Relationship Between Architecture and Art

Overview of History of Architecture (3,000 BCE - present)

Ever since Antiquity, architecture - the art of designing and constructing buildings - has always
been closely intertwined with the history of art, for at least three reasons. First, many public works
(especially religious buildings) were designed with aesthetics in mind, as well as functionality. They
were built to inspire as well as serve a public function. As a result, they involved the services of a wide
range of 'artists' and decorative craftsmen as well as labourers. Second, in many of these buildings,
the exteriors and interiors acted as showcases for fine art painting (eg. Sistine Chapel), frieze and relief
sculpture (eg. The Parthenon, European Gothic cathedrals), stained glass art (eg. Chartres Cathedral),
and other artworks like mosaics and metalwork. Thirdly, public building programs typically went hand
in hand with the development of visual art, and most major 'arts' movements (eg. Renaissance,
Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical) influenced both architecture and the fine arts.

Ancient Architecture
Early architecture had two main functions: (1) to consolidate security and power; (2) to please the
Gods. The richer the society, the more important these functions became.

Egyptian Architecture
The first great civilization to emerge around the Mediterranean basin was that of Egypt (c.3100-2040
BCE). In addition to its own written language, religion and dynastic ruling class, it developed a unique
style of Egyptian architecture, largely consisting of massive burial chambers in the form of Pyramids
(at Giza) and underground tombs (in the desolate Valley of the Kings, Luxor). Design was monumental
but not architecturally complex and employed posts and lintels, rather than arches, although Egyptian
expertise in stone had a strong influence on later Greek architecture. Famous examples of Egyptian
pyramid architecture include: The Step Pyramid of Djoser (c.2630 BCE) designed by Imhotep - one of
the greatest architects of the ancient world - and The Great Pyramid at Giza (c.2550 BCE), also called
the Pyramid of Khufu or 'Pyramid of Cheops' - the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the World, as
compiled by Antipater of Sidon (170-120 BCE). Later, during the Middle and Late Kingdoms (c.2040-
300 CE), the Egyptians constructed a series of palaces at Karnak (eg. Temple of Amon, 1530 BCE
onwards). These structures were adorned with a diverse range of artworks - few of which survive -
including murals, panel paintings, sculptures, and metalwork, depicting various Gods, deities, rulers
and symbolic animals in the unique Egyptian hieratic style of art, together with hieroglyphic
inscriptions.

Sumerian Architecture
Meanwhile, in Mesopotamia and Persia (c.3200-323 BCE), the Sumerian civilization was developing its
own unique building - a type of stepped pyramid called a ziggurat. But in contrast to the pyramids of
the Egyptian Pharaohs, ziggurats were not built as tombs but as man-made mountains to bring the
Sumerian rulers and people closer to their Gods who supposedly dwelt high up in mountains to the
east. Ziggurats were constructed from clay-fired bricks, often finished with coloured glazes.

Early Irish Architecture

Towards the end of the Stone Age, ceremonial megaliths (structures built from large stones) like the
Knowth megalithic tomb (c.3300 BCE) and Newgrange passage tomb, began to appear in Northern
Europe (This form of Megalithic art is exemplified by the Stonehenge stone circle.) Either arranged
upright in the open, or buried and roofed over to form a 'dolmen', these heavy stone structures are
believed by most archeologists to have had a religious or ritualistic function, and in some cases the
alignment of their stones reveals a sophisticated knowledge of astronomy. The complex engravings
unearthed at Newgrange mark the beginning of visual arts in Ireland. For more about ancient and
medieval buildings, please see Architectural Monuments of Ireland. For older types of historical site,
see Archeological Monuments of Ireland.

Minoan Architecture
The first European art of Classical Antiquity was created by the Minoans, based on the island of Crete.
Minoan architecture utilized a mixture of stone, mud-brick and plaster to construct elaborate palaces
(eg. Palace of Knossos c.1700-1400 BCE) as well as domed burial chambers (tholos) hidden in the hills.
Many of these buildings were decorated with colourful murals and fresco paintings, depicting
mythological animal symbols (eg. the bull) and events. Unfortunately most Minoan architecture was
destroyed by earthquakes around 1200 BCE. Crete was then taken over by the Myceneans from
mainland Greece, from where a unified Greek culture and civilization emerged a few centuries later.

Greek Architecture
The history of art and architecture in Ancient Greece is divided into three basic eras: the Archaic Period
(c.600-500 BCE), the Classical Period (c.500-323 BCE) and the Hellenistic Period (c.323-27 BCE). [See
also: Aegean art.] About 600 BCE, inspired by the theory and practice of earlier Egyptian stone masons
and builders, the Greeks set about replacing the wooden structures of their public buildings with stone
structures - a process known as 'petrification'. Limestone and marble was employed for columns and
walls, while terracotta was used for roof tiles and ornaments. Decoration was done in metal, like
bronze.

Like painters and sculptors, Greek architects enjoyed none of the enhanced status accorded to their
successors. They were not seen as artists but as tradesmen. Thus no names of architects are known
before about the 5th century BCE. The most common types of public buildings were temples,
municipal structures, theatres and sports stadiums.

Architectural Methods of Ancient Greece

Greek architecture used simple post-and-lintel building techniques. It wasn't until the Roman era that
the arch was developed in order to span greater distances. As a result, Greek architects were forced
to employ a great many more stone columns to support short horizontal beams overhead. Moreover,
they could not construct buildings with large interior spaces, without having rows of internal support
columns. The standard construction format, used in public buildings like the Hephaesteum at Athens,
employed large blocks of limestone or a light porous stone known as tuff. Marble, being scarcer and
more valuable was reserved for sculptural decoration, except in the grandest buildings, such as the
Parthenon on the Acropolis.

Greek Building Design

The typical rectangular building design was often surrounded by a columns on all four sides (eg. the
Parthenon) or more rarely at the front and rear only (eg the Temple of Athena Nike). Roofs were laid
with timber beams covered by terracotta tiles, and were not domed. Pediments (the flattened
triangular shape at each gable end of the building) were usually filled with sculptural decoration or
friezes, as was the row of lintels along the top of each side wall, between the roof and the tops of the
columns. In the late 4th and 5th centuries BCE, Greek architects began to depart from the strictly
rectangular plan of traditional temples in favour of a circular structure (the tholos), embellished with
black marble to highlight certain architectural elements and provide rich colour contrasts.

These buildings were famously adorned with a huge range of Greek sculpture - pedimental works,
friezes, reliefs and various types of free-standing statue - of a figurative nature, depicting mythological
heroes and events in Greek history and culture.

Principles of Greek Architecture: Classical Orders

The theory of Greek architecture - arguably the most influential form of classical Greek art - was based
on a system of 'Classical Orders' - rules for building design based on proportions of and between the
individual parts. This resulted in an aesthetically pleasing consistency of appearance regardless of size
or materials used. There were three orders in early Greek architecture: the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.
The Doric style was common in mainland Greece and later spread to the Greek colonies in Italy. The
Ionic style was employed in the cities of Ionia along the west coast of Turkey and other islands in the
Aegean. Where the Doric style was formal and austere, the Ionic was less restrained and more
decorative. The third style, Corinthian, came later and represented a more ornate development of the
Ionic order. The differences between these styles is most plainly visible in the ratio between the base
diameter and height of their columns. Doric architecture (exemplified by Greek structures, like the
Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens) was more popular during the Classical age, while
the Ionic style gained the upper hand during the more relaxed period of Hellenistic Art (c.323-30 BCE).

Famous Buildings of Ancient Greece

Famous examples of ancient Greek architecture include: the Acropolis complex (550-404 BCE)
including the Parthenon (447-422 BCE), the Temples at Paestum (550 BCE onwards), the Temple of
Zeus at Olympia (468-456 BCE), the Temple of Hephaistos (c.449 BCE), the Temple of Athena Nike (427
BCE), the Theatre at Delphi (c.400 BCE), the Tholos Temple of Athena Pronaia (380-360 BCE), and the
Pergamon Altar of Zeus (c.166-156 BCE).

Roman Architecture
Unlike the more creative and intellectual Greeks, the Romans were essentially practical people with a
flair for engineering, construction and military matters. In their architecture, as in their art, they
borrowed heavily from both the Etruscans (eg. in their use of hydraulics for swamp-clearing and in the
construction of arches), and also the Greeks, whom they regarded as their superiors in all visual arts.
However, without Roman art - with its genius for copying and adapting Greek styles - most of the
artistic achievements of Greek antiquity would have been lost.

Architectural Priorities of Ancient Rome

Roman architecture served the needs of the Roman state, which was keen to impress, entertain and
cater for a growing population in relatively confined urban areas. Drainage was a common problem,
as was security. This, together with Rome's growing desire to increase its power and majesty
throughout Italy and beyond, required public buildings to be imposing, large-scale and highly
functional. This is exemplified by Roman architectural achievements in drainage systems, aqueducts
(eg. the aqueduct at Segovia, 100 CE, and over 11 aqueducts in the city of Rome itself, such as Aqua
Claudia and Anio Novus), bridges (eg. the Pont du Gard) roads, municipal structures like public baths
(eg. the Baths of Caracalla and the Baths of Diocletian), sports facilities and amphitheatres (eg. the
Colosseum 72-80 CE), even central heating systems. Numerous temples and theatres were also built.
Later, as their empire spread, the Roman architects seized the opportunity to create new towns from
scratch, designing urban grid-plans based on two wide streets - a north-south axis (the cardo) and an
east-west axis (the decumanus). The town centre was located at the intersection of the two roads.
They also built upwards; for example, Ostia, a rich port city near Rome, boasted a number of 5-storey
apartment blocks.

Architectural Advances: Arches & Concrete

Roman architecture was assisted by major advances in both design and new materials. Design was
enhanced through architectural developments in the construction of arches and roof domes. Arches
improved the efficiency and capability of bridges and aqueducts (fewer support columns were needed
to support the structure), while domed roofs not only permitted the building of larger open areas
under cover, but also lent the exterior an impressive appearance of grandeur and majesty, as in several
important secular and Christian basilicas, like the Pantheon.

Developments in materials were also crucial, as chronicled by the Roman architect Vitruvius (c.78-10
BCE) in his book De Architectura. This is exemplified by the Roman invention of concrete (opus
cementicium), a mixture of lime mortar, sand, water, and stones, in the 3rd century BCE. This
exceptionally strong and convenient substitute for stone revolutionized Roman engineering and
architecture. As tile-covered concrete began to replace marble as the main building material,
architects could be more daring. Buildings were freed from the rectangular Greek design-plan (with
its undomed roofs and lines of pillars supporting flat architraves) and became less geometric and more
free-flowing.

Like their Egyptian and the Greek predecessors, architects in ancient Rome embellished their public
buildings with a wide range of artworks, including: Roman sculpture (especially reliefs, statues and
busts of the Emperor), fresco murals, and mosaics.

Famous Buildings of Ancient Rome

Two of the greatest structures of Ancient Rome were the Colosseum (the elliptical Flavian
amphitheatre in the centre of Rome) and Trajan's Column (a monument to the Emperor Trajan).
Situated to the east of the Roman Forum, the Colosseum took 8 years to build, had seating for 50,000
spectators. Historians and archeologists estimate that a staggering 500,000 people and over 1 million
wild animals perished in the 'games' at the Colosseum. Trajan's Column, located close to the Quirinal
Hill, north of the Roman Forum, was finished in 113 CE. It is renowned for its magnificent and highly
detailed spiral bas relief sculpture, which circles the shaft of the monument 23 times, and narrates
Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars. The shaft itself is made from 20 huge blocks of Carrara marble,
each weighing about 40 tons. It stands about 30 metres in height and 4 metres in width. A smaller but
no less important Roman monument was the Ara Pacis Augustae (13-9 BCE).

Impact of Politics and Religion on Roman Architecture

In 330 CE, about the time St Peter's Basilica was completed, the Roman Emperor Constantine I
declared that the city of Byzantium (later renamed Constantinople, now Istanbul in Turkey), was to be
the capital of the Roman Empire. Later, in 395 CE, following the death of Emperor Theodosius, the
empire was divided into two parts: a Western half based first in Rome until it was sacked in the 5th
century CE, then Ravenna (See Ravenna mosaics); and an eastern half based in the more secure city
of Constantinople. In addition, Christianity (previously a minority sect) was declared the sole official
religion throughout the empire. These twin developments impacted on architecture in two ways: first,
relocation to Constantinople helped to preserve and prolong Roman culture, which might otherwise
have been destroyed by the barbarian invaders of Italy; second, the emergence of Christianity
provided what became the dominant theme of architecture and the visual arts for the next 1,200
years.

Byzantine Architecture (330-554 CE)

Byzantine architects - including numerous Italians who had moved to the new capital from Italy -
continued the free-flowing tradition of Roman architecture, constructing a number of magnificent
churches and religious buildings, during the era of early Christian art, such as: the Chora Church (c.333)
the Hagia Irene (c.360) and the Church of St. Sergius and Bacchus, all in Istanbul; the Church of St.
Sophia in Sofia, Bulgaria (527-65), the awesome Hagia Sophia (532-37) which replaced the sacked
Cathedral of Constantinople, and the Church of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki. Great secular buildings
included: the Great Palace of Constantinople, and Basilica Cistern.

New architectural techniques included the use of concave triangular sections of masonry, known as
pendentives, in order to carry the weight of the ceiling dome to corner piers. This led to the
construction of larger and more magnificent domes, and greater open space inside the building, as
exemplified in the Hagia Sophia. New decorative methods included the introduction of dazzling
mosaics made from glass, rather than stone used by the Romans. The interiors of churches were also
richly decorated with Byzantine art, such as gilding, murals and relief sculptures - but not statues as
these were not venerated as icons.

Use of Icons in Byzantine Religious Architecture

In the Byzantine or Eastern Orthodox tradition of Christian art, only flat images or low relief sculptures
are permissible in religious art. This cultural tradition held that three-dimensional representations
glorified the human aspect of the flesh rather than the divine nature of the spirit, thus it opposed 3-D
religious imagery. (The Roman Christians, did not adopt these prohibitions, thus we still have religious
sculpture in Catholic and Protestant architecture.) As it was, the Byzantine style of iconography
developed in a highly stylised manner and aimed to present complex theology in a very simple way,
making it possible to educate and inspire even the illiterate. For example, colour was very important:
gold represented the radiance of Heaven; red, the divine life; blue was the colour of human life; white
was the uncreated essence of God, used for example in the icon painting of the Resurrection of Christ.
Typically, Jesus wears a red undergarment with a blue outer-garment (signifying God becoming
Human), while Mary wears a blue undergarment with a red outer-garment (signifying that humans
can actually reach God). For more information, see: Christian Art (Byzantine Period).

Developments (600-1450)
After the Early period of Byzantine architecture (c.300-600), which was largely a continuation of
Roman architecture, there came a Middle Period (c.600-1100), notable only for the popularity of the
cross-in-square type architectural church design (examples include the monastery of Hosios Lukas in
Greece (c.1000), and the Daphni Monastery near Athens (c.1050); after this came the Comnenian and
Paleologan periods (c.1100-1450), known only for rare achievements like Elmali Kilise and other rock
sanctuaries of Cappadocia, the Churches of the Pantokrator and of the Theotokos Kyriotissa in
Constantinople.

As the Eastern Roman Empire continued, Byzantine architecture gradually became more influenced
by eastern traditions of construction and decoration. Buildings increased in geometric complexity,
while brick and plaster were employed in addition to stone for decorative purposes, like the external
zig-zag patterns. The previous 'Classical Orders' or styles were interpreted more freely, and windows
filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to create softer illumination. The two basic design-plans
were the basilican, or axial, type (eg. The basilica at the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem) and the circular,
or central, type (eg. the great octagonal church at Antioch).

Byzantine Architectural Legacy

In the West, Byzantine designs influenced the European artistic revival in the form of Carolingian Art
(750-900) and Ottonian Art (900-1050), which led into Romanesque and Gothic architecture. In the
East, it continued to exert a significant influence on early Islamic art and architecture, as exemplified
by the Umayyad Great Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, while in Bulgaria,
Russia, Serbia, Georgia, Ukraine and other Orthodox countries, it endured even longer.

Romanesque Style
The term Romanesque architecture is sometimes used to cover all immediate derivations of Roman
architecture in the West, following the collapse of Rome until the flowering of the Gothic style in about
1200. More usually however, it denotes a distinctive style that emerged almost simultaneously in
France, Germany, Italy and Spain (the latter also influenced by Moorish designs) in the 11th century.
It is characterized most obviously by a new massiveness of scale, inspired by the greater economic
and political stability that arrived after centuries of turmoil.

Charlemagne I and Otto I

The Romanesque revival of medieval Christian art began with Charlemagne I, King of the Franks, who
was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in St. Peter's Rome, by Pope Leo III in 800. Famous for his
Carolingian art, curiously, his major architectural achievement - the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (c.800)
- was not inspired by St Peter's or other churches in Rome, but by the octagonal Byzantine-style
Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. See also Medieval Sculpture.

Unfortunately, the Carolingian empire rapidly dissolved, but Charlemagne's patronage of architecture
and the arts to promote Christianity, marked a vital first step in the re-emergence of a European-wide
culture. Moreover, many of the Romanesque and Gothic churches and monasteries were built on the
foundations of Carolingian architecture. Charlemagne's pre-Romanesque architectural efforts were
later continued by Otto 1 (Holy Roman Emperor 936-73), in a style known as Ottonian Art, which gave
way to the fully fledged 'Romanesque.' (Note: the Romanesque style in England and Ireland is
commonly referred to as Norman architecture.)

Religion
Christianity continued to be the dominant driving force for most significant building works. The
flowering of the Romanesque style in the 11th century coincided with the reassertiveness of Rome, as
the capital of Christianity, and its influence upon secular authorities led to the Christian re-conquest
of Spain (began 1031) and the Crusades to free the Holy Land from Islamic control. The acquisition of
Holy Relics by the Crusaders, together with the fervour aroused by their campaigns, triggered the
construction of a wave of new churches and cathedrals across Europe. In Italy, they include the
Cathedral of Pisa with its famous leaning campanile (bell tower), Modena Cathedral and Parma
Cathedral, as well as famous churches like the Santa Maria (Rome), the Baptistery (Florence), and San
Zeno Maggiore (Verona). In France, they include Laon Cathedral (among others), and the abbeys of
Cluny, Aux Dames (Caen) and Les Hommes (Mont Saint-Michel). In England, they include 26 out of 27
ancient Cathedrals, such as Winchester, Ely and Durham. In Germany, they include Augsburg and
Worms Cathedrals (among others) and the abbeys of Mainz, Worms, Speyer and Bamberg. (See
German Medieval Art.) In addition to its influence over international politics, the Roman Church also
exercised growing power through its network of Bishops and its close association with Monastic orders
such as the Benedictines, the Cistercians, Carthusians and Augustinian Canons. From these
monasteries, Bishops and Abbots exercised a growing administrative power over the local population,
and devoted huge resources to religious works, including illuminated gospel manuscripts, cultural
scholarship, metalwork, sculpture and church building. This is exemplified by the powerful Benedictine
monastery at Cluny in Burgundy, whose abbey church typified the Romanesque style of architecture
and became the largest building in Europe until the Renaissance.

Features of Romanesque Architecture

Although they relied on several design features from Greek and Roman Antiquity, Romanesque
architects had neither the imagination of the Greeks, nor the engineering ability of the Romans. For
example, Roman building techniques in brick and stone were largely lost in most parts of Europe. In
general, the style employed thick walls, round arches, piers, columnsgroin vaults, narrow slit-windows,
large towers and decorative arcading. The basic load of the building was carried not its arches or
columns but by its massive walls. And its roofs, vaults and buttresses were relatively primitive in
comparison with later styles. Interiors were heavy with stone, had dim lighting and - compared with
later Gothic styles - simple unadorned lines. Romanesque churches tended to follow a clearly defined
form, and are recognizable throughout Europe. Only rarely did one see traces of Byzantine or Eastern
influence, except along trade routes. A notable example is the domed St Mark's Basilica in Venice.

Despite its relative simplicity of style, Romanesque architecture did reinstigate two important forms
of fine art: sculpture (which had largely disappeared since the fall of Rome) and stained glass. But
given the size of windows in Romanesque style buildings, the latter remained a relatively minor
element in Medieval art until the advent of Gothic designs. See also: Romanesque Sculpture.

Romanesque Revival architecture was a 19th century style championed by architects like the
Louisiana-born Henry Hobson Richardson (1838-86), who was responsible for "Richardsonian
Romanesque", as exemplified by the Marshall Field Wholesale Store (1885-87), in Chicago.

NOTE: For a comparison with Eastern designs of the same period, see: the 11th century Kandariya
Mahadeva Hindu Temple (1017-29) in India; and the 12th century Angkor Wat Khmer Temple (1115-
45) in Cambodia.

Gothic Architecture
The term 'Gothic' denotes a style of architecture and art that superceded Romanesque, from the mid-
12th century to the mid-15th century. Coined originally as a term of abuse by Italian Renaissance
artists and others like Christopher Wren, to describe the type of Medieval architecture they
considered barbaric, as if to suggest it was created by Gothic tribes who had destroyed classical art of
Antiquity, the Gothic art style is characterized by the use of pointed arches, thinner walls, ribbed
vaults, flying buttresses, huge stained glass windows and elaborate tracery. Think of it as a sort of
finer, more vertical, more detailed, brighter, more exciting and more inspirational form of
Romanesque. The Gothic style as applied to cathedrals is usually divided into two variations:
Rayonnant Gothic Architecture (c.1200-1350) and Flamboyant Gothic Architecture (1375-1500).
Modern critics like John Ruskin had a high opinion of the Gothic style. For more, see: Gothic
Architecture. See also: Gothic Sculpture.
Background
The 12th century was a period of growth in trade and urban development throughout Europe. This
inceasing prosperity, together with advances in science and geometry, plus new ideas about how
cathedrals could be built in order to inspire religious devotion among the masses, were all important
factors in the development of gothic architecture. Although the new style was closely associated with
the promotion of religion, and although much of the gothic building program was financed by
monastic orders and local bishops, it was not a religious architectural movement. In a way, Christianity
was a product brand used by secular authorities, to compete for prestige and influence. As a result,
Kings and lesser administrators saw cathedrals as major civic and commercial assets, and supported
their construction accordingly.

Key Feature of Gothic Architecture

The principal feature of the Gothic style is the pointed arch, believed by many experts to originate in
Assyrian, and later, Islamic architecture. This feature, which channeled the weight of the ceiling onto
weight-bearing piers or columns at a much steeper angle than was previously possible with the
Romanesque 'rounded' arches, permitted architects to raise vaults much higher and thus create the
impression of 'reaching towards heaven'. It also led to the adoption of numerous other features.
Instead of massively thick walls, small windows and dim interiors, the new Gothic buildings had thin
walls, often supported by flying buttresses, and huge stained glass windows, as exemplified by Sainte
Chapelle (1241-48) in Paris. The soaring ceilings and brighter light revolutionized ecclesistical design
by tranforming the interior of many cathedrals into inspirational sanctuaries. (See also: Stained Glass
Art: Materials and Methods.)

The Gothic Cathedral - A Mini-Universe

In keeping with the new and more confident philosophy of the age, the Gothic cathedral was seen by
architects and churchmen as representing the universe in miniature. Each element of the building's
design was intended to convey a theological message: the awesome glory of God. Thus the logical and
ordered nature of the structure reflected the clarity and rationality of God's universe, while the
sculptures, stained glass windows and murals illustrated the moral messages of the Bible.

The Church of Saint-Denis (c.1137-41)

The building which marks the real beginning of the Gothic era was the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis,
near Paris. Begun under the direction of Abbot Suger, friend of the French Kings, Louis VI and Louis
VII, the church was the first structure to use and unify all of the elements that define Gothic as an
architectural style. Although pointed arches, column clusters and cross-rib vaulting had all been used
before, it wasn't until Saint-Denis that these features came together in a coherent whole, and the
building became a sort of prototype for more churches and cathedrals in the region known as the Ile
de France. In due course, the style spread throughout France, England, the Low Countries, Germany,
Spain and Italy. (See also: English Gothic Sculpture and German Gothic Sculpture.)

Examples of Ecclesiastical Gothic Architecture

Although used in the design and construction of palaces, castles, municipal town halls, guild halls,
abbeys and universities, the Gothic style is best exemplified by the Gothic cathedrals of Northern
France. The greatest examples include: Notre-Dame Cathedral Paris (1163-1345); Reims Cathedral
(1211-1275); Chartres Cathedral (1194-1250); and Amiens Cathedral (1220-1270); (in Germany)
Cologne Cathedral (1248-1880); (in Austria) St Stephen's Cathedral Vienna; (in Spain) the cathedrals
of Burgos, Toledo and Leon; (in Italy) Florence, Milan and Siena; while English Gothic architecture is
best represented by Westminster Abbey, York Minster and the cathedrals of Salisbury, Exeter,
Winchester, Canterbury and Lincoln.

Renaissance-Style Architecture (1400-1620)

Background
Financed by commercial prosperity and competition between city-states, such as Florence, Rome and
Venice, as well as rich families like the Medici banking dynasty in Florence and the Fuggers banking
family in Germany, the Renaissance was neverthess a triumph of will over world events. Not long
before, there had been a run of disastrous European harvests (1315-19); the Black Death plague (1346)
which wiped out one third of the European population; the 100 Years War between England and
France (1339-1439), and the Christian Church was polarized by schism. Hardly ideal conditions for the
rebirth or rinacimento that followed. As it was, the 16th century Popes in Rome almost bankrupted
the Church in the early 16th century due to their profligate financing of fine buildings and the visual
arts.

Architectural Style
Renaissance architecture was catalyzed by the rediscovery of architectural styles and theories of
Ancient Rome. The first depictions of this Classical architecture emerged in Italy during the early 15th
century when a copy of De Architectura ("Ten Books Conerning Architecture") by the 1st century
Roman architect Vitruvius, was sudddenly unearthed in Rome. At the same time, the Florentine
architect and artist Filippo Brunellesci (1377-1446) had begun studying ancient Roman designs, and
was convinced that ideal building proportions could be ascertained from mathematical and
geometrical principles. It was Brunellesci's magnificent 1418 design for the dome of the Florence
Cathedral (1420-36) - now regarded as the first example of Renaissance architecture - which ushered
in a new style based on the long-neglected placement and proportion rules of Classical Antiquity.

Famous Renaissance Architects

Another important Renaissance architect was Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72), who is still revered as
one of the founders of modern architectural theory. Believing that ideal architectural design was
based on the harmony of structure, function and decoration, he was greatly inspired by the theory
and practice of ancient Roman architects and engineers.

Other famous Italian architects included: (1) Donato Bramante (1444-1514), the leading designer of
the High Renaissance; (2) Guiliano da Sangallo (1443-1516), an important intermediary architect
between the Early and High Renaissance periods; (3) Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), a leading
architect, as well as one of the greatest sculptors and painters of the age; (4) Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-
1536), an important architect and interior designer; (5) Raffaello Santi (Raphael) (1483-1520), a
visionary designer as well as painter; (6) Michele Sanmicheli (1484-1559), the most famous pupil of
Bramante; (7 & 8) Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570) and Andrea Palladio (1508-1580), the two top figures
in Venetian Renaissance architecture; (9) Giulio Romano (1499-1546), the main exponent of Italian
Mannerist-style architecture; (10) Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) who designed the loggia for the Uffizi
gallery and the connecting Vasari Corridor; and (11) Vincenzo Scamozzi (1548-1616) one of the great
theorists of the late Renaissance.

Features of Renaissance Architecture

Put simply, Renaissance buildings were modelled on the classical architecture of the Greeks and
Romans, but retained modern features of Byzantine and Gothic invention, such as complex domes
and towers. In addition, while replicating and improving on Classical scupture, they also incorporated
modern mosaics and stained glass, along with outstanding fresco murals. Renaissance architecture
can be seen in countless examples of churches, cathedrals and municipal buildings across Europe, (eg.
in many French Chateaux, such as Fontainebleau Chateau, home of the Fontainebleau School: 1528-
1610) and its style has been reapplied in later ages to famous structures as diverse as the US Capitol
and the UK National Gallery. (In England, the style is sometimes known as Elizabethan architecture.)

Supreme Examples of Renaissance Architecture

The two greatest Renaissance-style structures are undoubtedly the redesigned St Peter's Basilica in
Rome and the cathedral in Florence, both of which were highlights of the Grand Tour (1650-1850).

Inspired by civic rivalry between the Ducal States, Brunellesci's dome made the Florentine cathedral
the tallest building in Tuscany. In its architectural design, it combined the Gothic tradition of stone
vaulting and the principles of Roman engineering. Its herring-bone bonding of brickwork and
concentric rings of masonry blocks dispensed with the need for centring, which was unmanagable at
the height involved.

Commissioned by Pope Julius II (1443-1513), the rebuilding of the 1,100 year old church of St Peter's
in Rome (1506-1626) was the work of numerous architects, including Bramante, Raphael, Sangallo,
Maderno, Michelangelo and Bernini, and extended beyond the High Renaissance into the Mannerist
and Baroque eras. Its features include a 87-feet high lantern on top of a huge ovoid dome (altered
from Michelangelo's hemispherical design due to fears of instability), and a frontal facade
incorporating a gigantic Order of pilastered Corinthian columns, each 90 feet high. At 452 feet, St
Peter's is taller than any other Renaissance church.

Baroque Architecture (1550-1790)

As the 16th century unfolded, the religious, political and philosophical certainties which had prevailed
during the Early (c.1400-85) and High (1486-1520) Renaissance periods, began to unravel. In 1517,
Martin Luther sparked the Protestant Reformation, casting European-wide doubt on the integrity and
theology of the Roman Church. This was the catalyst for several wars involving France, Italy, Spain and
England, and led directly to the Counter-Reformation movement, launched by Rome, to attract the
masses away from Protestantism. Renewed patronage of the visual arts and architecture was a key
instrument in this propaganda campaign, and resulted in a grander, more dramatic style in both areas.
For the rest of the century, this more dynamic style was known as Mannerism (style-ishness), and
thereafter, Baroque - a term derived from the Portugese word barocco, meaning 'an irregular pearl'.

Key Features of the Baroque Style

Baroque architecture can be seen as a more complex, more detailed, more elaborate, more
ornamented form of Renaissance architecture. More swirls, more complex manipulation of light,
colour, texture and perspective. On the outside of its churches, it featured more ostentatious facades,
domes, columns, sculpture and other embellishments. On the inside, its floor-plans were more varied.
Long, narrow naves were displaced by wider, sometimes circular shapes; separate chapels and other
areas were created, along with trompe l'oeil effects; ceilings were covered in fresco paintings. The
whole thing was designed to interest, if not dazzle, the spectator.
Baroque was an emotional style of architecture, and took full advantage of the theatrical potential of
the urban landscape. This is exemplified above all by Saint Peter's Square (1656-67) in Rome, in front
of the domed St Peter's Basilica. Its architect, Giovanni/Gianlorenzo Bernini rings the square with
colonnades, which widen slightly as they approach the cathedral, conveying the impression to visitors
that they are being embraced by the arms of the Catholic Church. The entire approach is constructed
on a gigantic scale, to induce feelings of awe.

In general, Baroque architecture constituted part of the struggle for religious superiority and for the
hearts and minds of worshippers across Europe. On a more political level, secular Baroque
architecture was employed to buttress the absolutism of reigning monarchs, like King Louis XIV of
France, among others. From Italy, it spread to the rest of Europe - especially Catholic Europe - where
each country typically developed its own interpretation. See also: German Baroque Art.

Celebrated Baroque Architects

Famous Baroque architects included: Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1507-73), papal architect to Pope
Julius III and the Farnese family; Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), a designer who perfectly expressed
the ideals of the Counter Reformation; Francesco Borromini (1599-1667), a lifelong rival of Bernini;
Pietro Berrettini da Cortona (1596-1669), a protege of Pope Urban VIII (see also quadratura); Francois
Mansart (1598-1666), designer of French townhouses and chateaux like the Château de Maisons,
whose name was given to the mansard roof (sic); his great-nephew Jules Hardouin Mansart (1646-
1708), designer of the great dome of Les Invalides in Paris; and Louis Le Vau (1612-70), another famous
French Baroque architect, responsible for the church of Saint-Sulpice in Paris and the Wings of the
Louvre. Jules Hardouin Mansart and Louis Le Vau were the main architects of the Palace of Versailles
(begun 1623), creating such extravagancies as the Hall of Mirrors and the Marble Court. In Germany,
an iconic Baroque structure is the Wurzburg Residenz (1720-44), designed by Balthasar Neumann
(1687-1753).

In England, the leader of the Baroque style was Sir John Vanbrugh (1664-1726), designer of Blenheim
Palace; while in Russia, Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700-1771) was chiefly responsible for the style known
as Russian Baroque, but which incorporated elements of both early Neoclassical and Rococo
architecture. Rastrelli designed the Winter Palace (1754-62), Smolny Cathedral (1748-57) in St
Petersburg, and redesigned Catherine's Palace, outside the city.

Rococo Architecture (1715-89)

During the last phase of Baroque, the reign of King Louis XV of France witnessed a revolt against the
earlier Baroque style of Louis XIV's court, and the emergence of a more decorative, playful style of
architecture, known as Rococo. An amalgam of the words 'rocaille' (rock) and 'coquillage' (sells),
reflecting its abundance of flowing curved forms, Rococo was championed by Nicolas Pineau, who
partnered Jules Hardouin-Mansart in designing interiors for the royal Château de Marly.

Unlike other major architectural movements, like Romanesque, Gothic or Baroque, Rococo was really
concerned with interior design. This was because it emerged and remained centred in France, where
rich patrons were unwilling to rebuild houses and chateaux, preferring instead to remodel their
interiors. And the style was far too whimsical and light-hearted for the exteriors of religious and civic
buildings. As a result, Rococo architects - in effect, interior designers - confined themselves to creating
elaborately decorated rooms, whose plasterwork, murals, tapestries, furniture, mirrors, porcelain,
silks, chinoiserie and other embellishments presented the visitor with a complete aesthetic experience
- a total work of art (but hardly architecture!)
Rococo perfectly reflected the decadent indolence and degeneracy of the French Royal Court and High
Society. Perhaps because of this, although it spread from France to Germany, where it proved more
popular with Catholics than Protestants, it was less well received in other European countries like
England, The Low Countries, Spain and even Italy. It was swept away by the French Revolution and by
the sterner Neoclassicism which heralded a return to Classical values and styles, more in keeping with
the Age of Enlightenment and Reason.

Neoclassical Architecture (1640-1850)

Early Neoclassical Forms
Neoclassicism did not appear overnight. In its early forms (1640-1750), it co-existed with Baroque, and
functioned as a corrective style to the latter's more flamboyant excesses. Thus in England, Sir
Christopher Wren (1632-1723) designed St Paul's Cathedral, the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the
Royal Chelsea Hospital and the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford, in a style which is much more classicist
than Baroque, even though he is still classified as a Baroque architect. Other early English Neoclassicist
designers included Inigo Jones (1573-1652) and William Kent (1685-1748).

Features of Neoclassicism Proper (1750-1850)

A timely support for ancien regimes throughout Europe, from St Petersburg to Vienna, and a model
for youthful empires-to-come like the United States of America, Neoclassical art was yet another
return to the Classical Orders of Greek and Roman Antiquity. Although, as in the Renaissance, the style
retained all the engineering advances and new materials of the modern era. It was characterized by
monumental structures, supported or decorated by columns of Doric, Ionic or Corinthian pillars, and
topped with classical Renaissance domes. Technical innovations of late 18th century architecture like
layered cupolas and inner cores added strength to domes, and their dimensions increased, lending
increased grandeur to civic buildings, churches, educational facilities and large private homes.

Neoclassical architecture originated in Paris, largely due to the presence of French designers trained
at the French Academy in Rome. Famous French architects included: Jacques Germain Soufflot (1713-
80), who designed the Pantheon (1756-97) in Paris; Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806), designer of
the Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans (1773-93) and the Cathedral of Saint-Germaine (1762-64); and
Jean Chalgrin, who designed the Arc de Triomphe (1806). In England the tradition was maintained by
Paris-trained Sir William Chambers, Robert Adam (1728-92), John Nash (1752-1835), Sir John Sloane
(1753-1837), William Wilkins (1778-1839) and Sir Robert Smirke (1780-1867). It was quickly adopted
by progressive circles in Sweden as well. In Germany, Neoclassical architects included: Carl Gotthard
Langhans (1732-1808), designer of the Brandenburg Gate (1789-91) in Berlin; Karl Friedrich Schinkel
(1781-1841), responsible for the Konzerthaus on Gendarmenmarkt (1818-21), the Tegel Palace (1821-
4), and the Altes Museum (1823-30), all in Berlin. These two architects transformed the Prussian
capital of Berlin to rival Paris or Rome in classical splendour.

Russian Neoclassicism
Rastrelli's Baroque style Russian buildings, like the Winter Palace (1754-62), did not find favour with
Catherine the Great (1762-1850), who preferred Neoclassical designs. As a result, she summoned the
Scottish architect Charles Cameron (c.1745–1812), who built the Pavlovsk Palace (1782-86) near St
Petersburg, the Razumovsky Palace in the Ukraine (1802) and the Alexander Palace outside St
Petersburg (1812). Other important neoclassical architects for the Russian Czars included: Vincenzo
Brenna (Cameron's pupil), Giacomo Quarenghi and Matvey Fyodorovich Kazakov.
American Neoclassicism
The United States Capitol Building, with its neoclassical frontage and dome, is one of America's most
recognizable and iconic structures. Begun in 1793, its basic design was the work of William Thornton
(1759-1828), reworked by Benjamin Latrobe (1764-1820), Stephen Hallet and Charles Bulfinch (1763-
1844). The dome and rotunda were initially built from wood, but later replaced with stone and iron.
The overall design was inspired by both the eastern facade of the Louvre Museum in Paris, and by the
Pantheon in Rome. Latrobe himself went on to design numerous other buildings in America, in the
Neoclassical style including: the Bank of Pennsylvania (1789), Richmond Capitol (1796), the Fairmount
Waterworks, Philadelphia (1799), and the Baltimore Exchange (1816), to name but a few. Bulfinch
completed the Capitol in the 1820s, setting the template for other state capitols in the process, and
then returned to his architectural practice in Boston. A key figure in the development of American
architecture during the early 19th century, was the third US President Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826),
whose strong preference for neoclassicism, in the design of public buildings, had a strong influence on
his contemporaries.

19th Century Architecture

19th-Century architecture in Europe and America witnessed no new important design movements or
schools of thought. Instead, there emerged a number of revivals of old styles. These included: The
Greek Revival (American followers included Jefferson and Latrobe); the Gothic Revival - led by Viollet-
le-Duc in France; American followers included Richard Upjohn (1802-78) and James Renwick (1818-
95); a Neo-Romanesque Revival (1849-1880), led by Henry Hobson Richardson; Beaux-Arts
architecture - a fusion of neo-Renaissance and neo-Baroque forms, practiced by Richard Morris Hunt
(1827-95) - best known for designing the plinth of the Statue of Liberty (1870-86) - and by the Ohio-
born Cass Gilbert (1859-1934); and the Second Empire style (1850-80) in France, which was
characterized by a revival of the Mansard Roof. The only monumental architectural masterpiece was
the Eiffel Tower (1885-89), built by the French architect Stephen Sauvestre and the French engineer
Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923). Wrought iron frameworks were also a feature of Victorian architecture in
Britain (1840-1900) - thanks to Robert Stephenson (1803-59) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-59)
- as were other new materials, like glass - as used in the construction of Crystal Palace, designed by
Joseph Paxton (1801-65). Popular Victorian styles included Neo-Gothic and Jacobethan. A giant replica
of a viaduct pylon, the tower is built entirely from iron girders. The only significant exception to the
above Revivalist movements was the fin de siecle appearance of Art Nouveau architecture, pioneered
by Antoni Gaudi (1852-1926), Victor Horta (1861-1947) and Hector Guimard (1867-1942), and by
Secessionists like the Viennese architect Joseph Maria Olbrich (1867-1908).

Frank Lloyd Wright

The greatest ever American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) revolutionized spatial concepts
with his Prairie house style of domestic architecture, introducing open-plan layouts and the
widespread use of unfinished natural materials. Prairie School architecture is exemplified by Robie
House (1910), Fallingwater (1936-37), Unity Temple (1936-39), Imperial Hotel Tokyo, Textile Block
Houses, Johnson Wax Building (1936-39), Usonian House (mid-1930s), Price Tower (1955),
Guggenheim Museum NY (1956-9). Influenced by American colonial architecture, 19th century Shingle
style designs and Japanese architecture, as well as the Arts and Crafts movement, he also paid the
closest attention to the detail of interior fixtures and fittings and the use of natural, local materials.
Wright's work showed that European traditionalism (and modernism) was not the only answer to
architectural issues in the United States.
American Skyscrapers
However, an immense amount of development in both building design and engineering took place in
American architecture, at this time, due to the Chicago School and the growth of skyscraper
architecture, from 1849 onwards. These supertall buildings came to dominate later building design
across the United States. The Chicago School of architecture, founded by the skyscraper architect and
engineer William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907), was the pioneer group. Other important contributors
to supertall tower design included the ex-Bauhaus designers Walter Gropius (1883-1969) and Mies
van der Rohe (1886-1969); Philip Johnson (1906-2005), Skidmore Owings and Merrill, their leading
structural engineer Fazlur Khan (1929-82), I.M.Pei (b.1917).

20th Century Architecture

Twentieth century architecture has been dominated by the use of new technologies, building
techniques and construction materials. Here is a brief outline of the century's main architectural
schools and movements.

• 1900-20 Art Nouveau

• 1900-25 Early Modernism (Le Corbusier and Peter Behrens)

• 1900-25 Continental Avant-Garde (De Stijl, Neue Sachlichkeit)

• 1900-2000 Steel-frame Skyscraper Architecture

• 1907-33 Deutscher Werkbund

• 1919-33 Bauhaus Design (Walter Gropius); this evolves into the International Style of Modern
Architecture (1940-70).

• 1925-40 Art Deco

• 1928-40 Totalitarian Architecture (Germany/USSR) - see Nazi art (1933-45)

• 1945-70 Late Modernism: Second Chicago School of Architecture

• 1945-2000 High Tech Corporate Design Architecture

• 1960-2000 Postmodernist Art

• 1980-2000 Deconstructivism - see Frank O. Gehry (b.1929).

• 1990-2000 Blobitecture: buildings designed with totally unique, organic forms, often resembling a
blob or amoeba shape