SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

SPACE TRUSS:
 SPACE TRUSSES ARE THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURES WITH LONGITUDINAL
MEMBERS CONNECTED AT THEIR ENDS BY HINGES ASSUMED TO BE FRICTIONLESS.
 THE LOADS ON SPACE TRUSSES ARE APPLIED ONLY AT THE NODES OR JOINTS,
THUS THE SELF-WEIGHT IS ALLOCATED FOR EACH ELEMENT AT ITS TWO ENDS
JOINING OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE TRUSS.
 THE CONDITIONS IMPOSED ON SPACE TRUSSES ARE CERTAINLY THE SAME AS
THOSE ON PLANE TRUSSES. ESSENTIALLY,
 THE ONLY DIFFERENCE IN THE ANALYSIS OF SPACE TRUSSES COMPARED WITH
PLANE TRUSSES IS THAT AN ELEMENT OF A SPACE TRUSS HAS THREE NODAL
COORDINATES AT EACH NODE WHILE AN ELEMENT OF A PLANE TRUSS HAS ONLY
TWO.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
SPACE GRID:
 A SPACE FRAME IS A THREE-DIMENSIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENCLOSING SPACES
IN WHICH ALL MEMBERS ARE INTERCONNECTED AND ACT AS A SINGLE ENTITY.
 A BENEFIT OF THIS TYPE OF STRUCTURE IS THAT VERY LARGE SPACES CAN BE
COVERED, UNINTERRUPTED BY SUPPORT FROM THE GROUND. 

SPACE FRAME:
 IN ARCHITECTURE AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING, A SPACE FRAME OR SPACE
STRUCTURE (3D TRUSS) IS A RIGID, LIGHTWEIGHT, TRUSS-LIKE STRUCTURE
 CONSTRUCTED FROM INTERLOCKING STRUTS IN A GEOMETRIC PATTERN. SPACE
FRAMES CAN BE USED TO SPAN LARGE AREAS WITH FEW INTERIOR SUPPORTS.
 LIKE THE TRUSS, A SPACE FRAME IS STRONG BECAUSE OF THE INHERENT RIGIDITY
OF THE TRIANGLE; FLEXING LOADS (BENDING MOMENTS) ARE TRANSMITTED
AS TENSION AND COMPRESSION LOADS ALONG THE LENGTH OF EACH STRUT.

TYPES AND GEOMETRY OF SPACE FRAME:

WITHIN THE MEANING OF SPACE FRAME, WE CAN FIND THREE SYSTEMS CLEARLY
DIFFERENT BETWEEN THEM.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
CURVATURE CLASSIFICATION

 SPACE PLANE COVERS: THESE SPATIAL STRUCTURES ARE COMPOSED OF PLANAR

SUBSTRUCTURES. THEIR BEHAVIOR IS SIMILAR TO THAT OF A PLATE IN WHICH THE
DEFLECTIONS IN THE PLANE ARE CHANNELED THROUGH THE HORIZONTAL BARS
AND THE SHEAR FORCES ARE SUPPORTED BY THE DIAGONALS.
 BARREL VAULTS: THIS TYPE OF VAULT HAS A CROSS SECTION OF A SIMPLE ARCH.
USUALLY THIS TYPE OF SPACE FRAME DOES NOT NEED TO USE TETRAHEDRAL
MODULES OR PYRAMIDS AS A PART OF ITS BACKING.
 SPHERICAL DOMES AND OTHER COMPOUND CURVES USUALLY REQUIRE THE USE
OF TETRAHEDRAL MODULES OR PYRAMIDS AND ADDITIONAL SUPPORT FROM A
SKIN.

CLASSIFICATION BY THE ARRANGEMENT OF ITS ELEMENTS

 SINGLE LAYER GRID: ALL ELEMENTS ARE LOCATED ON THE SURFACE TO BE

APPROXIMATED.
 DOUBLE LAYER GRID: ELEMENTS ARE ORGANIZED IN TWO LAYERS PARALLEL TO
EACH OTHER AT A CERTAIN DISTANCE APART. EACH OF THE LAYERS FORM A
LATTICE OF TRIANGLES, SQUARES OR HEXAGONS IN WHICH THE PROJECTION OF
THE NODES IN A LAYER MAY OVERLAP OR BE DISPLACED RELATIVE TO EACH
OTHER. DIAGONAL BARS CONNECT THE NODES OF BOTH LAYERS IN DIFFERENT
DIRECTIONS IN SPACE. IN THIS TYPE OF MESHES, THE ELEMENTS ARE ASSOCIATED
INTO THREE GROUPS: UPPER CORDON, CORDON AND CORDON LOWER DIAGONAL.
 TRIPLE LAYER GRID: ELEMENTS ARE PLACED IN THREE PARALLEL LAYERS, LINKED
BY THE DIAGONALS. THEY ARE ALMOST ALWAYS FLAT.

OTHER EXAMPLES CLASSIFIABLE AS SPACE FRAMES ARE THESE:

 PLEATED METALLIC STRUCTURES: EMERGED TO TRY TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS

THAT FORMWORK AND POURING CONCRETE HAD THEIR COUNTERPARTS.
TYPICALLY RUN WITH WELDED JOINT, BUT MAY RAISE PREFABRICATED JOINTS, A
FACT WHICH MAKES THEM SPACE MESHES.
 HANGING COVERS: DESIGNS ON THE CABLE TAUT, SPINE, AND THE CATENARY
ARCH ANTIFUNICULAR SHOW THEIR ABILITY TO CHANNEL FORCES
THEORETICALLY BETTER

THAN ANY OTHER ALTERNATIVE, HAVE AN INFINITE RANGE OF POSSIBILITIES FOR

COMPOSITION AND ADAPTABILITY TO ANY TYPE OF PLANT COVER OR ENSURE
VAIN. HOWEVER, IMPRECISIONS IN SHAPE HAVING THE LOADED STRAND (IDEALLY
ADAPTS DYNAMICALLY TO THE STATE OF CHARGE) AND THE RISK OF BENDING THE
ARC TO UNEXPECTED STRESSES ARE PROBLEMS THAT REQUIRE PRE-COMPRESSION
AND PRESTRESSING ELEMENTS. ALTHOUGH IN MOST CASES TEND TO BE THE
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
CHEAPEST AND THE TECHNICAL SOLUTION THAT BEST FITS THE ACOUSTICS AND
VENTILATION OF THE COVERED ENCLOSURE, ARE VULNERABLE TO VIBRATION.

 PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES: CLOSURE MEMBRANES SUBJECTED TO A PRESSURIZED

STATE MAY BE CONSIDERED WITHIN THIS GROUP.

COMPONENTS OF SPACE FRAME:

MEMBER:
 MEMBERS ARE AXIAL ELEMENTS WITH CIRCULAR OR RECTANGULAR
SECTIONS, ALL MEMBERS CAN ONLY RESIST TENSION OR COMPRESSION.
 THE SPACE GRID IS BUILT OF RELATIVELY LONG TENSION MEMBERS AND
SHORT COMPRESSION MEMBERS. A TREND IS VERY NOTICEABLE IN WHICH
THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ARE LEFT EXPOSED AS A PART OF THE
ARCHITECTURAL EXPRESSION
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
JOINTS:
 IN A SPACE FRAME, CONNECTING JOINTS PLAY AN IMPORTANTROLE, BOTH
FUNCTIONAL AND ESTHETIC, WHICH DERIVES FROM THEIR RATIONALITY
DURING CONSTRUCTION AND AFTER COMPLETION.
 SINCE JOINTS HAVE A DECISIVE EFFECT ON THESTRENGTH AND STIFFNESS OF
THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSE AROUND 20 TO 30 PERCENT OF THE TOTAL
WEIGHT, JOINT DESIGN IS CRITICAL TO SPACE FRAME ECONOMY AND SAFETY
.

TUBES:

TYPES OF SPACE FRAME CONNECTORS:

I. TUBALL NODE CONNECTOR:
 A HOLLOW SPHERE MADE OF SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE
 THE END OF THE CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION MEMBER TO BE CONNECTED IS
FITTED AT ITS ENDS BY WELDING.
 CONNECTION FROM INSIDE THE CUP IS USING BOLT AND NUT.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

II. NODUS CONNECTOR:

 IT CAN ACCEPT BOTH RECTANGULAR AND CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS AND
THAT THE CLADDING CAN BE FIXED DIRECTLY TO THE CHORDS.
 CHORD CONNECTORS HAVE TO BE WELDED TO THE ENDS OF THE HOLLOW
MEMBERS ON SITE.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

III. TRIODETIC CONNECTOR:

 IT CONSISTS OF A HUB, USUALLY AN ALUMINIUM EXTRUSION THAT HAS SLOTS OR
KEY WAYS, WHICH THE ENDS OF MEMBERS ARE PRESSED OR COINED TO MATCH
THE SLOTS.

IV. HEMISPHERICAL DOME CONNECTOR:

 USUALLY USE FOR DOUBLE LAYER DOMES.

 HAS A SPAN MORE THAN 40M.
 MORE ECONOMICAL FOR LONG SPAN.
 THE JOINTING IS CONNECT BY SLITING THE END OF THE TUBE OR ROD WITH THE
JOINT FIN.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
 THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF JOINT, PENTAGONAL JOINT AND HEXAGONAL JOINT.

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS WHILE CHOOSING A TYPE OF SPACE

FRAME:
 IN THE PRELIMINARY STAGE OF DESIGN, IT IS MOST IMPORTANT TO CHOOSE AN
APPROPRIATE TYPE OF DOUBLE-LAYER GRID THAT WILL HAVE DIRECT INflUENCE
ON THE OVERALL COST AND SPEED OF CONSTRUCTION. IT SHOULD BE
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
DETERMINED COMPREHENSIVELY BY CONSIDERING THE SHAPE OF BUILDING PLAN,
SIZE OF SPAN, SUPPORTING CONDITIONS, MAGNITUDE OF LOADING, ROOF
CONSTRUCTION, AND ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS. IN GENERAL, THE SYSTEM
SHOULD BE CHOSEN SO THAT THE SPACE GRID IS BUILT OF RELATIVELY LONG
TENSION MEMBERS AND SHORT COMPRESSION MEMBERS.
 IN CHOOSING THE TYPE, THE STEEL WEIGHT IS ONE OF THE IMPORTANT FACTORS
FOR COMPARISON. IF POSSIBLE, THE COST OF THE STRUCTURE SHOULD ALSO BE
TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT, WHICH IS COMPLICATED BY THE DIFFERENT COSTS OF
JOINT AND MEMBER. BY COMPARING THE STEEL CONSUMPTION OF VARIOUS TYPES
OF DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS WITH RECTANGULAR PLAN AND SUPPORTED ALONG
PERIMETERS, IT WAS FOUND THAT THE ASPECT RATIO OF THE PLAN, DEfiNED HERE
AS THE RATIO OF LONGER SPAN TO SHORTER SPAN, HAS MORE INflUENCE THAN
THE SPAN OF THE DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS. WHEN THE PLAN IS SQUARE OR NEARLY
SQUARE (ASPECT RATIO ¼ 1 TO 1.5),
 TWO-WAY LATTICED GRIDS AND ALL SPACE GRIDS OF GROUP 2A, THAT IS, TYPES 1,
2, AND 5 THROUGH 8, COULD BE CHOSEN. OF THESE TYPES, THE DIAGONAL SQUARE
PYRAMID SPACE GRID OR DIFFERENTIAL SQUARE PYRAMID SPACE GRID HAS THE
MINIMUM STEEL WEIGHT.
 WHEN THE PLAN IS COMPARATIVELY NARROW (ASPECT RATIO ¼ 1.5 TO 2), THEN
THOSE DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS WITH THE ORTHOGONAL GRID SYSTEM IN THE TOP-
LAYER WILL CONSUME LESS STEEL THAN THOSE WITH THE DIAGONAL GRID
SYSTEM.
 THEREFORE, TWO-WAY ORTHOGONAL LATTICED GRIDS, ORTHOGONAL SQUARE
PYRAMID SPACE GRIDS, AND ALSO THOSE WITH OPENINGS AND DIFFERENTIAL
SQUARE PYRAMID SPACE GRIDS, THAT IS, TYPES 1, 5, 6, AND 7, COULD BE CHOSEN.
WHEN THE PLAN IS LONG AND NARROW,


 THE ONE-WAY LATTICED GRID IS THE ONLY CHOICE. FOR SQUARE OR

RECTANGULAR DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS SUPPORTED ALONG PERIMETERS ON THREE
SIDES AND FREE ON THE OTHER SIDE, THE SELECTION OF THE APPROPRIATE TYPES
FOR DIFFERENT CASES IS ESSENTIALLY THE SAME. THE BOUNDARY ALONG THE
FREE SIDE SHOULD BE STRENGTHENED BY INCREASING EITHER THE DEPTH OR THE
NUMBER OF LAYERS. AN INDIVIDUAL SUPPORTING STRUCTURE LIKE TRUSS OR
GIRDER ALONG THE FREE SIDE IS NOT NECESSARY.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
 IN CASE THE DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS ARE SUPPORTED ON INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS,
ONE COULD CHOOSE FROM TWO-WAY ORTHOGONAL LATTICED GRIDS,
ORTHOGONAL SQUARE PYRAMID SPACE GRIDS, AND ALSO THOSE WITH OPENINGS,
THAT IS, TYPES 1, 5, AND 6. IF THE SUPPORTS FOR MULTISPAN DOUBLE-LAYER
GRIDS ARE COMBINED WITH THOSE ALONG
 PERIMETERS, THEN TWO-WAY DIAGONAL LATTICED GRIDS AND DIAGONAL
SQUARE PYRAMID SPACE GRIDS, THAT IS, TYPES 2 AND 8, COULD ALSO BE USED.
 FOR DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS WITH CIRCULAR, TRIANGULAR, HEXAGONAL, AND
OTHER ODD SHAPES SUPPORTING ALONG PERIMETERS, TYPES WITH TRIANGULAR
GRIDS IN THE TOP-LAYER, THAT IS, TYPES 3, 9, AND 10, ARE APPROPRIATE FOR USE.

METHOD OF SUPPORT FOR SPACE FRAME:

FOUR INTERNAL COLUMNS:
SYSTEM: MULTICOLUMN SUPPORT

LOCATION: INTERNAL PLACEMENT

NOTES: FOR SINGLE SPAN BUILDINGS LIKE SPORTS HALL DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS CAN BE
SUPPORTED ON FOUR INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS IT IS MORE DESIRABLE TO LOCATE THEM
IN THE MIDDLE OF THE SIDES RATHER AT THE CORNERS OF THE BUILDING
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

INTERNAL GRID:
SYSTEM: MULTICOLUMN SUPPORT

LOCATION: INTERNAL PLACEMENT

NOTES: FOR BUILDINGS LIKE WORKSHOPS, USUALLY MULTISPAN COLUMNS IN THE FORM
OF GRIDS IT IS BEST TO DESIGN WITH OVETHANGS WHICH ARE TAKEN AS QUARTER TO
ONE THIRD OF THE MIDSPAN CORNER SUPPORTS SHOULD BE AVOIDED IF POSSIBLE, SINCE
THIS CAUSE LARGE FORCES IN THE EDGE CHORDS.

INTERNAL GRID AND PERIMETER :

SYSTEM: MULTICOLUMN SUPPORT

LOCATION: INTERNAL/PERIMETER PLACEMENT

NOTES: COLUMN GRIDS ARE USED IN COMBINATION WITH SUPPORTS ALONG,

PERIMETERS.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

ALONG PERIMETER:
SYSTEM: PERIMETER SUPPORT

LOCATION: INTERNAL PLACEMENT

NOTES: SUPPORT ALONG PERIMETERS. THIS IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED SUPPORT
LOCATION. THE SUPPORTS OF DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS MAY DIRECTLY REST ON THE
COLUMNS OR ON RING BEAMS CONNECTING THE COLUMNS OR EXTERIOR WALLS. CARE
SHOULD BE TAKEN THAT THE MODULE SIZE OF GRIDS SHOULD MATCH THE COLUMN
SPACING.

THREE SIDE PERIMETERS:

SYSTEM: PERIMETER SUPPORT

LOCATION: PERIMETER PLACEMENT

NOTES: SUPPORT ALONG PERIMETERS ON THREE SIDES AND FREE ON THE OTHER SIDE.
FOR BUILDINGS OF RECTANGULAR SHAPE IT IS NECESSARY TO HAVE ONE SIDE OPEN,
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
SUCH AS IN THE CASE OF AIRPLANE HANGAR OR FOR FUTURE EXTENSION. INSTEAD OF
ESTABLISHING THE SUPPORTING GIRDER OR TRUSS ON THE FREE SIDE , TRIPLE-LAYER
GRID CAN BE FORMED BY SIMPLY ADDING WIDTHS. FOR SHORTER SPANS THIS CAN ALSO
BE SOLVED BY INCREASING THE DEPTH OF THE DOUBLE-LAYER GRID .THE SECTIONAL
AREA OF THE MEMBERS ALONG THE FREE SIDE WILL INCREASE ACCORDINGLY.

INVERTED PERIMETERS:
SYSTEM: COLUMN ADDITION

NOTES: CARRY THE SPACE GRIDS DOWN TO THE COLOUM TOP BY AN INVERTED PYRAMID

GROUND EXTENSION:
SYSTEM: SPACE FRAME EXTERNSION

NOTES: THE INVERTED PYRAMIDS MAY BE EXTENDED DOWN TO THE GROUND. THE
SPREADING OUT OF THE CONCENTRATED COLUMN REACTION ON THE SPACE GRIDS
REDUCES THE MAXIMUM CHORD AND WEB MEMBER FORCES ADJACENT TO THE COLUMN
SUPPORTS AND REDUCES THE EFFEC- TIVE SPANS
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

VERTICAL STRUT:
SYSTEM: COLUMN ADDITION

NOTES: THE USE OF A VERTICAL STRUT ON COUMN TOPS ENABLES THE SPACE GRIDS TO
BE SUPPORTED ON TOP CHORDS, BUT THE VERTICAL STRUT AR THE CONNECTING JOINT
HAVE TO BE VERY STRONG

CROSSHEAD BEAMS:
SYSTEM: COLUMN ADDITION

NOTES: THE USE OF CROSSHEAD BEAMS ON COLUMN TOPS PRODUCES THE SAME EFFECT
AS THE INVERTED PYRAMIA BUT USUALLY COSTS MORE IN MATERIAL AND SPECIAL
FABRICATION.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

DEPTH AND MODULE ASPECT RATIO

 THE AXENT DISPLAY SYSTEM CONSISTS OF TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS - TUBES AND
NODES ASSEMBLED TOGETHER TO FORM MODULES.
 A MODULE IS A SERIES OF TUBES INTERCONNECTED BY NODES TO FORM A
PRESCRIBED PATTERN.
 SINCE MOST AXENT SPACE-FRAMES ARE EQUILATERAL POLYGONS, THE MODULE
SIZE IS THE LENGTH OF ONE SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR SIDE FROM ONE NODE TO
THE CENTER OF THE ADJACENT NODE.
 STANDARD MODULE LENGTHS BEGIN AT 12" AND PROGRESS GEOMETRICALLY BY A
FACTOR OF .V2. THE STANDARD TUBES ARE DESIGNATED BY THE MODULE LENGTH
THEY FORM ROUNDED TO THE NEAREST INCH.
 NODES ARE DESIGNATED BY THEIR NUMBER OF HOLES AND THEIR GEOMETRIC
PATTERN.
 AXENT IS AVAILABLE IN THREE MATERIALS: PLASTIC, ALUMINUM AND STEEL.
 PART NUMBERS FOR TUBES AND NODES ARE DESIGNATED BY MATERIAL (P, A OR S);
ITEM (T OR N); MODULE SIZE OR NODE NUMBER AS SHOWN BELOW.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
LATTICE SHELL SPACE FRAME
 THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS AND LATTICED SHELLS IS
THE FORM. FOR DOUBLE-LAYER GRID, IT IS SIMPLY A flAT SURFACE. FOR LATTICED
SHELL, THE VARIETY OF FORMS IS ALMOST UNLIMITED. A COMMON APPROACH TO
THE DESIGN OF LATTICED SHELLS IS TO START WITH THE CONSIDERATION OF THE
FORM — A SURFACE CURVED IN SPACE.
 LATTICED SHELLS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE DISTINCT GROUPS FORMING
SINGLY CURVED, SYNCLASTIC, AND ANTICLASTIC SURFACES. A BARREL VAULT
(CYLINDRICAL SHELL) REPRESENTS A TYPICAL DEVELOPABLE SURFACE, HAVING A
ZERO CURVATURE IN THE DIRECTION OF GENERATRICES. A SPHERICAL OR
ELLIPTICAL DOME (SPHEROID OR ELLIPTIC PARABOLOID) IS A TYPICAL EXAMPLE
OF SYNCLASTIC SHELL. A HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID IS A TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF
ANTICLASTIC SHELL.

TYPES OF LATTICE SHELL SPACE FRAME:

1. ORTHOGONAL GRID WITH SINGLE BRACING OF WARREN TRUSS
2. ORTHOGONAL GRID WITH SINGLE BRACING OF PRATT TRUSS
3. ORTHOGONAL GRID WITH DOUBLE BRACING
4. LAMELLA
5. THREE WAY
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
DESIGN CEITERIA:
 FOR DOUBLE-LAYER BRACED BARREL VAULTS, IF TWO- OR THREE-WAY LATTICED
TRUSSES ARE USED TO FORM THE TOP AND BOTTOM-LAYERS OF THE LATTICED
SHELL, THE GRID PATTERN IS IDENTICAL AS SHOWN IN FIGURE 24.13 FOR SINGLE-
LAYER SHELLS.
 IF SQUARE OR TRIANGULAR PYRAMIDS ARE USED, EITHER THE TOP-LAYER GRID OR
THE BOTTOM-LAYER GRID MAY FOLLOW THE SAME PATTERN.
 THE USUAL HEIGHT TO WIDTH RATIO FOR LONG SHELLS VARIES FROM 1/3 TO 1/6.
 WHEN THE BARREL VAULT IS SUPPORTED ALONG THE LONGITUDINAL EDGES, THE
HEIGHT CAN BE INCREASED TO HALF TO ONE FIFTH OF THE CHORD WIDTH. FOR
LONG SHELLS, IF THE LONGITUDINAL SPAN IS LARGER THAN 30 M, OR FOR BARREL
VAULTS SUPPORTED ALONG LONGITUDINAL EDGES WITH TRANSVERSE SPAN
LARGER THAN 25 M, DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS ARE RECOMMENDED.
 THE THICKNESS OF THE DOUBLE-LAYER BARREL VAULT IS USUALLY FROM 1/20 TO
1/50 OF THE CHORD WIDTH.

CONCEPT AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT GEODESIC DOME

 THE GEODESIC DOME WAS DEVELOPED BY THE AMERICAN DESIGNER
BUCKMINSTER FULLER, WHO TURNED ARCHITECTS’ ATTENTION TO THE
ADVANTAGES OF BRACED DOMES IN WHICH THE ELEMENTS FORMING THE
FRAMEWORK OF THE STRUCTURE ARE LYING ON THE GREAT CIRCLE OF A SPHERE.
 THIS IS WHERE THE NAME ‘‘GEODESIC’’ CAME FROM THE FRAMEWORK OF THESE
INTERSECTING ELEMENTS FORMS A THREE-WAY GRID COMPRISING VIRTUALLY
EQUILATERAL SPHERICAL TRIANGLES. IN FULLER’S ORIGINAL GEODESIC DOMES,
HE USED AN ICOSAHEDRON AS THE BASIS FOR THE GEODESIC SUBDIVISION OF A
SPHERE; THEN, THE SPHERICAL SURFACE IS DIVIDED INTO 20 EQUILATERAL
TRIANGLES.
 THIS IS THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES INTO WHICH A
SPHERE CAN BE DIVIDED. FOR DOMES OF LARGER SPAN, EACH OF THESE
TRIANGLES CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO SIX TRIANGLES BY DRAWING MEDIANS AND
BISECTING THE SIDES OF EACH TRIANGLE. IT IS THEREFORE POSSIBLE TO FORM 15
COMPLETE GREAT CIRCLES REGULARLY ARRANGED ON THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE
 PRACTICE SHOWS THAT THE PRIMARY TYPE OF BRACING, WHICH IS TRULY
GEODESIC, IS NOT SUFFICIENT SINCE IT WOULD LEAD TO AN EXCESSIVE LENGTH
FOR MEMBERS IN GEODESIC DOME, THEREFORE A SECONDARY BRACING HAS TO BE
INTRODUCED. TO OBTAIN A MORE OR LESS REGULAR NETWORK OF THE BRACING
BARS, THE EDGES OF THE BASIC TRIANGLE ARE DIVIDED MODULARLY.

 THE NUMBER OF MODULES INTO WHICH EACH EDGE OF THE SPHERICAL

ICOSAHEDRON IS DIVIDED DEPENDS MAINLY ON THE SIZE OF THE DOME, ITS SPAN,
AND THE TYPE OF ROOF CLADDING. THIS SUBDIVISION IS USUALLY REFERRED TO
AS ‘‘FREQUENCY,’’
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
 IT MUST BE POINTED OUT THAT DURING SUCH A SUBDIVISION THE RESULTING
TRIANGLES ARE NO LONGER EQUILATERAL. THE MEMBERS FORMING THE
SKELETON OF THE DOME SHOW SLIGHT VARIATION IN THEIR LENGTH.
 AS THE FREQUENCY OF THE SUBDIVISION INCREASES, THE MEMBER LENGTH
REDUCES, THE NUMBER OF COMPONENTS AS WELL AS THE NUMBER OF TYPES OF
CONNECTING JOINTS INCREASE. CONSEQUENTLY, THIS REflECTS IN THE INCREASE
OF THE fiNAL PRICE OF GEODESIC DOME AND IS ONE OF THE REASONS WHY
GEODESIC DOMES, IN SPITE OF THEIR UNDOUBTED ADVANTAGES FOR SMALLER
SPANS, DO NOT COMPARE EQUALLY WELL WITH OTHER TYPES OF BRACED DOMES
FOR LARGER SPAN.
 THE RISE OF A BRACED DOME CAN BE AS flAT AS ONE SEVENTH OF THE DIAMETER
OR AS HIGH AS THREE FOURTHS OF THE DIAMETER, WHICH WILL CONSTITUTE THE
GREATER PART OF A SPHERE. FOR DIAMETERS LARGER THAN 60 M, DOUBLE-LAYER
GRIDS ARE RECOMMENDED.
 THE RATIO OF THE THICKNESS TO THE DIAMETER OF DOUBLE-LAYER BRACED
DOME IS IN THE RANGE OF 1/30 TO 1/60 FOR LONG SPANS THE THICKNESS CAN BE AS
SMALL AS 1/100 OF THE DIAMETER.

 THE SUBDIVISION OF THE SURFACE OF THE BRACED DOME CAN ALSO BE CARRIED
OUT USING THE FOLLOWING THREE METHODS. THE fiRST METHOD IS BASED ON THE
SURFACE OF REVOLUTION, AND THE fiRST SET OF LINES OF DIVISION ARE DRAWN
AS THE MERIDIONAL LINES FROM THE APEX. NEXT, CIRCUMFERENTIAL RINGS ARE
ADDED.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
 THIS RESULTS IN A RIBBED DOME AND FURTHER A SCHWEDLER DOME.
ALTERNATELY, THE INITIAL SET MAY BE TAKEN AS A SERIES OF SPIRAL ARCS,
RESULTING IN DIVIDING THE SURFACE INTO TRIANGULAR UNITS AS UNIFORM AS
POSSIBLE. THIS IS ACHIEVED BY DRAWING GREAT CIRCLES IN THREE DIRECTIONS
AS SHOWN IN THE CASE OF GRID DOME.
 A NOTEWORTHY TYPE OF DIVISION OF A BRACED DOME IS THE PARALLEL
LAMELLA DOME, WHICH IS OBTAINED BY COMBINING THE fiRST AND SECOND
METHODS DESCRIBED ABOVE.
 THE THIRD TYPE OF SUBDIVISION RESULTS FROM PROJECTING THE EDGES OF IN-
POLYHEDRA ONTO THE SPHERICAL SURFACE AND THEN INSCRIBING A
TRIANGULAR NETWORK OF RANDOM FREQUENCY INTO THIS BASIC GRID.
GEODESIC DOME REPRESENTS AN APPLICATION OF THIS METHOD, WITH THE BASIC
fiELD DERIVED FROM THE ISOSAHEDRON FURTHER SUBDIVIDED INTO
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES.

ADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE:

1. IT HAS EXCELLENT DURATION TO DEPTH RATIO.
2. THEY ARE EASY TO TRANSPORT, HANDLE AND STACK.
3. IT PROVIDES ADJUSTABLE CAMBERING FACILITIES.
4. FAST INSTALLATION OR VERY EASY TO INSTALL ON SITE DUE TO PREFABRICATED
COMPONENTS.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
5. IT DOES NOT REQUIRE PURLINS.
6. IT IS MORE SUITABLE FOR THE STRUCTURES WHICH HAS IRREGULAR PLAN SHAPE
AND SITE.
7. ALSO, SUITABLE FOR STRUCTURE WHICH HAS A LARGER SPAN.
8. IT PROVIDES A COLUMN-FREE EXPLICIT TERM.
9. THIS ELIMINATES THE NEED FOR GEOMETRIC STABILITY, PROVIDING A MID-
COLUMN.
10. IT PROVIDES A LARGE SPAWN AT LOW ALTITUDE.
11. IT PROVIDES MINIMUM DEFLECTION.
12. SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE ALSO HAS MAXIMUM SEISMIC.
13. IT PROVIDES LOW TRANSPORTATION COSTS.
14. IT IS LIGHTWEIGHT AND STRUCTURALLY EFFECTIVE.
15. CONCENTRATED LOADS ARE EVENLY DISTRIBUTED OVER THE ENTIRE STRUCTURE.
16. IT HAS VERY GOOD ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES.

DISADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE:

1. IN THIS, PREFABRICATED COMPONENTS CAN LEAK INTO THE JOINTS.
2. THE PRICE OF TRANSPORT MAY BE HIGHER THAN VOLCANIC PREFABRICATED
SECTIONS.
3. LARGE PREFABRICATED SECTIONS REQUIRE HEAVY-DUTY CRANES, PRECISE
MEASUREMENT AND HANDLING.

EXAMPLE 1: INTERNATIONAL

LOUVRE PYRAMID, PARIS FRANCE

 LOCATION: PARIS , FRANCE
 ARCHITECT: I. M. PEI
 BUILT IN: 1984
 STRUCTURE TYPE: MUSEUM
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
 HEIGHT: 21.60M

 THE PYRAMID HAS A HEIGHT OF 21.60 METRES AND THE SIDES OF THE BASE ARE 34
METRES LONG.
 BASE SURFACE AREA IS 1000 SQ.MT.
 ITS SURFACE IS COMPOSED OF 603 ROMBHUS-SHAPED PANES AND MORE THAN 70
TRIANGLES.

TECHNICAL DETAILS:
 TECHNICALLY THE PYRAMID HAS BEEN DESIGNED BASED ON A METALLIC
STRUCTURE OF STAINLESS STEEL THAT SUPPORTS 675 RHOMBUS AND 118
TRIANGLES OF SPECIAL GLASS.

 THE WEIGHT OF EACH SEGMENT OF GLASS IS 140 KILOGRAMS FOR A TOTAL OF

ABOUT 95 TONNES.

 THE STRUCTURE IS A 200 TONNE DIAMOND, MADE WITH ABOUT 50 TONNES OF

ALUMINIUM AND STAINLESS STEEL PROFILES WITH GLASS RHOMBUSES.

 THE STEEL COMPONENTS ARE PERFECTLY COMBINED WITH THE GLASS FRAME

EXTRUDED PROFILES IN ALUMINIUM ALLOY.

 THE ALUMINIUM FRAME AND THE STAINLESS STEEL BEARING STRUCTURE ARE

CONNECTED THROUGH A SYSTEM OF GIB SCREWS

 THE STRUCTURE OF THE PYRAMID FALLS INTO THE CATEGORY OF “STRUCTURAL

GLAZING”,

 THE TECHNIQUE IN WHICH GLAZED TRANSPARENT PARTS ARE BONDED TO METAL

PROFILES.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
 THE GLASS PANES ARE FIXED TO THE UNDERLYING STRUCTURE WHICH IS COATED
WITH A FLOURINE CARBON LACQUER TO IMPROVE THE ADHESION OF THE
SEALANT. 

MATERIAL USED:
ALUMINIUM

 ALUMINIUM IS THE IDEAL INTERPRETER OF INNOVATIVE ARCHITECTURAL

PROJECTS.

 THE USE OF ALUMINIUM IN SUPPORT STRUCTURES PROVIDES NUMEROUS POINTS

OF STRENGTH.

-LIGHTER THAN OTHER MATERIAL: THE SAVING IN WEIGHT ALLOWS BETTER

PERFORMANCE.
-MAINTENANCE: DUE TO THE EXCELLENT RESISTANCE OF ALUMINIUM TO
ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION, SUPERFICIAL PAINTING TREATMENTS ARE NOT
REQUIRED.
-MORE EFFICIENT THAN OTHER MATERIALS: AN ALUMINIUM SUPPORT STRUCTURE
REQUIRES LESS MATERIAL THAN A STEEL SUPPORT STRUCTURE (UP TO 3 TIMES
LESS).
-AESTHETICS: THE SUM OF ALL THE QUALITIES OF ALUMINIUM TAKES SHAPE IN
THE EXCEPTIONAL AESTHETIC RESULTS OBTAINED.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

EXAMPLE 2: NATIONAL

HALL OF NATION, DELHI

LOCATION : DELHI, INDIA
ARCHITECT : RAJ REWAL
BUILT IN : 1972
STRUCTURE TYPE : EXHIBITION HALL
HEIGHT : 3M TO 28M
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION:
 THE PERMANENT EXHIBITION COMPLEX IS DESIGNED TO FORM THE FOCUS OF 130
ACRES OF EXHIBITION GROUND DESIGNED BY RAJ REWAL IN NEW DELHI. THE
DESIGN WAS EVOLVED TO MEET THE CONSTRAINTS OF TIME, AVAILABILITY OF
MATERIALS AND LABOR, BUT ABOVE ALL, TO REFLECT SYMBOLICALLY AND
TECHNOLOGICALLY, INDIA'S INTERMEDIATE TECHNOLOGY IN THE 25TH YEAR OF
ITS INDEPENDENCE.
 OFFICIALLY KNOWN AS THE HALL OF NATIONS AND INDUSTRIES, THE BUILDING
WAS MADE FROM CONCRETE CAST IN- SITU AND USED A TESSELLATING
TRIANGULAR STRUCTURE TO FORM A CAPPED PYRAMID.

DESIGN OF HALL OF NATION:

 RAJ REWAL LEANED ON GEOMETRY AND PROPOSED FOUR HALLS LINKED BY
RAMPS.
 THE LARGEST OF THESE IS THE HALL OF NATIONS.

 THE HALL OF NATIONS IS A STRUCTURE BASED ON TETRAHEDRONS ,

TRIANGULATED FORMS ANDHEXAGONS, WHICH IS SEEN IN JAILS' IN INDIA.
 RAJ REWAL RE-INTERPRETED THE TRADITIONAL INDIAN ELEMENT OF DESIGN
WITH ULTRA-MODERN FORM AND TECHNIQUES. HENCE HE CREATED A POWERFUL
IMAGE TO REPRESENT INDIA’S MODERNITY.
 HE USED SPACE FRAMES AS BOTH, ROOF AND WALL COMBINED TO DIFFUSE THE
HARSH SUNLIGHT IN DELHI. HENCE THE STRUCTURE ITSELF BECOMES A SUN-
BREAKER.
 EACH OF THE FOUR HALL OF INDUSTRIES IS SIMILAR IN DESIGN AND IS 44 X 22 X 16
M HIGH,
 FREE STANDING COFFERED MEZZANINE FLOORS CANTILEVERING OUT OF
CYLINDRICAL SHAFT LIKE COLUMNS PROVIDE EXTRA EXHIBITION SPACE IN EACH
HALL.
 THE ‘ HALL OF NATIONS’ IS SUPPORTED ON PILE FOUNDATIONS TIES TOGETHER
WITH POST TENSIONED BEAMS.
SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE
 THE MAIN PAVILION OF THE HALL OF NATIONS HAS A CLEAR SPAN OF 78 METERS
AND A HEIGHT VARYING FROM THREE METERS TO 21 METERS, THEREBY
PROVIDING A VAST CAPACITY FOR ITEMS TO BE EXHIBITED, FROM BOOKS TO
BULLDOZERS.

MATERIAL USED:

CONCRETE SPACE STRUCTURE

 THE CONCRETE SPACE FRAME STRUCTURAL SYSTEM USED WAS VERY UNUSUAL AT
THE TIME, BECAUSE CONVENTIONAL SPACE FRAME STRUCTURES WERE BUILT IN
STEEL.

REASONS FOR USING CONCRETE INSTEAD OF STEEL FOR CONSTRUCTION WAS :

 STEEL SECTIONS WAS NOT READILY AVAILABLE IN INDIA, HENCE HAD TO BE

IMPORTED.
 SKILLED FABRICATORS WERE NOT AVAILABLE.
 ECONOMIC LIMITATIONS.