHEDRALS IN SICILY
ones which he did later on Pisa Cathedral (p. more often in a square rather than an apsidal end.
149). Theexterior of the cathedral, particularly The cruciform pattern on Latin cross plan was
the apses of the east end, are incredibly decorated retained, with much lower vaults than on the
in coloured stone and inlaid lava in arcades, Continent. This led to the ability to span roofs
rosettes, stripsand lozenges (291). The interior, with stone vaulting at an early date— a field in
which presents the most striking Sicilian example which England led the way— and, also, to provide
in Romanesque church building, is decorated a sound basis for supporting a massive central
largely by mosaic pictures on walls, apse vault, tower which, in later times, also carried a spire.
capitals and columns. The lower part of the walls On the Continent a central cupola was more
is marble faced and the open roof is of painted and common or, if a tower were intended, it was
gilded wood. The mosaics cover an enormous area usually never built as the high vaults would not
and tell the Bible stories in detail and at length. bear it. Few English cathedrals still have Norman
vaults; they either retain a timber roof as at
England
Ely, ormore commonly were re-vaulted in the
Gothic period; there are, however, numerous
English Romanesque architecture is generally examples of Romanesque arcades supporting
called'Norman' after the dynasty established by later vaults— a tribute to Norman constructional
William I of Normandy in 1066. English Norman ability.
architecture hasmuch in common with its proto- England is the only country of Europe where
type in Normandy but, as the child will often Romanesque building does not vary greatly in
outpace his father, so the English branch reached style from district to district. This is due to
greater heights than its progenitor. No other William of Normandy who created the founda-
European country produced such magnificent tion of a nation — the first in Europe. Of course,
and varied Romanesque architecture and none certain differences occur, due to varied needs
other possesses such a quantity of that heritage and the availability of materials. Timber was used
extant. These remains are not only in large for building where stone was rare or expensive to
cathedrals all over the country exist many
; transport but, for important building in abbeys,
parish churches, abbey ruins and remains of cathedrals and castles, the same style and stone
fortifications and castles. Most of the cathedrals material was employed whether in London or
and churches have later alterations and additions elsewhere.
but, in many cases, Romanesque work is present
in quantity; perhaps due to the depredations of Cathedrals
Henry VIII, English abbeys and priories, instead The English heritage is rich and, of these build-
of being given Baroque face-lifts, have survived, ings standing all over the country, many retain a
more or less, as ruins from the Medieval period considerable Romanesque portion. One cathedral
(plate 50). is paramount in this respect: Durham. Sited
English Norman architecture was, in the case magnificently on steep rocks overlooking the
of important buildings, constructed from stone, river Wear, it was built in this commanding
often Caen stone imported by William from situation not only as a monastic centre but as a
Normandy. The style is massive, austere, finely fortification (294). The exterior has been altered
proportioned and intensely durable. Builders many times and now only the lower parts of the
tended to underestimate the strength of their western towers and the main nave and choir
work and walls, in particular, are of tremendous show Romanesque work. Inside, though, the
thickness as at, for example, the Keep of the whole interior is of one Romanesque scheme.
Tower London. In cathedral building the
of Durham was a very early example in Europe to
pattern developed differently from the Conti- be stone vaulted over such a wide span. The choir
nental one. The nave is often very long, as at has since been re-covered, but the nave high
vault survives in its original form, which was
Norwich with 14 bays and Ely with 13, while
Continental examples are much shorter. In completed in 1133. The Durham vaults are
distinction, the eastern arm in England is shorter quadripartite ribbed constructions— a great ad-
and, after the earlier Norman work, terminated vance over the more usual barrel and domical
33
ENGLISH ROMANESQUE: DURHAM CATHEDRAL
designs of France or Italy. The ribbed vault is a stubby spires here which surmount the western
lighter construction and so does not place the towers are not ancient, but they replace the
same enormous stress upon the walls and arcades originals in the earlier style and are the type
supporting it. At Durham also, flying buttresses which Durham would have had in the eleventh
were put in to take some of the thrust of the vault and twelfth centuries. Southwell Minster is a
but these are not visible, being hidden under the very beautiful building, much of its exterior
triforium sloping roofs (293). Durham Cathedral unchanged from Norman times but also with its
was begun 1093 on cruciform plan (295) with
in unique thirteenth century interior work (Chapter
a low, central tower (since rebuilt) and two 2).
western towers. The great columns of the nave, The eastern end of Norwich Cathedral (298
with their varied chevron and fluted decoration and 299) is one of the few English examples
and their cushion capitals, alternate with piers which retains the apsidal termination in this —
which have shafts extending upwards to support case, As indicated in the drawing,
tri-apsidal.
the vault. The aisles are also rib vaulted as can be the spire, Lady Chapel and clerestory of the choir
seen in Fig. 293. The cathedral has the traditional are later work in Gothic style but the remainder,
triforium arcade with two round arches under one giving a basis of design and construction, is
larger one per bay and clerestory windows above. Romanesque. Among the many cathedrals with
Durham is one of the very few ecclesiastical Norman remains, it is most usual for the nave to
buildings in England to retain its original
clerestory windows (as can be seen in Fig. 294 of
the exterior). Most churches had larger windows
inserted later to give greater light to the interior,
but the Durham examples were not so small as
usual. The interior certainly does look light,
though it is assisted in this respect by the
Cathedral eastern Gothic rose.
A good idea of how the great Norman towers
looked when they were built is provided by the
large, pilgrimage church at Southwell (296). The
>g6 Southwell Minster from the north-west.

West front c. 11 30, later perpendicular
windows. Chapter House c. /290
ENGLISH ROMANESQUE CATHEDRALS
2Q7 Ely Cathedral, towered transept, begun 1083 2gg Norwich Cathedral from the east, iog6-ii20,
2g8 Norwich Cathedral, plan (dotted line represents clerestory1362-g, spire c. 1464-72, Lady
original Lady Chapel) Chapel c. ig 30
36
PRE- ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE I 7-I3TH CENTURY
—
be unaltered the eastern arm and transepts Castles and Fortifications
were generally enlarged later to provide more
accommodation. Outstanding cathedrals still William I of Normandy took over a new country
and, to unite it and to bring peace
and prosperity
possessing such naves include Ely, Rochester,
to it in accordance with his ideas, he had to show
Gloucester, Peterborough, Hereford and S. Albans,
strength. To this end he built many castles. At
also the Abbey Churches of Tewkesbury and
first these were of timber, on motte and bailey
Waltham, though most of these have undergone
pattern, but gradually during the eleventh and
one or more restorations since the original
twelfth centuries the wooden keeps were re-
building. Lincoln Cathedral still retains a Roman-
placed, in important places, by stone ones. Many
esque lower section to its west front with a
such keeps survive, in a ruined condition, as at
remarkable portal (395). Exeter has Norman
transeptal towers (an unusual design) and many
Rochester, Colchester or Castle Hedingham or, still
cathedrals have Romanesque central towers — in use as at Dover and London. The Tower of
London was William's first and most important
Winchester, S. Albans and Tewkesbury while a — care and in 1080 he built the stone keep now
number of abbeys, ruined and in use, have Norman
called the White Tower. This is a classic example
remains, for example Fountains, Buildwas, Leo-
of the Norman design. It has four storeys and
minster (405) and Malmesbury (413). At Ely (297)
rises to over 90 feet in height. Its walls are massive
is a particularly fine example of Transitional
(up to 20 feet thick at base) and its openings are
work, that is, the style which evolved from
small and well protected (302). Of particular
Romanesque and preceded a complete trans-
interest in the White Tower is the surviving
ference into Gothic. This is in the surviving
Chapel of S. John, which presents an excellent
transept and towers. Another instance of the
impression of Norman work. It has a simple nave
type of work which generally includes both round
with aisles in the wall thickness and continued
and pointed arches in one building is in the
round the east end with an ambulatory behind
Church at New Shoreham. Here, the round arches
the altar. The columns are circular, very thick
are predominant on the lower storey of both nave
and have cubiform capitals. Above the nave
and tower and pointed arches above.
arcade is a clerestory but no triforium (300). The
keep of Rochester Castle, though ruined and with
Parish Churches its floors missing, still gives a clear impression of
what living in such keeps was like. This castle,
Norman work surviving among these is too
built of stone and about 125 feet high
c. 1 1 30, is is
numerous to list. Every county has many such and based on a plan 70 feet square. The walls are
churches with a Norman nave, tower, west door- 12 feet thick and have passages, garderobes and
way or south porch, sculptural decoration and bedchambers in them. The arrangement of
other features. Iffley Church, illustrated in Fig.
accommodation is typical the floors, of timber,
;
301 is a good example with typical, beautifully were divided vertically by walls giving two rooms
carved doorways and window openings showing
per floor. The second floor is the principal one,
Norman ornament of chevron, billet and dentil. comprising the great hall and the dividing wall
Of particular interest, in sculpture, is the
here is pierced by arches and piers to make one
Herefordshire School, of whose work Kilpeck large room. Each of these parts has its own fire-
Church is the outstanding example. The south place. Among the smaller examples Oakham
doorway here, for instance, of reddish sandstone, Castle in Rutland still possesses its Great Hall
is beautifully carved (407 and plate 45). Bar- which is famous for its windows, doorways and
freston Church in Kent also has a richly carved Transitional style capitals it dates from 1 190 and
;
doorway and corbels and a number of churches

is now used for Assize Court sittings.
like Eardisley, also Herefordshire, have interesting
Romanesque basket plaited In general,
fonts.
Spain and Portugal
though, English Romanesque was not noted for
sometimes stated that, due to the occupation
its The decoration is often rich, but
sculpture. It is
of the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors until 1453,

more commonly of geometrical or plant form as
at Lincoln (395). there is almost no Romanesque architecture here.
37
ENGLISH ROMANESQUE
300 S. John's Chapel, White Tower, Tower of London,

c. 1080
301 West front, Iffley Church, Oxfordshire, c. nyo

302 White Tower, plan of third floor of keep
303 Gloucester Cathedral, nave looking east, c. 1100-60,
vault c. 1242
Anyone who takes the pilgrimage route to time the Moors had a higher standard of culture
Santiago de Compostela from the Pyrenees and which included art and architecture. Their
along the northern route via Pamplona, Logrono, buildings were more finely finished and decorated
Santo Domingo de la Calzada, Fromista and and were certainly more beautiful. In contrast,
Leon will find that almost the opposite is true. the Spanish Romanesque is rougher, more
It is a fact that, due to Moorish occupation, austere, more solemn than not only Mohammedan
Christian buildings exist mainly in the northern architecture but also Romanesque work from
half of the country in a broad band stretching elsewhere in Europe. There are two periods of
from the Pyrenees down the Mediterranean Romanesque in Spain the basic Spanish product,
:
coast to Tarragona and across to the west coast of buildings erected before the great southward
at Santiago, but, because of the Moslem domina- expansion in the late eleventh century and a
tion, the Christian opposition in Spain was war- transitional style of Late Romanesque of twelfth
like and strong and Romanesque architecture and thirteenth century work, resulting both
reflects this spirit. The war of reconquest from this expansion and from the French
against the Moors got under way in 718 in the influence coming in from the north-east.
north-west near Oviedo and, over the years, From the tenth and eleventh centuries, as the
Christian Spain forced a Moslem retreat south- church established itself in northern Spain, the
eastwards, reaching Toledo by 1085. Because of French seized the opportunity and set up
its remoteness behind the Pyrenean mountain monastic centres in the region under the Cluniac
barrier and because of Moslem dominance, Order. In the twelfth century came a wave of
architectural ideas were slower to reach Spain Cistercian expansion to add to and replace the
and develop there. As a result, Romanesque earlier foundations. Thus, in the northern coastal
architecture lasted much longer than in Italy districtsand also particularly in Aragon, Navarre,
or France or England, indeed it was more on a Castile and across to Galicia, French influence on
par with Germany in this respect, but, equally, Romanesque architecture was paramount. In the
Gothic architecture when it arrived, also lasted central regions the Mohammedan and Mujedar
much longer, delaying the Renaissance till the example was stronger and resulted in beautiful
late sixteenth or early seventeenth century. construction and decoration in brick, while in
Indicative of its militarism was the Christian Catalonia, with its Mediterranean mercantile
forcefulness and enthusiasm for the pilgrimage to trade, the Lombard ideas percolated most
Santiago. The Apostle S. James was made strongly. In Portugal the French influence was
Spain's patron saint and according to legend, strongest, led by Burgundy, and craftsmen and
was brought by sea from Palestine and died artisans had reached as far south as Lisbon by
martyred. After burial at Santiago, a church was the mid-twelfth century. Despite all these out-
built over the relics. Later, in 1077, the great side influences, Spanish Romanesque archi-
pilgrimage church was begun and, all along the tecture remains individual and nationalistic,
route from the French frontier, Romanesque being fundamentally a marriage of the two parts
pilgrimage churches were built to give shelter of the population Spanish Christian and Spanish
:
and succour thousands of pilgrims. Today,

to the Moslem.
the pilgrimage still takes place, now by air or car
for many
and, for the 1965 pilgrimage year, the Catalonia and the North-East
Spanish government made strenuous and success- In this area, due to the maritime trade with
ful efforts to restore and clean these famous Italy from the Catalonian ports, Lombard
churches (and also provide hotels for tourists) on Romanesque had the strongest effect. Many
this traditional route. churches were built, generally small but stone,
Spanish Romanesque architecture is subject barrel vaulted and with Roman detail in orna-
to a number of influences, in particular, the ment, columns and capitals, many probably
mixture of Christian and Mohammedan sources taken from ruined Roman buildings. The layout
is a solid one with thick, cellular walls and
—the basis of the country and its people for
tall buttresses with chapels between. The
whole
hundreds of years— and European sources,
exterior has a blockish appearance and the
especially from France and Lombardy. At this
39
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ROMANESQUE
304 Monastery
Church of S. Maria,
Ripoll, Spain, facade
c. 1160, restored
nineteenth century
305 The Old
Cathedral ( Se Velha)
Coimbra, Portugal,
east apsidal end,
1 162-1300
306 Meira Abbey
Church, Spain,
interior looking east,
twelfth century to 1238
308 Interior looking east, Church of

S. Martin de Fromista, 1066
307 Church of S. Martin de Fromista,
Spain, from the south-east, 1066
41
interiors are easier to comprehend. Perpignan

Cathedral (then in Spain) is a good example of
these churches. Lombard influence shows chiefly

in the bell towers. These have many storeys, are
unbuttressed and have no batter. Pilaster strip
decoration is usual and small windows, increasing
in size towards the top. Many small churches of
the period survive, but few important ones and
jog Church of S. Esteban, Segovia, Spain, eleventh to
these have been greatly altered, e.g. Gerona and
thirteenth century
Tarragona Cathedrals and Ripoll Abbey. The
Benedictine Abbey Church at Ripoll was rebuilt in
1020 and was the Catalan equivalent of Santiago.
It was drastically restored in the late nineteenth
century from a ruined condition and with the aid

of drawings. It was originally inspired by Old
S. Peter's in Rome and is a cruciform church with
double aisles and seven apses. It had magnificent
vaults based on the conceptions of Imperial Rome
and was one of the great abbeys of its age. The
west portal and arcade with its twelfth century
sculpture, representing scenes from the Old
Testament, still remains, but the sculpture is
now in a crumbling condition. There is still a
fine, two-storeyed cloister dating from c. 1125
(304). Tarragona Cathedral was begun in 1171

and has mainly pointed arches, but is predomi-
nantly Romanesque in its heavy construction and
masonry though some of it has been rebuilt later.
The interesting cloister is of late twelfth century
design and part of the west front is Romanesque.
Some of the portal sculpture here is Gothic in
date but Transitional Romanesque in its solid
character.
Castile and Central Spain
The main pilgrimage route from the Pyrenees to

Santiago extended across this area and, mounted
by the Cluniac Order, the pilgrimage was
ROMANESQUE IN SPAIN
!i&
si
-4
5"
'6
fee
^w
Ln-
*.
5^
1 i^
^J
^^ o
>*A
established on a large, international scale and ways (310) all dating from the eleventh century|
churches were built. The usual route was There is a battlemented parapet walk-way roun<
through Pamplona, Logrono, Santo Domingo de which is very extensive (like that at York
la Calzada, Burgos, Fromista, Leon and Astorga; England). The Cathedral apse provides a bastior
bridges were constructed where necessary and in the city walls and this part of it was builj
information given to pilgrims to assist their 1088—91. The apse contains an ambulatory ii
journey, which generally took 14 days from this vast semi-circular projection (311).
Roncevaux in the Pyrenees. The Romanesque

churches built along this route were, therefore,
Galicia, West and North-West Spain
monastic and French in origin. Characteristically,
they had a nave and aisles of similar height, and, In the western area the most interesting example
as a result, no triforium or clerestory. The choir are at Zamora, Salamanca, Toro and Ciuda
arm was short, ending in three parallel apses Rodrigo. Zamora Cathedral was begun in 1152^
which abutted directly on to the transepts. The Typical of late Romanesque in Spain, the pointe
central, larger apse was used as a sanctuary and arch used predominantly and vaults are quadri
is
the choir was then moved westwards into the partite in pointed barrel design. One of the mos
nave. The classic surviving example of this interesting features here is the central lantern]
pattern is the Church of S. Martin at Fromista, which has eastern fish-tail covering like the
which is roughly half-way between Burgos and examples in France at Poitiers, Angouleme and
Leon on the route. Fig. 307 shows the church Fontevrault (316). The
Church atj
Collegiate
from the south-east with its three apses, octagonal Toro (318) was built in 1 160-1240 and has much
lantern over the crossing and twin, circular in common with Zamora Cathedral its vaults are ;
turrets at the west end. The aisled nave has four almost entirely of pointed barrel type. The
bays and the church is barrel vaulted throughout Cathedral of Ciudad Rodrigo (1 165-1230) has
at almost the same height —
there is neither domical octopartite vaulting and shows French
triforium nor clerestory. The church, which was influence on the Poitiers pattern. Salamanca Old
built in 1066, is as finely proportioned and Cathedral, so-called because it forms one unit
designed as any in France of this period (308 with the much larger New Cathedral, was built in
and 404). 1 120— 78 (Vol. 1,165; 379). It is particularly noted
There are three interesting Romanesque for its dome with high drum, supported on
churches in Segovia: S. Martin, S. Esteban and pendentives and pierced with two rows of windows
S. Millan, all of twelfth century origin. 5. and crowned by a stone ribbed cupola (313). On
Esteban has a later tower (309) and 5. Millan is the exterior is an octagonal spire, called the Torre
the most unusual and striking. It has the normal de Gallo, after its weathercock. The only access to
tri-apsidal end but the most interesting
east the interior of the Old Cathedral now is through
feature is the arcaded entrance (312). Nearby is the New.
the ancient town of Avila, now comparatively The
great Church of Santiago (S. James) de
small, but of great importance in the Middle Compostela is a fitting climax to the end of the
Ages and, still surviving here, are the remarkable pilgrimage road. This is the greatest Romanesque
city walls and gates, the cathedral and the Abbey church in Spain. The town itself, not very large,
Church of S. Vincent. This last-named was begun has been preserved in the centre and the traffic
in 1090 in the style of S. Martin of Fromista but diverted round the outside. Inside the walls it is
was completed later under Burgundian auspices. still, today, a haven of pilgrimage and peace.
It was a pilgrimage church and follows the classic The exterior of the church is now largely Baroque, j
Spanish pattern for such designs. The city walls rebuilt in the eighteenth century, but the interior
are the best examples in Europe for their com- remains Romanesque on pilgrimage church
pleteness and lack of alteration. Unlike Carcas- lines. was largely based on the design for S.
It
sonne in France they have not been extensively Sernin in Toulouse and was started after but
restored and compare more closely with Aigues completed earlier than the French church (423).
Mortes (See pages 93, 94). At Avila the walls are The nave has single aisles and is very long; it has
of granite and there are 86 towers and 10 gate- a barrel vault while the aisles are cross-vaulted
44
ROMANESQUE VAULTS AND CUPOLAS
Cathedral, Salamanca,
31 3 Cupola and pendentives. Old
Spain, 1 1 20-1 178
314 Barrel vault
315 Barrel intersecting vault
Spain, 1131-
316 Central cupola, Zamora Cathedral,
Ernulf's crypt,
31 7 Canterbury Cathedral, England.
c. 10Q6-1107 .
S. Maria,
318 Central cupola. Collegiate Church of
Toro, Spain, c. 1250 45
3ig The nave looking east. The great pilgrimage church of S. James, Santiago de Compostela, Spain, begun ioyy
46
(319). There and a French style

are transepts mountains. The Romanesque is of Transitional
chevet, with
ambulatory and five radiating type, with wide pointed arches and barrel
vault,
chapels. Apart from the interior, the south a clerestory but no triforium. On the
facade, the
transept portico remains from the Romanesque portal still possesses the original and unusual
period; the portico— la Puerte de las Platerias— doors and above is the typical circular window
was built in 1103; it has some fine sculpture of (378).
11 16 (396). The outstanding part of the building
sculpturally, however, is the Portico de la Gloria,
originally the facade but now approached Portugal
via the
classicalstairway on the west front, from the The French influence here was even greater than
square below. This Romanesque triple portico is in Spain and
in the eleventh century the northern
sculptured by Master Mateo (who buried in
is region had broken free to become a satellite of
the church) and who worked on it from 1 168-88. Burgundy, though later it became independent.
The James the Apostle decorates the
statue of S. There is, however, little Romanesque work
trumeau and on each side are statues of apostles, existing. Surviving examples include the Church
prophets and elders. The whole portico tells the of 5. Salvador at Travanca, the Cathedral at
story of Man's Trials and Salvation. It is one of Evora and the Church of the Convent of Christ at
the great examples of European Romanesque Tomar, all twelfth century but with considerable
art (plates 42 and 52). alterations in later periods. The best and most
typical Portugese example of Romanesque is the
Old Cathedral ( Se Velha) in Coimbra, begun
The Cistercian Abbeys
1 162. The east end (305) is tri-apsidal, there is a
The important Benedictine Order had become square tower with cupola, which has Byzantine
wealthy and more worldly all over Europe and in type coloured ceramic tiling, and the west facade
Spain as in England, the Cistercian Order was has a fine portico, approached up a flight of steps
founded and flourished with the aim of re- (388). The cathedral has a castellated, fortified
asserting the vows of poverty, austerity and dedi- appearance and obviously incorporates Moslem
cation to a monastic life devoted to the original features. The facade, in particular, is severe and
humble origins. The Cistercian Order in Spain, as in sheer, block form; it is impressive in its
in England, played an important part in establish- austere simplicity. The interior is very Roman-
ing Gothic architecture. In England are abbeys esque. There is a barrel vaulted nave with
such as Fountains and Rievaulx. Spain has many transverse arches and a triforium which has a
examples too. A number of them were largely wide ambulatory supported over the full width
built in the late Romanesque style and of these The square tower is rib vaulted
of the aisle vaults.
some survive in whole or in part. The churches and its windows give good light to the cathedral.
are large, very simple and austere and have little
of the richly carved doorways, capitals and
Germany
mouldings of other Romanesque work. Among
the more interesting examples are the Abbeys Romanesque architecture developed early in
of Moreruela, 1169, near Zamora, which is Germany. It was clearly related to the Lombard
ruined but retains a complete chevet, of Veruela, style of Northern Italy owing to the political
1 170, in Aragon and the famous Abbey of Poblet, links between the two countries under the Holy
1
1 51-96, in Catalonia. This has been altered Roman Empire. These ties were particularly
greatly in later times and was neglected in the strong during the Hohenstaufen dynasty in the
nineteenth century. Parts of the buildings, twelfth and thirteenth century. The predominant
particularly the church interior and cloisters, are characteristic adopted by the Germans from
still very fine. The drawing in Fig. 306 shows the

was the conception of arcading
Italian patterns
interior of the Abbey Church at Meira in Galicia. asan all-over pattern, especially on the apses.
This church, 190-1258, follows closely on its
c. 1
The Germans developed their own style later
Burgundian pattern and is extremely austere. It and was eminently suited to the character of
this
is remotely situated in this small town high in the the people, producing buildings which were
47
GERMAN ROMANESQUE CATHEDRALS
-a « i~
3 k
Ci
s
to -: «i
fc -^
-c -e **
'*'
P ^,
5 «
a
4!
1"?
13 -T3 u
«s <."
3 -
«
OOa I
5*
~
1
^
.5 1
s <N ^
<M <m <^ ^
f"5 pn f) f->
)
ROMANESQUE IN GERMANY
327
324 Abbey Church of the Monastery of Maria Laach 326 Mainz Cathedral from the north-east, 1085-1239
from the north-west, c. 11 12 to thirteenth century (central tower completed 1361
327 Interior, Mainz Cathedral looking east
323 Plan. Maria Laach
49
strong, dignified, austere, with limited decoration Inside, the layout and execution are simple and
and fine masonry. A peculiarly German Roman- austere. Stone vaulting developed fairly late and
esque feature is the church planned with an apse most of these vaults are replacements of the
at each end of the building, west as well as east. timber roofs. When vaults were used, the square
Many important buildings have this character- bay pattern was adopted, with one nave bay
istic, though the western apse was generally being equal to two aisle ones as at Worms
single and the eastern might be triple. This Cathedral. Some examples have a western atrium
feature, which is thought to have developed as at Maria Laach Abbey Church (324).
from a desire for an apse and altar both for abbot

and his monks at the east end, and for the bishop
The Rhineland
and laity at the west, gave no opportunity for
masons and sculptors to decorate a deeply Although most of the great and
churches
moulded western porch, as was usual in France cathedrals of this area suffered from
greatly
or England. The entrance doorway on such damage inflicted in the Second World War, the
churches as Mainz, Worms or Speyer Cathedrals region still possesses some impressive examples
are usually lateral transeptal ones. A second of German Romanesque architecture. The three
feature which characterises German Romanesque famous cathedrals of Worms, Mainz and Speyer
churches is the dramatic skyline pattern created were all severely damaged, but are all now largely
by the of towers, cupolas and
multiplicity restored and rebuilt once more. Apart from war-
turrets. was common for larger churches to
It time damage, Worms Cathedral is the least
have one or two cupolas, often polygonal, over altered of the three in that it retains its Roman-
the crossing and nave (or choir) and four towers, esque plan and general layout (323). It has east
two at each end. These towers were transeptal or and west apses and there are two large, and
set just behind the apses and were polygonal or four staircase, towers which break the skyline. It
circular in form. Circular towers are unusual in is a highly typical example of German work in
the Romanesque architecture of other European its restrained, symmetrical severity. The
countries, except in northern Italy, but they are entrances are in the aisles. Exterior decoration is
a common feature of German ones as at, for by pilaster strips and a-cading which continues
instance, Worms Cathedral (320). The German round the church. The interior is completely
helm type of covering to the square or polygonal vaulted on square bay pattern, one nave bay to
tower was especially typical of the Rhineland, two aisles (320).
of which the Church of the Apostles in Cologne is a Mainz Cathedral is immense and was altered
notable example (328). in later periods when the crossing towers were
Romanesque architecture in Germany lasted rebuilt in different styles and houses were
very late, as it did in Lombardy. There are many constructed abutting on to and becoming part of
examples which date from well into the thirteenth the cathedral flanks. Despite this, the vast red
century in a style not much altered from 100 sandstone bulk of the cathedral towers above
years earlier. Having established this effective, the severely damaged and consequently modern
impressive mode of building, so suited to their city, the impression creates little affected by
it
race, the Germans seemed unwilling to abandon the trolley bus wires which cross the tourists'
it. The majority of surviving buildings are in line of vision. The eastern end (326) illustrates
stone but there were originally a vast number of the original German design, its apse surmounted
timber and half-timber (Fachwerk) constructions. by a gable end flanked by two towers. The interior
All along the Baltic region brick buildingbegan (327) is plain and dignified.
early,owing to the lack of stone materials, but Like Mainz, Speyer Cathedral is very large.
such work has mostly been altered later, in the Its west facade was rebuilt in the eighteenth and
Middle Ages, or was destroyed in the Second also in the nineteenth century. The remainder
World War. (except for parts devastated by war and now
The
external walls of the churches are deco- being renewed) retains its Romanesque character-
rated simply by pilaster strips and corbelled isticsand is accessible and attractively sited
string courses with arcading, as in Lombardy. amongst the trees in a park (321). The crypt is the
50
,
ROMANESQUE IN GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND
331
328 Church of the Apostles, Cologne, Germany. East end 330 Plan. Church of the Apostles
c. iiQo-1200. ( NjW tower missing) 331 Interior. Church of Romainmotier
Switzerland, c. 1000
32Q Church of S. Gereon, Cologne. East end c. 1160
(west end severely damaged in second World War)
51
earliest extant part of the cathedral, c. 1030, and and Freckenhorst. In this area, the facades, like
is remarkable. with stout columns and

It is large, the Dutch churches of the period in Maastricht,
cubiform capitals supporting a heavy groined are fortified castle wall exteriors. S. Patroklus in
vault. The nave is wide and long, with immense Soest has small corner towers and a tall gable with
piers supporting a very high domical, groined a vast western tower. Freckenhorst Abbey Church
vault. At the crossing, the vault is higher still (the (332) is typical, with flanking, circular western
loftiest Romanesque example in Europe) and has towers and a mass with a tiny
cliff-like central
a great octagonal tower built on squinches. The doorway at the bottom, tiny windows above and
nave arcade is high but there is no triforium surmounted by a tall roof and turret. Behind this
between it and the round-headed clerestory vast, westwerk, a long nave and aisles lead to a
windows. transept and two further, eastern towers. The
Further north, but near the Rhine, is the masonry is good but rugged and the whole
magnificently preserved and untouched Mon- ensemble is imposing. Inside is a fine Romanesque
astery of Maria Laach. The Abbey Church was font, c. 1 130 (plate 49).
begun in 1093and was built slowly over many Also not far from the Rhine is Limburg
years but all in one style. There are six towers, two Cathedral on the river Lahn. It is smaller than
large and four smaller, and three apses on the east those of the Rhineland but is characteristic
side and one on the west, with an atrium in front nevertheless. It is sited on top of a hill in an
of it. The narthex has 82 small columns and some attractive old town overlooking (and reflected in)
beautifully carved capitals as well as a western the river. Like Durham, it appears to grow out of
doorway. Built of local stone, the church is simply the rocks above the river bank. It has seven
and typically decorated by pilaster strips and towers, attractively grouped. The octagonal
corbel arches (324, 325 and 410). Inside, the crossing tower rises high with its spire. The nave
church is austere and serene. The groined vault is short and the other towers make a compact
is on grouped piers.
carried composition. In date and style it is a Transitional
Also on the Rhine are a number of interesting or late Romanesque building and shows a
churches in and near Cologne. These all suffered French influence in its choir ambulatory (322).
damage, in the Second World War, varying from The Church of S. Quirin at Neuss also has a
partial to almost total destruction. After nearly 40 cliff-face facade, arcaded and gabled, while above
years' work almost all are now fully and beautifully it rises the large, square tower; a typical, interest-
restored.The classic pattern for the region, based ing example (333).
in a number of instances on Lombard design, is for Further south, on the river Moselle, is Trier
a triapsidal east end, a cruciform ground plan and a where the Cathedral and the Liebfrauenkirche
tall tower, or more often, an octagonal lantern or form a group. The town was an important Roman
cupola over the main crossing. In a number of centre and the cathedral incorporates a Roman
designs there double transepts and most
are building which occupied the site in 1019 when
churches in the city of Cologne have several the cathedral was begun (334). The Liebfrauen-
towers, often roofed in Rhenish helm style (328, kirche is of early Gothic date and makes a group
330). This diamond-shaped form of roof is rare side by side with the cathedral in a tree-lined
outside Germany, though that on the Saxon tower square. In Bavaria the town of Regensburg on the
of Sompting Church in Sussex survives (page 14). Danube possesses the interesting Church of S.
The most important Romanesque churches of this Jakob (the Schottenkirche) which has an elaborate
type in the city of Cologne are that dedicated to the portal, finely sculptured (394 and 402). The
twelve apostles (S. Aposteln 328, 330), S. Maria im church is basilican with triapsidal sanctuary but
Capitol, the earliest of the group, constructed on has no transept.
the foundation walls of the Roman Capitoline In the north, on the borders of East Germany
Trias, S. Martin (Gross S. Martin), S. Gereon (329) towards Berlin, is the Abbey Church of Konig-
and S. Pantaleon. sliitter. The carving and sculpture here is out-
Apart from the Rhineland, Romanesque ex- standing, particularly the apse corbelling and
amples are scattered throughout Germany. Not arcading and the cloister capitals and columns
farfrom the Rhine are the churches in Soest
52
GERMAN ROMANESQUE CHURCHES
332 Freckenhorst Abbey
Church, Germany,
c. 1 130. Viewed from the
south-west
333 Church
of S. Quirin, Neuss,
Germany. West front,
begun c. i2og. Tower
c. 1230
53
U4 Trier Cathedral, Germany. From the west, 1016—4J
335
?J5 Imperial Palace ( Kaiserpfalz ) Goslar, Germany, eleventh century (restored)
406 and 416). Inside, the apse has painted The round columns have cubiform capitals and
decoration of a very high order. At Hildesheim, moulded bases.
not far away, the town was badly damaged
during World War II and the famous Church of
Switzerland
S. Michael has had to be almost entirely rebuilt.
Its magnificent sculptured bronze doors still A number of small country churches exist with
exist but are now on view inside the church, hung remains of this period. Romainmotier Church
on the inner side of the west portal. There are was originally part of a Cluniac Monastery, built
16 panels depicting high relief figures on a low in the early tenth century. The present building
relief and incised background. The standard of dates from about 1000 and is basically in Lombard
craftmanship is remarkable for bronze work of style. The interior shows many original features
this date, 1015. At Goslar, in the region of the such as the columns, capitals, nave arcade and
Harz Mountains, the Kaiserpfalz here was apsidal end (331)- In the Church of S. Jean at
restored in the nineteenth century on its original Grandson the nave capitals are of varied Roman-
pattern, 1
1 32. The main hall of the palace is built esque design, depicting animals, birds and
over undercroft and has twin naves with
a large demons. The vault is in stone, in barrel form
columns supporting a timber roof. A balcony (418). The Church at Zillis has the most remark-
opens from the hall on to the facade through a able painted wooden ceiling, illustrating in
triplearched opening. The building includes a panels, scenes -from the New Testament in rich
two-storeyed chapel and the imperial apartments

336 Detail of the Reisetor (West Portal) S. Stephen's
(335)- Nearby is the site of the cathedral which is
Cathedral, Vienna, 1258-67
now destroyed but whose narthex still remains,
with its original entrance (409).
Österreich
Remains are scarce as most of the work has been

rebuilt at a later date. S. Stephen's Cathedral in
Vienna still has a Romanesque wing though it was
built in the mid-thirteenth century. The Giant's
Door here is finely carved with notable multi-
column jambs, foliated capitals and typically
Romanesque sculpture (336). In the Cathedral at
Gurk there is a vast crypt possessing 100 columns
which support a groined vault dating from 1 160.
Plate 4g
Detail, font. Freckenhorst Abbey Church,
Germany, 1 129
Plate 50
Cloister garth lavatory cistern. Much Wenlock
Priory, England, c. 11 60
Plate 51
Column support, porch. Trogir Cathedral,
Yugoslavia, c. 1240. Master Radovan
Plate 52
S. James. Portico de la Gloria, Cathedral of
Santiago de Compostela, Spain. 1166—88, Mateo
Plate 53
South portal arch
mouldings. Lund
Cathedral, Sweden
Plate 54
Painted ceiling, Zillis
Church, Switzerland.
Scenes of the New
Testament. 12th
century. Restored
19th and 20th
centuries
ROMANESQUE CHURCHES IN THE LOW COUNTRIES
337 Tournai Cathedral, Belgium. From the
north, 1066-1338. Nave (right side)
Romanesque, Transepts (centre)
Transitional, Choir (left side) Gothic
337 338 S. Mary's Church, Maastricht, Holland
from the east, tenth century and later
339 Interior of apsidal transept, Tournai
Cathedral, twelfth century
^S^
c
colours. The ceiling has been restored in the is still Romanesque and the transepts are in
a
nineteenth and twentieth centuries (plate 54). Transitional form of the style the two parts of;
Basle Minster was originally Romanesque but the cathedral form a marked contrast, particularly
much of it is now Gothic. The east end retains its inside the building, and a useful study. The
Romanesque characteristics and the Galluspforte cathedral exterior, largely built of black Tournai
(the portal named after S. Gall) is a twelfth marble, has a large central tower and spire and
century design with elaborate sculptured decora- four spired towers grouped around it and flanking
tion. The Minister has a magnificent position on the north and south apses (though it was origin-
the top of the above the town and with a steep
hill ally designed for nine towers). The towers, like
hillside descending on its east side towards the the semi-circular ended transepts, are Transi-
river Rhine (385). tional. The nave dates from 1 1 10 ; it is lower than
the Gothic choir and still has its original fenestra-
tion (337). The interior of Tournai Cathedral is
Belgium
magnificent. The nave is simple Romanesque,
In comparison with Germany, France, England the transepts in Transitional style (339) are
or Italy, little Romanesque architecture survives higher, having a tall tower arcade, a shallower
in the LowCountries, in Scandinavia or in triforium arcade with a smaller sub-triforium
Eastern Europe. In Belgium the outstanding above, before reaching the clerestory, giving
example is Tournai Cathedral which, although loftyarms to the interior and suitably connecting
added to and altered later, is certainly one of the without awkwardness the long, low nave and
finest Romanesque buildings in Europe. It is short high choir. The crossing has very tall piers
large and tall and difficult of access and to view and arches under the central tower.
due to its position in the centre of the town, There are a number of castles in Belgium with
closely hedged in by other buildings. The east work dating from Romanesque times. In Antwerp,
end of the Cathedral is Gothic, but the long nave the castle in the port area, called the Steen, dates
340 Antwerp Castle (The Steen) Belgium, tenth

,
century onwards
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN YUGOSLAVIA
from the tenth century onwards and still has facade and the three Romanesque doorways
Romanesque doorway and window openings (341). Trogir Cathedral, despite its late date,
inside (340), while in Ghent the Gravensteen 1240, is Romanesque and has a magnifi-
in style
Castle, which belonged to the Counts of Flanders, cent entrance portal by Master Radovan, the
has interesting remains. The hall dates from the Slav sculptor who had been trained in Apulia
ninth century and divided in the centre by a
is (plate 51). The church is basilican and has three
row of four circular columns with simple leaf apses at the east end (343 and 344). It is stone
capitals, like the design in S. John's Chapel in vaulted throughout, with massive piers to support
the Tower of London (300). The entrance the vaults.
barbican has a Romanesque doorway and window The Lombardic influence also extended to
openings. In the exterior walls prison chambers Hungary and the monastic orders. Benedictine
still survive which are of Romanesque date, while and, later, Cistercian, built a number of abbeys
the audience chamber possesses a fine wall- and churches. Many of these have been rebuilt,
fireplace. like the Cathedrals of Esztergom and Szekesfeher-
var, although some original sculpture survives in
both these examples. The chief monument in the
Holland
country is the Cathedral of Pecs (Funfkirchen),
The chief Romanesque work here is in Maastricht, rebuilt about 11 50 and restored mainly in the
which was prosperous region in
at the centre of a nineteenth century. This, the oldest cathedral in
the twelfth century. The Church of <S. Servaas Hungary, is of a German pattern, like Bamberg,
has a Romanesque east end with apse and twin with four corner towers and arcading decorating
towers. 5. Mary's Church is like Freckenhorst the whole building. The east end is triapsidal and
Abbey Church on the west front and has zvest- the choir is raised high above the superb crypt.
vcerk pattern in the form of a formidable fortified The cathedral possesses some fine capitals and
wall with small twin towers. At the east it has a sculpture. A smaller Romanesque church survives
large semi-circular apse and Rhenish capped at Lebeny, near Gyor. This is a remarkable
towers (338). The interior is simple and also in example in its purity of style; it was restored to
German style. the original design in the nineteenth century
(345, 346) and inside the tall nave has a lofty, stone
barrel vault. The clerestory windows are small
Eastern and Central Europe
and there is no triforium. The nave arcade has
Most contemporary building here was in timber round arches behind which are lower aisles. The
and has not survived. The tradition in this region semi-circular chancel is covered by a semi-dome.
was, as in pre-Romanesque times in Western The Church of the Premonstratensian Abbey at
Europe, to build in solid wood, not half-timber Zsdmbek, near Budapest, is one of the oldest in
work as was the western European method during Hungary. It was built in the later twelfth century
the Middle Ages. In the east the forest reserves and altered again about 1258. The architect, a
were so vast that solid timber construction was Frenchman, is said to have based his church on
possible in quantity. the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. This
In Yugoslavia, particularly on the Adriatic impressive stone building has a commanding
Coast, the Italian influences led to Italian-style sight on a hill above the surrounding plain. The
stone churches and cathedrals of which a number interior is partly ruined but there is a fine
survive. In Zadar the Cathedral and the Church Romanesque facade (347)- Among other Roman-
of S
1
Grisogono are good examples, the latter

.
esque churches are the decorative example at
especially showing strong Italian influence; both jfdk, with its richly sculptured doorway and
Lombard and Pisan (342). The Cathedral has chevron ornament and the interesting churches of
much in common with contemporary Norman Szdzad, Ocsa and Karcsa.
cathedrals on the Italian southern Adriatic coast In Rumania, the Cathedral of Alba Iulia
opposite. Begun end Lombard (Gyulafehervar) was completed about 1239 but
in 1 105, the east is
but the west front has a tower like that at Trani reconstruction was necessary after the Tartan
invasion of 1242 (348 and 349)- Some of it is now
(374) and Tuscan type arcading on the gable
61
ROMANESQUE IN HUNGARY
"1 'O (^
n- <*- -*
f-
)
<*•> 0">
148 Facade of the Cathedral at Alba Iulia, Rumania.
Re-built in Romanesque style 1272-91. Gothic and
Renaissance additions
149 Plan of cathedral
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE! 7-13TH CENTURY
Gothic and later, but the Lombard/German (now in Novgorod Cathedral in the U.S.S.R.),
plan is still distinguishable, as are the nave is typical of such Romanesque structures in that
supports of alternating columns and piers. There it retains little of the original work. Better pre-
aretwo western towers with a high, open vaulted served are the Collegiate church of SS. Peter and
porch between (p. 188). Paul at Kruszwica, which has a Baroque interior,
Further north, in Poland, extensive Roman- the circular Church of S. Procopius (c. 1 160) and
esque work in stone and/or brick was carried out, Holy Trinity, both in Strelzno.
the Church of the
but much of this has been altered through the These small towns are in the Gniezno region.
centuries and the limited remains suffered The Abbey Church at Trzebnica, on the outskirts
damage in the Second World War. of Wroclaw (Breslau), still has some of its
The capital of the north-central area, and its Romanesque (1219) exterior, but the interior is
cultural centre, was Gniezno, a not very large entirely Baroque (Volume 3, p. 162).
town about 30 miles south-east of Poznan. A number of Romanesque structures were
Pagan until the tenth century, Gniezno became built in Cracow on Wawel Hill, where a royal
the seat of the first Polish archbishopric in A.D. castle and church were erected, surrounded by a
1000, when the stone, rotunda building there walled, fortified town. The city developed chiefly
became the Metropolitan Cathedral. This was after 1040, when the residence of the kings was
replaced by a second Romanesque cathedral in transferred from Gniezno to Cracow, and stone
1097 which, in turn, was largely demolished when buildings began to replace the wooden ones. The
the present Gothic cathedral took its place (558). earliest Romanesque structure was the Rotunda
Remains of both the earlier cathedrals can be Chapel dedicated to the Virgin, built in the tenth
seen in the walls of the present building, while century. In circular form, with a surmounting
the magnificent bronze doors from the second cupola, it had four adjacent apses, each with a
cathedral, with their twelfth century Romanesque semi-circular roofing. In its simple manner it is
sculpture in 18 relief panels representing the life like other contemporary examples in Germany,
of S. Adalbert, are now displayed inone of the Yugoslavia, Italy or Greece, and the building
chapels of the choir. These are in low relief and style resembles some Anglo-Saxon structures in
are fine examples. England (351). Later called the Chapel of SS.
The Cathedral church of S. Mary at Plock Felix and Adauctus, its walls are incorporated in
(north-west of Warsaw), a twelfth century granite the later palace.
structure, which also had some fine bronze doors The first Romanesque cathedral was then
begun (c. 1020) (350) and this was largely replaced
in the early twelfthcentury by another, larger one.
It was designed on German lines, with four large
towers in the angles of the cruciform plan.
Remains of this building exist in the present
structure, of which the crypt of 5. Leonard is the
chief part. It is situated under the cathedral nave
and has a typical vault supported on rows of

columns (352).
Not from the Wawel Hill in Cracow is the
far
Church of S. Andrew (1086), which, despite a
Baroque interior, is a fairly well preserved
Romanesque building, especially in its fortified,
massive walls.
In Czechoslovakia Romanesque structures were
being erected from the early tenth century, in the
350 Capital from the first Romanesque cathedral on
form of castles and churches. Remains are, in
Wawel Hill, Cracow, Poland, early eleventh
century many cases, little more than fragmentary, as in
351 Window opening from the Chapel of the Virgin the cathedral on Castle Hill in Prague. The
( S.S. Felix and Adauctus) Gothic building 130) replaced
present, fine (p.
64
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE: 7-I3TH
CENTURY
J 52 S. Leonard's Crypt from the Romanesque cathedral

at Cracow, logo—1115. Situated under present
cathedral
353 Basilica of S. George, Castle Hill, Prague,
Czechoslovakia, from 11 42
mmmi
two earlier Romanesque ones. These are now France and Holland, Norway by England, and
only visible in the foundations excavated and Sweden by all sources.
preserved under and near the cathedral. The
nearby castle retains Romanesque portions, like
Denmark
the barrel vaulted Romanesque hall and parts of In this flat country building materials available
themural towers, but the chief surviving building were, apart from timber, limestone, brick and
from this period on Castle Hill is the Basilica of flint. Masonry developed traditionally at the
S. George, built originally in 920, but the same time as Norman England, but most of the
Romanesque church dates from its rebuilding in buildings have been altered. Amongst surviving
1 142 after a fire. The facade is now Baroque, but examples are the cathedral at Ribe in South
inside it retains its simple Romanesque form, Jutland, begun c. 11 30 and Viborg Cathedral in
though it was extensively restored in the late North Jutland, of granite, from c. 1 140. The large
nineteenth century (353). cathedral at Ribe is situated in the centre of the
Remains exist of one or two stone Romanesque small, oldmarket town. Like Lund Cathedral in
rotunda churches in Prague, but these are in poor Sweden, it is a mixture of Rhineland and Italian
condition and are, in general, small and primitive. Lombard designs. The exterior is severely
A typical example is that of £". Longinus. Romanesque with gabled facade, transeptal
a
towers and spires and an apsidal east end. The
interior, though restored, is based on the original
Scandinavia though with later vaults and enlarged
pattern,
For the majority of building, wood was the chief clerestory windows (354). Viborg Cathedral,
material and little has survived, though re- though still on original lines, is extensively
building has often been in similar traditional restored and so possesses that machine finished
style. Masonry was used for important, ecclesi- appearance typical of Scandinavian nineteenth
astical work, especially in the south and some of century work. It has twin west towers and gables
thiswork is extant. In this material Scandinavia with similar eastern towers flanking the apse.
was strongly influenced by foreign designs and Several large abbey churches survive, mainly
workers, in general, Denmark by Germany, built in brick, and all carefully restored. The two
65
354 Ribe Cathedral, Denmark, begun c. 1130

ROMANESQUE IN DENMARK AND SWEDEN
chief examples are close together on Zealand: period to survive is at Lund, in Skane, which was
Ringsted Abbey and Sore Abbey, both of begun about 1080. Built in limestone, it was
brick. The Abbey Church of 5. Benedict at extensively restored in the nineteenth century
Ringsted is on Latin cross plan with apsidal east when the Rheno-Lombardic west front took its
end and a later crossing tower (359). Inside, it is final form. The apsidal east end, which resembles
more Scandinavian than Ribe. It has no triforium Speyer in Germany without the flanking towers
and small, round-headed clerestory windows. (355 an d 360), is largely in its original design,
Sore Abbey has a very similar interior treatment as is and the
also the south portal (plate 53)
but outside it is large, long and low. crypt.This is very fine, groin vaulted throughout
The most original and interesting Romanesque and supported on cushion capitalled columns
building in Scandinavia is the Church at Kalund- with varied shafts (368). The interior, despite
borg, north-west of Soro on Zealand. Also of restoration, has a Romanesque effect (362). It is
brick, it is large and imposing and, despite severe and built on monumental lines. There is
restoration, has a Medieval feeling still. On Greek no triforium and clerestory windows are tiny.
cross plan, it has one square tower over the cross- The choir is on a higher level than the nave built,
ing and an octagonal one over each of the four in Italian Romanesque fashion, over the crypt.
arms (357). It is a centralised structure, a Most of the Swedish Romanesque stone
Scandinavian version of a Byzantine theme. churches are tall, with semi-circular eastern
There are four simple columns supporting the apses, lofty nave and choir and tall towers. The
crossing; all arms are barrel vaulted. churches are wide and are generally vaulted.
There is a tradition in some parts of Denmark Typical examples include the late Romanesque
for round churches, probably based on Eastern Church at Ldrbro on the Island of Gotland. Of
European origins. This is particularly so on the German, fortified type, like Freckenhorst, is the
Island of Bornholm where these distinctive build- Church at Husaby in Skaraborg. This was
ings were used sometimes as fortresses. They originally a stave church. In 1057 an immense
have single, central piers supporting conical roofs. stone tower was added. This square tower has
The best examples are at 0sterlars, Ny, and circular turrets on each side, the whole making a
Nylar. In Zealand the example at Bjernede fortified place of retreat. About 1090, the stave
survives (358). The lower part is of stone, the church was demolished and the stone church
upper of brick. Inside, four large stone columns added to the tower (361).
on torus moulding and square bases support a While the fortified tower facade at Husaby
quadripartite ribbed vault on their cushion shows German influence, the body of the church
capitals, while groined vaults cover the encircling is more English in derivation. Also English in
ambulatory. pattern are the remains of the three Romanesque

churches at Sigtuna, near Lake Malar. S. Olav
Sweden is. the most complete of these stone churches

(369) ; «S. Per shows a square tower and part of
Timber was the chief material and the stave the nave but S. Lars is only fragmentary. They
churches of the later Medieval period were in- were all made of large, irregularly cut stone
fluenced by this tradition. Christianity gained a blocks and of simple cruciform structure.
hold here later than in Denmark but was estab- Swedish Romanesque churches, like their
lished by the twelfth century and the Cistercians English counterparts, are noted for their carved
began to found monasteries soon after, as at stone fonts. Outstanding examples are those at
Varnhem and Alvastra. The early Christian Lbderup Church in Skane (356) and Varnhem
influence came from England from the tenth Abbey Church near Skara (363).
century onwards and its principal centre was at As in Norway, the first churches from the
Uppsala. Architectural influences from outside early days of Christianity in Sweden were of
were strong and, apart from England, included wood. These were generally of log structure, with
France, Russia and Byzantium. The work in corner joint method or timber framed with in-
Sweden was simple, sometimes crude but not filling of boards. The commonest type, also as in
unattractive. The outstanding cathedral of the Norway, was the stave church, but few examples
68
ROMANESQUE IN SWEDEN
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE : 7-13TH CENTURY
survive in Sweden. One is the stave church at tions, climate and geography. These factors
Hedared in Vastergotland. It is small, consisting created an original architectural form which was
of nave and chancel. Restored, it is in good less closely related to the rest of European
condition and retains its later, eighteenth century development than work in Denmark or southern
furniture and wall paintings. The staves rest on a Sweden.
wood sill. Contacts and connections with the British
The little wooden Sodra Rdda,
church of Isles were close and the stone churches show this
remotely situated in rural surroundings near the influence. From about 1100 such churches were
vast inland sea of Lake Vanern, dates from about built, very much in Norman style. 5. Magnus'
1300. The exterior is shingled and very simple, Cathedral at Kirkwall in Orkney (then under
but inside, the nave and chancel roof and walls are Norse control) shows a close relationship to
painted all over. It is reminiscent of the Swiss English Norman cathedrals, as does also
church of Zillis (p. 155), showing circles filled Stavanger Cathedral, which was begun c. 11 30.
with figure compositions depicting biblical It still has a Romanesque nave with large circular
scenes. The style of work too is much like Zillis, columns; these have varying types of cushion
though these are mainly fifteenth century paint- capitals, and chevron decoration remains on one
ings and less restored. The work is very fine. or two of the nave arcade arches (364 and 366).
There is a large, semi-circular headed chancel
arch leading into the Gothic choir, which is at a
Norway
higher level than the nave. The cathedral is all
Architectural influence here

is not notable since of stone, quite small, but despite restoration a
timber has been for centuries the traditional good example of Anglicised Norwegian Roman-
building material. Most of the work is of later esque building and the finest in Norway.
date, though building styles changed only slowly. The smaller stone churches are generally very
It is a remote country with difficult communica- simple and most have been greatly altered. S.
364 The nave, Stavanger Cathedral, Norway, 1125-50. Modern roof and seventeenth century pulpit
ROMANESQUE IN NORWAY AND SWEDEN
Sigtuna, Sweden,
369 Plan, S. Olav's Church,
365 Stave construction, Lorn Church, Norway,
twelfth century
thirteenth century
Stavanger Cathedral, 370 Dragon finial, Borgund Church
366 South doorway capital,
Church, Norway, from the
37 1 Borgund Stave
Norway, twelfth century
south-east, c. 1150
367 Doorway detail, Borgund Stave Church Church, Norway, c. 1125-50
372 Nave capital, Urnes Stave
368 Crypt column, Lund Cathedral, Sweden, Gol Stave Church, Norway
373 Dragon finial,
twelfth century
Mary's Church Bergen is one example. It has

in symbol). The construction is based on 12 'masts',
a plain exterior with two western towers. The or posts of wood, standing on four sleepers or
interior is mainly in plain, massive Romanesque sillsunder the floor which enclose the plan. The
style with nave arcade and triumphal arch to the name 'mast' comes from these pillars and the
chancel; there is a triforium but no clerestory. alternative 'stave' derives from the name given to
The homogeneity of this monumental Norman the wall screen sections. The masts extend up-
workmanship contrasts with the crude, over- wards to support the central roof and are joined
decorated Baroque pulpit, altar and other, later together with three stages of horseshoe timber
decoration. arches and timber boarding. At the east end is a
rectangular choir and later apse. The inside is
plain; the interior of the steeple isnot roofed

Wooden Churches
over so the construction is visible. Outside is a
The mast or stave churches of Norway are now richly carved doorway (367).
unique in Europe and were built during the whole The Church at Urnes (Ornes) is at the top of a
of the Middle Ages from the eleventh century to small village on a hill overlooking the
built
the Reformation, after which timber churches Lusterfjord, which branches northwards from
based on the Eastern European pattern were more the end of the Sognfjord. There is no road link
usual. There were, at one time, over 500 of these with Laerdal, Kaupanger or Ardal and the only
churches extant; now only a handful survive and means of access for visitors is by hiring a small
these are largely restored. The method of con- boat across the Lusterfjord from Solvorn. In
struction is from that of Romanesque
different church is in
this fine, lonely situation, the little
stone building. Here, the roof is not supported good condition. It is a combination of two old
on the walls, but each part of the church is structures, one of about 1130—50 and the other
separately supporting. The walls (the stave rather older. Despite some later rebuilding it still
screens) are self-contained units and rest upon possesses much work from the oldest stave church
the ends of timber sleepers but do not take the in Norway. Of especial interest are the exterior
weight or thrust. The whole church is based on a carvings on the north portal and the carved
skeleton framework, the supporting roof poles capitals inside (372and plate 40).
are placed on top of the intersecting ground sills Other surviving (though much reconstructed)
and there are cross beams on top of the poles. The examples remain at Lorn, Kaupanger, Fantoft
design is based on the timber ship building and in the Oslo Museum. Lorn Church has a fine
pattern in which each section is a self-sufficient mountain situation near Gudbrandsdal. It is a
unit. The most advanced type of stave church has large stave church with later transepts and spire.
another row of poles or pillars inside the four Of especial interest is the interior stave construc-
which frame the external wall and this row tion (365). This type of S. Andrew's cross struc-
supports its own part of the divided roof. The ture can also still be seen in the stave church in the
interiors of these churches are tall and dark and Norsk Folkemuseum at Bydoy Park across the
bear strong similarities to inverted ships. ferry from Oslo. The church comes from Gol
The finest, least altered examples of these in Hallingdal and dates from 1200; it was re-
churches are Borgund and Urnes. 5. Andrew's
at erected in the museum in 1885. The exterior is
Church at Borgund is inland from the end of the very picturesque, though reconstructed, and still
Sognfjord, near Laerdal (371). It dates from mid- has dragon finials and carvings (373). The
twelfth century and is nearly 50 feet high, built examples at Kaupanger (Sognfjord), buil-t c.
in six stages. Its height is the striking feature and 1200 but rebuilt in 1862, and at Fantoft, near
thisis emphasised by the spire. The highest roofs Bergen are simpler but also of considerable
terminate in dragon's heads (370) (the Viking art interest.
72
ROMANESQUE TOWERS
374 Zadar Cathedral, Yugoslavia, thirteenth
century
375 Canterbury Cathedral, England, Norman
tower, south side, c. noo
376 Angouleme Cathedral, France, west tower,
twelfth century
377 Amalfi Cathedral, Italy, campanile,
twelfth century
g
WINDOWS: SEVENTH CENTURY TO 1200
& "*^55>«js«»»»5*«w.j
378 Meira Abbey Church, Spain 383 Modena Cathedral, Italy

37 Salamanca Old Cathedral, Spain 384 Angouleme Cathedral, France
380 Church of S. Miguel de la Escalada, Spain 385 Basle Minster, Switzerland
381 Church of S. Miguel de Lino, Spain 386 Worth Church, England
382 Trani Cathedral, Italy 387 Castle Rising Church, England
74
COMPARATIVE ROMANESQUE PORCHES AND
PORTICOES
388 West porch, Church of S. Nicola, Bari, Italy, 1098 J90 West porch, Modena Cathedral, Italy, twelfth century
39 1 West portico, Abbey Church, S.

Gilles,
389 West porch, Church of S. Trophime, Aries,
France, 1150-80 France, 1140-1195
75
COMPARATIVE DOORWAYS SEVENTH CENTURY TO 1200
392 Brixworth Church, England

393 Church of S. Juan, Banos de
Cerrato, Spain
394 Church of S. Jakob,
Regensburg, Germany
J95 Lincoln Cathedral, England
396 Pilgrimage Church of Santiago
de Compostela, Spain
397 Se Velha (the Old Cathedral),
Coimbra, Portugal
398 Abbaye-aux-Hommes ( S.
Etienne) Caen, France
,
MANESQUE AND PRE-ROMANESQUE CAPITALS, COLUMNS AND BASES
406 Cloister, Konigslutter Abbey Church,

399 Crypt, S. George, Oberzell, Reichenau, Germany,
ninth century Germany, c. 11 35
400 S. Salvador de Priesca, Villaviciosa, Spain, 4oy Kilpeck Church, England, c. 11 40
Visigothic 921
,
408 S. Michele, Pavia, Italy, 1188
Germany, c.
401 S.S. Peter and Paul, Niederzell, Reichenau, 409 Narthex, former cathedral at Goslar,
50. Built on to the 1050 cathedral. Cathedral demolished
Germany, 1050 11
402 S. Jakob, Schottenportal, Regensburg, 18 1 9, narthex remains

Germany, c. / 180 410 Abbey Church of Maria Laach, Germany, c. 1220
403 S. Miguel de la Escalada, Spain, Visigothic, 913 411 and 412 Abbey Church of S. Madeleine, Vezelay,
France, 1120-30
404 S. Martin, Fromista, Spain, 1066
405 Leominster Priory Church, Norman, England
77
ROMANESQUE CAPITALS, ORNAMENT AND PLANS
413 Porch, Malmesbury Abbey, England 420 Nave capital, S. Pietro, Tuscdnia, Italy
414 Column, baptistery Pisa, Italy

, 421 Plan, S. Pedro de la Nave, Spain, Visigothic
415 Doorway capital, S. Michel d'Aiguilhe, Le Puy, France 422 Plan, Angouleme Cathedral, France
416 Cloister capital, Konigslutter Abbey, Germany 423 Plan, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
4iy West doorway voussoirs, Bitonto Cathedral, Italy 424 Plan, S. Michele, Pavia, Italy
418 Nave capital, S. Jean, Grandson, Switzerland 425 Plan, S. Nicola, Bari, Italy
West portal, S. Trophime, Aries, France 426 Plan, Boarhunt Church, England
41Q
78
Gothic: 1 150-1600
t is a truism that artistic endeavour is influenced increasing numbers all over Europe from Scan-
3y current fashion. So the designs of one era are dinavia to Sicily and Portugal to Russia. The
jften rejected by another, usually in reaction and Church was the essence of being to Medieval
Decause of the human need for change. Such peoples whether in town or village. Portal
eaction gave birth to two at least of the names sculptures, wall paintings and mosaics created in
pplied to architectural styles. These are Gothic each church a pictorial record of the Bible stories
nd Baroque both misnomers. They were coined
;
and teaching. To an illiterate population they
n a later age as terms of disapprobation, even gave tangible reality to their beliefs. Despite the
ontempt. It was Giorgio Vasari who applied the happenings of the 400 years which have passed
vord 'Gothic' to Medieval architecture. Vasari, a since the last of these buildings were being
sixteenth century Mannerist architect and histor- constructed, the quantity which exists in all
an, was only expressing the thinking of his time European countries is testimony to the ability of
n equating Medieval architecture with bar- the builders and the truly vast numbers of struc-
arism. To a post-Renaissance intellectual, the tures which were put up between 11 50 and 1550.
Vliddle Ages had advanced only a small way Though the Church was the great patron of
eyond the sixth century Goths; it was the the Middle Ages, the rising wealth of the mer-
Renaissance which brought greatness to archi- chant classes, especially in the fourteenth and
ecture. fifteenth centuries, led to the erection of many
Similarly, the term 'Middle Ages' was applied fine secular buildings: town and guild
halls, trade
:o this period in the seventeenth century by a halls, palaces, manor houses, town mansions
Grerman scholar. He likened it to an intermediate and bridges. Castles and towns were still forti-
ra between the collapse of the Roman Empire in fied but, in the later Middle Ages, as prosperity
176 a.d. and the re-birth of classicism in the and a greater peacefulness spread to many parts
Renaissance ideals of the fifteenth century. To of Europe, the fortification diminished and both
lim also it represented a period of barbarism and towns and individual buildings were extended
decline. and elaborated.
Seen from a more distant perspective, we can It is difficult to pinpoint the exact beginning
ppreciate that Gothic architecture (for the term of anew movement. Gothic architecture evolved
is now synonymous with Medieval building) was from the Romanesque style but its characteristics
a great art form in its own right. It emerged from are different. The feature usually described as
Romanesque into a specific style, different from predominant in Gothic buildings is the use of the
but no less fine than the works of the Renaissance. pointed arch in place of the semi-circular one
Its conception and inspiration were totally which had been employed in both Roman and
Romanesque structures. In the past it has been
dissimilar from the later classical form but,
diverse and richly variable as it is throughout stated categorically that the originator of the
Europe, Gothic architecture is characteristically Gothic style was France. Late nineteenth century
definable wherever it is to be found. historians, either French or French orientated
scholars in England or Germany, asserted this
The all pervasive influence during the Middle
clearly. It is undoubtedly true that the
earliest
Ages was Christianity. By 1200 its dominance
buildings completed in the Gothic style come
extended over most of Europe when the Western
from the de France, a small area in the
church from Rome had met and joined the Greek lie
centre from Constantinople. Churches and cathe- neighbourhood of Paris, and that the classic
pattern of northern Gothic cathedral was
estab-
drals, in stone, brick and timber were built in
79
gothic: 1 1 50-1 600
lished here, witness such famous examples as from that in the warmer countries south of the
Notre Dame, Paris, Reims, Amiens and Laon. It Alps and the Pyrenees. In the north, the emphasis
cannot be argued so categorically that this was was on height, of steeples, buttresses, roofs and
the sole source of the style in the twelfth century on large windows with richly coloured glass and
or that it would not soon have developed in a large doorways with equally rich sculptural
similar manner elsewhere if the lie de France had adornment. Further south where the sun was
not then produced it. stronger and the rain and snow less damaging,
Great movements in all subjects — arts, roofs were flatter, the horizontal line predomi-
sciences, medicine — begin and establish them- nated, window and door openings were smaller,
selves because the climate is ready to receive stained glass rarer and decoration was more by
them. The need is there and so is the ability to painting, mosaic and other coloured media than|
create the new development. In the case of Gothic by three-dimensional sculpture.
architecture, the pointed arch was evolved Whereas certain countries, in particular, Spain, I
because itbecame the key to constructing build- Portugal, Germany and Scandinavia, were slower!
ings which were then desirable. The low pitched to adapt to Gothic forms, these same countries
timber roof of the basilica type church had to be were, in the main, also slow to abandon Gothic
replaced by stone vaults for safety and durability, for the Renaissance and classicism. An exception
and extension of size of the vaulting system itself was Italy which slowly and reluctantly adopted
(see p. 81) depended on arched support of a Gothic tenets but, in contrast, was the originator!
specific type and adequate wall abutment. This of the Renaissance, establishing its forms nearly!
and higher buildings, extend-
led in turn to larger two centuries before England, which was another!
ed window and door space and a complexity of exception. England had been one of the first!
design for exterior and interior undreamed of in countries to adopt Gothic designs but was one!
Romanesque architecture. The pointed arch was of the last to relinquish the style which passed!
not new. It had long been used in the Middle into a Perpendicular phase unique to the British|
East and, in Europe, was employed in areas Isles.
subject to Moorish influence like Spain, Sicily As the Gothic period advanced, buildings!
and even Provence. Its use was being developed became larger and higher, window and doorwayl
in these areas in the twelfth century. Northern openings increased in size so the churches were!
France, though, was more suited to the establish- flooded with light. The knowledge of structure inl
ment of a new style, being an area less troubled masonry was extending quickly and with thisl
by warfare and of more stable economic climate. advance in technique came the means to erectl
The stability of the region led to the creation buildings which were mere shells of stone ribsl
of schools of artists and craftsmen which spread and pillars. The area of solid wall became less|
to other suitable places, southern England and and the design correspondingly more complex.
Flanders, for example. These craftsmen then Each individual member of the building becamel
travelled widely to execute commissions. The more attenuated. Heavy columns and solid!
transition from Romanesque Gothic proceeded
to piers were replaced by slender, lofty piers en-|
at a variable speed in differing countries. Some, circled with clustered column shafts, terminating
like parts of Germany, Italy and Spain, felt an in small moulded or foliated capitals. Some
affinity with Romanesque building. The style shafts rose the full height of the wall to support]
expressed their mood and artistic ideas and they the vault springing, others ended at the navt
clung to it well into the thirteenth century. arcade. Towers became slenderer and many hac
Others, like England, Flanders, Northern France elegant spires set on them. These became tallei
and the Baltic region adapted quickly. Transi- and steeper as time passed. The exterior became
tional work can be seen in all these countries, a forest of vertical stone pinnacles, stretching uj
with parts of a building in one style and other into the vaults of heaven; the interior a mystic
parts in newer forms. chiaroscuro in stone, gently illuminated by
As in Romanesque work, climate was an im- shafts of sunlight gloriously coloured by theii
portant factor. Northern Europe eventually transition through the cathedral glass.
established a Gothic style which was different This miracle of immense stone buildings
80
Gothic: i 150-1600
piercedby great openings and carved into tracery bind) are used at different angles to connect the
vas made structurally possible by the
only main ribs to form an intricate geometrical pattern.
:ngineering development of the stone vault and The star vault is a version of this. The final stage,
ts consequent abutment. Both of these stem a peculiarly English one, is the fan vault (p. 104).
:
rom the original adoption of the pointed arch. Decorative bosses are superimposed at the inter-
As mentioned earlier, this type of arch was not sections of all rib vaults. They are to be seen in
lew but its replacement of the round one led to the late lierne examples as the boss covers the
he variations and complexities of Gothic vaulting. awkward junction of differing diameter ribs and
The semi-circular arch presents great problems creates a decorative design on the roof covering.
n vaulting a church. This is because the nave or The Gothic buttress is the complement to the
choir and their aisles often have different widths vault. As the latter progresses and becomes
and heights. Vaulting is made in bays and the higher, wider and more complex, so does the
jemi-circular arch lends itself to a square bay. abutment. The structure of a Gothic church, its
The bay decided by the positioning of the
is arches, piers and vault, exerts an outward and
supporting piers or columns. In Romanesque downward thrust upon the walls. In order to
athedrals the bay was transversed at roof level avoid thickening the whole wall area, as the
by two ribs which curved in diagonal line from Romanesque builders had done, the Gothic
nave pier to nave pier. As the diagonal ribs were mason provided extra reinforcement in the form
longer than the four ribs connecting the four of a stone buttress at the point on the wall where
sides or faces of the bay, it was impossible for all it was most needed. This point is just below the
hese ribs to be semicircular in section unless the springing line of the vault. Early Gothic but-
vault were domical (dome-shaped), thus creating tresses were simple designs. Slowly they became
n uneven ridge line, or the side arches were more complex. Pinnacles were added above the
tilted. Alternatively two bays had to be treated parapet level. These pinnacles are decorative
s one. Further problems arose because the aisles but also functional in that the weight of the
were narrower and lower than nave or choir, and pinnacle above the arch springing exercises a
it was difficult to reconcile these variations with vertical pressure which helps to counteract the
the use of a semicircular arch. The pointed arch vault's outward thrust. The buttresses themselves
provided a more flexible system since it could be became larger, heavier and richly ornamented
aried in proportion of width to height in order to with carving and panelling. The final stage was
accommodate different spans and roof levels. the flying buttress, developed especially by the
The French aptly term this arch the arc brise, the French, and to be seen in all its decorative glory
broken arch, which gives a clear picture pf its on the chevet of many a French cathedral; Le
function. Mans and Reims are two outstanding examples.
The basis of a structure with the pointed arch A flying buttress transmits thrust rather then
supported on piers led, many years, to great

over resisting Thus, starting high on the nave
it.
variety in vault design. The Gothic vault is a wall, between the clerestory windows, the but-
framework of stone which support thin stone

ribs tresses progress downwards in arches and pin-
panels filled over the centering. Early

in later nacles, conducting the thrust, in stages, from the
ribbed vaults are quadripartite, that is, each bay upper wall to the ground. Because of the flying
buttress sytem, became possible to construct
is divided into four compartments by diagonal it
ribs. The French then developed a sexpartite thinner walls as time passed instead of increasing
vault, wherein the intermediate pier is carried up the thickness to offset the large windows and
as a vaulting shaft to carry a rib which transfers higher vaults.
The English Window design is also a characteristic feature
the vaulting compartment into six.
introduced extra (tierceron) ribs into their quadri- of Gothic architecture. In general, window
partite vaults. These spring from the same points openings became wider and larger. At the same
as the diagonals and divide the four large com- time, the window area was subdivided by more
partments into smaller ones. The next stage was numerous stone ribs; the horizontal transoms
the Heme vault where many small Heme or tie and the vertical mullions. The window head was
decoratively designed by stone ribs into varying
ribs (so-called after the French word Her = to
81
FRENCH GOTHIC CATHEDRALS
427 Notre Dame, Paris, from the
south-west, 1180-1330
428 S. Julien, he Mans, from the
east showing the chevet, 1217-54
Gothic: i 150-1600
was called tracery. The designs

)atterns; this France
from country to country, but the general
liffered
In the Middle Ages France was still not one
rend was from geometrical shapes circles, —
riangles, quatrefoils — in the earlier period, to
nation. The country was large, by Medieval
standards, the climate and peoples differed
urved flamboyant forms in the later years,
greatly from one region to another. Architecture
inglish designs of the fifteenth century were in
Perpendicular tracery, which resembled panel-
reflected these differences. The contrast, archi-
tecturally, between north and south is especially
ing, and echoed the wall decoration. The circular
marked. In the north, particularly in the area of
window, the Gothic rose, evolved from the
Paris, Gothic developed early, before 1150, in
Romanesque wheel window. The rose designs
buildings notable for their verticality, vigorous,
were divided by tracery into geometrical and
bold plasticity, hand-in-hand with delicate, finely
lowing shapes, instead of the radiating wheel
pokes used before. Many windows were filled
detailed ornament. In the south, Roman tradi-
tions made Romanesque architecture a natural
with magnificent coloured glass, ranging from
hose of the simple parish church to the wonders
style while, later, the climate made more suitable
with Spanish and Italian Gothic
a greater affinity
af Chartres or Leon Cathedral.
forms than those of northern France.
The affinity between the fellow craftsmen at
In northern and central France a stupendous
Iwork on great buildings grew closer during the
number of cathedrals and large churches were
Gothic period. The rapport among masons,
constructed in the thirteenth century. The
glaziers, painters, mosaicists and metal workers
majority of these, unlike their English counter-
was complete and satisfying. No craftsman was
parts, were not monastic foundations but new
}f more vital importance than the sculptor. It
cathedrals purpose-built for the town they served.
was the golden age for carvers and modellers,
Paris was the focal centre of the lie de France
of expression and an
frho enjoyed a freedom region, which produced the early and most
rchitectural surface upon which to create and
famous examples which set the pattern for the
—experiment never equalled before or since. The
whole of northern Europe. One of the very first
Gothic cathedral facade was here the supreme
examples of Gothic architecture was the Abbey
vehicle. The pattern was established in northern
Church of S. Denis, built in the decade from 1 1 35
France in the early thirteenth century of a twin-
by the Abbe Suger. Now in a Paris suburb, most
towered facade with central rose window and a
of the church has been restored or rebuilt, but
triple portico at base, spreading, like a Roman
part of the original choir exists, while the re-
triumphal arch, across the width of the
full
constructed west front still shows the early
elevation. The whole facade was decorated with
mixture of round and pointed arch heads. Sens
symbolic sculpture, but these portals, encrusted
Cathedral of similar date has common features
all over, were the three-dimensional focal centre
with S. Denis. Other examples followed. The
of the design. Jamb and trumeau figures, tym-
establishment of the Gothic cathedral pattern
panum scenes, archivolt groups, gargoyles and began with the building of the Cathedral of Paris
cresting, all played a part in relating the Bible
in 1 163.
story from Old and New Testaments, in rich, full,
glorious sculptures. French sculptors were Cathedrals

supreme and they travelled all over Europe,
The world famous cathedrals of the lie de France,
showing other nations how to enrich their
built between 11 50 and 1300 (though parts
cathedral facades. As the Middle Ages advanced, all
were added one

to or altered later), are similar to
sculpture changed from its Romanesque origins.
The mysticism and incarnations of devilry gave another. The Cathedrals of Paris, Laon, Reims,
way to realistic graceful expression, especially Amiens, Chartres have all been likened to the
in treatment of the human figure and its drapery.
Parthenon in Athens in that they, collectively and
individually, present the greatest contribution to
By the fifteenth century portraiture in figure
the architecture of their time— Gothic—
and
statuary was evolving and German sculptors
became prototypes for churches all over Europe.
began to challenge the French supremacy.
They have a common form. The plan is cruci-
83
Reims Cathedral, France Plate 56
Plate 55 Virgin on trumeau, central portal, facade, 13th cen
Angel in the Annunciation, central portal, facade, Plate 5j
1250—60 Jamb figure, central doorway, facade, c. 1240
Chartres Cathedral, France
Plate §8 Tympanum, central doorway, facade, Plates 5Q and 60
Jamb figures, central doorway, facade, c. 11 50-5
c. 1150-s
Gothic: i i 50-1 600
form, with an apsidal eastern arm, slightly 1789 when much of its sculpture was badly
projecting transepts and a longer nave. All are damaged and had to be replaced by Viollet-le-
lofty with high vaults supported by flying Duc and others. It is chiefly famous for its
buttress schemes. Numerous chapels are set in or architectural qualities of exterior and interior.
added to the walls but the chief area for this is the Laon, built 1 160—1225, is noted especially for
chevet. ThisFrench innovation and refers to
is a its west facade, a masterpiece, which is less
the apsidal east end which has an interior static than Notre Dame, and for its magnificent
ambulatory behind the high altar, giving access towers and rose window. High up the towers are
all round the church usually at least at choir and sculptured bulls which commemorate the original
triforium levels. Between the bays are set semi- animals which carried the building stones up to
circular chapels giving an exterior appearance the top of the from the flat plain below.
hill
of a gladiolus corm growing its smaller new corms Reims is the and most glorious, as
richest
around its base. Between the chapels radiate the befits the cathedral built as the Coronation
forests of flying buttresses. The facade design is Church for the Kings of France. The present
a classic one. Notre Dame in Paris, built 1163 — structure was begun in 1211. Despite a long
1235 (427) is one of the early examples which set building period, both interior and exterior are
the character. There is a triple portal (512), remarkably homogeneous (430, 600 and 610).
sculpture filled across the width of the base of Its glory is its sculpture, especially that on the
the elevation, above, a gallery of sculpture (here, triple western portal (plates 55, 56 and 57).
the galeriedes rois), then the central rose window . There are 500 statues here, as well as richly
Apart from the two flanking west towers, the decorated gables. The cathedral suffered grievi-
architectural emphasis is horizontal. ously in the First World War, being bombarded
All these cathedrals were intended to have mercilessly for four years, during which time it
many towers surmounted by spires. Few of the suffered 300 direct hits. Only its solidity and
towers, apart from the western ones, were built quality of construction from totalsaved it
and even fewer spires. Partly this was due to destruction. Today it is French
a tribute to the
cost, but mainly it was because French cathedrals architects and craftsmen who have been restoring
are so vast and so lofty, with high vaults of great it so faithfully ever since.
span, that a steeple became too great an engineer- Amiens is the latest of the group and was built
ing hazard. As it was, some high vaults collapsed over a comparatively short period (1220—88). It
before towers were added, as at Beauvais. The has, therefore, a unity of design like its con-
lack of spires is one of the chief differences temporary, Salisbury. Amiens is the classic
between French and English cathedrals. t The cathedral on the lie de France pattern and typical
latter are smaller and lower and could bear the of the French Gothic tradition. It has progressed
weight of a tall spire as at Salisbury (450). In beyond the Paris model and its facade (431 and
France, a very tall but lightweight fleche was 464) is more plastic with the horizontal emphasis
erected over the crossing. more broken and sophisticated in handling. Its
French cathedrals are often difficult to view as portal sculptures and great carved choir screen
few have any open space around them. They were are Medieval masterpieces (plate 61).
built for and of the town and were surrounded, up Chartres Cathedral is of the same pattern as the
to their walls, by houses and civic buildings. Only others but is given a different appearance by the
in the last 150 years have a number of these spireson the western towers (433). They are non-
buildings been demolished, but even so it is matching spires, the north, the Clocher Neuf
only in Paris, Chartres and few other instances being rebuilt in 1506—13 in contrast to the
that an open space in front of the building offers Clocher Vieux of 1145—70. The two superb
a clear view. This is in contrast to the English features of Chartres are the remarkable coloured
monastic foundations which surround the glass (457) and the exterior sculpture. There are
cathedral with close and cloisters. 130 beautifulwindows and 2200 sculptured
All these lie de France cathedrals are store- figures. The latter, particularly those on the west
houses of magnificent craftmanship. Notre Dame front, are of especial interest on account of their
in Paris suffered greatly in the Revolution of transitional quality. They are unique in their
* At Notre Dame it is still of wheel design.
f Norman cathedrals, like Coutances, arc exceptions
and set the pattern for English tradition.
Gothic: i 150-1600
early period and are prototypes

for later work.
The drapery has a formalised austerity of
still
430
line, while the figures are serene and of a stylised,
elongated proportion (plates 58, 59 and 60).
In northern and central France several out-
standing cathedrals were built in the thirteenth
century. These developed variations from the
liede France pattern. Bourges, in central France,
built mainly 1 190—1275, is of homogeneous
design with an exterior and interior in simple
Gothic. Sculptural decoration is restrained, as is
the coloured glass and other ornamentation. It is « * I*
an architectural cathedral, long and low on the
exterior with geometrical traceried windows and
simple flying buttresses. The interior is excep- iillf
tionally fine, giving long vistas of ascetic Gothic
lr4--*+
forms (434). Further north is Le Mans, famous
for having the finest chevet in France (429). The
429 French Cathedral plans : Le Mans
eastern arm was rebuilt in the thirteenth century 430 Reims
on to a Romanesque nave. The chevet has 13
chapels radiating round the apse (428). The
sophisticated scheme of abutment to this im-
mense choir built on sloping ground is not only a work. It is 252 feet high in contrast to the older
remarkable engineering achievement for its day Tour de Romaine on the other side of the facade
but a creation of great aesthetic beauty. and is called the Tour de Beurre because money
Normandy are two interesting cathedrals
In at was provided for its erection from payments for
Bayeux and Coutances. Both are typical of dispensations given permitting consumption of
Norman Gothic. They are severely simple with butter during Lent (471). The 512 feet high
tall towers and spires and lancet or geometrical fleche is a nineteenth century metal replacement.
At Bayeux the choir was rebuilt Strasbourg Cathedral is a typical product of
window design.
in the thirteenth century on to an earlier nave, Alsace. It is a combination of German and French
presenting a fine composition from the east (432). sources. It is basically a German cathedral as
Coutances is notable for its unity of design, itwas mainly built by Germans, but it clearly
internally and externally. The severe tall west owes a great deal to the influence of French
front is finely proportioned (469), as is the cathedral design. The western part of the cathe-
contrasting eastern chevet showing the central dral was erected in the thirteenth century and
tower above (452 and 615). The inside, like culminated in one of the most beautiful facades
Bourges, is a masterpiece of superbly handled anywhere in Europe. On traditional French
simplicity. pattern, it has a triple portal, a wonderful rose
Of richer some widely

High Gothic phase are window and two towers. A lop-sided appearance
separated examples, notably Rouen, Strasbourg is given by the fact that the north-west tower
and Beauvais. Rouen Cathedral suffered serious received its spire in 1399, but the south-west one
was never built. The existing spire clearly shows
war-time damage in 1944, but is now largely
German origins of the building, with its
restored. The building represents many con- the
struction periods from Romanesque to late openwork tracery designed by Urich d'Ensingen.
Gothic. Of especial interest, apart from some fine The sculpture on the portals and the interior is
magnificent, very French in treatment but
sculpture on the north transept portal, is the
German in expression; the wise and foolish
rayonnant period work on the north and south
virgins, for example. Damage to the sculptures
transept facades, the magnificent west window
during the Revolution was considerable, but the
and the early flamboyant gables above. The south- (plate 62).
Gothic restoration has been excellently done
west tower is a wonderful instance of late
87
431 West front, Amiens, 1220—88
432 Bayeux from the south-east,
thirteenth century, central tower
fifteenth century
433 West front Chartres, twelfth-
sixteenth century
434 Interior, Bourges, early
thirteenth century 432
Gothic: i 150-1600
Beauvais Cathedral in northern France was an just as had on Romanesque here before this. As
it
imbitious project of the High Gothic period. in pure Gothic never flourished. The
Italy,
Begun in 1247, it was designed on a tremendous tendency was for buildings with a horizontal
cale. The choir, completed 1272, has the rather than a vertical emphasis, with few piers or
lighest Gothic vault inEurope (of 157 feet), with columns or any obvious constructive members.
iccordingly strong flying buttress reinforcement. Nave and choir were wide and low, vaulting bays
The attempted creation of such an immense square and flying buttresses uncommon; indeed,
Duilding led to problems. The roof collapsed in the abutment was often internal and invisible.
1284 and the 500 feet high spire fell in 1573. The There are a number of fine cathedrals in this
Duilding has never been completed and, though region, at Nar bonne, Perpignan, Beziers, Carcas-
he existing arm is of magnificent quality and sonne and Rodez, for instance. The most unusual
proportions, with beautiful coloured glass and a and interesting, as well as the one displaying the
I ine chevet, it is still a truncated church, impossible area characteristics most, is the Cathedral at
:oview as its builders intended. Even for the Albi. Itwas begun in 1282, built of warm pinkish
Bniraculous Gothic age its dimensions were brick on massive lines, fortress-like and remini-
excessive for the engineering accomplishment of scent of a Castilian castle. The only exception to
hat time. the rounded, impregnable exterior is the richly
In the south of France, and especially the south- carved stone porch, added in the fifteenth century
:ast, the legacy of Ancient Rome represented the to the south side. The cathedral shares no com-
overwhelming influence on Gothic architecture mon denominator with those of the lie de France.
435 Le Mont S. Michel, Normandy, France, tenth-

thirteenth centurv
89
436 Vendome Abbey Church, begun 1306
43 j S. Pierre, Caen, from the south-east,
1308-1545
438 S. Ouen, Rouen, zvest front, 1318-1515
43g Church of the Jacobins, Toulouse, twin
naves, 1230— Q2
GOTHIC: I
i
50-1 600
Its origins are closer to Catalan, and especially S. Pierre at Caen is a late example with an ornate
Barcelona, Gothic. There are no transepts and no eastern arm (437). In Rouen nearby are two
western doorways; all the entrances are lateral. particularly fine churches of this time, 5. Maclou
The building is a rectangular hall, nearly 60 feet (1437) and S. Ouen (438 and 470). In Abbeville is
wide and 100 feet high. The buttresses, also of the remarkable classic of flamboyant, S. Wulfram,
brick, project outwards only slightly, but more largely built 1488-1534 but never finished (516).
into the interior, giving a thickness of 15 feet. A unique building, La Sainte Chapelle in Paris
Between them are the tall, narrow, round-headed (the Chapel of the French Kings here), was built
windows. The interior is spacious and finely earlier, 1244-8. The design has gone beyond the
proportioned though the illumination level is low style of the lie de France cathedrals. The fenestra-
on account of the slit-like fenestration (461). tion is larger, breaking up the wall area into strips
The walls and wide, quadripartite vaults are in with buttresses, so that the impression is of
polychrome. All round the church are chapels at coloured glass framed by masonry. The chapel
two levels, set between the buttresses and in the has a high stone vault and is apsidal at one end.
immense thickness of the walls. At the upper
stage, windows are recessed into the quadri- Civic Building
partite vault ceiling. At the west end is a 300 feet
Early Gothic work in this field was unpretentious
tower in the same architectural mode and
and overshadowed by ecclesiastical architecture.
crowned by a fine octagon.
By the fifteenth century the growing wealth of
towns was reflected in the municipal buildings.
French Gothic Churches These had all the Gothic characteristics of a
vertical emphasis and elements of decoration and
Among the monastic foundations in France, the
structure, but were more symmetrical and digni-
Abbey Church of Mont S. Michel occupies one of
fied. Some had tall towers and steeples like the
the most picturesque sites. It is perched on top
Town Hall at Arras (restored in 191 9). Many of
of a rock just off the Normandy coast and is
these buildings which survive are in northern
connected to the mainland by a causeway (435).
France and suffered bombardment in the First
monastery, restored in the nine-
It is a fortified
World War, but all are well restored to the
teenth century but still containing a beautiful
original design. The Town Hall at Compiegne is
Romanesque nave (see p. 11) and taller Gothic
shown in Fig. 440. That at Dreux has a tall un-
choir. Much plainer, but one of the best monastic
compromising donjon appearance, while the one
examples in France is the Church of La Chaise Dieu
at Saumur has a simple facade with rectangular
in the Auvergne 1344), while in Toulouse, the
(c.
windows bordering on Renaissance patterns. The
Church of the Jacobins is a quite different interpre-
famous Palace de Justice at Rouen is now largely
tation of Gothic from the north. Of brick and stone
rebuilt after its severe damage in the Second
construction, was built c. 1 300 with twin naves of
it
World War. It was erected originally in 1493, an
equal height divided by a central row of columns
important building reflecting the wealth of the
city. The late Gothic facades are surmounted
(439)-
The fifteenth century saw the final phase of with steeply pitched roofs containing tall dormer
Gothic architecture in France, when many richly
windows.
ornamented buildings were erected in the flam-
boyant style. These show the basic French Gothic
Fortified Structures
characteristics of vertically, abutment and good
proportion, but the flying buttresses are more Until nearly the end of the Middle Ages fortifica-
slender and more decorated than before, the tion was still necessary, for monasteries (Mont S.
windows are larger with complex curvilinear Michel, for example), for castles and palaces and
tracery in the head, ogee arches and mouldings even for bridges. The Pont Valentre at Cahors is
are found on allmembers. The Abbey Church at an impressive instance (444). Towns were also
fortified. These were often built on top
of a hill
Vendome is a good monastic example. Both west
like an acropolis in Ancient Greece.
Avignon still
facade and eastern chevet are outstanding here,
has remains of such a town in buildings like the
while the interior is simpler (436). In Normandy,
9i
FRENCH MEDIEVAL HOTELS AND CHATEAUX
Gothic: 1 1 50-1 600
'.44 Pont Valentre, Cahors, France, 1308—80
brtress Palace of the Popes (1316—70), but the existing castles were added to and adapted as
wo most complete towns are Carcassonne and palatial residences. The Loire valley region is
Vigues Mortes. The city of Carcassonne retains especially noted for its chateaux as the fifteenth
ts picturesque setting. Built high above the river century court was not yet fixed in Paris and this
Vude, it constitutes a museum of military archi- hunting area was a favoured one for the royal
ecture extending from fifth century Visigoths to house, who visited loyal subjects in their castle
he sixteenth century. Much of the building is of homes. The river was generally utilised to make
he thirteenth century and comprises encircling water defences and it is these which give to the
>uter and inner curtain walls incorporating over chateaux the picturesque quality which so many
;o towers. Inside the walls are narrow Medieval possess. Architecturally, the French castle has
treets, shops, houses, the castle and the cathedral much in common with Scottish ones; the round
»f S. Nazaire. Unhappily the city fell into partial towers with their pyramidal roofs, for instance.
uin in the and early nineteenth
eighteenth There was a close link between Scotland and
entury, but restoration has been carefully con- France and the two countries tended to join
inuing since it was begun by Viollet-le-Duc in forces against the English aggressor.
844 (445 and 447). Though Carcassonne is more A late fifteenth century example is Pierrefonds,
>icturesque, Aigues Mortes, built in the thirteenth near Compiegne; a truly massive pile, fortified,
entury at the mouth of the river Rhone near its skyline broken by numerous towers and high
vlontpellier, retains much more of its original pitched roofs. was accurately but extensively
It
vork. The ramparts, with their mural towers, restored mid-nineteenth century by
in the
nclose a rectangular town which was built to Viollet-le-Duc. A beautiful castle of the same
louse both maritime and fluvial ports. The period is the vieux chateau at Sully -sur- Loire
haracteristics of the landscape differ from (443). The entrance (1304-8) of Fort S. Andre At
arcassonne. Here is a flat estuary region, but the Villeneuve-les- Avignon is another massive forti-
own is as impressive in its individual manner fication.Even larger and more impregnable are
446). the immense mural towers at Angers, while the
Castles were built throughout the Middle fourteenth century keep of Saumur chateau rises
^ges in all European countries. In France they above the river and the town, dominating the
vere strongly fortified till after 1453, when the landscape.
hundred Years' War ended and the English Later fifteenth century chateaux show the
etired from the soil of France. After this time beginnings of the transformation from fortress
93
FORTIFIED MEDIEVAL TOWNS IN FRANCE
;
Gothic: i 150-1600
nto palace. Chaumont, on the Loire is an im- with the Continent, commercially, to acquire
>ressive example. It has acommanding site and new techniques and influences.
ntrance (442) and the main courtyard is entirely The British climate was suited to the northern
lomestic, containing a Medieval
fine stone, Gothic forms as established on the lie de France
taircase. A similar courtyard exists at Montsoreau more than adequate building were materials
learby, while the Gothic Court at Blots is available, stone, granite, clay
and for bricks
ntirely palatial. Among other interesting timber so the development of the new style was
1
bateaux are Langeais (Loire, 1465) and the rapid and complete. A much smaller country
>eautiful facade of Josselin in Brittany. than France, English work in the Gothic mode
varies much less from region to region. The
climate differs less from north to south and
houses
distances are shorter. The only notable factor in
Though the country house was still a semi- determining regional differences was the availa-
ortified chateau, the French town house, the bility ofbuilding materials. Transport of stone
totel, was evolving a specific late Medieval was difficult and costly so areas with available
jattern suited to its smaller site. The hotels which stone— mainly the north and south-west of the
survive are not numerous and are the larger country— used this freely, while others like East
examples built by well-to-do merchants or church Anglia and Cheshire, built in timber and brick.
lignitaries. The finest of these is the house of The types of building were much the same.
Jacques Coeur in Bourges (441). It is in the classic The Gothic style of architecture in England
pattern for the fifteenth century hotel; built was employed from about 1 170— 1560; a long
ound a courtyard and with an entrance doorway period, possibly longer than that in any other
eading up to the Medieval stairway in the centre country. The style was adopted early and relin-
f the court facade. High pitched roofs contain quished late; the former because it suited the
he typical ornamental dormers. Similar, though country and its people, the latter because links
nore simply decorated are two examples in Paris, with Renaissance ideas were slow to percolate due
he Hotel de Cluny (514) and the Hotel de Sens to the isolation from the Continent. Henry VIII,
458), both late fifteenth century and both in the 1530s,had begun to encourage Renaissance
Ietainingfinialled dormers and flamboyant window work by importing Italian craftsmen, but his
racery. A number of half-timber houses still break with the Pope over his religious and marital
:xist. There are examples in Chartres and a few
I
problems postponed the arrival of the Renais-
lave survived the devastation in Normandy of sance in England for nearly a century. Gothic
he Second World War at Lisieux, Caen and architecture in a pure form flourished into the
Rouen. reign of Elizabeth I. There were four distinct
phases in this evolution. The first three, Transi-
tional, Lancet and Decorated, ran parallel to
England
French development but the last, Perpendicular,
The quality of Gothic work here is as fine and was uniquely English and lasted from about 1375
ibundant as in France. England also developed till 1560.
he Gothic style early; in a transitional form at
irst, but, by 1200, all the characteristics of the
othic form were fully evolved. The progress of Ecclesiastical Architecture

he style was different from the French model,
Cathedrals, Churches, Chapels and Abbeys
lue largely to the island status of the country.
During the Middle Ages, indeed for long after, As in France, Gothic buildings in England were
were at first Transitional, incorporating features of the
he surrounding narrow strips of sea
ufncient to impede the easy spread of ideas. Thus new style into Romanesque work. The common
Britain was isolated from Continental thought expression of this phase was the appearance
and evolved national characteristics in archi- of pointed and round arches together in one
ecture as in other fields. Nevertheless, England structure, in windows and vaults especially.
New Shoreham Church, Sussex is an example as is

llwas a maritime nation and had enough contact
95
GOTHIC IN ENGLAND: SALISBURY CATHEDRAL, WILTSHIRE
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1
GOTHIC VAULTS
ijjo
451 Lantern and Octagon, Ely Cathedral, England,
452 Lantern, Coutances Cathedral, France, early
thirteenth century
453 La Seo Cathedral, Zaragoza, Spain I4g8-i520

England,
454 Nave fan vault, Sherborne Abbey,
c. i475- I 5°°
455 Cloister, S. Juan de los Reyes, Toledo, Spam,

c. 1470
GOTHIC WINDOWS
456 Carlisle Cathedral, England, fourteenth century 461 Albi Cathedral, France, 1282— ijgo
457 Chartres Cathedral, France, plate tracery, ug6-i2i6 462 Mechelen Cathedral, Belgium, begun 1 341
458 Dormer, Hotel de Sens, Paris, 1475-1507 463 Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki,
459 Casa de la Conchas, Salamanca, Spain, (Palace of Moscow, 1649-52
the Ambassadors) 1475
,
464 Amiens Cathedral, France, fifteenth century
460 S. George's Chapel, Windsor, England, 1 485-1 509 465 Palacio del Infantado, Guadalajara, Spain, begun 146
ENGLISH GOTHIC CATHEDRALS
466 Canterbury
Cathedral from the south
west. Nave, 1 378-1405 ;
south-west tower, 1423-
34 ; central tower, 1490^]
467 Canterbury
Cathedral, plan
468 York Minster,
interior looking east,
I2gi-i34i (Organ
omitted)
Buildwas Abbey, Shropshire. The outstanding forms. The comparative French work in the
instance is the choir of Canterbury Cathedral, fourteenth century of rayonnant and flamboyant
rebuilt by William of Sens (so-called because of styles is similar. It is in this period that English
his work on French Cathedral) in 1175—84.
that and French work come closest together.
From 1200-75 the Lancet or Early English The designers experimented with new ideas in
style was fully developed. Ribbed quadripartite spatial forms and lighting. The work at Ely
vaults are characteristic of this period, narrow, Cathedral (1323—30) is one instance. Here, the
pointed arched windows arranged singly or in old central tower over the crossing was replaced
groups of three or five lancets, slenderer towers by the unique octagon and lantern. From the
generally capped by windows and
spires, larger interior, in particular, the effect is three-
stronger abutment. The vertical emphasis was dimensional and remarkable; the tall piers at the
strong, shown in a higher vault supported on crossing, with their alternating arch openings and
taller nave and choir piers which, like the French windows, support the ribbed vault, which ex-
ones, were slender and with clustered shafts tends upwards on all eight sides of the panelled
encircling the central pier. lantern. From directly underneath the view is of
The supreme example of the style is Salisbury a star pattern in the centre of a radiating web of
Cathedral (448 and 450). This is the only English ribs, which culminate in the rich stained glass
Gothic cathedral to be built largely in a single and curvilinear tracery of the windows (451).
operation and, therefore, single style. On a new In both window tracery and vaulting designs
site, the cathedral was begun
1220 and by
in there are, despite many variations, two distinct
1258 was virtually complete; the tower and spire types of pattern. The earlier style in window
were a little later. The cathedral is surrounded by tracery is usually Geometric, based on the circle
a beautiful green-swarded close. Apart from its and its component parts and shapes, and the
situation and its unity of style, Salisbury is also later style, Curvilinear, is composed of curved
remarkable for its high standard of craftsmanship. linessweeping in all directions, based mainly on
Built on traditional cruciform plan, the tower and the ogee curve. This is a similar evolution to the
spire over the crossing is the tallest in England contemporary French patterns (456). In vaulting,
(404 feet). Inside appears the three-storeyed quadripartite designs spread to tierceron patterns,
division of ground floor arcade, triforium and with intervening ribs as at Exeter Cathedral, and
clerestory. The windows of the latter are of then to lierne vaults as in York Minster (468) or
typical Early English design. The west facade is Gloucester Cathedral choir.
more richly decorated with sculpture than is Two fine Decorated Gothic* west facades can
usual in England (448). Other fine examples of be seen in Exeter and York Cathedrals. Exeter
Early English work are the nave of Wells has a small but impressive sculptured screen.
Cathedral, the facades of Peterborough Cathedral, At York, the towers are later, but the facade
Ripon Minster and Wells Cathedral, much of fenestration is typical fourteenth century work.
Lichfield Cathedral and the Abbeys of Glastonbury, Other examples include the Angel Choir at
Tintern, Fountains and Bolton. Lincoln Cathedral (608) and several central
This first main stage of Gothic architecture in towers as, for example, at Hereford, Wells,
England is often likened to the springtime of the Worcester and Lincoln (474).
style. It was fresh and almost severe in its classic From about 1360 onwards, English develop-
simplicity, comparable to Bourges and Coutances ment of Gothic architecture began to diverge
Cathedrals in France. The hundred years between from that on the Continent and the Perpendicular
1275 an d 1375 was the high summer or second style was evolved. This, as its name suggests, was
stage. Windows are larger, stained glass richer, an exercise in vertical lines but there was also a
tracery more complex. There is a smaller area of new emphasis on the horizontal. The three
wall, broken by more extensive abutment. Vault- principal features in this work are panelled
ing becomes more complex with rib and boss decoration all over the building, in windows, wall
decoration. Exteriors and interiors have become and buttress alike, an increasing area of window
more exciting, more three-dimensional. The ever space and consequently development of the
expanding knowledge of the builders led to these flying buttress (much later than in France) and
* This was the English name for this style of work.
GOTHIC TOWERS AND SPIRES
Li i
469 Coutances Cathedral, France, thirteenth century 472 Cimborio, Burgos Cathedral, Spain
473 Church of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome,
Italy, 1377
470 Church of S. Ouen, Rouen, France, 1318-1515 1 240-1 311
Lincoln Cathedral, England,
4ji Tour de Beurre, Rouen Cathedral, France, late Gothic 474
gothic: 1 1 50-1 600
roofing by means of the fan vault. The finest examples include Louth Church, Lincolnshire
Perpendicular examples are not confined to (477), <S. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol and Thaxted
cathedrals and abbeys but are to be found in Church, Essex. Among the less lofty towers are
parish churches, chapels and houses. In the those of many remarkable churches like the richly
cathedrals, Perpendicular work is mainly limited decorated Lavenham Church, Suffolk, S. Mary's,
to replacing towers, vaults or windows rather Taunton, S.John, Glastonbury (475) and S.John,
than large scale alterations. The best and most Cirencester (478).
extensive work here is at Canterbury Cathedral Contemporary with the fan vault was the
where the nave, south-west and central towers, equally English development of the timber roof,
cloisters, transepts and Lady Chapel are in Per- used to cover church naves, guild and domestic
pendicular style (466 and 467). halls. These evolved from the simple, massive
Of buildings entirely in fifteenth century style, tie and collar beam designs of the thirteenth and
the chapels are supreme: outstandingly Eton fourteenth centuries to the more complex,
College Chapel (1441), King's College Chapel, beautifully carved versions of the fifteenth and
Cambridge (1446-15 15), and S. George's Chapel, sixteenth. The outstanding example here is that
Windsor (1 475-1 509). In all these chapels the covering Westminster Hall in London, designed
plan is rectangular and simple. There are many by Hugh Herland and built c. 1395. There are
large windows, separated by finialled flying many others, like those of the great hall of
buttresses, leaving a small wall area. At the ends Hampton Court Palace, 1535, the great hall of
are gigantic multi-light windows (460). Both Eltham Palace, and the more domestic type of
windows and walls are panelled alike, whether in Rufford Old Hall, Lancashire, 1505.
traceried glass or in stone. Until the death of Henry VIII, architecture in
Similarly traceried are the fan vaults which England held tenaciously to the Perpendicular
roof these magnificent buildings. This peculiarly Gothic style. Henry VIII himself, having heard
English design was evolved from the desire for and seen something of Renaissance art in France,
a vault which would accommodate ribs of tried to attract French and Italian craftsmen to
different curves as they sprang from the capital. England. Among those who came was Pietro
The radiating ribs of a fan are of equal length and Torrigiano, who designed the tomb of Henry VII
the bounding line is in the form of a semicircle. and his queen in the new chapel at at Westminster
The whole group of ribs is made into an inverted Abbey. The chapel itself (1503-19) is a master-
concave cone. The radiating ribs are crossed by piece of panelled, fan vaulted Perpendicular
lierne ribs and the whole surface is then, like the Gothic art, but the tomb, finished in 15 18, is
windows, walls and buttresses, panelled and classical. After Henry VIII's break with Rome,
cusped (454). England's tenuous links with Renaissance Italy
The chapels mentioned are masterpieces of were broken and the English Renaissance was
their period, entirely English and representing postponed. Its form was also altered Torrigiano's ;
the climax of craftsmanship and design in the monument is Italian classical, the Elizabethan
Gothic style, achieving a harmonious balance Renaissance forms are 'Mannerist', from Flanders
ofmass and form. Also magnificent are many of and Germany (Volume 3).
the large parish churches, some of almost Bath Abbey is the outstanding ecclesiastical
cathedral size, reflecting the wealth of the period example of Tudor Gothic. Designed all in one
in a number of centres. Many of these have tall style, it displays an exceptional unity (480).
towers, sometimes with spires, generally set at Hampton Court Palace is its domestic equivalent.
the west end. They were most common in flat It is built in brick and has some fine Tudor gate-
landscape areas, on the eastern half of the country, ways in this material which have the flattened,
where they are visible for many miles. Typical is four-centred arch, typical of the later Per-
5. Botolph's Church, Boston, in Lincolnshire, pendicular period. Though parts were altered in
called colloquially the 'Boston Stump' because the seventeenth century, the Tudor Great Hall,
its top storey was added so much later than the entrance court and river facade remain as a
rest of the church and for many years the tower tribute to Cardinal Wolsey's foresight and taste.
had a decapitated appearance (476). Other
102
ENGLISH GOTHIC CHURCHES
Cirencester.
475 S. John's Church, Glastonbury, c. 1485 478 Church of S. John the Baptist,
Tower c. 1400 ; porch, 1500
476 S. Botolph's Church, Boston, Lincolnshire, Yorkshire,
1350-1509 47g S. Patrick's Church, Patrington,
1 465-1 514 fourteenth century
477 S. James's Church, Louth, Lincolnshire,
gothic: i i 50-1 600
?o Nave and choir, Bath Abbey, Somerset, 1501-39, Designed Robert and William Vertue
104
i
Gothic: i 50-1 600
pattern was like a miniature Carcassonne. A

number of these castles exist in Wales, such as
Caernarvon, Caerphilly, Conway, Harlech and
Beaumaris. Bridges were also fortified at this time
and the Monnow Bridge in the Welsh border
region is a survivor (481).
As in France, fifteenth-century castles were
part defensive and part palace. The fortifications
were slowly curtailed, and the living accommoda-
tion became more spacious and comfortable.
Herstmonceux Castle in Sussex survives from this
period (482), as does the later moated house of
Oxburgh Hall in Norfolk (1482).
Domestic and University Building
Most numerous surviving examples come from

481 Monnow Bridge with military gateway, Monmouth, the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. There are
late thirteenth century stone manor houses from the twelfth century
onwards, like that at Boothby Pagnell, Lincoln-
Fortified Building
shire (c. 1 1 80) and the early brick house, Little
Fortification was necessary also in England, Wenham Hall, Suffolk (c. 1270). Fourteenth-
particularly in the twelfth and thirteenth cen- century houses were larger and less strongly
turies. The years 1 275-1 350 are noted for the fortified. They comprised a great hall of two
building of the Edwardian castles, mostly in storeys open to the roof timbers, solar, storage
Wales and Scotland, so-called because King accommodation and bedchambers. Penshurst
Edward I erected many of them to establish his Place, Kent is a fine example, as is also Ightham
rule. These castles differ from Norman ones in Mote, Kent and Markenfield Hall, Yorkshire.
that they are built in concentric rings of walling, England possesses many such houses from the
studded with mural defence towers, with an open fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, built in
space in the centre. Here was constructed the different materials; stone, brick or half-timber.
domestic accommodation, while the space be- Some are large and spacious like Compton
tween the mural defences housed stabling, Wynyates Manor House, Warwickshire, Hen-
garrison buildings, cattle and villagers. The grave Hall, Suffolk and Horham Hall, Essex, all
482 Herstmonceux Castle, Sussex, c. 1440
105
gothic: i 150-1600
48 j Thame Park, Oxon, 1 529. Parlour with wood and 484 The Feathers Inn, Ludlow, Shropshire , c. 1520—30
plaster ceiling and linenfold panelling timber-framed
early sixteenth century. Others are less grandiose,

such as Paycocke's House at Coggeshall, Essex
and Great Chalfield and South Wraxall Manor
Houses in Wiltshire (also see 483).
Though she suffered from aerial bombardment
England was spared the devastation caused by
military engagement and occupation in the
Second World War. Consequently, unlike Ger-
many, France and Italy, who lost such a wealth of
their Medieval timber framed buildings, England
still possesses a fair number. One of the several
inns of this type still in use is illustrated in Fig. 484.
Civic building in this medium also exists, as at the
Guildhall in Lavenham and there are many
houses like the Priest's House at Prestbury and
Rufford Old Hall in Lancashire. All these date
from the fifteenth century.
Both Oxford and Cambridge Universities con-
tain fine work from the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. There is Magdalen College, Oxford,
begun in the mid-fifteenth century, whose tower,
seen to advantage from the river, is of particular
beauty. The front quad of New College, Oxford
illustrates clearly the usual quadrangle method of
106
GOTHIC PORCHES AND PORTALS
'.85 S. John's College, Cambridge, England, early Tudor Central facade portal, Orvieto Cathedral, Italy, from 1482
'.86 Coronation Church of S. Matthias, Budapest, Central porch, Regensburg Cathedral, Germany,
Gothic: i 150-1600
Medieval layout which was retained for so long like those of Brussels and Antwerp Cathedrals,
by those universities. In Cambridge are a have twin western towers and portico below.
number of typical gateways, as at Jesus College German influence is evidenced by the churches
and John's (485). Both show the four-centred
S. with a single western tower and spire, like the
arch with carved decoration above. Cathedral of S. Bavon in Ghent. These and other
sources of style were welded by the Belgians into
a characteristic mode of their own and many of
Belgium
the cathedrals and churches have the
larger
The Low Countries, or Flanders as they were same features repeated again and again. Particular
termed Middle Ages, were subject to varied
in the examples which show these features are Mechelen
artistic influencesfrom different sources. Sand- (Malines) and Brussels Cathedrals and the
wiched between the Latin peoples of France and churches of 5. Jean, Louvain and £. Jean and
the Germanic peoples to the east, the archi- Notre Dame in Mechelen (462). These character-
tecture reflects both sources as well as some istics are the use of large columns to divide nave
Spanish influence due to conquest. But in general and choir from the aisles piers are used only at
;
the architecture of the area divides itself clearly the crossing and then have slender clustered
in the period 1200— 1600 into two main types. shafts. The nave arcade is high and its columns
The country which is now Belgium was primarily are topped by foliated capitals and, below, are
French orientated and present day Holland was life-size sculptured figures attached to the
Germanic. The work in the Netherlands is there- column. There is no proper triforium, only a
fore considered here with that of the Germanic continuation of the clerestory window mullions
Baltic group with which it has much in common. downwards in blind form. Vaults are quadri-
Belgium was a wealthy area in the Middle Ages, partite. owing to the large
Interiors are light
particularly during the later years. In the clerestoryand aisle windows. The east end is
fourteenth century, while France was being apsidal and has an ambulatory vaulted over
drained by constant warfare, the artistic centre pointed arches narrowed to accommodate the
of this part of Europe moved from Paris to curve. The interior of Mechelen Cathedral
Belgium, where Brussels and Antwerp were able shown in Fig. 491 is typical of this style. On the
to attract artists of fame and quality. The archi- exterior, Mechelen has a fleche over the crossing,
tectural style was mainly French. Important but a single tall western tower, one of the most
buildings were constructed in stone and have beautiful in Belgium of this type.
lofty towers and spires and great richness of Similar interiors can be seen at the Church of
sculptural and carved decoration. The fifteenth S. Pierre, Louvain (489) and the Cathedral of
century saw an emancipation of Belgian archi- 5. Bavon Ghent. But in these cases, the
in
tecture from the French. Bruges became the cylindrical columns are replaced by slender
northern centre of the Hanseatic League and vaulting shafts with tiny or no capitals and arcade
other important commercial centres grew up in piers with no break of any kind before the arch.
Ghent, Antwerp, Louvain and Ypres. The rich Ghent Cathedral has brick vaults and walls. Stone
merchants contributed to the magnificent civic is used only for ribs, piers and windows. The
building which arose in those years the town and

; vault is most effective in its brick and stone
guild halls, exchanges, municipal belfries, ware- colouring. Designs vary in the cathedral the ;
houses and city houses. No other country in such choir and nave are quadripartite with inter-
a small area possesses as rich a heritage of this mediate ribs, on the English pattern, and the
type of work from such an early date. aisles and crossing have lierne vaults which are
not common in Belgium.
Brussels Cathedral (490) was built over a long
Ecclesiastical Building
period. The choir, begun 1226, is the earliest
The strongest influence on the design of these Gothic work in Belgium. It has an apsidal
buildings was northern French. This is seen in termination but no complete ambulatory; there
the eastern chevet and the width of the churches, are large flanking side chapels ending before the
with double or triple aisles. A number of facades, apse, and the ambulatory encircles only the end
108
GOTHIC CHURCHES IN BELGIUM
ANTWERP CATHEDRAL, BELGIUM, 1352-1422
}95 Town Hall, Brussels, 1402-50 (Restored)
GOTHIC CIVIC BUILDING IN BELGIUM
Gothic: i 150-1600
part. The nave was built 1425-75 and is of the

classic Belgian pattern as illustrated in Fig. 491.
The cylindrical columns support statues of the
apostles (612 and plate 63). The facade of 15 18
is on He de France pattern.
Antwerp Cathedral, a rich example of late
Gothic, is the most impressive in Belgium.
It
was begun in 1352 at the east end, the choir
being completed in 141 1 and the nave by
1474
(493)- The facade is richly decorated with a
central sculptured portal and large window
above. The twin towers are on French pattern,
but one spire was built, the north one. This is
graceful and finely proportioned, rising to 400
feet in The whole cathedral shows a
height.
greater French influence than elsewhere in
Belgium. Apart from the facade, this can be seen
in the chevet, transept portals and the triple
aisles (494). The strange lantern over the crossing
is an unfortunate relic of Spanish occupation.
Apart from the west end, Antwerp cathedral is

exceptionally difficult to view. It is surrounded
by buildings, the houses being built on to it at the
eastern apse. The best viewpoint is from above,
from the tall modern buildings nearby some of
which have suitable access. This view is shown
in Fig. 492.
300 Halles and 279 ft. belfry, Bruges, Belgium, 1280

Civic Building
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in

particular, the wealthy merchants were inde-
pendent and organised members of society and
had greater freedom than in many countries. ally ornamented Gothic with a quantity of
They used some of their wealth to build the figure sculpture and the left portion is fully
magnificent trade and town halls of the Belgian classical in a facade using three superimposed
cities. These are unique in Europe for their orders. The Medieval section dates from 1 5 1 8-33
quality of craftsmanship and richness of decora- and the Renaissance 1595— 1622.
tion and design. The guild halls are equally fine and probably
Three typical town halls are illustrated the ; more varied in design. The most impressive and
somewhat restored Brussels example (495), the the greatest example of secular Medieval archi-
most richly ornate at Louvain (497) and a more tecture in Europe was the Cloth Hall at Ypres,
provincial but very typical one at Oudenaarde built 1 200-1 304. It was destroyed in 191 5 during
(496). The town hall at Bruges, built 1377, is one action in the First World War, then was rebuilt
of high quality, as befitted the town's importance after 1918 to the original design. The exterior
as centre for the Hanseatic League. There is a front elevation is in a low, unbroken facade, 440
fine hall inside on the first floor which has a feet long, simple in design but richly detailed.
pendant timber roof and modern frescoes round There an immense square tower in the centre
is
the walls. Ghent illustrates the metamorphosis and a high pitched roof on either side of it. The
from Gothic to Renaissance forms since the later town hall, next door, is completely eclipsed
right-hand part of the building is in an exception- in scale and dignity.
113
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Gothic: 1 150-1600
Of different design, simple but also of classic and suited the needs and character of the peoples
proportions, are the Grande Boucherie in Ghent so well, there was reluctance to change it. German
(1408) and the Vieille Boucherie in Antwerp builders tended to adopt the Gothic vault and
(498). Both of these have stepped gabling, but the the pointed arch to go with it, but little else. Till
Antwerp example is tall and the Ghent one long end of the thirteenth century build-
virtually the
and low. More ornate and late Gothic in treat- ing was on Romanesque style, as at Bamberg and
ment are the Ghent Maison des Francs-Bateliers Naumburg Cathedrals. Bamberg (501), in partic-
(499) and the Cloth Hall in Mechelen. There are ular, is typical. It was rebuilt on the foundations
two outstanding municipal belfries in Belgium. of an earlier Romanesque cathedral in the early
The one at Ghent (1300-39) is 400 feet high and thirteenth century and largely completed by
stands uncompromisingly four square, sur- 1237. But it is still basically Romanesque, with
mounted by an elegant spire. The building known its four terminal towers, polygonal ends, lateral
as the Halles and Belfry at Bruges is unique. It entrance and round-headed window and doorway
has the same monumental simplicity as well as openings. Only the interior ribbed vaults are
the fine proportions of the Ypres Cloth Hall Gothic, and the abundance of fine sculpture both
(500). on the exterior and inside. This largely dates
Large squares were laid out in many city from the late thirteenth century (plates 66 and
centres. Several still exist with some Medieval, 70).
some Renaissance and part later building. Among The House of Hapsburg came to power in
those which retain their unity of treatment are 1273, and soon afterwards Gothic architecture
the Grandes Places in Brussels and in Antwerp. made its appearance. But it did not develop from
Here are narrow buildings with ornate, stepped German Romanesque. The need for change was
and curving gables, topped by sculptured finials felt strongly, so builders cast their eyes at the
standing side by side, each one different but ready-made style in neighbouring France and
creating a homogeneous whole. Even where based their ideas of Gothic upon French schemes,
restoration and modernisation has taken place, it especially Amiens Cathedral which, at that time,
is discreet, as in the Grande Place in Antwerp. was the exemplar in western European archi-
tecture.
The Germanic Influence A number of important cathedrals, minsters
and churches were begun in the late thirteenth
Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary,
century in emulation of the French prototype.
Czechoslovakia
The cruciform plan was adopted, a high vaulted
nave and choir, with one or more flanking aisles,
Germany
an eastern chevet and richly ornamented west
Medieval Germany was not a nation but a facade. Some of these facades have twin western
collection of states of differing sizes which towers, but many retain a German preference for
covered much of central Europe. Architecturally a single one. A particular German characteristic
the German influence extended from the Baltic was the treatment of the towers and spires.
coast to the Alps and from Alsace to modern Finials and crockets were profusely employed
Hungary. The building pattern of the northern and the spire itself was a fretwork of stone with
part was dominated by the Hanseatic League and light shining through from all sides. These
this work, together with areas to the west spires were masterpieces of craftsmanship and
(Holland) and the east (Poland) along the Baltic engineering. Strasbourg Cathedral is an example
are considered on p. 136. already discussed (p. 87).
In the remainder of the region now comprising Typical of the twin-towered facade type are
East and West Germany Gothic development Cologne and Regensburg Cathedrals. The building
took a different form from that encountered in history of Cologne probably the longest of any
is
France, England and Belgium. In these countries great Medieval Cathedral (504). It was begun
the Gothic style evolved steadily and naturally early, in 1248, on the eastern arm, which is
from the Romanesque. In Germany Romanesque almost a replica of that at Amiens. Both exterior
architecture had been so successfully adopted, and interior are imposing in scale and detail.
116
GERMAN GOTHIC CHURCHES
501 Bamberg Cathedral from the
north-east, 1205—37
502 Church of S. Elisabeth, Marburg,
from the south-east, 1235-83
503 The Frauenkirche, Nurnberg
(Nuremberg) hall church,
,
i354-6i
jj04Plan and
505 View from the south-east of Cologne Cathedral, Germany. Choir, 1 248-1 322 ; transepts begun 1325 ; west front
completed to fourteenth century designs but work not finished until 1880
The chevet has an ambulatory and seven radiating prototype. The west front, with its two vast
chapels, which are polysided they are separated
; steeples, harder in treatment than the east end.
is
by great double arched flying buttresses. The Cologne Cathedral is of immense size, the largest
choir was consecrated in 1 322, transepts and nave in northern Europe. It is 468 feet long and 275
were begun but the money ran out and the fabric feet wide; the nave vault of 150 feet is nearly the
slowly began to decay. Today, only the eastern height of Beauvais and this is a complete building.
arm is Medieval. The rest of the cathedral was It is French in inspiration, the essence of High
completed in 1824-80, to the original designs, Gothic yet still characteristically German, lacking
but nineteenth century stonework and crafts- the elegance of French prototypes (505).
manship was more mechanical than its Medieval Regensburg Cathedral (506) occupies a pictur-
118
GOTHIC CATHEDRALS IN GERMANY
GOTHIC IN GERMANY
§og Town Hall ( Altes Rathaus), Brunswick, 1 393-1468

510 Half-timber house, Dinkelsbiihl c. 1440
,
511 S. George's Church, Dinkelsbiihl, hall church design, 1448—92

Gothic: i
i
50-1 600
esque position on the Danube in Bavaria. It rectangle. From these ideas evolved the
most
replaced a Romanesque cathedral on the site and usual form of German Gothic, the Hallenkirche
was begun in 1275. The facade has twin towers of or hall church. Apart from the features just
which the spires were added in the 1860s. The mentioned, the important characteristic of a hall
elevation is slenderer, less weighty than Cologne church is that the vaults of nave, choir and aisles
and, being
Medieval, has greater quality of are of thesame height. This means that the build-
craftsmanship in its stonework and glass. An ing is, however richly ornamented, a simple
attractive and unusual feature is the central hall. The nave and choir can have no triforium or
porch, which is triangular (488). The eastern arm clerestory so must be lit by exceptionally large
is polygonal-ended. It is simple and less obviously aisle windows. Hall churches often have beautiful
buttressed than French counterparts. On the interiors. The tall slender piers support a high
exterior, but more particularly inside, is some vault and there no triforium or clerestory wall
is
fine figure sculpture (plate 67). to obstruct the vista from end to end and from
Beautiful examples of the single-towered west side to side of the church, only a forest of delicate
facade are the Minsters at Ulm and Freiburg. piers. The vaults show a variety of quadripartite
Ulm was begun in 1377 ; it is like a parish church and lierne designs. The interiors are well illum-
on an immense scale, particularly at the west end. inated, simple and finely proportioned. The hall
The lofty tower was completed in the sixteenth church is only rarely found outside the realms of
century, its spire was added, to the original Germanic influence. There are two or three in
design, in the nineteenth. reaches 529 feet
It Italy, as at Perugia and Todi.
above ground. It almost overwhelms the building The best instance of a hall church in Germany
507). The exterior is richly carved, with orna- is the Marienkirche-zur-Wiese at Soest, dating
mented buttresses, fenestration and spire. The from c. 1340. The exterior has a twin-spired
triple porch is especially noteworthy. The church facade on a large scale, like Regensburg
interior is less successful ; its proportions make Cathedral. Inside, immensely high piers ascend
it too high and dark. The glory of the interior are to the vault without any break for capitals. Both
the carved wood choir stalls. German wood- nave and aisles continue the same quadripartite
carving was of a very high standard in the four- vault, though the former is in square bays and
teenth to the sixteenth century, and these the latter rectangular. There is no crossing or
examples, together with those at Munich, are separation of nave and choir; tall windows
among the finest. continue round the building including the
all
Freiburg Minster is somewhat smaller, but also apsidal east end. They are three- and four-light,
on parish church pattern. Begun as a Romanesque with decorated traceried heads and very fine
basilica in 1200, it was completed at the west end coloured glass, especially in the apse. The whole
in Gothic style about 1350. The facade has a 380 simple interior is of great beauty.
foot tower and spire; an early example of the Two other excellent hall churches are S.
open traceried type. In front of the main door- Elisabeth, Marburg and 5. George, Dinkelsbuhl
way, which has a fine sculptured tympanum, is (502, 511 and 613). S. Elisabeth has a plain
the 'Golden Gate'. A Gothic choir was begun in quadripartite vault; the one at Dinkelsbuhl is
the fourteenth century to a design similar to the more complex and resembles lattice work. Two
contemporary one at Augsburg Cathedral, but other famous examples suffered in the Second
was not completed till 15 13 for lack of funds. World War. The Frauenkirche in Munich, now
The
cathedrals and churches just described the cathedral, was rebuilt 1468-88, replacing a
Romanesque basilica. It is a large, brick, hall
are mainly in the French tradition of Gothic
architecture. Much of the work in Germany was church, 358 and has a nave over 100 feet
feet long,
not like this: these buildings were an import of a in height (508). The onion-domed towers are
foreign pattern. The Germans naturally excelled believed to have been inspired by a visit to
at a styledeveloped by themselves; most com- Jerusalem by the designer Jorg von Halspach, but
were not added until 1525.* The interior received
monly this was a simplification of Gothic features.
unsuitable eighteenth century classical additions,
Abutment was reduced to a minimum, transepts
were often not built and the plan became a simple then nineteenth century Gothic Revival alte-
* The Church of S. Ulrich at Augsburg, built 1467, has
one similar tower.

Plate 65
S. George and the
Dragon. Wood
sculpture by Bernt
Notke from Lubeck.
Storkyrka, Stock-
holm, Sweden, 1489
Plate 66
The Prophets.
S. George's Choir.
Bamberg Cathedral,
Germany, 1220—30
Plate 67
Pier figure,
Annunciation.
Regensburg
Germany,
Cathedral,
1280
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GOTHIC DOORWAYS
572 Central facade portal, Cathedral of Notre Dame,

Paris, 1200
57J North transept, Barcelona Cathedral, Spain, 1300
514 Courtyard, Hotel de Cluny, Paris, 1483
575 Frauenkirche, Nuremberg, Germany, 1354—61
576 Facade, S. Wulfram, Abbeville, France, 1483-1534
577 Cathedral of the Saviour, Andronikhov Monastery,
Moscow, 1425
Gothic: i 150-1600
rations. It was severely damaged in 1 945 but today,

Schweiz
has been well restored, though much of the carved
stonework and decorative medieval painting was Swiss Medieval architecture is much like that in
not replaced. The famous carved choir stalls, Germany though, in general, rather plainer,
completed in 1502 by Erasmus Grasser, were especially on the exteriors. The finest of the
tragically not stored with the other interior deco-
cathedrals is that at Basle, which has a picturesque
ration during the war. Fortunately some of the half

situation on the Rhine. The west facade is
length figures have been preserved and are dis- fifteenthcentury and typical of Swiss Gothic
played in two museums. The Frauenkirche at
work (519). Berne Cathedral is mainly of late
fifteenth century construction. The
Nuremberg was also damaged. The exterior is now architecture
of Lausanne
Cathedral is mainly thirteenth
fully (503) but the interior is partly
restored
modernised. The unpretentious but ornamental century Gothic, very simple, with plate tracery
facade faces the market place. It has an elegant,

windows and lancet aisle windows all
in the rose
carved, square porch, richly ornamented and,

round the building. The west doorway, richly
decorated with sculptured figures, is in late
above, a finialled stepped gable (515).
Gothic style, but was not constructed the
Until 1939 Germany possessed many good till
examples of civic architecture from the fourteenth

seventeenth century. The interior is simple and
and fifteenth centuries. Like Belgium, there were
austere and has much in common with English
cathedrals of this date. Pointed arches are used
ornately carved stone town and guild halls as
throughout. There is a tall nave arcade, a short
well as brick and half-timber versions. Sadly, the
arcaded triforium and a clerestory of one lancet
Second World War took a heavy toll, especially
window to a three arcade group. The glass is of
in cities like Cologne, Ulm, Hildesheim and
good quality.
Lubeck. Many of these halls have been restored
Fribourg is town built on a picturesque
a small
but, though the craftsmanship is good and great
hilly site bend of the river Sarine. It retains
on a
care has been taken, the task was too extensive to
many of its late Medieval buildings and much of
permit the finance necessary to restore the
the atmosphere of a town of this period. The
buildings to the standard of richness that they
cathedral is the largest monument. It has a fine
had originally. Several notable examples remain.
Gothic tower (520) which was completed in
The Altes Rathaus at Brunswick, built in stone and
1490. The western porch below, surmounted by
now restored, survives (509). This is a particularly
its rose window, is sculptured. There are apostles
outstanding town hall. Of simpler, provincial type
flanking the doorway also angels and prophets
is Harz moun-
the stone Rathaus at Goslar, in the
(520) and a Last Judgment tympanum. Nearby is
tains region. This is much smaller and less preten-
the sixteenth century wooden Pont de Berne and
tious, but it has good geometrical window tracery
the Town Hall of 1500—22.
above a ground floor arcade. There is a finialled,
gable roof, and inside a decorative chamber.
Austria and Hungary
and houses have also suffered greatly
Castles
from war-time damage in Germany. Before 1939, Austria also closely reflects the German Gothic
the country probably possessed more half- style. Its supreme monument is 5. Stephen's
timber Medieval structures than any other. Now Cathedral in Vienna (521). It has two late Gothic
there are few. There is one at Dinkelsbuhl (510) towers, separated by the width of the church but,
and there is the Kaiserworth (now a hotel) at like Strasbourg, only one was surmounted by its
Goslar. Probably the finest surviving instance of a spire, which is a graceful, ornate one. S. Stephen's
fortified town is at Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber, is a hall church, thus having no triforium or
which retains its picturesque walls and clerestory. The interioris dark and full of
still
towers. Heidelberg possesses some of these, but Medieval atmosphere. It has an exceptionally
most of the work here is of a later date or has lofty nave arcade whose pointed arches reach
been replaced. The timber and stone houses almost into the vault. The roof is vaulted in
which made towns like Brunswick, Nuremberg, square bays in stellar pattern, as are also the
Frankfurt and Hildesheim so attractive have aisles, but the chancel is quadripartite. Some of
the original coloured glass is still in the windows.

nearly all disappeared.
125
GOTHIC IN SWITZERLAND
518 Kapellbrucke Lucerne, 1333

,
51 9 Facade, Basle Cathedral,

fifteenth century
520 Fribourg Cathedral from the
west, 1470-Q2. Tower 250 feet
high
GOTHIC IN AUSTRIA
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Gothic: i 150-1600
jit is beautiful, but both the light and view are The Cistercian Abbey Church at Zwettl is a
Ipartly obscured by a later altar. The rest of the superb fourteenth century work. The facade and
lglass is mostly modern. There is some good steeple are rebuilt in Baroque style, but the
I sculpture and an especially interesting Medieval interior is a classic hall church. The tall, grouped
Ipulpit, traceried and carved with heads. piers ascend to tiny, foliated capitals. The vaults
of nave and aisles are of the same height and both
I527 Church of S. Matthias, Budapest, Hungary.
Reconstructed 1255. Tower 14JO are quadripartite. The windows are in simple
Gothic style. Baroque altars and pulpits of great
ornateness provide a foil to the severe grey and
white Medieval interior (522).
The castle at Salzburg, impregnably and
romantically situated on top of the hill Hohen-
salzburg, is a Medieval one. It is now partly a
museum and partly a private residence. It has
been restored but not altered a great deal in
modern times. The central keep dates from the
early twelfth century but concentric walling with
mural towers was added during the Middle Ages,
bringing its fortification up to date (526). The
state apartments are interesting. The best of
them, the great hall and the golden room (524)
date from the early years of the sixteenth
century. There are brightly coloured and gilded,
patterned wood ceilings, curved columns, richly
carved doorways under ogee arches and fantastic
metal and ceramic stoves.
gothic: i i 50— 1600
Medieval remains Hungary are few. The

in The Cistercian and Praemonstratensian Orders
best were in the city of Budapestwhich is divided were especially active in the building of abbeys.
by the river Danube into the hilly right bank Many were designed by French builders but
where Buda is situated and the flatter lands carried out by the local craftsmen. Few such
opposite of Pest. The main population of the city churches remain in anything like their former
has always lived in Pest but after the Mongol state. A thirteenth century Cistercian doorway
invasion of 1241, a citadel was built on the hills survives from the Kloster Hradiste (near Mnichovo
opposite, since known as castle hill. A whole Hradiste), now part of the walls of a modern
Medieval fortified town was established in Buda, building, while at the Benedictine Monastery at
as it came to be called, named after Attila's Sdzava, which stands above the river of the same
brother. Here, before the destruction of the name, a tributary of the Vltava, the Gothic church
Second World War, were narrow streets and was never completed and only part of the nave
houses, mural towers and walling. There was exists. The best preserved Cistercian Abbey
also a seventeenth century Town Hall and the Church is that on the river Vltava south of
immense Royal Palace, with S. Stephen's Chapel. Ceske Budejovice at Zlatd Koruna. Founded in
The only great Medieval building to survive 1269, most of the building was of the fourteenth
here is the Coronation Church of 5. Matthias century, though it has been extensively restored
(527 and 486). This was originally a Romanesque after damage in the late Middle Ages.
building but was gradually turned into a Gothic From the fourteenth century onwards con-
one in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. siderable building was carried out in the Gothic
During the Turkish occupation the church was style. The chief city was Prague which, despite
used as a mosque and later became a Jesuit energetic later construction in the Baroque
monastery. It was restored in Gothic manner form, still possesses much of its Gothic heritage.
under the Emperor Franz Josef in the nine- Most of Czechoslovakia, and Prague in par-
teenth century and once more used as a corona- ticular, was spared the devastation of the Second
tion church. The damage caused in the Second World War suffered by neighbouring countries.
World War has been repaired on the exterior, The great buildings of the country have, un-
which now looks well. Inside, much remains to fortunately, partially succumbed to a slower,
be done, especially to restore the frescoes which more insidious destructive process; that of time
cover all surfaces of walls, vaults, piers and and the decay wrought by lack of restoration
capitals, as at Chauvigny in France. It is a three- when needed. Prague before 1939 was a beautiful
aisled church with triforium and small round city. Now, the signs of that beauty are still
clerestory windows. discernible but tend to be offset by the layers of
Sopron, near the Austrian border, has several crumbling stucco, stone or woodwork resulting
Medieval churches but they are mainly in a poor from too many years of neglect. Specific build-
There is the Church of the
state of preservation. ings, notably those on Castle Hill, including the
Holy Ghost (1421), S. Michael (1484) and the cathedral and palaces, are restored and in good
Cathedral, S. George, a larger fourteenth century repair. Elsewhere, the condition of many of the
building. monuments ranges from shabby to ruinous.
great
The city of Prague is built on both sides of the
Czechoslovakia
beautiful river Vltava. It is of ancient foundation
In contrast with Germany, there was no strong though few Romanesque monuments survive
Romanesque and Gothic archi-
tradition here (p. 65). Much of the great Gothic work is on
tecture, spread by the monastic orders, was soon the narrow hill ridge (530) on the north-west side
accepted and established. Unfortunately, due to of the river. Here on Castle Hill, the Hradcany,
the troubled times in this area of central Europe, grouped around the courtyards, are the buildings
little survives of early Gothic building; the great of the castle-palace, the cathedral and S. George's
Czech monuments of the Middle Ages are of the Basilica (p. 65 and plate 72).
fourteenth and fifteenth century, and even later, Outstanding, and the finest Gothic building
and are, in consequence, in the richer, more in Czechoslovakia, is S. Vitus' Cathedral. It was
decorative Gothic style. designed and begun by Matthias of Arras, who
130
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA
GOTHIC IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA
531 Vault, Church of S. Barbara, Kutna Hor a, fifteenth Cathedral, Prague, 1344-85. Lower part Matthias of
and sixteenth centuries Arras, upper part Peter Parler
532 and 5JJ Interior and exterior of the choir, S. Vitus' 534 Plan
GOTHIC IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA
gothic: 1 150-1600
came Prague in the 1340s from the court of the

to and further afield to Vienna and Milan. The family
Popes Avignon. As would be expected it is,
in architects included Peter's brother Michael and
therefore, on French Gothic pattern (534). The his sons Wenzel and Johann; indeed, work on
architect died in 1352 and his place was taken by Prague Cathedral was a family affair.
Peter Parler from Cologne, who was invited to The castle-palace near the cathedral on the
come from Schwabisch-Gmund to work on the Hradcany in Prague has several Medieval in-
cathedral. Parler brought with him the influence teriors. Of these, the Vladislav Hall (537) begun
of the Cologne school and, though only the choir in 1487, is of particular interest. The interiors
and chapels with part of the south facade were here are of a later date and were designed or
completed it is interesting to com-
at this time, influenced by Benedikt Rejt and Matthias Rejsek.
pare, both on exterior and interior, the work of The vaulted ceilings of the palace interiors are
Matthias on the lower part and Parler on the unusual, as can be seen in the plaited swirls in
upper (532 and 533). Parler's influence can the Vladislav Hall and in the Old Diet Chamber.
especially be seen in the vaulting, most particu- Other interesting late Gothic buildings in Prague
larly in the stellar designs of the Sacristy and are the Powder Tower completed by Rejsek, the
Wenceslaus Chapel. The choir vault was com- Old Town Hall, the restored New Town Hall in
pleted in 1385 (532). Charles Square, which is only a little later, and
S. Vitus' Cathedral is cruciform and much in the Tyn Church. This was built over a long
one though the nave (the
style in the interior period— both Peter Parler and Rejsek worked on
west end) is of nineteenth and twentieth century it. Standing in Town Hall Square in the Old
construction. There is a lofty crossing and short Town, it is fronted at the base by seventeenth and
transepts. The interior vista is very fine, the eighteenth century gabled houses, while behind
vault throughout at one level with flanking, lower is the Renaissance Tyn Court with Doric loggia.
aisles. The vaulting shafts run up to the full The stone church is well proportioned and has a
height of the Both clerestory and
building. fine exterior which can be clearly viewed from the
triforium openings have glass. The east end is Old Town Hall tower opposite (536). Inside, it is
apsidal with ambulatory and chapels (532 and a tall, aisled church without transepts, Medieval
533)- in structure but with Baroque decoration and

Peter Parleys work in Prague extended beyond furniture.
the cathedral. From its commencement in 1357, Outside Prague there are a number of out-
he was in charge of the building of the Charles standing later Gothic churches. One of these is
Bridge, which spans the Vltava and leads to S. Jakob (S. James in English) in Brno. The
Castle Hill (530) also of the entrance tower on
; exterior is plain and undistinguished but with a
the bridge (1376—8). It is a fine, Medieval bridge, tall, elegant tower. Inside, the hall church is very
guarded at each end and fortified as befitted its fine and good condition. The stone nave
in
position as the sole river crossing and approach to piers are grouped columns which soar up to
the castle. It was of great length for its period, tiny capitals and then to the beautiful vault which
nearly 2000 feet from tower to tower. It was springs from them (538).
decorated by
30 sculptured figures on the In Kutnd Hora there are several interesting
parapet, created over the years from the fifteenth churches of which the most notable is that of 5.
century onwards, but mainly of the eighteenth Barbara, which is large and imposing and in a
and nineteenth century date. Most of these are fine state of repair. The west facade, which is the
now being replaced as the soft sandstone from later part of the building, shows the complex
which they are carved has become seriously flying buttress system on either side (535) which
eroded. extends all round. Inside, the five-aisled church
Peter Parler was also responsible for the choir is immensely tall, its piers extending up to the
of S. Bartholomew's Cathedral at Kolin (1360- complicated stellar and geometric ribbed vaults
78), which example of his work. The
is a fine of nave and choir. The nave arcade has tall
Parler was an architectural one, the
family pointed arches above which is a gallery whose
members of which had a great deal of influence columns support aisle and nave vault (531). The
on Gothic architecture both in Czechoslovakia choir has an ambulatory behind the lancet-
134
gothic: i 150-1600
538 Church of S. Jakob (James), Brno, Czechoslovakia, 1 480-1 500
135
gothic: i 150—1600
pointed arches of the arcade. The church is very The Baltic Region
light because of the large, decoratively traceried
Holland, Northern Germany, Poland and
windows. It is a stone building, constructed over
Northern U.S.S.R.
a long period and one of the richest Czech Gothic
ecclesiastical structres. Also in Kutna Hora is the It is convenient to discuss the architecture of this
Medieval Church of S. James, which has a tall area separately, although it cuts across the
western tower and apsidal eastern termination. geographical frontiers of a number of present day
It is a hall church, simple and a good stone countries. This immense stretch of Europe,
example. There are no capitals to the nave extending over 1200 miles along the North Sea
arcade which supports the quadripartite vault and Baltic coasts from Bruges in Belgium to
over naves and aisles. The eastern windows are Novgorod in the Soviet Union, displays a close
obscured by a vast Baroque alterpiece. unity of architectural style. There are two chief
At Kosice (Kassa) the Cathedral of S. Elizabeth reasons for this: first, the control and wealth of
is a magnificentGothic building of the fourteenth the Hanseatic League, and second, the paucity
and was begun in 1380 but
fifteenth centuries. It of building materials which caused brick to be
the tall tower was not built until after 1 500. Some most commonly used for Gothic buildings. This
of the fine craftmanship was carried out by is a limiting material for design purposes, so it
Viennese artists. Other notable examples include was inevitable that a strong similarity of form
the Church at Znojmo and 5. Maurice at Olomouc, should prevail.
though the latter has been much altered on the The Hanseatic League* was originally a
exterior; it has a hall church interior. German federation, primarily concerned in trade,
Secular remains of Gothic architecture in protection from piracy then rife in the northern
Czechoslovakia are fewer. The town hall at seas and promoting successful commercial inter-
Olomouc dates from the late fourteenth century. change as a result of close co-operation between
Though it has been altered in later periods, it towns and guilds. There was sometimes a
retains some Gothic features. Znojmo, which is a political element in the League's activities, but
town listed as an ancient monument, needs a this was subordinate to the commercial projects.
good deal of restoration but its town hall of 1445 Exact beginnings are not clearly known but by
still possesses its tall, elegant steeple. The town the mid-thirteenth century Liibeck and Ham-
hall at Brno, on the other hand, which had a fine burg in Germany were co-operating together
late Gothic pinnacled portico, is now rebuilt, and soon other German towns were joining:
showing only the decoration above the doorway. Liineburg, Wismar, Stralsund, Soest and Dort-
Tabor retains its late Medieval aspect best in mund. Utrecht in Holland became a centre,
the market square and castle. The market square Bruges in Belgium, and even London was drawn
is attractive and homogeneous. There is a late in. Scandinavia co-operated, as did Danzig
Gothic church (529), which has a wide, short, (Gdansk) and Novgorod. The corridor of land
dark interior on hall church pattern. The administered by the League extended as far south
octagonal nave piers have no capitals and ascend as Cracow, Gottingen and Cologne. Its power
to carry the reticulated nave vault above. The continued till the fifteenth century, after which it
choir vault is of radiating, Heme design. Nearby declined in face of competition from new trade
are some gabled houses and the town hall (528). routes opening up.
The latter is now much restored in nineteenth This wide coastal belt is a generally flat plain,
century Gothic style as a museum. The whole only partially wooded, containing little building
group of buildings in the square present a stone. Brick was the material developed and used
charming provincial ensemble. The town is still almost universally for permanent buildings,
largely encircled by its fortified walls, at one point timber for some other structures. This forced on
of which stands the castle, overlooking the river builders a simple form of Gothic architecture.
gorge. Brick is unsuitable for spires, finials, flying
buttresses and carved ornament is impossible.
Thus, walls, vaults, piers were all plain. Buildings
were large and barn-like.
* From hansa, an old high German word for company or
guild.
GOTHIC IN HOLLAND
541 Steeple, Nieuwe Kerk, Delft, 1383-9 6

539 Church of S. Jan, Maastricht, c. 1450
540 Tower of Utrecht Cathedral, 1321-82 542 S. Peter's Church, Leyden, 1339-1426
137
Gothic: i
i
50-1 600
By the thirteenth century a need for decorative porches, portals or buttresses. Utrecht and
additions was felt. This was provided by poly- Haarlem Cathedrals are of this type. Utrecht is
chrome or coloured brick surfacing. Black, in warm

coloured brick, barn-like in general form
yellow and white bricks were introduced to give a but having very fine large traceried windows.
pattern, aswere also small quantities of other Now the nave has gone, only choir and transepts
materials.Ceramic polychrome was introduced with cloisters are left, separated, by a space where
and coloured tiling for roofs. Builders became the nave stood, from the great fourteenth century
expert in providing plastic forms in brick. tower. The latter was a prototype design for
Panelling was achieved on walls, giving blind many other Dutch towns (540). Haarlem is a
recesses of differing shapes. Windows in the fifteenth century cathedral and very similar. It
later period were very large and had ornate has a lantern tower over the crossing. The
geometric or tracery. Sometimes
curvilinear Cathedral of S. Jan at 'sHertogenbosch is an
brick tracery was used, sometimes the small exception to the usual plainness of Dutch
quantity of stone needed was found for im- Gothic design. Perhaps because it is situated not
portant buildings. farfrom the Belgian border where stone is more
readily available, it is a richly decorated late
Gothic cathedral, definably Dutch in treatment
Holland
but Belgian or French in design. It is a fifteenth
Dutch Medieval work is very typical of the Baltic century building with some sculpture dating from
area, though it is generally plainer than that of early in the sixteenth century. It has transepts and
neighbouring Germany. Cathedrals and churches an enormous ornately decorated south porch, a
tend to be large, with lofty nave, choir and central and western tower and forests of flying
transepts, but with few projections such as buttresses (543).
543 Cathedral of S. Jan, 's flertogensbosch, Holland,

14") 1529
The Oude Kerk in Amsterdam and the Nieuwe capitals areused throughout the church, support-
Kerk in Delft (541) are typical of some of the fine ing an arcade of pointed arches which narrow
Dutch steeples as is 5. Jan in Maastricht (539). round the choir ambulatory. This eastern termina-
The steeples are often in a later style, partly tion is polygonal. There is a blind triforium and
Renaissance and reminding the onlooker of large clerestory windows above which brightly
Wren's designs of the city churches of London. illuminate the whole church.
The Oude Kerk in the centre of Amsterdam was Equally typicalis the simple and remote
begun 1300 and is a large, many-gabled church
c. Grote Kerk
Brouwershaven in south-west
at
with simple fenestration. Building continued till Holland on the north coast of the Island of
the later sixteenth century and the steeple is Schouwen-Duiveland. The fourteenth century
One of the greatest and most
typical of this period. choir is very fine, with its columns, capitals and
typical churches inHolland is that of S. Peter in pointed arches in similar style to S. Peter's in
hey den (542). This has no tower. It is a large, Leyden. Here also is the lancet-arched, blind
spreading, brick church of the fourteenth and triforium with geometric clerestory windows
fifteenth centuries. Inside, the crossing piers are above, the whole roofed in wood (544).
cut back and a wooden barrel vault extends across Remains of a number of fortified buildings
all four arms of the cross. The interior walls are exist in Holland, also constructed in brick. The
with stone arches and columns
also of plain brick Amsterdamsche Poort at Haarlem is a fine town
and particularly fine late Gothic traceried win- gateway (546) and the thirteenth century moated
dows. Large columns with foliated octagonal castle at Muiden is a picturesque solid structure
544 Choir and ambulatory, Grotekerk, Br ouwer shaven, (547).

Island of Schouwen —
Duiveland, Holland, early
fourteenth century
i39
MEDIEVAL CASTLES
545 Bran Castle, near Brasov, Rumania, fourteenth

century
546 Amsterdamsche Poort. Town Cateway, Haarlem,
Holland, 1488
$4j Muiden Castle, Holland, thirteenth century
548 Hunedoara Castle, Rumania, fifteenth century.
Later restorations
:
Gothic: i 150-1600
Northern Germany Liibeck,though considerably restored and rebuilt

All along the coastal plain bordering the the Marienkirche, the Petrikirche,
North the Cathedral
Sea and the Baltic, stretching from the Dutch and the Holstentor. The Marienkirche (S.
Mary's
frontier to that of the U.S.S.R., the towns Church) the finest of these and forms an archi-
is
suffered years of bombardment from sea and air tectural group with the Town Hall,
round the
during the Second World War. The devastation market place. Built mainly in the thirteenth and
of these Hanseatic towns, where the best of this fourteenth centuries, it is a typically German,
type of Gothic architecture had survived remark- brick, Hanseatic church. It is large,
with tall,
ably well until 1939, extended up to 150 miles twin western towers and spires, nearly 400 feet
inland. Such towns, which had magnificent brick high. The east end is polysided, with ambulatory,
cathedrals, churches and civic structures, in- radiating chapels and flying buttresses. There are
cluded Hanover, Hamburg and Liibeck in West no transepts (549). Severely

damaged, the church
Germany, Wismar, Prenzlau and Stralsund in is now largely restored
and in the interior, which
is virtually complete, the work has been
East Germany and Szczecin (Stettin) and Gdansk beauti-
fully done. The building is lofty and light in its
(Danzig) in Poland.
tall nave and choir, with the shafts of the ribbed
Four great Gothic monuments survive in
vaults ascending unbroken between the high
clerestory windows. The aisle vaults are lower,
but are also ribbed and painted (550). The neigh-
bouring town hall is also now rebuilt; it is part
Gothic, part Renaissance (549).
The Petrikirche (S. Peter's Church) is restored
on the exterior but inside the work is only partly
advanced. It is a five-aisled hall church, entirely of
brick and with a single, very western tower
tall
and spire. Inside, the vaulting is quadripartite

throughout and all of one height. It is supported
on octagonal ribbed piers with tiny foliated
capitals. All round the church are tall, geometri-
$4g S. Mary's Church and part of the Town Hall in

the Market Place, Liibeck, Germany. Viewed from
the bell tower of S. Peter's Church
141
i
Gothic: i 50-1 600
530 Interior, S. Mary's Church, Liibeck, Germany, 1251—1302
cally traceried windows. The Holstentor, which is which is still under restoration at the time of
still the town gateway though the walls have writing. Originally built in Romanesque style,
partly disappeared, is now fully restored. It is a a Gothic choir and aisles were added in the four-
fine example of Baltic patterned brickwork (552). teenth century, making it into a hall church. It
Liibeck Cathedral is an immense building has tall, twin western towers and spires and a long
142
1
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN NORTHERN GERMANY
55 Hanover Town Hall, thirteenth

century (left), Marktkirche,
fourteenth century (right)
552 Holstentor, Lubeck, fifteenth
century
553 Town Hall, Stralsund, late
fourteenth century
GOTHIC IN POLAND AND NORTHERN GERMANY
554 Torun Town Hall, Poland, 125Q. Enlarged 1343
and 1602. Spire lost 1703
555 S. Mary's Church, Stralsund, East Germany, late
fourteenth century
556 Church of Our Lady of the Sands, Wroclaw,
Poland, fourteenth century
, :
Gothic: i 150-1600
nave and choir. Inside, the west end, nave and in Germany) a very high standard of workman-
crossing are now restored though the woodwork ship, faithful to the
Gothic traditions, spirit and
is all modern. The Romanesque nave is domical design. Two of the cities which had the finest
barrel-vaulted, in square compartments sup- heritage, Gdansk (Danzig) and Wroclaw
ported on great square piers, all in whitewashed (Breslau), suffered the greatest destruction.
brick. The aisles of the same height are in Gothic Gothic architecture was brought to Poland by
design. The east end, still partly unrestored, is the monastic orders, firstly the Cistercian, then
apsidal, with ambulatory encircling the great, the Dominicans and Franciscans. In general,
round, Romanesque brick piers. Romanesque style work continued late and
In East Germany, the great churches such as S. Gothic design was slow to develop. The majority
Mary's Church in Wismar, S. Mary's Church at of new churches and cathedrals were monastic
Prenzlau and the Szczecin churches were, by 197 1 settlements. Over much of the country brick was
still roofless shells. 5. Mary's Church in Stralsund still the building material. Typical examples of
was in fair condition but needed considerable the monastic churches include the Dominican
repair. It is an immense brick church, dominating Monastery of S. Adalbert in Wroclaw and the
the town, with its octagonal tower and steeple and Dominican Church and Franciscan Church in
tall west facade, nave and choir (555). The beauti- Cracow. All these have suffered from rebuilding.
ful, richly decorated brick facade of the Town Hall, The Wroclaw example was largely destroyed in
adjoining the great Church of S. Nicholas, sur- the Second World War. The monastery has gone,
vived (533), though badly damaged. The gables are but the church is now rebuilt. A large, brick
a facade in a literal sense, only sky being visible building, it has a tall nave, choir and transepts
through the tracery. and apsidal choir termination. Inside, it is simple
The great West German city of Hanover was and lofty, with a fine vault and traceried windows
the target for countless raids in the Second World in the choir. The Dominican Church in Cracow
War. Not surprisingly little of its pre-war has a Medieval Baltic, brick facade with decora-
architecture survives, but the fine monumental tive gable. Much of the church was rebuilt in
group of the Marktkirche and the Town Hall the nineteenth century and both Cracow churches
(551) survived in shell form and both are now have lost some of their Medieval character.
fully restored. The thirteenth century Town The German pattern of hall church spread
Hall is a great gabled rectangular building, widely in Poland and there are still a number of
panelled and decorated entirely in typical Han- large brick examples. One is the Church of the
seatic style brickwork. The Marktkirche was built Assumption at Chelmno, entirely Gothic on the
exterior but, inside, theBaroque features over-
in the fourteenth century, adjacent to the Town
Hall. Also in brick, it has a tall, German-roofed power the simplicity of the brick vaults and
western tower, a lofty nave and apsidal choir, but columns. Others include the Church of S. John in
no transepts. The hall church interior is very Torun and the Collegiate Church of Our Lady in
fine. It is simple and monumental, its tall,
Poznan. There are two fine examples in Wroclaw
round, brick columns, without capitals, sup- the Church of the Holy Cross and the Church of
porting a simple quadripartite vault. Our Lady of the Sands. Both of these were badly
damaged in the War. The former is of unusual
design as it was built in two storeys (largely in
the fourteenth century), one church above
the
Poland other. It is but also slender
therefore a tall
building, all in brick, with a high, elegant

south
Over much of the country a fine Gothic heritage,
ruinous
tower and spire. The interior is still in
largely in brick building, survived until 1939,
intact.
the major Polish towns, condition though the exterior is fairly
but after 1945, all
Both this church and the Church of Our Lady of
except Cracow, had been severely damaged or These
the Sands (na Piasky) have Piast vaults*
I totally devastated. Progress towards rebuilding
has been slow. The great Medieval buildings are unusual in design, being tripartite but
divided
into nine, panelled compartments. The Church

are now, one by one, being rehabilitated and
(as a number of famous Polish
Medieval
these, where the work is completed, illustrate * As do also
Wroclaw, Szczecin and Torun.
churches, particularly in
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN POLAND
5$j Castle of the Teutonic Knights, Malbork $5g S. Mary's Church, Cracow fourteenth and fifteenth
,
( Marienburg), c. 1400. From the river bridge centuries, Baroque porch

558 Gniezno Cathedral, mid-fourteenth century
146
Gothic: 1
1 50-1 600
of Our Lady of the Sands was badly damaged but The nave arcade has tall, stilted arches. The
has been beautifully restored (556). It is a hall
rectangular vaulting bays are mostly star
vaulted
church, with soaring, ribbed nave piers. The nave in many different designs. The
tall aisle windows
and choir have the usual Gothic ribbed vault but in illuminate this beautiful stellar vaulting.
the aisles the Piast vaulting can be clearly studied.
The
Church of S. Mary in Cracow is the town church,
The choir is apsidal with very fine modern glass in built in the market place in the fourteenth and
the windows. The whole interior is in red brick, fifteenth centuries but with the addition
of a
partly whitewashed.
Renaissance cupola and a Baroque western
Among the most outstanding Medieval ecclesi- porch. The church has lofty western towers,
astical building in Poland are the Cathedrals of also a tall nave and choir.
It is on basilican plan
Wroclaw, Cracow and Gniezno and the two The
(559)- dark due to the coloured
interior is
churches dedicated to S. Mary, one in Cracow glass in the narrow windows, the wealth of
and one in Gdansk. The Cathedral at Wroclaw Baroque ornamentation and the deep colours of
was heavily damaged in 1945 but is now recon- blues, reds, brown and gold with which vaults,
structed, apart from the western spires. It is a walls and arcade are painted. Like most buildings
brick building with a long nave which has simple, in Cracow, the church escaped war damage, but
rectangular plan piers, without capitals, sup- badly needs cleaning and repair.
porting a pointed arched arcade. There is a short, Many fortresses and castles were built in the
square-ended choir and almost no transepts. Middle Ages in Poland. Struggles for power
Cracow Cathedral was based on a similar design within the country and attacks from outside were
but, being later, is of more advanced Gothic violent and sustained. Earlier structures had
form. Built on the site of two earlier Romanesque central keeps surrounded by walls and moat.
cathedrals, it is situated on the crown of Wawel After the thirteenth century larger schemes were
Hill (p. 64). The dramatic, fourteenth century built of stone but, more often in the north, in
exterior shows to advantage
on this site and, brick. There are examples of large castles at
despite its Renaissance and Baroque towers and Niedzica, Czersk and Mir (now in the U.S.S.R.),
chapels, presents a homogeneous whole. The but one of the greatest was the vast complex built
interior is less satisfactory ; it is muddled and as the headquarters for the Teutonic Knights, on
confused by a multiplicity of bric-a-brac in a the river Norgat, an arm of the Vistula, 35 miles
variety of periods. The choir, with its carved south of Gdansk. It was called Marienburg
wood and Gothic vault is the most im-
stalls (now Malbork). One of the most powerful
pressive part. Gniezno Cathedral is also built on fortresses in Europe, it has many parts, built at
the site of two earlier Romanesque ones (p. 64). different times. Still extant, and now repaired
It is mainly a fourteenth century building though after war damage, are some impressive Gothic
itswestern towers are Baroque. A simple, monu- rooms like the Grand Refectory and Capitular
mental structure, it has no transepts, but an Chamber, which have rows of columns supporting
apsidal-ended choir with ambulatory and chapels fine vaulted ceilings, and two immense court-
round an unusually French design for Poland.
it; yards, that of the Middle Castle and that of the
The is plain. The large nave piers have
interior High Castle. The latter has an upper gallery
simple capitals and above is a pointed arched which goes round the whole court, providing
arcade. There is no triforium. Both nave arcade impressive vistas through the traceried openings.
and clerestory windows continue uninterrup- The large church is still under repair. Especially
ted, but in narrowing form, round the choir apse. notable is the approach view from the road bridge,
The Church of S. Mary in Gdansk (Danzig) is where the vast pile can be seen rising from the
the largest Gothic church in Poland. It was built banks of the great river. Even to twentieth century
in the later fifteenth century and was seriously eyes it is a symbol of power (557).
damaged in 1944, but is now excellently restored. In Cracow, sections of the city walls survive
It has one large, tall tower and a number of from Medieval building. The city had been
turrets. Inside, it is a hall church, all of white- walled and moated since the thirteenth century.
washed brick. Octagonal piers divide the nave It had a number of fortified gates, of which the
from aisles these piers have no bases or capitals.

;
barbican and S. Florian's Gate exist.
147
,
MEDIEVAL BUILDING IN THE U.S.S.R.
560 Church of the Ascension at Kolomonskoe

near Moscow, stone, 1532
§61 Wooden Tower fortification from the
White Sea, i6go. Now at Kolomonskoe
562 The Kremlin, Rostov, seventeenth century
56J The Kremlin, Pskov. Showing buildings
inside the fortified walls, sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries
Gothic: 1 150-1600
There are a number of examples of civic This structure, from the White Sea area,
is similar
Medieval building still in Poland. Torun Town to some churches in the
Carpathian mountains in
Hall has retained most of its Gothic character.
Rumania (643). Fig. 563 illustrates a brick and
It was begun in 1259, though Renaissance gables
timber construction. It is a Kremlin, that is, the
and turrets were added in 1602. The tall spire fortified citadel of the
town. Here shown are the
was unfortunately lost in 1703 but the building defensive walls and towers and, inside, the
Byzan-
remains a good example of a Medieval town hall tine style churches.
(554)- I n Cracow, the tower of the fourteenth Two towns on the Baltic coast where some
century town hall survives in the Market Place, good Medieval buildings survive are Riga in
while the richly decorated example at Wroclaw Latvia and, further east, Tallinn in Estonia.
in the Rynek, the central square of the town,
though altered later, is still in Gothic style; it
has a tall tower and ornamental gables. The Town 564 City Hall, Tallin, Estonia, U.S.S.R., fourteenth
century, brick with tiled roof
Hall at Gdansk has an exceptionally lofty tower
and elegant lantern. The building is brick and
dates from the fourteenth century, though with
later fenestration and entrance doorway.
The University of Cracow was founded in
1364. The buildings were rebuilt from about
1500 in stone and brick and survived until 1837,
when the architect K. Kremer was commissioned
to enlarge and adapt the university, called the
Cracow Academy. In recent years, further
restoration has been carried out and, though the
work is obviously of the nineteenth and twentieth
century, a Medieval spirit has been retained. The

courtyard behind S. Anne's Street and Jallegonska
good impression of how the small
Street gives a
Medieval court would have looked.
564
Northern U.S.S.R.
There is very little Gothic architecture in the
Soviet Union. The Byzantine style dominated
important building, particularly in the ecclesi-
astical field, until the seventeenth century (see
Volume 1, p. 140). There are some Byzantine
buildings with Gothic fenestration and detail
(463 and 517) and later, there are similar buildings
with Renaissance features (Volume 3). But in the
Baltic area, in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and right
round White Sea, there
to the coastal strip of the
are brick and timber buildings which have much in
common with those found in the Baltic region of
eastern Germany and Poland. The example illus-
trated in Fig. 561 is a purely timber log structure of
the type built all over eastern Europe till long after
the Middle Ages. Whole logs are used in such
heavily wooded areas, not just timber planks as in
western Europe where wood was less plentiful.
149
In Riga are some stepped gable facades in brick heights of drama, of aesthetic beauty, of religious
with pointed and round arched windows together experience that is felt and seen in the con-
and a deeply recessed pointed arched doorway temporary cathedrals and churches of France,
below. In Tallinn there is a fourteenth century Germany and England. There is a poverty of
town hall of brick with battlemented parapet and architectural splendour which reflects the poorer
steeply pitched roof above. Although typical of regions in which these churches were built. But
the Hanseatic area, the pointed arch ground the question is not only one of poverty but of
arcade and the tall, elegant tower are reminiscent social and natural development. In the chief
of Italian Medieval town halls (564). Here also centres of Europe in the Middle Ages the cities,
are some fine Medieval facades with tall pointed the universities and the monasteries were being
gables, decoratively recessed in brick and with established. Christianity was the moving, living
two rows of windows above the street arcade. force of life. From vitality of faith sprang the
These date from the fifteenth century. Nearby is great cathedrals of France and England. In
a solid, fortified fourteenth century Knight's Scandinavia, at this time, development was
Castle, built on a mound. It is similar to Castilian slower, the cities poorer and smaller, universities
examples in the strength and solidity of its late to appear and the prime force in life was
and towers.
exterior brick walls commercial, seen chiefly in dependence on the
There are some churches in the area some are ; Hanseatic League.
of hall church pattern, others have an English The great cathedrals and churches are there-
influence from commercial contacts with sea- fore only copies from those in the main centres
faring traders. of civilisation. Technically the buildings are as
good as some of those in central and western
Europe, but the Medieval spirit is missing. In
Scandinavia
architectural terms this is evidenced in the
In the Middle Ages architectural development smaller, narrower windows, lack of intricate
was not in accordance with the existing geo- tracery or coloured glass, the almost total lack
graphical boundaries of the four countries; it of development of the flying buttress system,
was determined by climate, distance from the the poverty of decoration in sculpture and
main European influence, terrain and available carving. There are exceptions but these are few.
materials. In the south, that is Denmark and Because of the inadequate fenestration later
southern Sweden, the influence was from the Gothic buildings, in particular, are dark inside
Baltic: Holland, northern Germany and Poland. compared to their equivalents elsewhere. In
This was the most prosperous area with the best view of the northern latitudes, the windows
climate, richest land and closest proximity to should, logically, have been larger, not smaller.
European influence. The style was, therefore,
chiefly in brick building with decorative brick-
Denmark
work on gables, fenestration and doorways,
though a limited French and Belgian influence Here, as elsewhere in Scandinavia, the chief
existed. In Norway, in the west, the land was buildings to survive are ecclesiastical; some are
poorer, the terrain mountainous and difficult of based on the French or English pattern but most
access, the climate inhospitable. Here the build- are of Baltic design, in brick, with decorative
ing was chiefly of wood, retaining the national gables and on hall church pattern. Denmark has
craft styles already established. The few stone three important cathedrals: Roskilde, Odense,
buildings showed English and Scottish in- Aarhus. Roskilde was an important town in the
fluence above all. In the east, in northern Middle Ages, a royal residence, and the cathedral
Sweden and in Finland, building was in brick, was used as the burial place for the Danish kings.
stone or timber; the two former in larger centres, The present structure was built from 1190 in
the latter in the villages. brick, though its slender, western spires were
There is, however, apart from these regional seventeenth century additions. This is the least
differences, a similarity about most Scandinavian Hanseatic of Danish cathedrals. It clearly shows
Medieval architecture. It never reaches the a'French influence in its triple-aisled plan, while
150
GOTHIC BUILDINGS IN BRICK IN DENMARK
gothic: i 150-1600
the choir resembles that of Tournai Cathedral in stepped and panelled decoration. The church
Belgium. dates from 1406; it has an unpretentious, white-
The Cathedral of S. Knud (Canute) at Odense washed interior.
is one of Denmark's finest Medieval buildings.

Re-built in Gothic style from 1247 in brick, it is
Norwegen
large, simple and spacious. The exterior, with
its tall, single, western tower and spire is dignified The mountain barrier between Norway and
and solemn (568). Aarhus Cathedral is even Sweden was so impassable in the Middle Ages
larger, also with a lofty western steeple. This brick from the country to the outside
that the easier exit
building replaces a stone Romanesque cathedral world was by sea, and the nearest important
and dates from the thirteenth century onwards neighbour was the British Isles. This influence is
(565). Inside, the nave and choir are also lofty, shown especially in the larger stone churches in
the brick walls and ribbed vaults whitewashed Norway. The square rather than apsidal eastern
with painted decoration on the vaulting. Though arm is usual and the style of vaulting and pro-
sometimes described as a hall church, it is not portions of vault, tower and spire are English.
one. The choir is of hall pattern, with aisles Stavanger Cathedral (p. 70) was built in Roman-
of the same height as the central area, but the tall esque design, but its fine choir is late Gothic.
transepts are aisleless and the nave aisles are The chief monument to the Gothic style in
barely half the height of the nave itself. Norway is Trondheim Cathedral (a town which,
Decorative brickwork is seen more on smaller in the Middle Ages, was called Nidaros). The
churches and abbeys. Developed from the cathedral was built between 1130 and 1290 but,
Romanesque craft, much in common with
it has due to several fires and other hazards, suffered
Dutch, northern German and Polish examples. damage and was extensively restored and rebuilt
Blind openings, window surrounds and especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It is
gables are decorated with arcading, saw-tooth still an imposing structure and Medieval in
courses and herring-bone brickwork. The mul- concept (571). The central and western towers
lions of traceried windows are also in brick. are heavy and solemn and the facade, though
After the Reformation the monasteries were finely sculptured, is of recent restoration. It is a
largely destroyed or fell England,

into ruin. As in large cathedral and its interior retains a Medieval
a number of abbey churches have survived and sense of spirituality. The choir is encircled by a
remained in use, while the abbey buildings have stone screen with an ambulatory behind. The
disappeared. A fine example of this type of choir arcade piers are grouped with large carved
abbey church is that at Legumkloster, founded in foliated capitals. Over the crossing is a lantern,
1173 by the Cistercian Order. The eastern part supported on lofty grouped piers with small,
of the church was rebuilt from c. 1 200, in Roman- foliated capitals. The transepts are Romanesque
esque style, but the later western end is in early and contain fine, round-arched arcading on the
Gothic with tall lancet windows and stepped walls of triforium and clerestory. The arches are
gabling (566). The fine brickwork has simple decorated with chevron ornament. The nave is
mouldings and decoration. The church is cruci- of later style, loftier, and with grouped, shafted
form, in three stages, nave arcade, blind tri- piers and moulded capitals. The triforium reminds
forium and clerestory, showing an English one of the Angel Choir at Lincoln Cathedral in
influence. Inside, the lofty crossing is on square England. The clerestory has a passage also, in
plan, a wide pointed arch on each side supported front of the Decorated Gothic windows. The
on ribbed brick piers. The night stairs to the facade rose window is very fine, in flamboyant
cloister remain in the transept. S. Mary's style like that at Reims Cathedral in France
Church at Helsingor survives from the Carmelite (570). In general, the cathedral is dark but im-
Convent. This has a Baltic style decorated brick, pressive inside. It is much the most imposing in
stepped gable facade (567). Scandinavia. It is of typically northern design
The simple Church at Bogense is a typical and finish, very much after the manner of build-
example of gable decorative brickwork on a less ings in northern England and Scotland.
ambitious level. It has two projecting gables with Among the other Medieval, stone buildings
152
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN NORWAY
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FINLAND
.* ^
Gothic: i 150-1600
in Norway are the Archbishop's Palace at century and building continued till after 1300,
Trondheim and the Haakonshalle at Bergen. while a later choir and chapels were added as late
The Trondheim episcopal palace adjoins the as 1520. Inside, there is a tall nave and choir on
cathedral and dates from the twelfth century. classic three-aisled pattern, with lofty vault,
Like the Kaiserpfalz in Goslar, it is a Medieval many times restored. Despite so much rebuilding,
palace in two storeys, with nearby gatehouse. Turku Cathedral, like that at Trondheim, retains
The Haakonshalle in Bergen is part of the its Medieval character as well as a national one.
Bergenhus fortress group of buildings (572). It has a fine site, near the river and surrounded by
The lower floor is early Gothic in style, with deep trees. The interior is very simple, in brick, with
set windows and a groined vaulted roof. Above is square piers and no capitals in the nave and
the larger, later Medieval hall with plate traceried, octagonal piers with small capitals in the choir.
deep-set windows along one side and larger The vault stretches uninterruptedly along the
windows at each end. At one end is the minstrels' whole length of the cathedral (573).
gallery and, at the other, the dais with high table There are a number of surviving churches
and sedilia. The whole interior has been ex- around Turku and along the coastal area east-
tensively restored. wards towards the Soviet border. These mainly
Most of the building in Norway was still in have an easily recognisable national character.
timber. Structures were built of logs, the ends They are fairly large hall churches on three-
cut and dovetailed. Moss and cloth were laid aisled plan. Vaults have generally replaced the
between the logs to make the walls air and water- original timber roofs in the later Middle Ages
tight.The standard of craftsmanship was good and most churches have a detached, later
and many such structures have now been re- campanile. The buildings are generally of stone,
erected in the Oslo Folk Museum at Bygdoy with brick used for the decoration of the gables,
Park on an island near the city (569). window and doorway surrounds and interior
piers and vaults. Many examples still have
paintings over much of the vault and wall
Finland surface area and attractive, though rural, carved
In the Middle Ages, Finland was a land on the wood church furniture, especially pulpits.
north-eastern fringe of Europe to which archi- Among the best examples with elaborate brick
tectural styles percolated slowly, and had then to gable ornamentation and fine interior paintings
be adjusted to suit national and climatic needs, and carvings are Hollola Church, Porvoo Cathedral
'nly the south-western, chiefly coastal part of and Pernd (Pernaja) Church. Hollola is a fine
hat is now modern Finland was inhabited, country church with decorative gables and
from the centres of European
espite the distance detached, classical bell tower added in 1848.
ulture, the inhospitable climate and the small Inside, it is a hall church on a two-aisled,
opulation of barely a quarter of a million, rectangular plan with a central row of square,
inland possesses, apart from one Medieval brick pillars supporting the deep, pointed arched,
athedral, a number of large churches. Those ribbed and star vault. There is some good wood-
hich survive are and brick. The
of stone carving and ironwork also (576).
ajority had been of wood and most of these Porvoo Cathedral was built c. 141 5 and stands
vere lost through fire. on high ground on the outskirts of the town. The
Christianity was introduced to Finland via exterior is like a larger version of Hollola Church
weden and the Aland Islands. The capital was and it also has a separate campanile and richly
decorative brick gabling. The interior is more
urku (in Swedish Abo), on the coast in the
elaborate, but has also been more altered in later
outh-west corner of the country. Turku Cathedral
ages. Pernd Church, nearby, is much like Hollola
urvives, though greatly restored and rebuilt,
long on the exterior (574) ; this simple pattern of three-
laving been damaged and battered in its
aisled, rectangular, hall church is more
attractive
listory.It is of red brick and simple in style,
«vith massive western tower on square plan, and appropriate in the smaller country buildings
a
than on the cathedral scale of Porvoo.
low surmounted by a nineteenth century lantern.
There are some beautiful vault and wall paint-
The cathedral was begun in the early thirteenth
155
;
Gothic: i 150—1600
ings inside Perna Church and some outstanding example indeed. Hattula Church is very small.
instances of this work in the two small churches Standing in fields on the outskirts of the hamlet
of Lohja and Hattula.The Church of S. Lawrence of Hattula, near Hameenlinna, the exterior is
at Lohja (between Helsinki and Turku) has a unpretentious and rural. Inside, it is on three-
large, simple, stone exterior with brick gable aisled, rectangular plan with Medieval vaulting
ornamentation. Inside, it is decorated all over and walls painted all over in figure compositions.
walls and vault with biblical scenes, the figure There is also a carved and painted wood pulpit
groups and panels separated by arabesque band- with high relief figure decoration. The whole
ing. It was built in the fifteenth century and the interior is of primitive, peasant standard and
paintings date from c. 1520; it is a very fine style, its colour and drawing charmingly handled
576 Hollola Church, Finland, c. 1480

Gothic: 1 1 50-1 600
a superb example of the period. Another remote restored to their Medieval appearance in
the
ountry church, near the sea and not far from nineteenth or twentieth.
Turku is that of Inkoo. It has a separate, wooden Among such examples are the abbey churches
jell tower standing on a stone base, and decora- at Varnhem and Vadstena, S. Mary's Church at
ive brick gabling. Inside, the two-aisled, hall Sigtuna and the Riddarholm Church in Stock-
:hurch vaulted and covered by paintings, but
is holm. Varnhem Abbey Church in Vastergotland
hese are not so fine as those at Lohja and Hattula. was of the Cistercian Order. It was rebuilt after
Many castles were built
Finland in the in a fire in the thirteenth century,
altered and
Vliddle Ages, for defensive purposes. Most of restored in contemporary style in the seventeenth,
hese have largely disappeared and the two chief but returned to its former state in the 1920s. It is
xamples surviving are those at Turku and a simple, cruciform stone church with tall
t>avonlinna. Turku Castle was built in the western, fortified towers. The interior is monu-
hirteenth century in a strategic position on the mental and most interesting. It is broad and low
larbour.It was enlarged in the later Middle Ages with wide, pointed, quadripartite stone vaulting,
ind, in the sixteenth century, state rooms were the vaults being supported on columned corbels
ncorporated. It is a large castle, strongly fortified with foliated capitals. The nave piers are plain
ind with small window openings high up on the and square, without capitals. The nave arcade is
nassive walls. The interior has been excellently round-arched, simple and unmoulded. There is
testored after damage caused in the Second no triforium, but above are round-headed
_Vorld War, though it has been done in a modern, clerestorywindows. The apsidal east end with
implified manner. The exterior still retains its ambulatory is the best preserved part of the
Vledieval appearance. The drawing in Fig. 575 original church.
ncorporates its existing state with that of the The Cisterician Abbey Church at Vadstena on
>riginal structure as shown in the model in the Lake Vattern was founded by S. Bridget and the
:astle. church begun about 1368. The building has been
The most complete Finnish castle is the carefully restored and in the process has lost its
ortress of Olavinlinna. It was built as a defence Medieval atmosphere, but it still retains a re-
igainst the Russians, on whose border it still markable vault, supported on rows of octagonal
tands. It occupies a small rocky island in the piers, which covers the whole hall church
yronsalmi which is swept by rapid
Strait, interior. The seated statue of S. Bridget (c. 1440)
urrents town of Savonlinna grew up

; the survives and is displayed in the church with other
round it between the two lakes. The castle is sculptural fragments.
amed after S. Olav and was built in 1475 by 5. Mary's Church at Sigtuna is typical of the
rik Axelsson Tott. It has a strategic and romantic Scandinavian brick church design, based on
ite and was, in its day, a modern fortress built Baltic influences from northern Germany and
n mural, concentric plan rather than the old Holland. Such buildings are often large; they are
entral keep system. It was extensivelv restored wide and low, rarely having towers, except when
the nineteenth century; the courtyards are now of cathedral status. S. Mary's Church was part
sed for staging dramatic spectacles. of the Dominican monastery. It is a hall church
with typical Baltic decorated gabled facade in
ornamental brickwork. Inside, the church has
Jweden three aisles separated by brick piers without
rom the fourteenth century onwards the Church capitals. Above is a wide, pointed arched, quadri-
rew richer and more influential. The great partite vault. It is a simple church, well built and
ultural influence came from the monastic settle- very Nordic. Similar are the Convent Church at
nents, where the Cistercian Order was most Ystad on the southern coast of Sweden and the
ctive. After the Reformation these buildings fell Church of the Holy Trinity at Uppsala. The Ystad
nto decay but, as in England, some of the church has a particularly fine Baltic brick,
hurches were retained and enlarged as parish or gabled facade (577), while Holy Trinity Church
athedral churches. They were nearly all altered is more interesting inside. The simple nave
arcade is of moulded brick in wide pointed
n the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, then
157
gothic: i 150-1600
arches. The quadripartite vault is higher than kings of Sweden. Despite later additions of
usual (this is not a hall church) and both nave and classical chapels and high altar, the Riddarholm
aisle vaults are painted. Church retains a strong Medieval atmosphere
There are one or two cathedrals on a similar with its wide, low, quadripartite vault and fine,
but slightly larger, more

ambitious scale; arched nave arcade. Also in the city is the
Vdsterds and Strangnas, both on Lake Malar, are Storkyrkan, the church of S. Nicholas, founded
two of these. Strangnas Cathedral has a large in the early thirteenth century and rebuilt about
square western tower, though its apsidal east end 1306. It has been substantially altered in later
presents the finest exterior view of the building. periods and has a largely classical, dull exterior.
It is a simple structure, a larger version of the Inside, though, remains a fine lierne vault over
churches just described, but it is impressive and the main nave and choir while, in one of the
well proportioned. Inside all is brick, piers, aisles, is a magnificent example of Medieval
columns and quadripartite vaults. It is a five- sculpture, S. George and the Dragon (1489),
aisled church, not of hall type, with a wide, carved in wood. Painted and over life-size, this
loftynave and ribbed vault. The aisle vaults is a vivid composition by the Lubeck sculptor,
diminish in height towards the outer walls. Bernt Notke (plate 65).
Because of this and the consequently small aisle An important centre in the Middle Ages was
windows which provide the limited nave lighting, the Island of Gotland, regained by Sweden at this
the interior is darker than is usual in churches of time from control by the Hanseatic League. Its
the kind. The tall apse windows give better strategic value lay in its situation, ideal for com-
illumination to the east end. mercial use of the trade routes to England and
In Stockholm, the Riddarholm Church survives France in the west and Russia and Europe to the
from the Franciscan Abbey, founded in the east. Its capitalwas Visby and both here and in
thirteenth century. Originally it had no towers other centres, architectural proof of its Medieval
and was aisleless, but extensive additions in the importance lies in the richness and quality of its
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries made it into a Gothic buildings, constructed in local stone.
three-aisled church with a tall tower. It became After the Middle Ages, trade routes changed and
an important building as the burial place for the the island lost is importance. Many of the
churches are, unfortunately, largely ruined.
577 Convent Church, Ystad, Sweden, facade fourteenth century

,
5
GOTHIC IN SWEDEN
578 Uppsala Cathedral, interior looking east, 1 270-1 31
579 Skara Cathedral from the south-west, c. 1300
580 Kalmar Castle, late Gothic
:
As in Finland, in country areas, Sweden retains contemporary of Viollet-le-Duc, Helgo Zetter-

some small but beautifully painted churches. vall. Though begun in c. 1270 on an English
That at Sodra Rada has already been referred to plan, the cathedral soon developed on French
(p. 70). There is also an example in good lines under the Frenchman Etienne de Bonneuil.
condition at Hdrkeberga, a tiny village south- It is very much a cathedral of one building
west of Uppsala. The exterior is very simple and operation and retains a Medieval impression
unpretentious, but the interior is painted all despite the mechanical quality of its restoration.
over: piers, vaults and walls. The colours are On the exterior it is tall, its two western towers
soft, mainly browns and greens, on a gold and and spires reaching high into the sky. The
white ground. The subject is the Bible story. apsidal east end, with attendant chapels, is very
In a purely Gothic and less Scandinavian French, as is the fleche over the crossing. Inside,
manner, are the important cathedrals of Sweden it is impressive and lofty. Its height, its vault
Uppsala, Skara and Linkoping. Here is seen and fine proportions remind one of Bourges
less of the Baltic brick approach and more a Cathedral as does the detail of the clustered
derivation of French and English design. columns and dainty capitals (578).
Uppsala is the finest, despite a hard and heavy Skara Cathedral in Vastergotland (579) is
restorative hand by the nineteenth century more English than French. Here is a stone, tall,
381 Interior looking east of Linkoping Cathedral, Sweden, 1260—1412

gothic: 1150-1600
well-proportioned cathedral, with western towers The sunny, warm climate of the Mediterranean
and spires, built on classic Latin cross plan. countries made certain features desirable what-
Inside, the tall nave is divided by piers with ever their interpretation of Gothic architecture.
clustered shafts and foliated capitals. The shafts These features are mostly to be seen in central
extend to the vault springing. There is an arcaded and southern Italy, the Dalmatian coast and
triforium below small clerestory windows. The central and southern Spain. Colour is used far
vaulting is ribbed throughout, lofty and well- more than in northern Europe; in marbles,
proportioned. The east end is rich in its coloured mosaics, and frescoes on the outside as well as the
glass. The exterior of Linkoping Cathedral is inside of buildings. Window and door openings
unimpressive. Inside, the hall church pattern is are smaller to keep the interior cool. The hori-
paramount and magnificent in its proportions zontal emphasis is greater than the vertical and,
and in the elegance and chiaroscuro of its vault in these countries, it is only in the northern,
(581). It is the least restored Gothic cathedral cooler regions that tall steeples, flying buttresses,
in Sweden, especially end where the
in its east traceried large windows and rich, carved decora-
choir ambulatory, itsand Heme vaults on
star tion in finialsand crockets are to be seen. Roof
supporting pillars and the traceried windows are pitches are lower and timber coverings were often
of great quality and beauty. preferred to stone vaulting.
The majority of Medieval remains in Sweden
are ecclesiastical. Most domestic building was in
Italy
wood and has perished, but some of the great
mural fortresses survive. Of these Kalmar Castle The climate apart, the circumstance which made
(580) presents a dramatic, fortified silhouette, Italian Gothic architecture different from that in
picturesquely situated on a promontory on the France, Germany or England was the classical
eastern sea coast. It has a moat, drawbridge and tradition. It is sometimes said that there is no
surrounding ramparts with four corner towers. Gothic architecture in Italy or that the Italians
Originally it had gates and walls further out to have never understood the fundamentals of the
sea. Gripsholm Castle is built on the edge of Lake style. Neither of these statements is true for they
Malar, not far from Strangnas. It is large and also exaggerate the reality. Typically Italian Medieval
picturesquely sited in a park. Built in 1537 of work was still based on Roman or Romanesque
brick, it has immense circular mural towers and designs, examples of both of which existed in
massive, impregnable walls. It is now used as a quantity all over the country.
school. The exception is in the north and in monastic
structures. The is Milan
outstanding example
Europe South of the Alps, Pyrenees and Cathedral, as near northern Gothic as the Italians
Carpathians: ever reached. Sheathed in white marble (over a

brick structure), pinnacled and sculptured, the
Italy, Yugoslavia, Rhodes, Spain, Portugal
cathedral has some of the finest stained glass in
Climatic influence has produced specific features Europe in its eastern windows. Like Cologne,
common to all Gothic architecture in the southern Milan Cathedral is only really Medieval in its
part of Europe. Unlike the Baltic zone, however, eastern part. Begun here in 1385, the west facade
the similarities are far outweighed by the differ- was not completed till the nineteenth century.
The majestic polygonal eastern apse is the finest
ences. The Gothic style in Italy developed
part of the building (582). There is a vast
hesitantly and was short-lived because of the
country's overwhelming classical tradition. In quantity of decorative sculpture, carved in white
Spain, on the other hand, development was late marble and carried out between the fourteenth
but, having arrived, became deep-seated, and and nineteenth centuries. Statues and gargoyles
slow to be altered in favour of Renaissance on turrets and pinnacles are all over the building,
forms which were as alien to Spain as Gothic was up to the topmost finial. Sculptors came from
Italy, France and Germany to carry
out this
to Italy. The other countries under discussion in
work, but the bulk of the structural and archi-
this section were influenced by either Italy or
tectural achievement was due to German workers.
Spain.
161
1
ITALIAN GOTHIC CATHEDRALS
1
—
1
,
!
n
t
CAMPAr
BAPTISTERY
582 Milan Cathedral from the east, 1387— 1410. 584 Florence Cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore) from
Spire 1750 the east, I2g6—i42i. Dome, 1420-37
583 Milan Cathedral interior, fifteenth century nave 585 Florence Cathedral, plan
and choir
162
a
GOTHIC: I i 50-1 600
The cathedral interior (583) is lofty and austere more than Gothic, while incorporating Medieval
in contrast. The nave, especially, is not richly figures and animals. Windows never reached the
decorated. An unusual ornamental feature is in vast size of northern European ones. The deeply
the niches containing standing, sculptured recessed, sculptured portals of France had no
figures, setabove the capitals and below the vault counterpart in Italy. Here, the portals were
springing. Despite its pinnacles, buttresses and shallower and decorated more by mosaic tympana,
vaults, even Milan Cathedral lacks the northern relief, bronze door panels and marble sculpture
Gothic vertically; the emphasis is on the hori- at the sides. The timber nave roofs and lower side
zontal and the design is geometrically based — aisle vaults needed less abutment and fewer
fundamental Italian approach. pinnacles. Towers were still separate and a
Some of the abbey churches belonging to the cupola generally covered the crossing.
monastic orders follow a traditional Gothic The finest cathedrals are those of Florence,
pattern. One is the Cistercian Abbey at Fossanova Siena and Orvieto, all typifying this Tuscan
in thirteenth century Burgundian style. A more approach. At Florence (584 and 585) the original
famous example is the early Franciscan double pattern has been altered by later work, the
church of S. Francesco in Assisi. This has a plain Renaissance dome and the nineteenth century
traditional Gothic exterior, but inside are mosaic facade. Much of the east end, the plan and parts
and fresco decoration. of the interior are Medieval and the work was in
The Italians in general retained the basilican fact begun by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296. On the
plan to their cathedrals and churches. They built exterior, the marble inlay and veneer creates an
a tall nave arcade and clerestory, but rarely a essentially classical feeling imposed on Gothic
triforium. They retained the timber roof where apsidal form, while the campanile, designed by
possible ; if a vault was used, they kept to a square Giotto and built 1 334-87, is a unique composition
bay compartment over nave and choir. They used in marbled harmony with the group.
brick faced with marbles. Sculpture was more Siena cathedral is the most outstanding, clad
often in relief than in the round. These features, all over, exterior and interior, in black and white
it will be realised, were all Roman or Romanesque stripes of marble. It is carved richly with white
practice. The concession to the needs of Gothic marble and further ornamented with coloured
design was in the partial use of the pointed arch, mosaic, bronze sculpture and, on floor and ceiling,
the tall campanile and the screen west facade. marble veneer; it is a glowing, gleaming master-
The screen was indeed, in literal terms, only a piece (588). The building displays a tremendous
facade. Behind its which masked the
great gable, sense of and light inside (587). The
space
aisle roofs, was a church whose construction and sculptured pulpit by Nicola and Giovanni Pisano
interior bore little relationship to its facade. The (father and son) stands out even among so much
west wheel window was the chief connecting link beautiful workmanship (plate 68). They were
between exterior and interior. also responsible for much of the facade.
The hill city of Orvieto rises abruptly out of a
Most surviving Medieval work is north of
flat plain and cathedral is sited on top; a
Rome. The Eternal City lay neglected, its Popes its
in exile in France, while in the south, the long glorious colourful building, reminding the visitor
Sicilo-Norman rule and culture gave place to of the days of the city's greatness. The three
Angevin, centred on Naples not Palermo; Lom- gable facade dominates the piazza in a riot of
colour, gilt bronze sculpture and white marble.
bard work was still very Romanesque, strongly
It is two-dimensional constructively
and decora-
influenced by its long, powerful tradition. The
The rest of the exterior is in plain black
best Medieval architecture is in Tuscany, south tively.
towards Rome and, of completely different and white striped marble (586 and 487). Inside,
the cathedral is simple, spacious and

impressive.
derivation, in the expanding empire of Venice.
Characteristic are the pointed arch (side by side It ismore cohesive than Siena. The magnificent
golden
west, rose window is dominant and sheds a
with the round one), vivid decoration in marble,
glow over the whole interior in the evening light.
mosaic and paint, carved white marble tracery
In contrast is the Cathedral of Palermo. Begun
and relief sculpture. Ornament and detail were
in 185 under Norman Romanesque auspices,
primarily classical even capitals were Corinthian
1
;
163
ITALIAN GOTHIC CATHEDRALS
586 Orvieto Cathedral

from the west, 12Q0—1600
(fafade restored nine-
MM
teenth century)
587 Siena Cathedral Ira
rarara
interior looking west
388 Siena Cathedral,
exterior from the west, 11 s
1245-1380
Gothic: 1 150-1600
589 Palermo Cathedral, Sicily from the south-east, 1170-85. Porch, 1480 ; cupola, eighteenth century
it was continued till after the end of the four- Italy has many Medieval palaces, civic build-
teenth century. The south facade (589) is the ings, castles and bridges. The finest palaces are
prime example of Sicilo-Norman style, richly in Venice, mainly fronting the Grand Canal,
arcaded and crested. Especially beautiful is the and of these the Ca' d'Oro is of the classic pattern
open porch, built c. 1480, with its Saracenic (590). This can be seen in the white marble ogee
style arches and decoration. The west end is more arches, the tracery, elegant balconies, arcading
Saracenic in character. It is connected across the and roofline. The Palazzo Franchetti is another
street to the Archbishop's Palace. There are two example (593). World famous is the Doge's
slender minaret towers balancing those at the Palace, begun in the ninth century; the present
east end. The interior was rebuilt in 1780 in facades to S. Mark's Square and the Grand
Baroque style, when the cupola also was added. Canal waterfront date from 1309—1424. In pinkly
Italian Gothic churches are less interesting and glowing patterned brickwork and brilliant white
many have been altered later. In the Tuscan carving and arcading, these elevations are the
carved marble, coloured mosaic tradition is the essence of Venetian Gothic architecture at its
beautiful little S. Maria Spina at Pisa
della best. Stylistically they represent a fusion of
(1230— 1323). Much plainer brick churches with Constantinople, the Orient, classical Rome and
only marble decoration and facings are the thir- Medieval Gothic, resulting in a unique harmony
teenth century .SiS. Giovanni and Paolo and 5. (594, 602 and 605).
Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice. In Florence Medieval Italy produced a wealth of town halls,
are S. Maria Novella, to which Alberti gave a originally the seats of government for the city
new facade in 1460 (Vol. 3, p. 5) and S. Croce, also states of the peninsula, though the scale varies
both of the thirteenth century. Of interest are the according to importance. That at Siena (592),
hall churches of Perugia and Todi. The Cathedral with its slender, tall tower, castellated roofline
of Perugia is typical of the hall church pattern, and Gothic fenestration is typical. Others include
wide and high inside, with nave and aisles of the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence (591), the Palazzo
equal height. The interior is darker than is dei Priori (or del Municipio), Perugia (1281), the
usual with German examples as the aisle windows Palazzo dei Priori, Volterra (thirteenth century),
are much smaller and are all filled with coloured the Palazzo Pubblico, Montepulciano and the
glass. The apse is especially beautiful in the Palazzo dei Consoli at Gubbio (1332).
colouring. The quadripartite vault is ornately Fortified castles and bridges reflect the general
painted in a later style. western European trend. The Ponte di Scaligero
165
)
ITALIAN GOTHIC TOWN HALLS AND PALACES
5go Palazzo Ca' d'Oro, Venice, 1421-36 $g2 Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, 1288-1309
591 Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, 1298-1344. Restored 593 Palazzo Franchetti, Venice, c. 1430
sixteenth century ( viewed from cathedral campanile
166
i
Gothic: i 50-1 600
5Q4 Doge's Palace, Venice. Piazza San Marco facade, 1 343-1 438
at Veronaan example (595). The Ponte Vecchio

is century stronghold on the hill at Volterra. In
over the river Arno, is a civil bridge
in Florence, Apulia, at Lucera, remains exist of a fortified
with houses and shops on it. Two early castles hill town of brick walls and towers with stone
belonged to the Emperor Frederick II, who quoins and openings.

incorporated Roman military symmetry into the
Medieval concentric defence system. One is the
Yugoslavia
Castel del Monte in Basilicata (1233-50) which
has a classical entrance doorway, and the other the As in the U.S.S.R., the Medieval work in the
larger, thirteenth century castle at Prato. Of southern and inland areas such as Serbia and
the moated, castellated, machicolated, strongly Macedonia is in Byzantine style. Gothic archi-
defensive, massive structures, the Castello degli tecture is be found down the Dalmatian coast,
to
Estense in Ferrara, is a fine fourteenth century and this Venetian owing to the extensive spread
is
example. There is also the Castello Nuovo in of the influence of Venice in this direction. Much
Naples (1279-83) and the immense, fourteenth of the Gothic work was in continuation of
595 Medieval fortified bridge, Ponte di Scaligero, Verona, 1335
167
GOTHIC IN YUGOSLAVIA
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURAL DETAIL
607
600 Nave capital, Reims Cathedral, France, 604 Cloister Capitals, Convent of Christ, Tomar,
thirteenth century
Portugal, late Gothic
601 Cloister capital, Poblet Monastery, Spain, 605 Corner Capital, Doge's Palace, Venice
606 Pier base, Batahla Abbey, Portugal, 151 5-34
thirteenth century
602 Adam and Eve, Doge's Palace, Venice, Italy, 607 Tomb detail, Cartuja de Miraflores, Spain, from 1500
608 Choir Capital, Lincoln Cathedral, England, from 1256
fourteenth century
609 Choir Capitals, Southwell Minster, England, c. 1230
603 Cloister detail, Jeronimo Monastery, Belem,
Portugal from 1500
,
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURAL DETAIL
610 Apse flying buttresses, Reims Cathedral, France,
611 Doorway head, Casa de las Conchas, Salamanca,

Spain, 14^5-83
612 Nave pier base, Brussels Cathedral, Belgium,
fifteenth century
tS ®
613 Tympanum, S. Elisabeth, Marburg, Germany,
1257-83
614 Manoeline Tower window, Belem, Portugal,
1515-21
615 Apse flying buttresses. Coutances Cathedral, France,
thirteenth century
Gothic: 1
1
50-1 600
I Romanesque schemes; the tower at Trogir consequent flying buttress schemes were un-
I Cathedral, for example, and the choir stalls at suitable. Spain preferred smaller windows and
Zadar. The work of Sibenik Cathedral is of larger wall areas to keep out the brilliant
sun-
Gothic origin (597 and 598), as is the palace at shine, thick walling, flattish roofs and cloistered
Trogir (596). In Dubrovnik, the local authorities shady arcades. As in Italy and Germany, Gothic
segan a new palace for the rectors (599). Though architecture came late to Spain, partly for the
restored, this is still an interesting example; same reason that Romanesque architecture was
particularly noteworthy are the arcade capitals. slow to change but mainly because of the
Moorish occupation. In this matter, Iberian
development differed from the rest of Europe.
thodes The effect of the retreat of the Moors and the
advance of the tide of Christianity was discussed
Military and fortified domestic Medieval archi-
on p. 39. This movement affected Gothic develop-
ecture spread through the south-east Mediter-
ment also. Since Moorish occupation of the penin-
anean. The island of Rhodes, near the Turkish
sula did not fully end until the abandonment of
:oast,was occupied from 1309— 1522 by the
Granada in 1492, Gothic architecture in the south
Knights Hospitallers of S. John of Jerusalem. In
was late to evolve.
he capital (Rhodes) during this time, they built
The most traditional Gothic work developed
jreat mural defences to the town, especially
in the northern region. Here, rather as in
round the harbour, the Palace of the Grand
Germany, builders found by the thirteenth
Master, the cathedral and the streets of Inns of the
century that their Romanesque work was inter-
different countries belonging to the Order. The
nationally out of date and began to adapt them-
:itywas taken by the Turks in 1522. In succeed-
selves to Gothic. But the process started, as in
ng years, much of the Gothic work fell into ruin
Germany, not as a gentle evolution from national
>r was destroyed. The Italians, when they
Romanesque, but by an import of fully developed
>ccupied the island between 1912—43, restored a
Gothic from France. Monastic orders spread
lumber of streets and buildings and rebuilt the
and west from France and
their influence south
destroyed cathedral outside the city walls.
French masons and builders were invited to
Much still remains to be seen today. There are
create imposing cathedrals in Spain. As time
he city walls, massive gateways (525), and the
passed, German builders also were asked to help,
Hospital of the Knights (now a museum), with
so one can see Leon Cathedral, for example, on
ts open courtyard and staircase. On the first
French lines and Burgos nearer German (616
door is a huge room which housed 30 beds. Near
and 617).
*ach bed was a small room for the servant of the
The Catalan area, around Barcelona, developed
night so that he could sleep near his master.
a style which had more in common with south-
The room is well preserved and has a chapel and
east France. Albi was the inspiration here, with
altar. In the Street of the Knights are many
heavy walling, into the thickness of which were
VIedieval Inns, now restored. There is the Inn of
built chapels with buttresses between, giving
"ranee, of Provence, of Auvergne, of Spain and
barely any exterior projection.
f Italy. These inns acted as a club for the
As in England, Gothic architecture in Spain
Knights speaking the appropriate language, England the
lingered, but whereas in final
"ood and drink were provided. stage was Perpendicular Gothic, Spanish late
Gothic is decorative and richly ornamented and
carved. Fifteenth and sixteenth century cathe-
Spain drals, like Segovia and Salamanca are typical of
The Spanish love of surface decoration
Development Gothic architecture in the
of this.
in central and
especially
Iberian Peninsula had something in common found expression,
southern areas, in using Moorish forms of orna-
with Italy and even more with Germany. The
ment. In the final stage of plateresque, whole
imilarities to Italian forms were due to climate,
of buildings were covered in surface
especially in central and southern areas. Here, areas
decoration, both outside and in the interior.
The
:he large traceried windows and high vaults with
171
SPANISH GOTHIC CATHEDRALS
Gothic: i 150-1600
ornament, though
rich, was controlled and but it is of fine quality and merges well with the
rarely vulgar. Motifs were predominately Moorish original work, presenting a worthy challenge to
in intricate geometrical and flowing patterns with Chartres. Despite the area of glazing (triforium
pierced stone tracery and the use of varied arch as well as clerestory) the level of illumination is
shapes. In the south, especially, the horseshoe not high. The impression is of a luminous
arch used, but the pointed arch had been
is Byzantine quality in the rich coloured light. The
employed here even before it arrived in the lie de stonework is effectively simple; there is little
France. sculpture or decoration; the glory
all is in the
glass.
Ecclesiastical Building Burgos Cathedral (616) is quite different.
Whereas Leon not impressive on the exterior,
is
Cathedrals and Churches
lacking the soaring quality of Gothic, Burgos is
These were nearly all built in stone, a material striking outside, with its classic facade, central
in ample supply in the mountainous Spanish lantern and pentagonal, eastern chevet. The
terrain. Volcanic material was incorporated for building period is a long one and the style of
polychrome decoration. Also Roman brick con- work varies from the early lower part, begun
struction was employed with wide mortar band- 1 22 1, to the very rich sixteenth century lantern.
ing. There was little timber building as forest The cathedral is wide and fairly low, apart from
areas were inadequate. Church plans were the facade towers which were completed with
usually wider and shorter than in northern their fine German style openwork traceried
Europe, generally on basilican plan but with the spires in i486 by Hans of Cologne. The very rich
coro (choir) situated west of the crossing and late Gothic cimborio, the octagonal central lantern,
divided from the altar by an elaborate screen. followed in 1568. Inside this has a magnificent
There were numerous chapels in large ecclesi- eight-pointed star vault (472). The choir is in the
asticalbuildings, all round the church. Until usual Spanish position west of the crossing,
1936, the majority of Medieval cathedrals and reducing the nave to a mere vestibule. There are
churches were in good condition, inside as well some beautiful late Gothic side chapels, of which
as on the exterior, but a tremendous amount of the Capilla del Condestable (1482) is superbly
damage was wrought in the Civil War years of ornamented.
1936-9, particularly in the regions of Madrid, Toledo Cathedral, though based on the French
Toledo and Barcelona. model, is It is one
very large and very Spanish.
As in France, Spain still possesses a great of the finest Gothic monuments in Europe.
number of fine cathedrals. Four of the most Started in 1226 at the east end, the facade is
outstanding, representing different patterns, are fifteenth century and later, as is also the unusual
Leon, Burgos, Toledo and Barcelona. Leon and imposing north-west tower (619). There are
Cathedral is on the French model of the best lie some fine sculptured porches here of different
de France type. It was built largely in the thir- styles and periods; the north with a typical
teenth century (617 and 618) on a plan similar to fourteenth-century tympanum, the south, with
Reims. This is in Latin cross form with single the richly sculptured, almost plateresque Puerta
aisled nave and double choir, which has a poly- de Leones (1452) and the triple facade portals
los
gonal end and five chevet chapels with double on the French pattern. Apart from the facade and
arched flying buttresses. The glass and sculpture interesting cloisters, it is the nave interior which
is the glory of the Medieval part of
the Cathedral.
make it the Spanish equivalent of Chartres. The
facade and transept portals are sculptured. It is simple, majestic, lofty. The nave arcade has
There some good work, especially in the

is tall multi-shafted piers and foliated capitals
tympana, but it is not up to French or German carrying the pointed arches. The central shafts
rise to the high vault, which is quadripartite.
The
standard. The magnificence of the interior is in
clerestory windows have geometrical tracery and
the vast quantity of coloured glass in the large
a quantity of their original fine glass.
There
(windows which fill the wall space from vaulting still
is also a beautiful rose

window. The high altar
_ shaft to vaulting shaft. Much of this glass dates
from the extensive nineteenth century restoration, screen is a Gothic masterpiece, representing in
173
Gothic: i i 50— 1600
hundreds of figures and groups scenes from the

life of Christ. The great central space of the
cathedral interior is devoted to the choir with its
magnificent (later) choir stalls. The whole is
enclosed in a Gothic style stone carved screen of

great complexity and richness.
Catalan Gothic, which is admirably repre-
sented by Barcelona and Gerona Cathedrals,- is
quite different. The fourteenth century saw the

opening of an era of prosperity in Catalonia based
on trade with France, Italy and the Balkans,
largely through the port of Barcelona. The
architectural influence was French from the
south-east region and, in particular, examples
such as the cathedrals of Albi, Toulouse and
Perpignan. The churches are aisleless or with a
wide central nave and narrow side aisles. But-
tresses are internal, immensely strong and pro-
jecting, like those at Albi, inwards into the
church. The chapels were built between them.
6/9 Facade, Toledo Cathedral, Spain, 1400-52

Gothic: 1
1 50-1 600
The exterior wall was therefore plain and un- among them three great cathedrals: Seville,
interrupted. Inside, Catalan churches are dark.
Segovia and Salamanca. Seville
Windowsare small, long and narrow, triforia
Cathedral was
the earliest of these, built over
a long period
and vaults quadripartite.
rare
beginning in 1402 at the west end. It is
the largest
Gerona Cathedral is based on this pattern. It Medieval cathedral in Europe and, on a roughly
is immensely wide, with aisleless fifteenth
century rectangular plan, measures 430 by
nave spanned by a 73 foot wide vault. Inside, 247 feet. The
cathedral was not finished till c. 1520 and
chapels are situated between the huge internal
much of
it is in the late Spanish
Gothic style but, since it is
buttresses which are 20 feet deep and rise to the
Andalusia where Moorish influence was strong
in
fullheight of the building as at Albi. The east end till nearly 1500, both
decoration and layout reflect
is and has a chevet, a fourteenth century
aisled
eastern modes. The plan was controlled by
its
example based on that at Barcelona. The baroque being built on the site of the Moorish mosque
facade rises above a great exterior staircase. and the slender 'giralda' was its minaret. This
Barcelona Cathedral is the Catalan Gothic was built in the twelfth century, of brick, with
masterpiece. On classic Catalan pattern, it was typical, high quality Moorish brick decoration
begun in 1298 and largely completed by the early in patterned panels (622).
trellis The belfry,
fifteenth century, apartfrom the facade which is which is Renaissance, was added in 1568 and
neo-Gothic. The east end is the finest part of the surmounted by the bronze figure which revolves,
building. It is on the French model of a seven- hence the name 'giralda' from girar— to turn
sided apse with ambulatory and radiating chapels. round. It is certainly one of the most beautiful
On the exterior, these chapels are deeply set into bell towers in the world.
the ring of massive buttresses which are con- Seville Cathedral is impressive, partly because
nected by flying arches to the clerestory wall, of immense The end
its size. apsidal is shown in
each one set between the circular windows. The Fig. 622 and this is the most interesting view.
cathedral interior is magnificent, giving a vivid Much of the remainder is restored or altered and
impression of Medievalism. It is dark, the light the flattish roofs and near horizontal flying
shining in through a quantity of richly coloured buttresses are neither interesting nor very Gothic.
glass in windows which are narrow and not very Inside, the vista is breathtaking. The nave is very
large. The nave arcade is high, with a shallow wide, with four broad aisles and surrounding
triforium and clerestory above. There is an chapels. very high, with a quadripartite
It also is
octagonal lantern over the crossing. Adjoining vault above ground, supported on
130 feet
the cathedral are the fine mid-fifteenth century immense, clustered piers with tiny foliated
cloisters with 22 chapels round them (513). capitals. There is no triforium, but stained glass
Many Spanish cathedrals still have beautiful clerestory windows with rich curvilinear tracery.
cloisters number of these are of the thirteenth
and a The central lantern, rebuilt in 1882 after collapse,
century early Gothic style. Of two particularly has an interior star vault. Despite its long building
interesting examples, one is the Monastery of Las period and mixture of styles, the interior at least
Hue/gas in Burgos (620). The work is plain with of Seville Cathedral has unity, richness and fine
double columns and foliated capitals, all different proportions. It represents an imposing penulti-
from one another. At Poblet, near Tarragona, mate achievement in the Gothic movement. But
the monastery has recently been restored from it was by no means the last.
a damaged state. The thirteenth century cloisters, Both Segovia and Salamanca are sixteenth
however, largely escaped the fire and sack of century buildings and, being in central Spain,
1835 ar>d the original work is in fair condition. are less influenced by Moorish design and
The ribbed quadripartite vaults extend round the decoration. They are purely late Spanish Gothic.
four sides of the cloister. The open arcade is Segovia was built between 1520 and 1577 on a*
carried on multi -shafted piers with grouped fine hill site on symmetrical plan. It has a seven-
capitals of extraordinary variety and richness chapel chevet with gently sloping flying buttress-
(601). es and ornate crocketed pinnacles. The interior
The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Spain is very wide and high with slender, clustered
produced many fine late Gothic monuments; shafts supporting characteristic late Gothic vault-
ing (621).
GOTHIC CATHEDRALS AND ABBEYS IN SPAIN
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GOTHIC PLATERESQUE IN SPAIN
Gothic: 1 1 50— 1600
Salamanca Cathedral is exactly contemporary was applied all over doorways, portals, even
with Segovia. It is built next door to the Roman- facades, it tended to blur the architectural lines
esque Cathedral (p. 44) on the hill above the river with a complete carpet of decoration. Motifs,
Tonnes spanned by the Roman bridge (165). It is making up this ornamental covering, were varied;
much like Segovia, especially in its nave and they included heraldic forms, Gothic features,
Renaissance-inspired towers with cupolas and human and animal figures, plant and bird life.
lanterns. It has a square east end, though, instead Sculptural panels, often in high were framed
relief,
of a chevet and the exterior decoration, especially in the total design. The west facade at Salamanca
on the west facade, is of incredible richness (plate Cathedral, of 15 13-31, by Juan Gil de Hontanon,
64). This is a good example of what is termed is a prime example (623 and plate 64).
plateresque ornament. It was named thus, in a later- The period of excessive surface ornamentation
period, as a term if dissapprobation in reference to on both exterior and interior of large buildings
its affinity with silverwork (plateria), which was a lasted through the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
major Spanish industry at the time. The name turies and beyond. It reflected the wealth of the
emphasises the entirely surface character of the country as well as the love of ostentation and
ornament, which had barely any relationship with decoration felt by the Spanish people. The
the architectural form beneath. Indeed, since it academic simplicity of early Gothic or Italian
626 Cloisters, S. Juan de los Reyes, Toledo, c. 1470

gothic: i 150-1600
Renaissance was never fully acceptable to Spain. is a fine late star vault under the cimborio and some
The plateresque form of decorative treatment beautiful plateresque decoration on the walls in
continued from Gothic into Renaissance; only the choir. The church was a masterpiece by
the motifs changed. Gothic Plateresque is some- Juan Guas. Also in Toledo is the quite different
times referred to as Isabelline because the work 5. Maria la Blanca, which is a five-aisled church
largely emanates from the reign of Isabella. on rectangular plan with the roofs at differing
Other outstanding examples of the style can be levels. The decoration of the capitals and wall
seen on the facade of the Church of S. Cruz in arcades as well as the horseshoe arches show
Segovia (624) and the amazing facades in strong Moorish influence (627).
Valladolid of the Church of S. Pablo (plates 73 Further variation in design can be seen in the
and 74) and the College of S. Gregorio (625). The hall late period. These are
churches of the very
last of these is a riot of ornament, with twisted mostly from the sixteenth and seventeenth
columns, strange figures and Moorish elements. centuries and are Gothic buildings with classical
Among the varied types of churches in Spain, decor, like 5. Maria la Redonda in Logrono. There
one of the most beautiful is 5. Juan de los Reyes are also the Catalan Gothic types on aisleless plan
in Toledo. Here are magnificent two-storeyed and with fourteenth and fifteenth century decora-
cloisters with traceried openings and sculptured tion, like 5. Maria del Pino and S. Maria del
statues in late Gothic style (626 and 455) which Mar, both in Barcelona.
also prevails on the exterior of the church. Inside
627 S. Maria la Blanca, Toledo. Built twelfth century as a synagogue. Consecrated as a Christian church 1405. Now
a national monument
SPANISH MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
s
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Gothic: 1 150-1600
Domestic and Civic Buildings Casa de las Conchas in Salamanca, also fifteenth
century, is covered in sea-shell decoration. There
One of the most remarkable palaces in Gothic are also some beautiful windows and grilles (611
plateresque style is the Palacio del Infantado in and 459).
Guadalajara. This was built 1480-92 by Juan The Palacio de la Andiencia in Barcelona has
and Enrique Guas (architects of S. Juan de los been altered, but still retains a Gothic pointed-
Reyes) in an interesting mixture of Gothic and arched court with exterior stone staircase. There
Mujedar forms. The interior, including the also still exist some of the exchanges which were
picturesque court, was destroyed by bombing in so typical of Medieval Spain. The Silk Exchange
1936, but the exterior facades remain to the full in Valencia is the finest of these. It has a long,
height of the walls and restoration is now taking stone facade with rich Gothic fenestration and
place (465). There are similar, smaller examples doorway. Behind is a vaulted hall on hall church
at Baeza in southern Spain. Faceted and decora- pattern, 130 by 75 feet, divided into nave and
tive stonework facades can still be seen at Segovia by spiralled columns (629). The exchange at
aisles
and Salamanca. The Casa de los Picos in Segovia Zaragoza has now been restored. The exterior
is like the Palazzo dei Diamanti in Ferrara. The is dull but the hall is magnificent. This, like so
631 The Exchange (La

Lonja), Zaragoza,
c. 1550. Gothic with
Renaissance detail
Plate yo
The Bamberg Horseman. Bamberg Cathedral,
Germany, c. 1220—30
Plate yi
Cloister detail. Batahla Abbey, Portugal. 14th
and 15th century
Plate y2
S. George and the Dragon. Castle Hill, Prague,
Czechoslovakia. Jiri and Martin of Cluj, 1373
Plates 73 and J4
276-1463
Facade. Church of S. Pablo, Valladolid, Spain,
1
i
Gothic: i 50-1 600
632 Bridge of S. Martin, Toledo, Medieval
many of the sixteenth century exchanges, is a Leon or Castile. There is the large, interesting
mixture of Gothic and Renaissance forms. The example at Valencia de Don Juan, ruined and
vault is Gothic, with Medieval bosses, but the romantically reflected in the waters of the river
supporting columns have Ionic capitals and Esla below; the gaunt 150 foot pile of Torre-
Renaissance putti and shields. The hall is now lobaton, animpregnable castle in fine condition;
used for exhibitions (631). and Turegano near Segovia, ruined part castle,
part church. Not far away is Castle Coca (628),
an immense mass of pinkish brick towers and
turrets set within a deep, enclosing moat.
Fortified Structures
In large towns it was customary to build an
Spain is more noted for its Medieval castles than alcazar, a fortified palace. Most of these have
any other European country. Castile, the im- been rebuilt, as in Madrid, or much restored.
mense area in the centre of the country, had so The Alcazar at Segovia is one of these. It was
many that it was named from them (castillo). transformed from a fortress into a fortified
Medieval castles are in all styles: Romanesque, palace in 1455 but was rebuilt in more recent
Gothic, Moorish, Renaissance. Many are now times after a disastrous fire in the nineteenth
ruined, but a number of outstanding examples century.
remain in good condition. One of the best is the A number of town gateways which were
Castillo de la Mot a at Medina del Campo (630). originally part of the city walling have fared
There is a deep ditch all round, spanned by a better. Ingood condition are the Puerta del Sol
bridge, reaching to the double, outer, windowless at Toledo, c. 1200 and with horseshoe
dating from
walls. The castle is and impressive,
austere, large arches and Moorish decoration, the Puerta de
built in brick onabove the town.
a hill Serranos at Valencia, 1349, a typical octagonal
One of the largest castles in Spain is that at towered, Gothic structure and the Puerta de S.
Olite, near Pamplona, built in 1403. It was Maria in Burgos which is Medieval with Renais-
damaged by fire in the nineteenth century but sance decoration and sculpture.
15 vast, mural towers remain. Near the Pyren- Medieval bridges in Spain have suffered con-
ean frontier, it was partly of French construction siderably but the bridge of S. Martin at Toledo
and once had large halls, chambers and extensive survivea (632). This is a fine example, spanning
gardens. Most of the best remaining castles date the rocky gorge of the River Tagus which almost
from the fifteenth century and are situated in encircles the town; it has defence gateways at
184
GOTHIC IN PORTUGAL
633 Thefafade, Monastery Church, Batahla, 1
tfj-
1415
634 Batahla, the cupola vault, Founder's Chapel,
1415-34
635 Interior of the Cistercian Abbey Church of
Alcobaca, 11 58-1220
636 Batahla, cloister opening
THE JERONIMO MONASTERY AT BELEM, PORTUGAL, BEGUN 1500
:
Gothic: i
i
50-1 600
each end. The Puente de Pietra in the centre of the ground but are supported on corbels.
(This
Zaragoza, a stone example of 1401, has been can also be seen in Fossanova Abbey Church in
somewhat altered and spans the river Ebro. Italy.) Nave and aisles are of uniform height and
vault design. The aisle walls are plain, pierced
only by round-headed windows set high, just
under the vault. The east end is apsidal with an
Portugal
ambulatory. It has narrow lancet windows and
Although no geographical barrier separates Spain round, Romanesque type columns instead of
from Portugal, and although the early history of piers. The whole interior is of one scheme and
Moorish occupation was similar in both coun- design.
tries, the artistic development differs. The two The Jeronimo Monastery at Belem, now a
peoples are totally dissimilar in character and suburb of Lisbon, was the last great Portuguese
personality and they have been separate entities Gothic structure (637). It was built in the early
for hundreds of years. Not a great deal survives sixteenth century. The church is a rich example
in Portugal from the Gothic era. Partly this is of late Gothic work with a fine sculptured portal
because so much Medieval work was lost in the and ornamental fenestration. Inside, it is again a
great earthquake of 1755 which destroyed the hall church type. The nave has a remarkable
city of Lisbon. Three outstanding buildings Heme star vault; the remainder is almost a fan
exist in the pure Gothic style, all abbey churches design. The columns supporting the nave are
Batahla, Alcobaca and Belem. carved all over with late Gothic ornament. The
The monastery of Batahla, near Leiria, was window surrounds continue this decorative form.
founded in 1397. Built mainly in the fifteenth The whole church is in carved stone. As at
century, it is a fine architectural group. The Batahla, one of the glories of Belem is the cloisters.
facade, recently restored and cleaned, is now These are two-storeyed (638 and 603) with
easy to view as a vast space has been cleared in traceried, cusped openings and Heme vaults
front of it. The illustration (633) shows the roofing each storey. The carved decoration of
square, richly decorated facade, the flying but- column and pier shafts is rich and varied.
tressscheme of nave and choir and, on the left, Of an earlier Gothic style, in Lisbon, are the
the remarkable cloister. These have individual remains of the Carmo Convent, begun in 1385
and unusual arcade openings (636 and 606) in and partly destroyed in the earthquake, now
Manoeline style (plate 71). The church itself is retained and preserved as the archaelogical
cruciform, with apsidal east end and tall lancet museum. The former nave, open to the sky, still
windows. The interior is simple, contrasting with shows its fine and structure. Later
design
the facade and chapels. Its soaring, multi- Manoeline and Renaissance ornament appear on
clustered piers rise to a quadripartite vault. There windows and other details.
is a clerestory but no triforium. Very fine, and The Manoeline style represents, to a certain
especially richly decorated, is the octagonal extent, the Portuguese equivalent to Spanish
founder's chapel. This has a magnificent star Plateresque. It is so called after Dom Manoel I
vault (634) carried on an octagonal drum with who reigned 1495-1521, during the period when
eight two-light windows and eight piers with Portugal was establishing her new sea routes and
cusped arches below. The capitals, like those in her great navigators were exploring the world.
Wells and York Cathedrals, are of vine leaf Manoel was patron of the arts and helped to
a
design. It is a tomb chapel and all round the walls encourage the rich decoration of fine buildings.
The style, like plateresque, is essentially one of
are tombs under rich Gothic canopies.
surface decoration. The buildings were late
The Cistercian Abbey Church of Alcobaca,
nearby, was built 1 158-1223. It now has a Gothic but rich ornament, chiefly round windows
Baroque facade in golden stone (Volume 3, and doorways, was carved in motifs which were a
p. 117), but its interior presents a contrast. This
wonderful collection of sea-shells and twisted
forms.
is a large but simple Medieval hall church in
ropes intermingled with exotic oriental
The cloister openings at Batahla are of this type
white stone (635). The vaulting shafts of the tall
of design, also Belem and some of the doorways
piers are unusual in that they do not descend to
187
gothic: i i 50-1 600
at Alcobaca. The Tower of Belem, built opposite which is not heavily ornamented. The modern
to the monastery, on the spot at the edge of the main road through Rumania from the Hungarian
Tagus estuary where the navigators sailed from, border at Oradea to Bucharest runs through the
is a fine example (523 and 614). Another building Carpathian mountains and also through the
with some fine Manoeline carving is the Templar's towns where most remains are situated: Cluj,
Monastery, the Convent of Christ, at Tomar, north Alba Iulia, Sibiu, Brasov, Sinaia. Sighisoara and
of Lisbon. The monastery is on a hill above the Bran are not far from this road.
modern town. The round twelfth century church S. Michael's Church in Cluj is one of the best
leads into the late Gothic portion which includes examples of pure Gothic design in Rumania. It
the chapter house. There are two remarkable was built during the fourteenth and fifteenth
windows here, a circular one on the church and centuries, but has a nineteenth century tower,
an ornate, rectangular window in the chapter and has been excellently restored recently (640).
house. This has a frame displaying a riot of It is a hall church with an apsidal ended short
decorative forms carved in stone, including all chancel which has tall, geometric traceried
kinds of marine motifs: seaweed, coral, cables, windows. The graceful piers extend upwards to
fishing nets mixed up with heraldry and plant the quadripartite and star vaults without any
life. The window is by Diogo de Arruda (plate interruption from capitals. It is a finely pro-
69). There are seven cloisters; an interesting portioned, simple church of considerable size.
Gothic one (604), some mixtures of styles and an Alba Iulia Cathedral was described on p. 61. It
excellent Renaissance example (Volume 3, p. 163). was given a Gothic chancel in 1320-56 which is
apsidal with lancet fenestration. There are several
Gothic buildings in Sibiu, which is a remarkably
Eastern Europe unspoilt Medieval town. Several town gateways
remain, as in the Piata Republica and, nearby in the
Rumania
Piata Grivita, is the tall, Gothic style church with
It is difficult for the student to trace specific its six pointed gable facade.
buildings in eastern Europe as frontiers here Further east is the larger town of Brasov which
have been moved a great deal during the twen- still possesses a number of Gothic monuments.
tieth century and especially since 1939. In The Black Church is the best known. It is a tall,
consequence, the names of places are completely plain building on
the exterior with narrow,
altered. This is particularly true of Rumania geometric traceried windows. The east end is
and Hungary. Present day Rumania is much apsidal at the west is a tall tower. The best view
;
larger than it used to be, and comprises much of is from the hillside opposite (639) as the church
what was Hungary, while the U.S.S.R. possesses is hemmed in in the centre of the town. The interior
some of the lands which were Polish and Ruman- is in good repair and of unusual design. The nave
ian. In this book monuments will be found listed is two-storeyed with cusped, ogee arches sup-
under their present day Rumanian nomenclature, porting a gallery. The one-storeyed choir rises to
not Hungarian, as is common practice. the considerable height of the church. Here are
Rumania today is a large country which posses- tall, octagonal piers with strange voluted capitals
ses a wealth of architecture from the Medieval set up near to the groined vault. Also in Brasov is
period. Much of this, as in the U.S.S.R., con- the town hall (641) and the Greek Orthodox
tinued to be Byzantine in form till well into the Church of S. Nicholas, begun in 1595 but not
seventeenth century. This work is described in completed till 1750.
Volume 1, p. 130. The remainder is derived from Also in Gothic style are some of the many
differing sources and influences so is varied in fortified structures in Rumania. In the romantic
style. Buildings are of stone or timber and a vein of a Carpathian castle are the mountain
few are in brick. The country is partly moun- strong-holds at Bran and Hunedoara. Bran Castle
tainous and there an abundance of both stone
is is perched on top of a wooded hill, impregnable
and wood. The most pure Gothic structures are and difficult of access, not far from Brasov (545).
not very common. They are chiefly of stone and Just south of Deva is the fifteenth century castle of
follow mainly a middle period Gothic style Hunedoara, which is even more unapproachable
GOTHIC IN RUMANIA
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Gothic: 1 1 50-1 600
(548). There is a fine fifteenth century chapel and In Iasi (Jassy), the ancient capital of Moldavia,
hall ; extensions and alterations were made in is a most Medieval church, built as late
original
the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. At as the seventeenth
century, but a Gothic/
Sighisoara, north-west of Brasov, is the fifteenth Byzantine structure with all-over decoration on
century fortified church. the exterior of an eastern type reminiscent of the
The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries also saw giralda at Seville (645). This is the Church of
the construction of fortified monastic settlements. the Three Hierarchs and is carved in stone lace-
Most of these have been altered or added to in work pattern intermingled with Medieval arcad-
later ages. Especially interesting examples are ing.
those of Dragomirna, Putna and Sucevita. They There is also the tradition of timber architecture,
are all fortresses as well as monasteries and are typical of all the heavily forested countries of
surrounded by buttressed walls with mural eastern Europe. These have been mentioned
defence towers. Inside the rectangular court is with regard to the U.S.S.R. (p. 149). Rumania
built the church and other monastic structures. possesses more surviving examples of this type
The Medieval but the buildings
fortifications are of structure than elsewhere and a vast quantity
within, good examples of their type, stem from continued to be built until the early nineteenth
Gothic, Renaissance and Byzantine sources and century in rural areas. Though there are still
were added at different periods. examples scattered throughout the country, we
These monasteries are all in Moldavia in the are indebted for their extensive and varied col-
north-east part of Rumania, the most remote lection to the magnificent Village Museum in
from centres of population and sharing a border Bucharest. Here, almost in the centre of the
with the U.S.S.R. This is the least known region city, in the park surrounding the beautiful
of the country but, architecturally, the most Lake Herastrau, are 15 acres of an open air site.
interesting, for here are the unique Moldavian This is planted with trees and shrubs and laid
painted churches. Sucevita monastery contains one out with grass and paths, with an extensive
of these churches, built 1548. Others include selection of structures from all over Rumania,
Voronets (644), Neamt
Moldovita and
(642), re-erected here to their original manner. There
Humor. They stem from the fifteenth and
all are churches, houses, farmsteads, cattle stalls,
sixteenth centuries and are covered in fresco wells, workshops, portals and many other struc-
paintings on the exterior as well as inside. Like tures. Mainly they are constructed with solid
the French cathedral portals, they tell the Bible timber logs, dovetailed and set on a stone or brick
story and are teachers of Christianity to an base. Roofing is by wooden shingles and these
illiterate population. Apart from their beauty are extended to cover a variety of tall steeples
and originality, they are also a mystery. It is still and belfries. Many of the solid wood structures
not known how these exterior frescoes have are beautifully carved, for example window
lasted in a severe central European climate for frames, furniture, balconies, entrance portals.
400 years. The freshness of the colours is remark- Some structures are mud and
of brick with
able. All that is known is that the lime applied to whitewash facing and many have thatched roofs.
the walls was kept in pits filled with water for Some houses are built with the lower part for
three years before use and that the apprentices animals and the upper for the family. Others are
daily skimmed from the water, removing
a film constructed three-quarters underground with a
the impurities from the lime. Sucevita and sloping passage downwards from the front door
Voronets Churches are the finest examples. They which is at thatched roof level.
are aglow with glorious colours. Voronets is The churches are the most striking buildings in
only a tiny church but Sucevita is large. On the this medium. The typical layout can be seen in,
exterior are frescoes showing vividly Heaven, for example, an eighteenth century church from
Earth and Hell in a multitude of figures and Turea near Cluj and another of 1722 from
scenes.The work is two-dimensional; there is Dragomiresti in Moldavia. Both have a pro-naos,
no perspective, yet these are masterpieces of a naos and chancel. Inside, they are subdivided
great quality. by vast beams of solid timber. The tall steeple is
190
REGIONAL MEDIEVAL IN MOLDAVIA AND THE CARPATHIANS
642 Neamt Monastery Church,
Moldavia, 7497
643 Village timber Church, Rucar,
near Brasov, c. 7650. (Church
now at Tekirghiol)
644 Painted Monastery Church,
Voronet Moldavia, sixteenth
,
century
645 Three Hierarchs Church, lafi,
Moldavia, i6jy
set up over the pro-naos. Upright baulks of wood painted all over inside, as is also the naos barrel
lean slightly inwards towards the narrow steeple, vaulted roof, with biblical scenes.
supporting cross beams on an X pattern. Floors
are of wood. Wood shingles cover the roofing
U.S.S.R.
and steeple. There are wide eaves for heavy snow.
In the Dragomiresfi Church, the naos is barrel There was, as mentioned earlier (p. 149), little
vaulted in wood. The chancel screen is richly Gothic architecture in the Soviet Union. Two
carved and all the walls and roof are painted in examples are illustrated the Kremlin at Rostov
;
bright colours. Windows are tiny. The eastern (562), which is still largely Byzantine (Volume 3 p.
end is apsidal, in pentagonal form. The great 163) and the remarkable Church of the Ascension
timbers are dovetailed into one another to turn at Kolomonskoe (560). This is a building which still
the corners. defies classification by scholars. It is a brick

The example illustrated in Fig. 643 is not in the church, immensely tall, of octagonal structure,
Museum but in Tekirghiol. This is a small spa bearing a great weight on the lower galleried
on the Black Sea near Constantza. The church arcades. It possesses the Gothic quality of
belonged to the Carpathian mountain village of verticality but is not Gothic in design or form. It
Rucar and was given to Tekirghiol because, in is nearer to the tall, wooden tent churches of
1930, so many people from Rucar had been cured northern Russia but, though this has been sug-
of their ailments by the waters and mud treatment gested, concrete evidence is lacking for its
of the spa at Tekirghiol, that they decided the dependence, in brick, on these wooden forms.
only thing they could give to express their This is a votive church, built in 1 532 as part of the
gratitude was their most precious possession — Tsar's country residence near Moscow (Basil
the village church. It now stands, 400 miles III). If this unusual and fine building were in
from its birthplace, on the hillside above the western Europe, situated as it is in open country
restorative Lake Tekirghiol, the only building in so near to the capital and alongside the river
the town of any architectural merit. It has been (Moskva), the surroundings would have been
erected in the courtyard of a holiday home for landscaped with lawns, flower beds and paths as a
priests of the Greek Orthodox Church. It is a place to visit. Here, in addition, are the Church
tiny but beautiful example of craftsmanship. In At Dyakova (Volume 1, p. 142) and other later
layout it is similar to those in the Village Museum buildings of Byzantine style, but the place is
with pro-naos, naos and chancel

in Bucharest, untouched country, undeveloped and visited by
and wood partitions between. The chancel is few.
192
Glossary
The reference figures in brackets refer to illustrations in
the text.
Abacus The top member of a capital, usually a square Chevet Term given to a circular or polygonal apse when
or curved-sided slab of stone or marble (400). surrounded by an ambulatory from which radiate
Abutment A mass of masonry or brickwork from
solid chapels (428).
which an arch springs and against which it abuts (398). Chevron ornament Romanesque decoration in zig-
Alcazar A Spanish word for a castle or fortress (628). zag form (395).
Ambulatory A passage or aisle giving access in a church Cimborio Spanish term for lantern or fenestrated
between the choir with high altar and the exterior apse cupola (472).
(544)- Clerestory, Clearstory The upper storey in a church

Apse Semicircular or polygonal termination to an generally pierced by a row of windows (532).
church most commonly to be found on the eastern or Conch The domed ceiling of a semicircular apse (326).
transeptal elevations (321). Corbel table A projecting section of wall supported on
Arcade A series of arches, open or closed with masonry, corbels (carved blocks of stone or wood) and generally
supported on columns or piers (287). forming a parapet.
Arcuated construction Wherein the structure is sup- Crocket A projecting block of stone carved in Gothic
ported on arches (509). foliage on the inclined sides of pinnacles and canopies
(5i6).
Articulation The designing, defining and dividing up
of a facade into vertical and horizontal architectural Crossing The central area in a cruciform church where
members. the transepts cross the nave and choir arm. Above this
space is generally constructed a tower or cupola (493,
Ashlar Hewn and squared stones prepared for
building. 494)
Astragal The moulding at the top of a column and

Cruciform A ground plan based on the form of a cross
(422).
below the capital (404).
Cusp Point forming the foliations in Gothic tracery
(457)-
Barbican Outer defence to a city or castle. Generally a
double tower over a gate or bridge (546). Domical vault A groined or ribbed vault where the
Barrel vault A continuous vault in semicircular section diagonal groins or ribs are semicircular in form so
like a tunnel (319). causing the centre of the vaulted bay to rise higher
than the side arches, as in a low dome.
Basilica A
church plan, seen particularly in Italy and
France, of rectangular form generally with an apse at
Finial Ornament finishing the apex of a roof, gable,
one end. Usually such a church was divided internally
pinnacle, newel, canopy, etc. (610).
into nave and aisles by columns or piers which
Fleche French term for a slender spire commonly to be
originally supported a timber roof. Earlier examples
found over the crossing on a Gothic church (427)-
had no transepts. This plan was based upon the
basilica of ancient Rome which was a hall of justice
Greek cross plan A cruciform ground plan where the
and a centre for commercial exchange. It was adopted
four arms of the cross are of equal length.
by early Christians for their churches and from these
the medieval adaptations were made (268).
Hall church One in which the vaulting height of the
is the same. Such a church
has,
entire building interior
CapitalThe crowning feature of a column or pier (604). therefore,no triforium or clerestory. Most commonly
and areas
found in Gothic design in Italy, Scandinavia
Centering A structure, usually made of wood, set up to
complete. of German influence (522, 538).
support a vault or arch until construction is
193
GLOSSARY
Intersecting vault Where two vaults, either of semi- Solar Medieval term for an upper room, usually the
circular or pointed section, meet and intersect at right private sitting room of the owner of the house.
angles. The most usual instance is in the crossing of a Squinch Arches placed diagonally across the internal
church where transepts cross nave and choir (315). angles of a tower to convert the square form into an
octagonal base to support a spire.
Lantern Structure for ventilation and light. Often
surmounting a tower or dome (622). Stave church Medieval wooden stave or mast
churches of Scandinavia constructed in self-contained
Latin cross plan A cruciform church ground plan
units. The walls, the stave screens, rest upon the
where the nave is longer than the other three arms
timber sleepers below but do not take weight or thrust.
(423)-
This is taken upon the skeleton framework of poles or
Lierne From the French Her = to tie. A short, interme- masts which are set into the timber ground sills, then
diate rib in Gothic vaulting which is not a ridge rib nor attached to the staves (365, 371).
rises from the impost (468).
Stilted arch A round arch having its springing line
Lintel The horizontal stone slab or timber beam span- higher than the level of the impost mouldings (300).
ning an opening and supported on columns or walls
String course A moulding or projecting course set
(398)
horizontally along the elevation of a building.
Machicolation A parapet in medieval fortified build-

Tierceron An intermediate rib in Gothic ribbed vault-
ings which has openings in its base between support-
ing which extends from the vault springing to the
ing corbels for dropping missiles upon an enemy
ridge rib (570).
(48a).
Tracery The ornamental stonework in the head of a
Manoeline Portuguese decorative style of the early
Gothic window (456).
sixteenth century named after Dom Manoel I (1495-
Transept The arms of a cruciform church set at right
1521) (plate 69).
angles to the nave and choir. Transepts are generally
Mozarabic A style of architecture in medieval Spain
aligned north and south (339).
named after the Mozarabs who were Christians owing
allegiance to a Moorish King but permitted to practise
Triforium The first floor intermediate stage of a medie-
val church between the nave arcade and the clerestory.
Christianity (261).
The triforium is usually arcaded and may have a
Pilaster strip Also known as Lesene, a low relief stone passage behind this which extends all round the
strip with the appearance of a pilaster but with only church at this level (293).
decorative, not structural purpose (251).
Trumeau A French term which is used to refer to the
Plateresque A form of rich, surface ornament in pier between two openings or, more commonly in
Spanish architecture used in both Gothic and Renais- Gothic architecture, the pier dividing a large portal
sance buildings. The term is derived from plateria- into two parts (plates 56, 61).
= silverwork (625). Tympanum The area of walling between the lintel of a
Podium A continuous projecting base or pedestal. doorway and the arch above it. Tympana are generally
carved and/or sculptured (plates 58, 62).
Retablo An altar piece or framing enclosing painted
panels above an altar. A Spanish word used especially Undercroft A chamber partly or wholly below ground.
when referring to Spanish architecture. In a church this would be a crypt, in a house or castle it
Relieving arch Is constructed in order to prevent a would be used for storage (317).
weight of masonry above it from crushing the lintel

Vault An arched roof covering (581).
below it.
Vaulting bay The rectangular or square area bounded
Segmental arch A round arch forming a segment of a by columns or piers and covered by a stone vault.
circle, its centre below the springing line (278). Vaulting boss A carved decorative feature set over the
Set-off A sloping or horizontal member connecting the intersections of a ribbed vault to hide the junctions
lower and thicker part of a wall or buttress with the (453)-
receding upper part (520). Vault springing The point at which the vault ribs
Shaft A column between its capital and base (364). spring upwards from the capital, corbel or arch impost
Spandrel Triangular space formed between an arch (550).
and the rectangle of outer mouldings as in a doorway. Voussoir The wedge-shaped stones which compose an
Generally decorated by carving (388). arch (272).
194
1 1
Bibliography
A select list of books, classified by country, recom-
mended for further reading.
Europe in General Rostov, S., A History of Architecture: Settings and

Rituals, Oxford University Press, 1985
Allsopp, B., Romanesque Architecture, Arthur Barker, Rrinsky, C. H., Synagogues of Europe, The MIT Press,
1971 1986
Allsopp, B., Booton, H. W., and Clark, U., The Great Rubach, H. E., Romanesque Architecture, Abrams, New
Tradition of Western Architecture, A. and C. Black, 1966 York, 1975
Anderson, W., TheRiseofthe Gothic, Hutchinson, 1985 Runstler, G., Romanesque Art in Europe, Thames and
Benevolo, L., The History of the City, The MIT Press, Hudson, 1969
1986 Lincoln, E. F., The Medieval Legacy, MacGibbon and
Branner, R., Gothic Architecture, Prentice-Hall Inter- Ree, 1 96
national, 1 96 Muschenheim, W., Elements of the Art of Architecture,
Busch, H., and Lohse, B., Gothic Europe, Batsford, Thames and Hudson, 1965
1959; Romanesque Europe, Batsford, i960 Nebolsine, G., Journey into Romanesque, Weidenfeld
Camesasca, E., History of the House, Collins, 1971 and Nicolson, 1969
Cichy, B., Great Ages of Architecture, Oldbourne, 1964 Norwich, J. J. Ed., Great Architecture of the World,
Mitchell Beazley, 1975
Conant, K. J., Carolingian and Romanesque Architec-
ture, Pelican History of Art Series, Penguin, 1979 Nuttgens, P., The Story of Architecture, Phaidon Press,
1983; The World's Great Architecture, Hamlyn, 1980
Coppleston, T., Ed., World Architecture, Hamlyn,
1963 Pevsner, N., An Outline of European Architecture,
Fleming, Honour, H., and Pevsner, N., The Penguin

Penguin, 1961; A History of Building Types, Thames
J.
and Hudson, 1984
Dictionary of Architecture, Penguin, 1977
Placzek, A. R., Ed., Macmillan Encyclopedia of Archi-
Fletcher, Banister, A History of Architecture, Butter-
tects (4 Vols) Collier Macmillan, 1982
worth, 1987
Raeburn, M., Ed., Architecture of the Western World,
Foster, M., The Principles of Architecture, Phaidon
Orbis Publishing, 1980; An Outline of World Architec-
Press, 1983
ture, Octopus Books, 1973
Frankl, P., Gothic Architecture, Pelican History of Art
Richards, I., Abbeys of Europe, Hamlyn, 1968
Series, Penguin, 1962
Richards, J. M., Ed., Who's Who in Architecture from
Gombrich, E., The Story of Art, Phaidon Press, 1972
1400 to the Present Day, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1977
Grodecki, L., Gothic Architecture, Abrams, New York, Prentice-Hall
Saalman, H., Medieval Architecture,
1977 International
Harris, J.,and Lever, J., Illustrated Glossary of Archi- Medieval Castles and
Schuerl, W. F., Cities, 1978
tecture 850-1830, Faber and Faber, 1966
Sitwell, S., Gothic Europe, Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
Harvey, J., The Gothic World, Batsford, 1950
1969
Hindley, G., Castles of Europe, Hamlyn, 1968
Stewart, C, Early Christian, Byzantine and Romanes-
Hoar, F., European Architecture, Evans, 1967 que Architecture (Simpson's History of Architectural
Honour, H., and Fleming, J., A World History of Art, Development), Longmans, Green and Co., 1965; Gothic
Macmillan, 1982 Architecture (Simpson's History of Architectural Deve-
lopment), Longmans, Green and Co., 1965
Jordan, R. Furneaux, A Concise History of Western
Stierlin, H., Encyclopaedia of World
Architecture,
Architecture, Thames and Hudson, 1969; European
Architecture in Colour, Thames and Hudson, 1961
Macmillan, 1983
195
1
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Trachtenberg, M., and Hyman, I., Architecture from Johnson, P., British Castles, Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
Prehistory to Post-Modernism, Academy Editions, 1986 1979; British Cathedrals, Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
Verzone, P., From Theodoric Charlemagne : A History

to
1980
of the Dark Ages in the West, Methuen, 1967 Jones, E., and Woodward, C, The Architecture of
London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1983
Watkin, D., A History of Western Architecture, Barrie
and Jenkins, 1986 Little, B., Architecture in Norman Britain, Batsford,
Yarwood, D., Encyclopaedia of Architecture, Batsford, 1985
1985; Chronology of Western Architecture, Batsford, Lloyd, N., History of the English House, The Architec-
1987 tural Press, 1975; A History of English Brickwork,
Antique Collectors' Club, 1983
Petzch, H., Architecture in Scotland, Longman Group,
1971
Britain
Pevsner, N., and Metcalf, P., The Cathedrals of
Baker, J., English Stained Glass, Thames and Hudson, England, (2 Vols), Viking, 1986
i960
Saunders, A., The Art and Architecture of London,
Balcombe, G., History of Building: Styles, Methods and Phaidon, 1984
Materials, Batsford, 1985
Webb, G., Architecture in Britain in the Middle Ages,
Braun, H., Elements of English Architecture, David and Pelican History of Art Series, Penguin, 1956
Charles, 1973; English Abbeys, Faber and Faber, 1971
Wood, M., The English Mediaeval House, Bracken
Brunskill, R. W., Traditional Buildings of Britain, Books, 1983
Gollancz, 1982
Wright, J., Brick Building in England, Middle Ages to
Brunskill, R. W. and Clifton-Taylor, A., English I 55°, John Baker, 1972
Brickwork, Ward Lock, 1977
Yarwood, D., The Architecture of Britain, Batsford,
Butler, L., and Given-Wilson, C, Medieval Monas- 1980; Outline of English Architecture, Batsford, 1977;
teries of Great Britain, Michael Joseph, 1979 English Interiors, Lutterworth Press, 1984; The English
Clifton-Taylor, A., The Pattern of English Building, Home, Batsford, 1979
Faber and Faber, 1972; English Parish Churches as
Works of Art, Batsford, 1974; The Cathedrals of England, Bulgaria
Thames and Hudson, 1967
Stamov, S., Ed., The Architectural Heritage of Bulgaria,
Clifton-Taylor, A., and Ireson, A. S., English Stone
State Publishing House Tehnika, Sofia, 1972
Building, Gollancz, 1983
Cook, O., The English House Through Seven Centuries,

Whittet Books, 1983 Czechoslovakia
Cook, O., and Smith, E., English Abbeys and Priories, Knox, B., Bohemia and Moravia, Faber and Faber, 1962
Thames and Hudson, i960
Craig, M., The Architecture of Ireland, Batsford, 1982 France
Dunbar, J. G., The Architecture of Scotland, Batsford,
Adams, H., Mont-Saint Michel and Chartres, Princeton
1978 University Press, 1981
Girouard, M., Life Country House, Yale
in the English
Blomfield, R., A History of French Architecture (2
University Press, 1978; Cities and People, Yale Univer-
Vols), Bell, 191
sity Press, 1985
Branner, R., Burgundian Gothic Architecture, Zwem-
Harvey, J., Cathedrals of England and Wales, Batsford, mer, 1985
1978; The Mediaeval Architect, Wayland Publishers,
Gouvion, C. and Philippe, D., Chateaux of the Loire,
1972
Thames and Hudson, 1986
Hewett, C. A., English Cathedral and Monastic Carpen-
Rodin, A., The Cathedrals of France, Hamlyn, 1965
try, Phillimore, 1985
Hilling, J. B., The Historic Architecture of Wales,

University of Wales Press, 1976 Germany
Ison, I., and W., English Church Architecture Through Baum, J., and Schmidt-Glassner, H., German Cathed-
the Ages, Arthur Barker, 1972 rals, Thames and Hudson, 1956
196
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Italy Romania
Arslam, E., Gothic Architecture in Venice, Phaidon, Cioculescu, S., and others, Romania, Meridiane,
1972 Bucharest, 1967; Monuments of Religious Art in
Roma-
Bergere, T., and R., The Story of St. Peter's, Dodd, nia, Carpati, Bucharest
Mead, New York, 1966

Coarelli, F., and Santucci, U., Arte nel Mezzogiorno,
Russia (USSR)
Editalia, Rome, 1966 Berton, K., Moscow, Studio Vista, 1977
Franklin, J. W., The Cathedrals of Italy Batsford, 1958,
Faenson, H., and Ivanov, V., Early Russian Architec-
Godfrey, F. M., Italian Architecture up to 1750, ture, Elek, 1975
Tiranti, 1971 Hamilton, G. H., The Art and Architecture of Russia,
Gunton, L., Rome's Historic Churches, Allen and Pelican History of Art Series, Penguin,
1954
Unwin, 1969 Ikonnikov, A., Russian Architecture of the Soviet Period,
Male, E., The Early Churches of Rome, Benn, i960 Raduga Publishers, Moscow (English translation), 1988
White, J., Art and Architecture in Italy 12 50-1 400, Voyce, A., The Art and Architecture of Medieval Russia,
Pelican History of Art Series, Penguin, 1966 University of Oklahoma Press, 1967
Yarwood, D., The Architecture of Italy, Chatto and

Windus, 1970 Scandinavia
Faber, T., A History of Danish Architecture, Det Danske

Poland Selskab, 1964
Dobrzycki, J., Cracow: Landscape and Architecture, Kavli, G., Norwegian Architecture, Batsford, 1958
Arkady, Warsaw, 1967 Richards, M., 800 Years of Finnish Architecture,
J.
Jankowski, S., and Rofalski, P., Warsaw: a Portrait of David and Charles, 1978
the City, Arkady, Warsaw, 1979
Knox, B., The Architecture of Poland, Barrie and Spain and Portugal
Jenkins, 1971 Dieterich, A., and Boger, B., Portrait of Spain, Oliver
Kostrowicki, I. and J., Poland, Arkady, Warsaw, 1980 and Boyd, 1958
Stankiewicz, J., Gdansk, Arkady, Warsaw, 1971 Harvey, J., The Cathedrals of Spain, Batsford, 1957
Zachwatowicz, J., Polish Architecture, Arkady, War- Weissmuller, A. A., Castles from the Heart of Spain,
saw, 1967 Barrie and Rockliff, 1967
197
Index
Buildings are listed under the names Bande, Church of S. Comba 6 Bran Castle 188; 545
of towns or villages. Persons are Banos de Cerrato, Church of S. Juan Bra§ov:
generally listed under the surname or Bautista 6; 258, 393 Black Church 188; 639
second name. Line illustrations are Barcelona: Church of S. Nicholas 188
printed in bold type. Cathedral 175; 513 Town Hall 188; 641
Church of S. Maria del Mar 179 Bristol, Church of S. Mary Redcliffe
Aachen Cathedral (Palatine Chapel) Church of S. Maria del Pino 179 102
4; 255 Monastery of Las Huelgas, 175; Brixworth, Saxon church 250, 392
Aarhus Cathedral 152; 565 620 Brno:
Abbeville, Church of S. Wulfram 91; Palacio de la Audiencia 181 Church of S. Jakob (James) 134;
5i6 Barfreston Church 37 538
Aigues Mortes, Medieval town 93; Bari, Church of S. Nicola 31; 388, Town Hall 136
446 425; plate 48 Brouwershaven, Grote Kerk 139; 544
Alba Iulia Cathedral 61, 64, 188; Barisano da Trani 30 Bruges:
348, 349 Barton-on-Humber, Saxon church 6 Halles and belfry 1 16; 500
Albi Cathedral 89, 91; 461 Basle Minster (cathedral) 59, 125; Town Hall 1
13
Alcobaca Abbey Church 187; 635 385. 519 Brunswick, Altes Rathaus 125; 509
Amalfi Cathedral 29; 377 Batahla Monastery 187; 606, 633, Brussels:
Amiens Cathedral 86; 431, 464; 634, 636; plate 71 Cathedral 108, 113; 490, 612; plate
plate 61 Bath Abbey 102; 480 63
Amsterdam, Oude Kerk 139 Bayeux Cathedral 87; 432 Town Hall 113; 495
Angers: Beaumaris Castle 105 Bucharest, Village Museum 190
Cathedral 15 Beauvais Cathedral 89 Budapest, Coronation Church of S.
Mural Towers 93 Belem: Matthias 130; 486, 527
Angouleme Cathedral 17; 273, 376, Jeronimo Monastery 187; 603, 637, Buildwas Abbey 37, 100
384, 422 638 Burgos:
Antelami, Benedetto 25 Tower of Belem 188; 523, 614 Cathedral 173; 472, 616
Antwerp: Bergen: Puerta de S. Maria 184
Cathedral 108, 113; 492-494 Church of S. Mary 72
Grand Place 1 16 Haakonshalle 155; 572 Caen:
Steen, The 59, 61; 340 Berne Cathedral 125 Church of La Trinite (L'Abbaye-
Vieille Boucherie 1 16; 498 Beziers Cathedral 89 aux-Dames) 11; 263
Aosta Cathedral 24 Bitonto Cathedral 31; 417; plate 47 Church of S. Etienne (L'Abbaye-
Aries, Church of S. Trophime 10, Bjernede Church 68; 358 aux-Hommes) 1; 264, 265, 1
21:389,419 Blois Chateau 95 398

Arras, Town Hall, 91 Boarhunt, Saxon church 6; 246 Church of S. Pierre 91; 437
Arrudo, Diogo de 188 Bogense Church 152 Caernarvon Castle 105
Assisi: Bologna: Caerphilly Castle 105
Cathedral of S. Rufino 29 Asinelli tower 30 Cahors:
Church of S. Francesco 29; 163 Garisenda tower 30 Bridge, Pont Valentre 91; 444
Asturian architecture 6; 258—260 Bolton Abbey 100 Cathedral 17
Autun Cathedral 13; 266 Bonanno of Pisa 26, 31 Cambio, Arnolfo di 163
Auxerre, Church of S. Germain 4 Boothby Pagnell Manor House, 105 Cambridge University:
Avignon: Borgund, Church of S. Andrew 72; Jesus College 108
Palace of the Popes 91, 93 367, 370, 371 King's College, Chapel 102
Pont S. Benezet 22; 278 Boston, Church of S. Botolph 102; S. John's College 108; 485
Avila: 476 Canosa Cathedral 31
Abbey Church of S. Vincent 44 Bourges: Canterbury Cathedral 100, 102; 317,
Cathedral 44; 311 Cathedral 87; 434 375. 466, 467
City walls and gates 44; 310 House of Jacques Coeur 95; 441 Carcassonne:
Brad ford -on -Avon, Church of S. Cathedral 89
Bamberg Cathedral 1 16; 501; plates Lawrence 6 Medieval city 93; 445, 447
66, 70 Bradwell, Saxon church 6 Carlisle Cathedral, 456
198
INDEX
Castel del Monte, 167 Escomb, Saxon church 6 Gotland, Island of:
Castle Coca 184; 628 Esztergom Cathedral 61 Larbro Church 68
Castle Hedingham 37 Eton College Chapel 102 Visby 158
Castle Rising Church 387 Evora Cathedral, 47 Grandson, Church of S. Jean 55;
Cefalu Cathedral 31; 292 Exeter Cathedral 37, 100 418
Chartres Cathedral 81, 86; 433, 457; Great Chalfield Manor House 106
plates 58-60 Fantoft, Stave church 72 Greensted Church 6
Chaumont Chateau 95; 442 Ferrara: Gripsholm Castle 161
Chauvigny, Church of S. Pierre 17; Castello degli Estense 167 Guadalajara, Palacio del Infantando
plate 43 Cathedral 25 181; 465
Chelmo, Church of the Assumption Fleury Abbey (S. Benoit-sur-Loire) Guas, Enrique 181
145 13, 15; 268 Guas, Juan 181
Cirencester, Church of S. John 102; Florence: Gubbio, Palazzo dei Consoli 165
478 Cathedral 30, 163; 290, 584, 585 Guglielmo 23, 31
Ciudad Rodrigo Cathedral 44 Church of Croce 165
S.
Cluj, Church of S. Michael 188; 640 Church of Miniato al Monte
S. Haarlem:
Cluny Abbey 13 29-30, 281 Amsterdamsche Poort 1 39; 546
Coggeshall, Paycocke's House 106 Palazzo Vecchio (town hall) 165; Cathedral 138
Coimbra, Old Cathedral (Se Velha) 591 Hampton Court Palace 102
47; 305. 397 Ponte Vecchio Hanover:
Colchester Castle 37 Fontevrault Abbey Church: 15; 270 Marktkirche 145; 551
Cologne: Kitchen 15; 276 Town Hall, 145; 551
Cathedral 116, 118; 504, 505 Fossanova Abbey Church 163 Harkeberga Church 160
Church of the Apostles 50, 52; Fountains Abbey 37, 100 Harlech Castle 105
328, 330 Freckenhorst Abbey Church 52; 332; Hattula Church 156
Church of S. Geroen 52; 329 plate 49 Hedared, Stave church, 70
Church of S. Maria in Capitol 52 Freiburg Minster 121 Helsingor, Church of S. Mary 152;
Church of S. Martin 52 Fribourg: 567
Church of S. Partaleon 52 Cathedral 125; 520 Hengrave Hall 105
Como, Church of S. Abbondio 24 Pont de Berne 125 Hereford Cathedral 37, 100
Compiegne, Town Hall 91; 440 Town Hall 125 Herland, Hugh 102
Compton Wynyates Manor House Fromista, Church of S. Martin 44; Herstmonceux Castle 105; 482
105 308, 309, 404 's Hertogenbosch Cathedral 138; 534
Conway Castle 105 Fulda, Church of S. Michael 4; 253, Hildesheim Church of S. Michael 55
Coutances Cathedral 87; 452, 469, 254 Hollola Church 155; 576
615 Hontafion, Juan Gil de 178
Cracow: Gdansk: Horham Hall 105

Church of S. Mary 147; 559 Church of S. Mary 147 Humor Church 190
Dominican Church 145 Town Hall 149 Hunendoara Castle 188; 548
Franciscan Church 145 Germigny-des-Pres Church 4 Husaby Church 68; 361
S. Florian's Gate 147 Gerona Cathedral 175
University 149 Ghent: Iasi (Jassy), Church of the Three
Cathedral of S. Bavon 108 Hierachs 190; 645
Wawel Hill:
Grande Boucherie 16 IfHey Church, 37; 301
Cathedral (Gothic and later) 147 1
Cathedral (Romanesque) 64; Gravensteen Castle 61 Ightham Mote Manor House 105
Maison des Francs-Bateliers 116; Inkoo Church 157
350, 351
Issoire, Cathedral of S. Austremoine
Church of S. Andrew 64 499
Town Hall 113 17; 275
Giselbeetus 13 Ivrea Cathedral 24
Delft,Nieuwe Kerk 139; 541
Dinkesbiihl, Church of S. George Glastonbury:
Josselin Castle 95
121; 511 Abbey 100
Dover Castle 37 Church of S. John 102; 475
Gloucester Cathedral 37, 100; 303 Kalmar Castle 161; 580
Dragomiresti Church 190, 192
Gniezno Cathedral 558 Kalundborg Church 68; 357
Dreux, Town Hall 91 64, 147;
Kaupanger, Stave church 72
Dubrovnik, Rectors' Palace 171; 599 Gol, Stave church 72; 373
Kilpeck Church 37; 407; plate 45
Durham Cathedral 33, 35; 293-5 Goslar:
Kirkwall, Cathedral of S. Magnus 70
Cathedral narthex 55; 409
Kolin, Cathedral of S. Bartholomew
Eardisley Church 37 Kaiserpfalz 55; 335
Kaiserworth 125 134
Earl's Barton, Saxon church 6; 251
Kolomonskoe, Church of the
Eltham Palace 102 Town Hall 125
Ascension 192; 560
Ely Cathedral 33, 37, 100; 297, 451 Gothic architecture 79~!92; 427-645
199
INDEX
Konigsliitter Abbey Church 52, 55; Cathedral of S. Martino 28 Naples, Castello Nuovo 167
406, 416 Church of S. Frediano 28 Narbonne Cathedral 89
Kosice (Kassa) Cathedral of S. Church of S. Michele 28; 289 Naumburg Cathedral 1 16
Elizabeth 136 Lucera Castle 167 Neamt, Church 190; 642
Kruszwica, Collegiate Church of SS Lucerne, Kapellbriicke 518 Nuess, Church of S. Quirin 52; 333
Peter and Paul 64 Ludlow, The Feathers Inn 484 New Shoreham Church 37, 95
Kutna Hora: Lund Cathedral 68; 355, 360, 362, Niederzell, Church of SS Peter and
Church of S. Barbara 134; 531, 368; plate 53 Paul 5; 401
535 Norwich Cathedral 33, 35; 278—9
Church of S. James 136 Maastricht: Notke Bernt 158
Church of S. Jan 139; 539 Nuremberg, Frauenkirche 125; 503,
La Chaise Dieu Church 91 Church of S. Mary 61; 338 575
Langeais Chateau 95 Church of S. Servaas 61
Laon Cathedral 86 Mainz Cathedral 50; 326, 327 Oberzell, Church of S. George 5;
Larbro Church 68 Malbork (Marienburg) Castle 147; 256, 399

Lausanne Cathedral 125 557 Odense, Cathedral of S. Knud 152;
Lavenham: Malmesbury Abbey Church 37; 413 568
Church 102 Manoeline style 187-8 Olarvinlinna fortress 157
Guildhall 106 Marburg, Church of S. Elisabeth Olite Castle 184
Lebeny Church 61; 345, 346 613
121; 502, Olomouc:
Le Mans Cathedral 8i, 87; 428, 429 Maria Laach Monastery 50, 52; 324, Church of S. Maurice 136
Leominster Abbey Church 37; 405 325. 4io Town Hall 136
Leon Cathedral 81, 173; 617, 618 Markenfield Hall 105 Orvieto Cathedral, 163; 487, 586
Le Puy: Mateo, Master, 47 Oudenaarde Town Hall 113; 496
Cathedral 17, 21; 274, 277 Matthias of Arras 130 Oviedo:
Chapel of S. Michel de l'Aighuilhe Mechelen (Malines): Church of S. Maria Naranco 6; 259
2i;4i5 Cathedral 108; 462, 491 Church of S. Miguel de
Leyden, Church of S. Peter, 139; 542 Church of S. Jean 108 Lino 6; 260, 381
Lichfield Cathedral 100 Cloth Hall 116 Oxburgh Hall 105
Limburg-an-der-Lahn Cathedral 52; Medina del Campo, Castillo de la Oxford University:
322 Mota 1 84; 630 Magdalen College 106
Lincoln Cathedral 37, 100; 395, 474, Meira Abbey Church 47; 306, 378 New College 106
608 Merida, Episcopal Palace 6
Linkoping Cathedral 161; 581 Milan: Palermo Cathedral 31, 163, 165; 589
Lisbon, Carmo Convent 187 Cathedral 161 , 583
163; 582, Paris:
Little Wenham Hall 105 Church of S. Ambrogio 24 Abbey Church of S. Denis 83
Loderup Church 68; 356 Church of S. Vincenzo in Prato 5 Cathedral of Notre Dame 86; 427,
Logrono, Church of S. Maria la Mittelzell Minster 5; 257 512
Redonda 179 Modena Cathedral 25; 383, 390 Hotel de Cluny 95; 514
Logumkloster Abbey Church 152; Moissac Priory Church 17 Hotel de Sens 95; 458
566 Moldovita Church 190 La Sainte Chapelle 91
Lohja, Church of S. Lawrence 156 Molfetta Old Cathedral 3 1 ; 282 Parler, Peter 134
Lorn, Stave church 72; 365 Monnow Bridge, Monmouth 105; Parma Cathedral 25; 280
London: 481 Patrington,Church of S. Patrick 479
Tower of London, The: 37 Monreale Cathedral 31, 33; 291 Pavia, Church of S. Michele 25, 26;
The White Tower 33, 37; 302 Montepulciano, Palazzo Pubblico 408, 424
Chapel of S. John 37; 300 165 Pecs Cathedral 61
Westminster Abbey 102 Mont S. Michel Abbey 11,91; 262, Penshurst Place 105
Westminster Hall 102 435 Perigueux, Cathedral of S. Front 10,
Lorsch Monastery 4 Montsovean Castle 95 17

Louth Church 102; 477 Moreruela Abbey 47 Perna (Pernaja) Church 155; 574
Louvain: Moscow: Perpignan Cathedral 42, 89
Church of S. Jean 108; 489 Andronikhov Monastery 517 Perugia:
Church of S. Pierre 108 Church of the Nativity of the Cathedral 165
Town Hall 113; 497 Virgin in Putinki 463 Palazzo dei Priori 165
Liibeck: Mozarabic architecture 8; 261 Peterborough Cathedral 37, 100
Cathedral 141 Much Wenlock Priory plate 50 Pierrefonds Chateau 93
Holstentor 141; 552 Muiden Castle 547 Pisa:
Marienkirche 141; 549, 550 Munich, Frauenkirche 121, 125; 508 Baptistery 28; 285, 286, 414
Petrikirche 141 Murano, Island of, Cathedral of SS Campanile 28; 286, 288
Lucca: Mary and Donato 26 Camposanto 26
200
INDEX
Cathedral 26; 285, 286, 287 Rome: Church of S. Maria in Soest:

Church of S. Maria della Spina Cosmedin 29 Church of S. Patrokolus 52
165 Church of S. Maria Maggiore 473 Marienkirche-zur-Weise 121
Piazza dei Miracoli 26—8 Roskilde Cathedral 150 Solignac Abbey Church 17; 272
Pisano, Nicola 28 Rostov Kremlin 192; 562 Sopron:
Plateresque ornament 178 9, 623-5 Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber, Cathedral of S. George 130
Plock Cathedral 64 Fortified town 125 Church of S. Michael 130
Poblet Abbey 47; 601 Rouen: Church of the Holy Ghost 130
Poitiers: Cathedral 87; 471 Soro Abbey 68
Church of Notre Dame la Grande Church of S. Maclou 91 Souillac Abbey Church 17; plate 41
i5;27i Church of S. Ouen 91; 438, 470 Southwell Minster 35; 296, 609
Church of S. Hilaire 15 Palais de Justice 91 South Wraxall Manor House 106
Pomposa Church 24 Rucar Church 192; 643 Speyer Cathedral 50; 321
Porvoo Cathedral 155 Rufford Old Hall 102, 106 Spoleto Cathedral 29
Poznan, Collegiate Church of Our Stavangar Cathedral 70, 152; 364,
Lady 145 Salamanca: 366
Prague: Casa de Conchas
las 181; 459, 611 Stockholm:
Basilica of S. George 65, 130; 353, Cathedral (New) 44, 178; 623; Riddarholm Church 158
530 plate 64 Storkyrkan (Church of S.
Cathedral of S. Vitus 64, 130, 134; Cathedral (Old) 44; 313, 379 Nicholas) 158; plate 65
352, 530, 532-534 St Alban's Cathedral 37 Stralsund:
Charles Bridge 135; 530 Salerno Cathedral 29 Church of S. Mary 145; 555
Church of S. Longinus 65 Salisbury Cathedral 100; 448-450 Town Hall 145; 553
Hradcany 130; 530, plate 72 Salzburg Castle 129; 524, 526 Strangnas Cathedral 158
Palace (Vladislav Hall) 130, 134; Santiago de Compostela, Cathedral Strasbourg Cathedral 87, 1 16;
537 of S. James 10, 39, 44, 47; plate 62

New Town Hall 134 319, 396, 423 Strelzno:
Old Town Hall, 134 Portico de la Gloria; plates 42, 52 Church of S. Procopius 64
Tyn Church 134; 536 Santullano, Church of S.Julian de los Church of the Holy Trinity 64
Prato Castle 167 Prados 6 Sucevifa Monastery 190
Prenzlau, S. Mary's Church 145 Saumur Chateau 93 Sully-sur- Loire Chateau 93; 443
Pre-Romanesque architecture 1-8; S. Denis, Abbey Church 83 Szekesfehervar Cathedral 61
250-261 Segovia:
Prestburg, Priest's House 106 Alcazar 184 Tabor:
Pskov, Kremlin 563 Casa de los Picos 181 Castle 136
Cathedral 175; 621 Market Square 136; 528

Radovan, Master 61 Church of S. Cruz 179; 624 Church 136; 529
Regensburg: Church of S. Esteban 44; 309 Medieval houses 136
Cathedral 116, 118, 121; 488, 506; Church of S. Martin 44 Town Hall 136; 528
plate 67 Church of S. Millan 44; 312 Tallinn, Town Hall 150; 564
Church of S. Jakob Lonja de la Sede 629 Tarragona Cathedral 42
(Schottenkirche) 52; 394, 402 Sens Cathedral 83 Tarrasa, Church of S. Miguel 6
Seville Cathedral 175; 622 Taunton, S. Mary's Church 102

Reims Cathedral 81, 86, 87; 600, 610;
S. Gilles-du-Gard Church 21-22; Tekirghiol Rucar
see
plates 55-57
Rhodes: 39i Tewkesbury Abbey Church 37
Cathedral 171 Sherborne Abbey Church 454 Thame Park 483
Sibenik Cathedral, 171; 597. 598 Thaxted Church 102
Hospital of the Knights 171
Sibiu, Medieval town 188 Tintern Abbey 100
Mural defences 171; 525
Toledo:
Palace of the Grand Master 171 Siena:
Cathedral 163; 587, 588; plate 68 Bridge of S. Martin 184; 632
Street of the Inns 171
Town Hall 165; 591 Cathedral 173-4; 619
Ribe Cathedral 65; 354
Sighisoara Church 190 Church of S. Juan de los Reyes
Ringsted Abbey Church 68; 359
Sigtuna: i79;455.626
Ripoll Abbey Church 42; 304
Church of Maria la Blanca 179;
Ripon Minster, 100 Church of S. Lars 68
Church of S. Mary 157 627
Rochester:
Church of S. Olav 68; 369 Puerta del Sol 184
Castle 37
Tomar, Convent of Christ 47, 188;
Cathedral 37 Church of S. Per 68
604; plate 69
Rodez Cathedral 89 Skara Cathedral 160-1; 579
Toro, Collegiate Church 44;
Romainmotier Church 55; 331 S. Miguel de la Escalada Church 8;
3i8
Romanesque architecture, 8-78; 261, 380, 403
Torrelobaton Castle 184
262-426 Sodra Rada Church 70
20I
INDEX
Torrigiano, Pietro 102 Valladolid: Waltham Abbey Church 37

Torun: Church of S. Pablo 179; plates 73, Wells Cathedral 100
Church of S. John 145 74 William of Sens 100
Town Hall 149; 554 College of S. Gregorio 179; 625 Winchester Cathedral 37
Toulouse: Varnhem Abbey Church 68, 157; 363 Windsor Castle, S. George's Chapel
Church of S, Sernin 21; 269 Vasari, Giorgio 79 102; 460
Church of the Jacobins 91 439 ;
Vendome Abbey Church 91; 436 Wismar, Church of S. Mary 145
Tournai Cathedral 59; 337,339 Venice: Worcester Cathedral 100
Trani Cathedral 30; 279, 382 Ca' d'Oro 165; 590 Worms Cathedral 50; 320, 323
Travanca, Church of S. Salvador 47 Church of SS Giovanni e Paolo Worth Church 6; 386
Trier: 165 Wroclaw:
Cathedral 52; 334 Church of S. Maria Gloriosa dei Cathedral 147
Liebfrauenkirche 52 Frari 165 Church of Our Lady of the Sands
Trogir: Doge's Palace 165; 594, 602, 605 556
145. 147;
Cathedral 6, 171; 343, 344; Palazzo Franchetti 165; 593 Church of the Holy Cross 145
plate 51 Palazzo Loredan 26; 284 Monastery of S. Adalbert 145
Cipiko Palace 171; 596 Verona: Town Hall 149
Troia Cathedral 30-1; plate 46 Church of S. Zeno Maggiore 25-6;
Trondheim: 283
York Minster 100; 468
Archbishop's Palace 155 Ponte di Scagliero 165, 167; 595
Ypres, Cloth Hall 113
Cathedral 152; 570, 571 Veruela Abbey Church 47
Ystad Convent Church 157; 577
Trzebnica Abbey Church 64 Vezelay Abbey Church of S.
Turku (Abo): Madeleine 10, 13; 267, 411,
Castle 157; 575 412 Zadar:

Cathedral 155; 573 Viborg Cathedral 65 Cathedral 61; 341, 374
Tuscania, Church of S. Pietro 5; 420 Vienna, Cathedral of S. Stephen 55, Church of S. Donato 5; 252
125; 336, 521 Church of S. Grisogono 61; 342
Ulm Minster 121; 507 Villaviciosa: Zamora Cathedral 44; 316
Uppsala: Church of S. Salvador de Fuentes Zaragoza (Saragossa):
Cathedral 68, 160; 578 8 Exchange 181; 631
Church of the Holy Trinity 157 Church of S. Salvador de Priesca La Seo Cathedral 453
Urnes, Stave church, 72; 372; 6; 400 Puente di Piedra 187
plate 44 Villeneuve-les-Avignon, Fort S. Helgo 160
Zettervall,
Utrecht Cathedral 138; 540 Andre 93 Church 55, 59, 70; plate 54
Zillis
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel ZlataKoruna Abbey Church 130

Vadstena Abbey Church 157 86,93 Znojmo:
Valencia: Volterra: Church 136
Puerta de Serranos 184 Fortress 167 Town Hall 136
Silk Exchange 181 Palazzo dei Priori 165 Zsambek Abbey Church 61; 347
Valencia de Don Juan, Castle 184 Voronets Church 190; 644 Zwettl Abbey Church 129; 522
202
THE ARCHITECTURE OF EUROPE
THE MIDDLE AGES 650-1550

The Architecture of Europe series presents a far-reaching survey of European architecture, from
the time of Ancient Greece to the present day. All the major historical styles are examined, with
examples taken from every corner of Europe, to give as clear a picture as possible of the general
evolution of style and taste.
* Authoritative and concise introduction to the most important architects, buildings and
technological advances.
* Numerous line drawings and black and white photographs illuminate the text to provide a basic
source of reference.
* This volume covers the period from Pre-Romanesque to High Gothic architecture, offering a
parallel view of developments across the whole of Europe.

Volume 1 The Ancient Classical and Byzantine World 3000 BC-AD 1453
Volume 2 The Middle Ages 650-1550
Volume 3 Classical Architecture 1420-1800
Volume 4 The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
Doreen Yarwood has based this series on over 30 years of scholarly research and travel. She is
the author of several important reference works on art,
architectural and costume history.
Cover illustrations: San Miniato, Florence; photographer

Richard
Bryant; Little Moreton Hall, Cheshire,- photographer
Luanda
Lambton,- both courtesy of ARCAID; Cathedral, Siena;
photographer Dan Branch; courtesy of the Architectural 963 ~ 3

Jj| ^„°r.LL?f.."^
Association.
Printed in Great Britain
A BATSFORD BOOK
9

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THE ARCHITECTURE

THE MIDDLE AGES

B.T. Batsford Ltd, London

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

A CIP catalogue for this book is

available from the British Library

isbno 7134 6963 3

The figure numbers run consecutively through Volumes 1 to 3.

i Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque: Seventh

only western Europe is discussed and, within this in Europe, mainly by

Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque:

250 Brixworth Church, England, seventh and tenth

254 Plan, S. Michael, Fulda

Carolingian originally symmetrical and had a western entrance

In a.d. 800 Charlemagne (771-814) was crowned

256 The Island of Reichenau, in Lake Constance,

PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE: 7-13TH CENTURY

260 S. Miguel de Lino, near Oviedo, Asturian, 842-850

near Villaviciosa. The Church gave to everycommunity, large or

262 Abbey Church of Mont S. Michel, nave, 1022-1135

interiors. window with portal below. Inside is a palely

The nave, still a fine example of Burgundian

have replaced them in the cathedral nave.

typically Burgundian example. This church is

267 Abbey Church of S. Madeleine, Vezelay, Burgundy, nave, c. 1104

possesses a most interesting tower porch (clocher-

on squinches above the wide pointed crossing

and spacious. The cathedral was begun in the

(originally 22 arches now only 4)

281 Church of S. Miniato al Monte, Florence, 10 13 to

one such centre others included Parma, Cremona,

PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE I 7-13TH CENTURY

the nave. The whole decorated by

PRE-ROMANESQUE AND ROMANESQUE: 7-13TH CENTURY

zgo The Baptistery, Florence Cathedral,

Southern Italy 33 panels decorated with foliage, animals and

>g6 Southwell Minster from the north-west.

doorway and corbels and a number of churches

of the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors until 1453,

300 S. John's Chapel, White Tower, Tower of London,

301 West front, Iffley Church, Oxfordshire, c. nyo

and succour thousands of pilgrims. Today,

308 Interior looking east, Church of

interiors are easier to comprehend. Perpignan

these churches. Lombard influence shows chiefly

century from a ruined condition and with the aid

(304). Tarragona Cathedral was begun in 1171

Castile and Central Spain

The main pilgrimage route from the Pyrenees to

Roncevaux in the Pyrenees. The Romanesque

(319). There and a French style

still very fine. The drawing in Fig. 306 shows the

from a desire for an apse and altar both for abbot

ROMANESQUE IN GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND

is remarkable. with stout columns and

?J5 Imperial Palace ( Kaiserpfalz ) Goslar, Germany, eleventh century (restored)

two-storeyed chapel and the imperial apartments

Remains are scarce as most of the work has been

340 Antwerp Castle (The Steen) Belgium, tenth

Grisogono are good examples, the latter

and has a typical vault supported on rows of

J 52 S. Leonard's Crypt from the Romanesque cathedral

354 Ribe Cathedral, Denmark, begun c. 1130