The History of Thailand (The Greenwood Histories of The Modern Nations)
The History of Thailand (The Greenwood Histories of The Modern Nations)
The History of Thailand (The Greenwood Histories of The Modern Nations)
HISTORY OF
THAILAND
ADVISORY BOARD
John T. Alexander
Professor of History and Russian and European Studies,
University of Kansas
Robert A. Divine
George W. Littlefield Professor in American History Emeritus,
University of Texas at Austin
John V. Lombardi
Professor of History,
University of Florida
THE
HISTORY OF
THAILAND
ISBN: 978-0-313-34091-8
EISBN: 978-1-57356-791-6
14 13 12 11 10 1 2 3 4 5
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Contents
Preface xi
1 Introduction to Thailand 1
8 Democratic Transition 95
vi Contents
Bibliography 173
Index 179
Series Foreword
the Middle East still a dangerous flashpoint; and the rise of new economic
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For this series, which was launched in 1998, we first selected nations whose
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Series Foreword ix
Readers of these volumes will find them fascinating and well written. More
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porary world and the nations that compose it. As series advisors, we hope
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as we move through the early years of the twenty-first century.
HISTORY
The Southeast Asian country of Thailand (“Land of the Free”) has a glorious
history and rich culture. Its first permanent settlements date to about
40,000 years ago, as the archaeological excavations of recent decades have
revealed. These and subsequent peoples practiced early forms of plant
domestication, cultivated rice, and used metals such as bronze and iron to
make tools.
The Chao Praya River Valley in Western Thailand became the nourishing
ground of Thai civilization and history. The first Kingdoms that arose in
Thailand were strongly influenced by Buddhism and Hinduism. Thai cul-
ture took form out of a unique blend of Indian customs and indigenous ele-
ments involving cultural interaction with India, rather than transplantation
of Indian culture.
Though the exact origin of the Mon Kingdom of Dvaravati is unknown, its
Buddhist character is well attested. The oldest known Mon-Buddhist inscrip-
tion, near the central province of Nakhon Pathom, is dated to the sixth cen-
tury C.E. Before those who would become the Thai people came to Thailand
in large numbers by the beginning of the thirteenth century, different areas of
2 The History of Thailand
Thailand were under the Funan, Chenla, and Sri Vijaya Kingdoms. The neigh-
boring Khmers also had established authority in central Thailand. Due to
pressure from the Mongols, the ancestors of today’s Thais were compelled to
leave the Kingdom of Nan Chao, in what is now China’s Yunnan area. The
migration to the south was slow at first but increased significantly with the
conquest of Nan Chao by the Mongols in 1253. The decline of Khmer power
in the river areas of what was becoming Thailand weakened resistance to
the migration among groups already present in the region.
In 1238, the Thais declared themselves independent after challenging
Khmer suzerainty. Sri Indraditya (r. 1238–1270) set up the first Thai state,
which the Thais called Sukhothai.
Rama Khamheng (1239–1298) was the most famous Thai king, his reign
regarded as the golden era in the Kingdom’s history. In the middle of the
fourteenth century, Thai political power shifted from the Chao Praya Basin
farther south to Ayudhya with the establishment of a new Kingdom in central
Thailand. Within a span of 20 years, the Kingdom extended its territories to
include the entire Chao Praya, part of Mon country in the west, and the Malay
Peninsula in the south. The Khmer capital, Angkor, was captured by the
Ayudhya king Borommaracha II (r. 1424–1448) in 1431, resulting in an influx of
Khmer bureaucrats, artisans, and Brahmans (Hindu priestly class) to Ayudhya.
The second half of the sixteenth century was notable for a disastrous war with
Myanmar. During the second half of the eighteenth century, the Kingdom’s
decline was accompanied by the sacking of the beautiful 400 year-old city of
Ayudhya. The city was not immediately rebuilt after the expulsion of the
Burmese. Within a few decades, the Thai capital was established in Bangkok.
The new period in Thai history known as the Bangkok period began with the
establishment in 1782 of a new dynasty, the Chakri, which has reigned to the
present day.
During the nineteenth century, Thailand remained free from colonial
domination due to a policy of modernization, its leaders’ astute diplomacy,
and the geographical location of the country. Thai kings such as Rama V
and Chulalongkorn gave territorial concessions to the British and French;
however, the colonial powers only cooperated to keep Thailand a buffer
zone. Thailand remained as an independent state, keeping her religious and
cultural values intact. After the First World War, it joined the League of
Nations. The rulers followed a foreign policy best suited to the country’s
independence. Internal political pressures, changes in class structure and
political consciousness, and worldwide depression led to the revolution of
1932, after which a constitutional monarchy was established. Struggle
between democratic forces and the military became a regular feature of Thai
politics after the revolution.
Introduction to Thailand 3
In the Cold War period Thailand joined alliances with the United States and
became the closest U.S. defense ally in Southeast Asia. Even without its alli-
ance with the United States and other Western nations, Thailand very likely
would still have had to grapple with the problem of communist insurgency.
The nation recovered from the financial crisis of 1997, but the Islamic insur-
gency had made southern Thailand a zone of bloodshed and violence. Not-
withstanding these difficulties, the country remained stable. But the struggle
between the army and the clamor for democracy continues in Thailand.
ECONOMY
With a strong agricultural base, the multifaceted economy of Thailand has
resulted in growth in industry and technology. One of the Asian tigers, the
economic growth of Thailand in the decade following the mid-1980s was
remarkable. But the depreciation of Thai currency (baht) to about 26 percent
in September 1996 led to the collapse of stock and property markets. The
International Monetary Fund secured for Thailand $17.2 billion in loans.
There was a huge scaling down of expenditures in government and private
sectors. Thailand endured the financial crisis after the government initiated
a series of economic reforms in 1997. In human development, it showed tre-
mendous progress. The Human Development Index rate is 73. With a Human
Poverty Index Rate of 28, the population below poverty line is only 10 percent,
although poverty is still significant in poorer regions and villages. The coun-
try has a very low unemployment rate of about 1.5 percent. With the gains
made by the urban middle class, Thailand has become a large market for
expensive cars and costly consumer goods. Its gross domestic product
(GDP) grew by 5 percent in 2006. The inflation rate was 2.5 percent. External
debt was only 32 percent of GDP, and foreign reserves amounted to U.S.
$67 billion. An increase in exports—in particular rice, textiles, fishery prod-
ucts, jewelry, automobiles, and electrical appliances—and a fall in imports
were major factors behind the GDP growth. Compared to 4.3 percent for the
year 2005, the export volumes increased to 8.5 in 2006. The import growth fell
from 9.3 percent in 2005 to 1.6 in 2006. Thailand imports commodities such as
capital and intermediate goods, raw materials, and fuels.
HEALTH
In recent decades, Thailand has taken steps to provide better health care for
its people. These include the government’s passing of a series of measures
such as the Medical Facilities Act of 1998, the Thai Health Promotion Founda-
tion Act of 2001, and the National Health Security Act of 2002. The govern-
ment has taken necessary measures to reduce poverty by an agenda of 30 baht
health programs all over Thailand to reduce health-related poverty. In hospi-
tals and primary health centers, this program has resulted in giving better
service to the patients. The percentage of persons receiving access to medical
facilities at the time of illness has risen from 49 percent in 1991 to 71.6 in 2004
due to the nation’s universal health care plan. The country also was a pioneer
in providing medication to persons infected by HIV/AIDS. A sustained pub-
lic awareness program, along with official measures, resulted in containing
the HIV-infected adult population below 2 percent. However, the health care
system in Thailand is not uniform throughout the country despite the fact that
Introduction to Thailand 5
health resources per capita are higher than those of other nations. Compared
to those in rural areas, the city dwellers have better access to health services.
The inequity is reflected in resource allocation between the capital and north-
east region. In 2003, the bed/population and doctor/population ratios in
Bangkok were 1:206 and 1:767 respectively. In the northeast, the ratios were
1:759 and 1:7,251 respectively. The infant mortality rate (IMR) was 1.85 times
higher in nonmunicipal areas than in the municipalities.
EDUCATION
The literacy rate in Thailand is much higher than those in other Asian and
African countries, around 92.6 percent. Until the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, the Buddhist wat (temple) was the disseminator of education. Through a
policy of modernization, the Thai rulers improved the country’s educational
system, and in the last half century has shown a significant expansion of sec-
ondary and higher education. The 1977 National Scheme of Education initia-
tive achieved universal primary education. The National Education Law of
1999, mandating nine years of compulsory education from the age of six,
allowed for 12 years of free education altogether. About 96 percent of students
had finished sixth grade and 48 percent twelfth grade in 2004. The student
enrollment in schools was about 8.8 million in the same year. Among the
major institutions of higher learning in Thailand are Chulalongkorn Univer-
sity, Mahidol University, Thammasat University, Silpakorn University, and
the Asian Institute of Technology. Thai students also went in substantial num-
bers to the United States, Australia, Japan, and European nations for higher
education. The national male-to-female ratio for university graduates is
roughly even.
GEOGRAPHY
With an area spanning 198,270 square miles, Thailand is the size of New
Mexico and Arizona combined. It is the third largest nation in Southeast Asia.
Myanmar lies to the west and northwest, Laos to the northeast, and Cambodia
to the east. To the south, the Malay Peninsula is bordered to the west by the
Andaman Sea and to the east by the Gulf of Thailand. Thailand enjoys a tropical
climate with long hours of sunshine and high humidity. The three main sea-
sons are hot (March–June), rainy (July–October), and dry/cool (November–
February). In the hot season, the temperature reaches about 40 degrees Celsius
(104 degrees Fahrenheit) in many parts and in the cool season it is 10 degrees
Celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit) in north Thailand. Climate is dependent on
the Southeast Asian monsoons. In the cool season, northeast winds blow from
land to sea. A high-pressure zone is created over Southeast Asia as the sea
6 The History of Thailand
takes a much longer time to cool than land. The interregnum hot season fol-
lows before the advent of the southwesterly monsoon, during which winds
blowing from the Indian Ocean meet the low-pressure area of the mainland,
resulting in rain. The average annual rainfall is sixty inches. Southern Thailand,
which is in the direct way of monsoon winds, receives around one hundred
inches per year. Flashfloods occur in many regions of the country during the
monsoons. In the mountainous region, the temperature is much cooler.
Thailand has a rich diversity of wildlife, with elephants, rhinoceros, tiger,
leopards, wild ox, water buffalos, gibbons, and other mammals found in the
forests. Roughly 50 percent of the country was covered by forests in 1960s, but
by the end of twentieth century, it had depleted to 20 percent. The government
designated some forests as protected areas for conservation and recreation.
The production forests are for the export of logs and timber, whose export had
increased from 50,000 cubic meters to 2 million cubic meters per year from
1991 to 2001. The deforestation has caused climatic changes and landslides. It
also threatens the survival of 30 mammal species.
With a long coastline of 2,000 miles; 12-nautical-mile territorial sea and a
200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone are claimed by Thailand. The hol-
iday resorts on beaches in Thailand are famous worldwide and generate for-
eign exchange for the country. However, due to their location they can face
devastating natural calamities. The dead from the tsunami of December 26,
2004, included many foreign tourists.
Thailand is famous for its gemstones, teak industry, rice, and rubber. Mined
resources include tin, lead, gypsum, tungsten, and zinc. Unfortunately, the
opium grown in its remote regions has attracted many smugglers and other
criminals.
Thailand is divided into 75 provinces, each in turn subdivided into amphoe
(county), tambon (district) and muban (village). The largest province is Nakhon
Ratchasima in central Thailand, followed by Chiang Mai in the northwest. It
is also categorized into five regional groups such as the North, Northeast
(Isan), central, east, and southern regions. The special administrative area of
Bangkok is the 76th province. Topographically, Thailand is divided into four
main regions: North, Northeast, Central, and South. Each has a unique geo-
graphical feature. Northern Thailand is marked by mountains, fertile river
valleys, and waterfalls. The highest mountain of Thailand, Doi Inthanon
(8,417 feet) is situated in Chiang Mai province. The mountains along the
Myanmar border go down through the Kra Isthmus to the southern border
with Malaysia. In the North, the Ping, Wahng, Yom, and Nahn rivers flowing
southward join to form the Chao Praya River in central Thailand. A part of the
famous opium-growing region known as the Golden Triangle is situated here.
The Northeast, or Isan, region, bordered by the Mekong River demarcating the
Administrative regions in Thailand, 2005. (CIA. Provided by University of Texas
Libraries, http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps)
8 The History of Thailand
SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS
The Thai society presents a harmonious balance between tradition and
modernity. Educated Thais may wear Western dress, listen to Pop music, or
go out dancing in clubs. But they will not give up the traditional values that
the society has handed down through the centuries. These include respect
for elders, good manners, taking part in Thai festivals, a strong faith in
Karma, and the belief in rebirth through reincarnation. Harmonious relation-
ships in the workplace, cordial relations among employer and employees,
and avoidance of conflict are important in Thai society. Djai-yen (“keep cool”),
sanook sanam (“enjoy life and be happy”), mai pen rai (“never mind”), kreng
chai (“not to hurt other’s feeling”), and phut prachot (“masking the feeling”)
are some of the common Thai phrases that represent this philosophy of life.
The famous Thai smile will be there while one is confronting difficult situa-
tions. A unique Thai identity has developed, influenced to a large extent by
the precepts of Buddhism. Avoiding the extremities of life by following a
Middle Path characterizes Thai life. A general Thai identity, or Ekkalak Thai,
is to be found whether one is in a remote village or in cosmopolitan Bangkok.
A Thai will be a modern person yet also traditional. This unique blending
makes Thai society quite special.
Introduction to Thailand 9
The employment boom between 1985 and 1996 witnessed people flocking
from rural areas to the cities. In industrial and service sectors, 55 percent of
the labor force is employed out of 35.3 million workers, according to 2004 fig-
ures. The manufacturing share of the GDP has shown a tremendous growth;
from 22 percent in 1980 to 35 percent in 2004. With avenues for growth
opened, combined with foreign investment and technology, new previously
unknown job opportunities have appeared.
The status of women has increased with the expansion of educational
opportunities, and today a vast majority of women are employed in different
sectors. Taking the husband’s family name after marriage has not been
required since 2003. But the status of women is degraded to an extent by the
growth to 100 billion baht per year of the sex industry. Its origins may be traced
to the proliferation of bars, massage parlors, and escort services at the time of
the Vietnam War, when U.S. soldiers stationed in Vietnam came to Thailand
for R&R, or rest and relaxation as it was called. After the war, the clientele
changed from military personnel to male tourists from all over the world.
But it should be kept in mind that not all tourists come to Thailand for sex
alone. The 8 million tourists visiting the country per year are interested in its
history, scenic beauty, magnificent monuments, and Thai hospitality.
Like any other country Thailand is beset with social problems. Environ-
mental pollution, congestion in cities, AIDS, drug trafficking and human traf-
ficking, extortion, corruption, terrorism in southern Thailand, the gap
between rich and poor, and regional imbalances are among the society’s
major ills. There are, however, welcome signs as people accept civil instruc-
tion from the government, which is taking measures to eradicate the prob-
lems plaguing the Thai society.
Education has played an important role in raising public consciousness.
The country’s nongovernmental agencies are actively working to address
and mitigate the problems. The Thai government is sufficiently aware of the
country’s problems and is taking steps with various pieces of legislation to
keep social evils in check. In 1999, it enacted the Money Laundering Preven-
tion and Suppression Act B.E. Thailand has attracted money laundererers as
a transit country for narcotics and a center for counterfeit goods, gambling
dens, lotteries, and underground banking systems. The act stipulated seven
predicate offenses including trafficking in women or children for sexual pur-
poses, fraud, financial institution fraud, customs evasion, extortion, narcotics
trafficking, and drug smuggling.
CULTURAL LIFE
The cultural life of Thailand is rich and vibrant. In spite of external influen-
ces, the country has retained its unique character. In various traditional
Introduction to Thailand 11
spheres, Thai culture has excelled. Religion has been an important factor in
shaping the destinies of the Thai people. About 90 percent of the population
is Buddhist, with Muslims constituting about 6 million people, the largest
minority group. In the three southern provinces of Patttani, Narathiwat, and
Yala, Muslims are in the majority with about 76 percent of the population
adhering to the Islamic faith. About one percent is Christian, and a small
number of Confucians, Taoists, Hindus, and Sikhs are found spread through-
out Thailand.
The history of Buddhism in Thailand has been closely interlinked with
developments of the religion in India, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. The
Buddhist missionaries and traders played an important role in disseminating
the message of Buddha. Although it has been argued that Buddhism had
taken roots in Thailand from the time of Buddha himself, a clear picture of
its entry emerges from the period of Mauryan king Asoka (273–236 B.C.E).
In the third or fourth century C.E. the Buddhist missionaries Theras
Sona and Uttara came to Suvarnabhumi, with its capital at Nakon Pathom,
to propagate Buddhism. A huge stupa, Pathom Chedi, was built to com-
memorate the event. The coming of Mahayana Buddhism in the seventh cen-
tury C.E. to southern Thailand is the second stage of development of
Buddhism in Thailand. The third phase of Buddhism, known as Pukam
(Pagan) Theravada Buddhism, was introduced in the eleventh century C.E.
It came from the Thaton capital of Mons, but some historians argue that it
came from Nakon Pathom. Under the king Rama Kamhaeng (1239–1298), a
fourth phase, known as Lankavong, began to predominate in Thailand. It
came from Sri Lanka, which had become an important center of Theravada
Buddhism in the twelfth century C.E. The coexistence of indigenous and
nonindigenous elements in Thai Buddhism has been a hallmark throughout
its history. The idea of phi (spirits), an animistic belief, is pervasive in
Thailand, denoting spirits of town, spirits of house, caves, and other places.
These spirits are concerned with mundane problems like health and prosper-
ity. Small model houses are constructed to serve as homes for the spirits. The
combination of phi, an indigenous concept, along with thewada (Devata or
God) from Hindu–Buddhist cosmology, arose from the process of merging
different religious traditions. Sometimes the higher spirits were also called
deva, brahma, or other names. Along with animistic practices, Buddhism
also interacted with Hindu cultural patterns that had been introduced. The
rapprochement between Indian traditions and Thai Buddhism could be
broadly divided into two categories, one operating in royalty and the other
present in the social system, customs, arts, and other parts of the culture.
The invoking of gods from the Hindu pantheon such as Siva, Vishnu, and
Ganesha in different ceremonies is prevalent. It is common to find houses
or buildings with the icon of the Hindu god Ganesha at the entrance. One
12 The History of Thailand
can find in Bangkok the famous Erawan shrine dedicated to Lord Brahma,
where the Thais congregate to worship and bow their heads in reverence.
Consequently a single distinct tradition emerged in Thailand out of animistic
beliefs, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The Thai people have shown tremendous
capacity to harmonize different traditions and yet retain their own distinctive
nature.
At the time of decline of the Indianized Kingdoms of Southeast Asia, Islam
began to penetrate the region. The Arab traders played an active role in bring-
ing the region under the spell of Islam. Islam is strongly installed in Thailand’s
southern provinces close to Malaysia. The Muslims of the region have been
asking for greater autonomy for some time. The central plains of Thailand
include Muslims of Persian, Pakistani, Indian, and Indonesian and Cham
descent. Those Muslims in the northern provinces of Lampang, Chiang Mai,
and Chiang Rai are from Myanmar and southern China. The cultural life of
the Muslims differs from the general Thai population in language, manners,
and customs. One can see in southern Thailand numerous mosques. There
are some churches in Bangkok. Some Vietnamese refugees and tribes of
northeastern Thailand profess Roman Catholicism. Although the Chinese
have been integrated into the Thai society with Thai names, they have their
own shrines and festivals. In the Chinatown area of Bangkok, one can taste
the Chinese way of life and culture. The Chinese New Year festival is a big
occasion in Thailand. Even in some Thai houses, one can find a Chinese
shrine called Tee-Ju-Iya. Unlike the Chinese, the Hindus and Sikhs have not
integrated fully into the society. The Hindu temples and Gurdwaras are there
in the country, but the number is much less. An Indian woman with a sari or
traditional salwar kammez could be easily recognized. The Sikhs retain long
hair and wear turbans.
In Thai cultural life, festivals play an important role. Throughout the year,
there are religious and secular festivals, which make Thai culture very
colorful. The That Phanom Festival of the northeastern province of Nakhon
Phanom in the month of January is a large gathering of the Thais. The Chiang
Mai Flower Festival held in the month of February is observed in memory of
Buddha’s preaching to the monks. The Dove Festival, an occasion where sing-
ing doves are celebrated in Yala province, is held in the month of March. The
Chakri Day on April 6 is observed in honor of Rama I (1737–1809). To mark
the beginning of the Buddhist New Year, the Songkran Festival is observed
throughout Thailand April 13–15. During this festival, in a symbol of cleans-
ing and renewal, Thais throw water on each other. Offerings are made in the
Buddhist wats, and the monks receive food as well as new garments. White
powder is smeared on the face as a sign of protection from evil. The city of
Chiang Mai is most famous for this festival, where the revelry of Songkran
is enjoyed by Thais as well as by tourists coming from all over the world.
Introduction to Thailand 13
The coronation day and the Visakha Puja, in memory of Buddha’s life are
observed in the month of May.
The famous festival of the Royal Ploughing Ceremony began in the period
of the Sukhothai dynasty, marking the beginning of the rice-growing season
in May. It is observed annually with two ceremonies, a cultivating ceremony
and a ploughing ceremony. The ceremonies are held at Sanam Luang, the
Royal Grounds, with Brahmans (Hindu priests) chanting hymns. The Asalha
Puja, held in July, commemorates Buddha’s first sermon. The queen’s birthday
is celebrated on the twelfth of August, which is a public holiday. The Chinese
Buddhists observe a nine-day celebration held in late September to early
October, during which time they eat only vegetarian food. In November, the
Loi Krathong festival comes, which is observed on a full-moon night. People
flock to the klong (canal) or river and (loi) float krathong (small boats) with
flowers, incense, and candles in the hope that good fortune will be brought
to them. One can visualize a myriad of flickering lights on the water as night
falls. Sometimes, fireworks displays and beauty contests are held. The festival
has become one of the most important in the country. The fifth of December is
a public holiday to commemorate the king’s birthday and is celebrated
with portraits of the king embellishing the buildings of cities and villages.
December 10 is Constitution Day, a public holiday.
The official language of Thailand is Thai, from the Tai family of languages.
It possesses 44 consonants and 32 vowels. Whereas 40 percent of the popula-
tion speaks Thai, 50 percent use related Tai languages. Chinese, too, is used by
some, while those who have higher education often speak English. Malay is
spoken in some quarters of southern Thailand. The Thai alphabet was
derived from the Indian Devanagari script, which originated during the reign
of Sukhothai King Rama Khamheng in 1283. The Thai language has absorbed
Khmer, Pali, and Sanskrit words. Some of the ancient place names of Thailand
such as Sukhothai, Ayuthia, Haripunjaya; Lopburi, Dvaravati, and Sajjanalaya
have origins in Sanskrit. The influence of India is marked on the names of
the kings also: Indraditya, Rama, Ananda, Suryavamsa Mahadharmarajad-
hiraja, Cakrapat, Trailok, etc. Innumerable words in the Thai language origi-
nate in Sanskrit, including Akas (Akas), Maha (Maha), Sthani (Sthan), Racha
(Raja), Sabadi (Svasti), Pratehet (Prades), Narai (Narayana), Isaun (Isvara), Samkha
(Samgha), Jatura (Catura), Radu (Rtu), Tepa (Deva), Thatu (Dhatu), Phram (Brah-
mana), Nakhon (Nagara), Sakhon (Sagara), Pinai (Vinaya), and many more. The
language is spoken all over the country along with regional dialects.
Thailand’s classical literature is based on tradition, legends, and history.
The oldest known poem, the Suphasit Phra Ruongs, was written in the late
1200s. Thailand’s first love story was Lilit Phra Lo. The reign of King Narai
(r. 1656–1688) saw a flowering of Thai literature. Indian classical texts have had
a strong influence on Thai literature and stories of Sakuntala, Madanabodha,
14 The History of Thailand
Savitri, and Ilorat became part of it. The stories from the Ramayana were incor-
porated into Thai literature, with Rama I authoring the Thai version of the
ancient Sanskrit epic, the Ramakien, a work that would influence Thai litera-
ture, painting, dance, and drama. The Ramakien differed in many ways from
the original Ramayana of Valmiki. For example, in the Thai version of the story,
Hanumana is a romantic person falling in love with ladies, Ravana’s daughter
Vinayaki assumes the form of Sita; Dasaratha and Ravana are cousins.
Sunthon Phu (1786–1855) is the celebrated author of the famous romantic
adventure Phra Aphai Mani and the travelog nine Nirats. Thai literary works
were in verse form until 1850. From the latter part of the nineteenth cen-
tury, Thai literature addressed themes and plots about common people and
their problems. Kings such as Rama II (r. 1809–1824), Rama V (r. 1867–1910),
and Rama VI (r. 1910–1925), all themselves notable authors, exercised royal
patronage of literature. In the modern period, Thai authors have written about
social problems and the life of the common people. Phya Anuman Rajadhon
(1888–1969) was an authority on Thai culture. Angkarn Kalayanaponge wrote
about nature and environmental pollution. Some of the notable authors of the
modern period are Boobpha Nimmanhaemindha, Malai Choopinit, Mai
Muang Doem, Yakhop, Kukrit Pramoj, Krisna Asokesin, Seni Saowaphong,
Suwanee Sukhontha, Vanich Charungkichanand, Saksiri Meesomsueb, and
Pira Pira Sudham.
The art and architecture of Thailand were influenced by Indian and Khmer
styles. While the concepts were borrowed, the choice of pattern and other
details add an indigenous touch to artistic and architectural designs. The
genius of Thai artists can be seen in the temples (wat), stupa (pra), monasteries
(vihara), and halls (bot) found in the monuments of Sri Deva, Visnulok,
Svargalok, Vajrapuri, Lopburi, Sukhothai, Ayuthia, and Bangkok. Historic
sites and structures include the Emerald Buddha Temple, Grand Palace, Wat
Suthat, Wat Arun, and Wat Benchamabophit. The tiered roof of Thai architec-
ture was influenced by the sikhara of the Hindu temples. The superimposed
roofs, glazed colored tiles, gilding, and decorative sculptures add magnifi-
cence. The scenes of the Ramakien also are found in temples of Thailand. On
the bas-relief of Phimai temple, there are scenes depicting Rama’s war with
Ravana. The paintings on the outer gallery of Emerald Buddha Temple depict
scenes from the Ramakien such as remorseful Sita in Lanka and the Rama-
Ravana battle. Of course, today tall buildings, skyscrapers, apartments, and
resorts are also found in Thailand.
Thai sculpture encompassed icons of Hindu gods and Buddha. Images of
Vishnu have been found from the Si Thep (Sri Deva) area in the Chao Praya
Basin dating to the end of sixth century C.E. The inscription of Rama Tibodi
I (1312–1369) spoke of the installation of images of Siva, Vishnu, and Buddha.
Large bronze statues of Siva and Vishnu were erected at Kampen Phet.
Introduction to Thailand 15
In Thailand Buddhism and Hinduism were often fused together and there
was no differentiation. In Sukhothai, Wat Pra Pai Luang and Wat Sisawai
were built for Brahmanical worship as evident from sculptures of Hindu gods
and goddesses. The icons of Parvati, Hanumana, Ganesa, Indra, Brahma, and
others are found in the wats in Thailand. Images of Buddha in various sitting,
standing, and reclining positions have adorned numerous monuments. The
serenity of the face, smoothness of the metals, simplicity of form, and perfect
style have made these icons exquisite. The Buddha images vary from the
gigantic seated Buddha of Wat Si Chum to tiny amulets.
Thai music and musical instruments were influenced by neighboring
regions, but it was assimilated by evolving into a unique type. The piphat
and khruang sai musical instruments are used in religious gatherings and
theatres. Apart from these two, the Thais have developed instruments includ-
ing the phin, sang, pichanai, krachap pi, chakhe, and thon. In festivals, marriages,
and folk theater one can find use of flutes, stringed musical instruments, and
gongs. The two types of folk music are called luk thung and kantrum. Due to
the influence of Western music, new forms are being introduced like luk grung
and wong shadow. The String was the first Thai pop band. Sometimes tradi-
tional music was mixed with the Western style.
The Thai classical dance form in Thailand shows influence from Cambodia
and India with themes taken from the Ramakien. The Thai classical dance took
Indian body movements, evolving into its own special style. The khon, lakhon,
and fawn Thai are some varieties of classical dance. With its stories from the
Ramakien, the masked dance drama called khon has become very popular. Folk
dances include wai khru, ram muay, and likay. In the shadow plays known as
nang, stories of Rama and Sita are enacted.
One can find beautiful paintings of Thailand on the walls of temples, palace
interiors, cloth banners, and manuscripts. Murals of Bangkok’s Wat Suthat
and Thon Buri’s Wat Suwannaram are fine examples depicting the episodes
of Buddha’s life, Jataka stories, and scenes from the Ramakien. The Western
style has influenced contemporary Thai painters, whose works combine
tradition and modernity.
Textiles, earthenware, silverware, and pottery comprise Thai crafts. Cotton
and silk weaving of Thailand have a long tradition. Thai silk is famous all
over the world. The northeastern region is famous for silverware, producing
exquisite bowls and boxes. From the ancient Ban Chiang civilization, the art
of shaping and baking clay has survived to the present day, with the discov-
ery of pots, water jugs, flower vases, and animal figures. The celadon industry
of Thailand was famous during the Sukhothai period, with products exported
outside the country. Thailand is well known for its crafts like woodcarving,
lacquer work, basketry, mother-of-pearl inlay, and metalwork. Thai cuisine
has been influenced by Chinese stir frying techniques and noodles along with
16 The History of Thailand
Indian curry. But it has its own culinary style. Delicious spicy and hot Thai
food with a wonderful blend of basic flavors is popular throughout the world.
Rice is a staple food and a meal usually includes meat, salads, soup, noodles,
curry, and rice. Fresh tropical fruits like mango, banana, rambutan, jackfruits,
papaya, and other fruits serve as desserts. Iced coffee or tea and alcohol are
taken as beverages. Some of the delicious and popular Thai dishes are dtom
kai jai (chicken soup), rad na (rice noodles), pad see ew (fermented sausages
with fried rice), khanom chin namya (boiled round rice noodles along with
curry sauces and fresh vegetables), massuman jai (spicy curry with chicken)
and lahb moo (spicy salad).
there are the sharia courts. Military courts deal with cases involving military
personnel. Citizens are guaranteed equal justice under the law. An Election
Commission supervises the elections, and voters must be 18 years old. The
Buddhist monks do not cast votes because it is forbidden by religious
convention.
The Khana Rasdr (People’s Party) came into existence in 1927 and formed
the government after the 1932 revolution. The history of political parties in
Thailand has not been a happy one, as they were banned frequently. From
1933 to 1945 and again from 1958 to 1968 political parties did not function.
The military was taking an upper hand. Later, laws such as the 1981 Political
Parties Act was enacted to revamp the party system. The measure called for a
minimum number of members of Parliament and made it mandatory to
contest one-fourth of all parliamentary seats. Critics of the Thai political
parties—which include the Thai Rak Thai (Thai Love Thai), Phak Prachatipat
(Democratic Party), Phak Chart Thai (Thai Nation Party), Phak Khwam Wang
Mai (New Aspiration Party), and Phak Mahachon (Great People’s Party)—
suggest the parties often lack clear-cut ideologies while tending to cater only
to the needs of an individual or a small group.
The dominance of the military continued until October 1973, when student
involvement and mass demonstrations ended the military rule. There was a
return to civilian government, although the top brass of the military continued
to have some influence in the politics of the nation. (Although the present king,
Bhumibol Adulyadej, does not enjoy any real power, his political acumen and
popularity among the Thai masses has been a stabilizing factor in the country’s
politics.) The years 1991 and 1992 were turbulent in Thai politics. The seven-
teenth military coup occurred in 1991, with Anand Panyarachun (b. 1932), a
civilian, becoming premier. Elections were held in March 1992 in which
General Suchinda Kraprayoon (b. 1933) was selected as the new prime minis-
ter. But the coup leader Suchinda faced demonstrations in May that resulted
in shootings by the military of unarmed protestors, which in turn led to
Suchinda’s resignation. Anand became the interim prime minister, a role he
held until Chuan Leekpai (b. 1938), leader of the Democratic Party, was elected
in September. After three years, the Constitution Drafting Assembly met.
Banharn Silparcha of the Thai Nation Party became the new premier. There fol-
lowed increased demands for political reforms as ministerial offices were used
for personal gains and electoral system was abused by politicians.
A new liberal constitution came into effect in 1997. The prime minster hold-
ing the office for four years was to be elected by the political party having the
most seats in the House of Representatives. The 1997 constitution established
further principles to strengthen the party system.
Chuan headed a seven-party coalition after the November 1997 elections.
His rule came under severe criticism as the government’s policy was perceived
18 The History of Thailand
as helping big companies and it faced many corruption scandals. With a popu-
list agenda, the Thai Rak Thai was emerging as a major political force, and it
won the 2001 elections with an absolute majority. With a large and unprec-
edented electoral mandate, it has initiated major reforms but has also faced chal-
lenges. An anti-drug campaign ended in April 2003 with 2,275 people having
been killed. This was a campaign of police aggression and the dead were drug
dealers. Looming large in southern Thailand was an Islamic insurgency that
led to 500 deaths in 2004. The deadly tsunami of December 26, 2004, killed more
than 5,300 people in coastal Thailand.
The Thai Rak Thai won the election of 2005 with outstanding results. Offi-
cially registered in July 1998, the party is under the leadership of telecommu-
nications billionaire Thaksin Shinawatra (b. 1949), who built up the cadre by
inducting persons with varied ideologies and by launching a popular cam-
paign. Thaksin, the founder of Shinawatra Computer and Communications
Group, has helped to make Thailand’s communication system world-class.
He was the deputy premier in 1995. His party secured an absolute majority
in 2001 elections, winning 248 out of 500 seats of the House of Representatives.
In the legislative elections of February 2006, it won 375 out of 500 seats.
The Thai Nation Party secured 41 seats in the 2001 elections and was a
coalition partner in Thaksin’s government. Banharn Silpa-Archa (b. 1932), its
leader, was prime minister from July 1995 to December 1996. The leader
of the New Aspiration Party, General Chavalit Yongchaiyudh (b. 1932), was
commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army before entering politics.
He was prime minister from November 1996 to November 1997 but resigned
after the Asian financial crisis. He made an alliance with Thaksin’s Party to
contest the 2001 elections. Afterward the New Aspiration Party merged with
Thai Rak Thai and Chavalit became deputy premier in Thaksin’s cabinet.
Thaksin continued as premier after his party’s spectacular victory in the
February 2005 elections. For the first time, a single-party government gov-
erned the nation. However, charges of corruption and abuse of power were
brought against Thaksin by the opposition and this dissolved the Parliament.
In spite of the overwhelming support of the rural people, Thaksin had alien-
ated the Bangkok elite by disregarding their views. In the 2005 general elec-
tions, the Democratic Party, which came into existence in 1945, was against
military interference in politics, and took part in the “People Power” move-
ment of 1992, received 18.3 percent of the popular vote and 96 out of 500 seats.
Its leader, Chuang Leekpai, hails from the Trang province in South Thailand,
and he was the Parliament Speaker in 1987. He led coalition governments
from 1992 to 1995 and again from 1997 to 2001. Chuang is also responsible
for the party’s dominance in southern Thailand.
In the April 2006 elections, amid mass rallies against Thaksin, the Thai Rak
Thai still won 57 percent of the vote. But the opposition boycott and protest
Introduction to Thailand 19
vote forced him to resign. The Supreme Court invalidated the elections.
Thaksin remained the caretaker premier. On September 19, 2006, while he
was at the United Nations General Assembly, the military staged a coup.
The junta, calling itself the Council for Democratic Reform, dissolved
Parliament and imposed martial law. Its leader, Sonthi Boonyaratkalin
(b. 1946), a Muslim and commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army, was
backed by retired army commander General Surayud Chulanont (b. 1943)
and Privy Council president General Prem Tinsulanonda (b. 1920), advisers
to the king. Surayud was appointed as prime minister in October 2006. A con-
stitutional tribunal was instituted, which dissolved the Thai Rak Thai in
May 2007 for election fraud and banned Thaksin from politics for five years.
The complex political configurations, business considerations, power politics,
and instances of personal ambition have left the Thai political scene somewhat
murky and muddled. The junta promised restoration of a democratic process.
In 2008, the People’s Power Party formed the government after emerging
victorious in the elections. The country witnessed political turmoil and again
there was a new government of the Democratic Party led by Abhisit Vejjajiva
(b. 1964) in December. His government faced demonstrations and mass rallies
by the supporters of Thaksin called “Red Shirts.” They paralyzed central
Bangkok from March 2010. In a clash with the army, about 39 demonstrators
were killed and 300 injured. The situation continued to be tense in spite of
withdrawal of protest by the Red Shirts on May, 19, 2010.
2
From Prehistory to Pre-Thai
Kingdoms
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
Ordinary stone tools have been found dating back to 500,000 B.C.E. in north,
northeast, and central Thailand. These implements of the Paleolithic period
provide a picture of the early culture of prehistoric human life. The earliest
22 The History of Thailand
settlement is dated about 40,000 years old at Lang Rong Rien in northern
Thailand. The domestication of plants began around 10,000 B.C.E. as is indi-
cated by the findings from the Spirit Caves, where archaeologists have deter-
mined that people used nuts, pepper, cucumber, and beans sometime
between 10,000 and 7,000 B.C.E.
Humans were living near the waterways of Thailand’s rivers from an early
date. Neolithic settlements studied by archeologists have revealed that their
culture included the use of tools and objects made of bone and shells. Rock
paintings discovered belonging to this period depict domesticated animals,
fish, wild animals, and people dancing.
The archaeological excavation made in the village of Ban Chiang in Udon-
thani province of Thailand brought worldwide attention to the fact that the
early occupants of the country were thriving during the Bronze Age. The ear-
liest known bronze culture of the world is located on the Korat plateau in
northeastern Thailand. The area witnessed the production of bronze bracelets,
bells, necklaces, and axes and spearheads around 3600 B.C.E. The prehistoric
culture dating from around 3600 B.C.E. to 200 C.E. reveals the development
from an agricultural community in the Neolithic period to the Bronze and Iron
Ages. Archaeological excavations have yielded painted pottery, cord-marked
pottery, animal bone, human skeletons, glass beads, bracelets, and other
objects.
The discovery in the advancement in agriculture has been gleaned from the
remains of plant seeds, such as rice. The people lived a simple life in villages.
There was no urbanization and the rural inhabitants had no kings or political
structure. Warfare was absent in the Ban Chiang culture. With knowledge of
agriculture and metallurgy, these people’s primary productions were pottery
and bronze materials. So precocious were they that even the Chinese received
their knowledge of bronze from the Ban Chiang people.
The Ban Chiang culture flourished near water sources where rice cultiva-
tion was the main source of livelihood. Hunting was done with spears, axes,
and arrows. Domestication of the water buffalo allowed the Ban Chiang to
use the draft animal for farming and other projects. The clay rollers found at
the site point toward printed designs on the textiles. Archaeologists also found
that they made stylistic ceramic vessels with painted designs. Ornaments
were made of stone as well as glass beads. The people also used amulets of
earthenware and bronze bangles.
In the graves, ornaments, utensils, and skeletons have been found that give
a picture of the customs of the people. Belief in a life after death has been
inferred by archaeologists by their manner of burial, which was internment
with the personal belongings of the deceased for use in the next life. The find-
ings at Ban Chiang demonstrate a developed knowledge in bronze and iron
metallurgy. Neither Mesopotamia nor China no longer holds the credit of
From Prehistory to Pre-Thai Kingdoms 23
pioneer in this art. The Ban Chiang people were well adapted to the forests as
well as to the wetlands. They also used trading networks with other regions.
However, eventually deforestation and soil erosion forced the people to
migrate to other regions, causing the Ban Chiang culture to an end.
The Non Muang Kao culture, or the Mound of the Ancient City, a large set-
tlement in the Mun Valley located in northeast Thailand on the Korat Plateau,
is another major archaeological site. It was occupied in the Bronze Age begin-
ning in 500 B.C.E. and continued into the Iron Age. Ceramics found in the
region date only to before 600 C.E. Ban Lum Khao, Noen-U-Loke, and Mon
Muang Kao were important sites in the Mun River Valley. The sites had plas-
tered floors, wooden posts, and ordinary graves. Glass beads, rings made of
bronze and iron, and Phimai Black pottery vessels have been found in the
graves. The pottery from graves contained traces of rice. There were also
remains of animals like deer, dog, cattle, and pigs.
The 110 burial sites of Ban Lum Khao in the upper Mun Valley contained
the bones of pigs and fish, bangles, shellfish, and vessels. In the cemetery,
bones of infants, children, and adults were found. Burial was simple, neither
wrapped nor in jars. This Bronze Age occupation beginning from 500 B.C.E.
of the upper Mun River Valley also contained remains of fish, turtle, frogs,
birds, wild water buffalo, pet dogs, and burnt fibers of bamboo. Ceramics were
cord-marked ware and decorated black pottery. Excavators at the site of Ban
Lum Khao found over 400 pottery vessels. They included round vessels, open
bowls, and vessels with round bases. The site yielded bangles made of marine
shell and marble. The Ban Lum Khao site has parallels in the cemeteries of
Ban Prasat, Noen U-Loke and Non Nok Tha, which points toward similar a
culture in the second half of first millennium B.C.E.
In the Khon Khaen province of Northeast Thailand, the archaeological site
of Non Nok Tha is noted for evidence found there of rice cultivation and
Bronze Age culture. Excavations yielded rice chaff belonging roughly to
5, 000 B.C.E. This was the earliest evidence of rice (Orzya sativa) cultivation for
the whole world. Grain imprints were found in the pottery shards. The inde-
pendent bronze culture emerged in the region around 2000 B.C.E. Apart from
pottery shards and bronze materials, the site yielded iron objects, remains
of skeletons after burials, and burial offerings. There was even evidence of a
settlement of metalworkers. The cultural deposit of the site showed an evolu-
tionary process passing through bronze and iron ages from the third millen-
nium B.C.E. to the early centuries of the Common Era.
valley in central and northern Thailand became the major centers of Thai
history and civilization. Different ethnic groups like the Mons, Khmers, and
others formed early Kingdoms having Hindu-Buddhist practices. These
lasted until the emergence of Sukhothai in 1238, the first Thai Kingdom. The
earliest states were contributions of the Mons, who hail Dwarvati as the first
Mon Kingdom. The Mon people were living in lower Myanmar (Burma)
and northern Thailand along the Chao Praya River Valley. Some historians
believe that the Mons were descendants of immigrants from the southern
Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh region of India. The Mons were prob-
ably a mixture of all these people.
Animism with ancestor worship had been the primitive belief of the people
until they were strongly influenced by Buddhism. The advent of Buddhism
began from the period of Mauryan king Asoka (273–236 B.C.E) of India. After
the third Buddhist Council held in Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka
and Mogaliputta Tissa as president, nine groups of Buddhist missionaries
from India were appointed to propagate the doctrine of the faith. Two of the
Buddhist missionaries, Sona and Uttara, came to Suvarnabhumi to preach
Buddhism. Suvarnabhumi had been identified with the region comprising
south Myanmar, Central Thailand, and east Cambodia.
Two cities of antiquity in Thailand’s central river basin have long been
called Suphanburi (“City of Gold”) and U Thong (“Cradle of Gold”). Buddha-
ghosa’s Samantapasadika refers to the successful mission of Sona and Uttara
and credits them with the authorship of Brahmajala Sutta. A huge stupa
known as Pathom Chedi (Prathama Chaitya in Sanskrit) was built. Sona and
Uttara constructed it during the reign period of Asoka to commemorate the
event. The Mon settlements gradually became urbanized. There emerged
the Mon Kingdom of Dvaravati with its capital in Nakhon Pathom, the largest
city of the period. Dvaravati consisted of a number of city-states in the lower
plain of the Chao Praya River, with its area comprising Nakhon Pathom,
Lopburi, Ratchaburi, and Prachinburi in modern Thailand.
Most of the people of Dvaravati were Buddhists. India played a major role
in introducing Buddhism in the region. The oldest known Mon-Buddhist
inscription near Nakhon Pathom is probably not earlier than the sixth century
C.E. Other Buddhist sites include Phra Pathom and Phong Tuk in Dvaravati.
One of the special features of Buddhist art is the representation of Buddha
descending from heaven with Hindu gods Indra and Brahma. The represen-
tation of Buddha, such as that in Phra Pathom showing dharmacakra (the
wheel of life, symbolizing the Buddha’s first sermon and teachings) with
crouching deer proved the strong influence of Buddhism in this Kingdom.
In addition to Buddhist architecture, the Mons were skilled at building moats
and embankments. An earthen embankment and two moats surrounded the
cities of Dvaravati. The culture of Dvaravati flourished in between the middle
From Prehistory to Pre-Thai Kingdoms 25
of the fifth and eleventh centuries. Afterward the Kingdom started to decline
and most of it was absorbed by the advancing Khmers. Its art and architecture
would influence later Kingdoms.
Besides Dvaravati, the Mons had established other Kingdoms in central
and northern Thailand. The Lop Buri Kingdom of central Thailand was also
known as Lavo, and name derived from that of Lava, son of Rama, the hero
of epic Ramayana. Famous for its art and religion, the Lopburi Kingdom was
incorporated into the Khmer empire by Suryavarman I (1002–1050). Mon
Princess Chamadevi had established another Mon Kingdom in the Lamphun
region of northern Thailand during the years 661 to 750. Along with her went
the Buddhist monks to this new Kingdom of Hariphunchai. The capital city,
Lamphun, had many Buddhist relics. The two famous Buddhist temples were
Wat Haripunchai (1040) and Wat Chamadevi (1218). For defense, the city of
Lamphun had many wiangs, or outposts, such as Wiang Mano, Wiang Tho
and Wiang Tha Kan. The Chamadevivamsa and Jinakalamali chronicles men-
tioned that the Kingdom was attacked by the Khmers in the eleventh century.
Finally it became a part of the Lanna Kingdom in 1292 after King Mengrai’s
capture. According to the Tamnan Hariphunchai (History of Kingdom of
Hariphunchai), Yip was the last ruler of Hariphunchai.
THE KHMERS
In the first century of the Common Era, states in Southeast Asia took part in
trade relationships with India. Although trading had been conducted since the
prehistoric period, trade between the two regions now became brisk. Indian
art, architecture, statecraft, administration, and other cultural features arrived
in many forms to create Indianized Kingdoms. The Funan (150–550 C.E.) was
one such Kingdom, which was established by an Indian Brahman.
The coming of Indian cultural influence was convenient for the rulers, who
used it to support their own political authority. This process of cultural inter-
action slowly affected not only the elite but also lower-class people in their
socio-religious life. Under Fan Ch’an, the territory of Funan extended up to
central Thailand. Rudravarman was the last king of Funan. The dominant
religion of Funan was Hinduism but the Buddhists constituted an important
community.
The Kingdom of Funan lasted from the second to sixth century. It was
followed by the Kingdom of Chenla (550–802 C.E.). At its height, Chenla
included southern Laos, the Vietnamese coast, and the lower valley of Chao
Praya and Mun Valley in Isan region. The Chenla kings came to be deified.
By tradition, its princesses were married to Brahmans who came from India.
The ruling elite embraced Saivism and claimed descent from the Sun dynasty
of Rama, the hero of Ramayana. There was “water” Chenla, which was distinct
26 The History of Thailand
from the “land” Chenla. The former had appropriated the Funan Kingdom.
In turn, the rulers of the Srivijaya and Sailendra dynasties incorporated the
water Chenla.
The Khmer empire flourished in Thailand between 802 and 1431. It ben-
efited from territorial expansion as well as cultural efflorescence. The Khmer
territories covered the present northeastern region of Thailand, much of the
central area, and stretched into the west up to Kanchanaburi province.
Thailand received Indian cultural patterns through the Khmers and adapted
these according to its needs. The Angkor dynasty was established in 802
C.E. by Jayavarman II (802–834). Its new rulers introduced the Devaraja cult,
in which influences from India, as well as the megalithic culture of South-
east Asia, Campa, Indonesia, and China could be discerned. Devaraja means
the “king of Gods,” which is the god Siva himself. The successive rulers
contributed in different ways to the cultural life of Angkor and territories
under its sway.
The Brahmans continued playing an important role in the religious life of
the people. In Cambodia, the purohita, or chief priest, had a powerful influ-
ence on the royalty. This sacerdotal office passed from uncle to nephew in
the maternal line, exemplifying the indigenous matrilineal social system.
The royalty was well versed in Sanskrit and acquainted with Indian epics,
kavyas (a type of classical Sanskrit poetry), and puranas (A genre of important
Hindu encyclopedic religious texts, depicting legends of gods, history of
royal dynasties and cosmogony). Sanskrit was used for royal genealogies,
panegyrics for kings and donors of various categories. In the stone inscrip-
tions dotted throughout Thailand, Khmer, Pali, and Sanskrit were used. Many
of the words from Sanskrit and Pali found their way into the Thai language
during the period of Khmer dominance. In the art and architecture of Thailand
today, the presence of Indian and Khmer influence can be traced back to this
period. The beautiful stone temples of Phimai and Phanom Rung in northeast
Thailand were examples of Khmer art in Thailand. The Khmer rulers also
ordered roads built, which were wide and paved by laterite. Icons of Hindu
gods and Buddha images showed artistic skill with beautifully engraved lines
and exquisite finish.
By 802 the Khmers had extended their territory into the neighboring areas.
Jayavarman II occupied land to the north and east of Chenla. The Khmer empire
stretched to Ubon in Isan by 889 during the reign of Indravarman I (877–889).
The long rule of Jayavarman V (968–1001) was marked by peace and cultural
attainments previously unknown. Suryavarman I (1006–1050) extended the
Khmer power into the Chao Praya River Valley in the west and Mekong Valley
in the north. South Thailand was made into his tributary. He used his wealth to
make donations to the religious foundations and assist in the spread of
Mahayana Buddhism.
From Prehistory to Pre-Thai Kingdoms 27
of Buddhists and Brahmans. P’an-p’an was on the trade route between India
and China. From P’an-p’an, the Brahmin Kaundinya II went to Funan. The
state of Tan-tan was situated in the region of Trengganu and its ruler sent to
China gifts like the tooth relic of Buddha, painted stupas, and leaves of the
bo tree.
The first century C.E. state of Langkasuka was near Patani and had access
to the Gulf of Thailand. Its ruler Bhagadatta established a diplomatic relation-
ship with China in 515 C.E. The Chinese travelers, Yi Jing (635–713, I-tsing)
and Xuanzang (602–664, Hiuen-tsang) recorded their observations of Langka-
suka. It was in control of trade routes to the east. The ruins of a Siva temple
have been found from this place. Tamralinga, located between Chaiya and
Pattani, was already in existence in the second century C.E. as evident from
the Buddhist canon Nidesa. The Thai–Malay Peninsula, with its city-states,
assumed importance in the trading network involving Rome, India, and
China.
Ships of the Roman empire came to Southeast Asia from the Indian Ocean
during this period. After the collapse of Roman trade, the merchants went
through Kedah to southern Thailand and from there to Campa by way of
northern Thailand and Cambodia. The trading activity in the region began
around the second century C.E. The Hindu influence could be marked from
the findings of Chaiya in southern Thailand. Trade in beads and the discovery
of Buddhist votive tablets and the many Hindu icons point toward strong
Indian influence in the region. The city-states lost their independence as a
result of the expansion of island power of Srivijaya, which engulfed the city-
states by the middle of the eighth century.
From its headquarters in Palembang in southeastern Sumatra, the regional
center of Srivijaya in south Thailand was Chaiya, near modern Surat Thani.
The town of Chaiya and its surrounding areas still have relics of Srivijayan
art and architecture. Buddhism flourished in Srivijaya due to patronage by
its rulers. Mahayana Buddhism was prevalent in the Kingdom. Apart from
influences from Java, the Amaravati, Pala, and Gupta styles of India had an
impact on architecture found on the eastern coastline from Surat Thani south
to Songkhla. Some of the important monuments of the Srivijayan period were
found in Chaiya, including Phra Borom Mathat and Wat Kaew Pagoda. Wat
Mahathat could be found in the Srivijayan city of Nakhon Sri Thammarat.
Specimens of Srivijayan art with strong Indian influence are preserved at the
National Museum in Bangkok, as well as the Nakhon Sri Thammarat Museum
and wat Phra Mahathat Museum in Chaiya. Though adherents of Buddhism,
the rulers continued to honor indigenous beliefs: one of the stone inscriptions
depicted a local Malay water oath with a Buddhist icon. The Srivijayan rulers
built monuments in areas as far away as Canton in China and Negapattan on
the east coast of south India. Dharmakirti was the greatest Pali scholar in the
From Prehistory to Pre-Thai Kingdoms 29
first two decades of the eleventh century. He was the head of the Srivijaya
clergy, for whom the Thai king had built a monastery, the Lankarama. Apart
from Buddhism, Indian influence was present through Sanskrit language also.
Some of the inscriptions were in Sanskrit, which was popular in Srivijaya.
thus transmitters of the culture to the Indianized elite. Commerce was the
prime factor behind the Indian expansion in the first century C.E. Indians
came to Southeast Asia traders in search of spice and gold, married into the
local families, and in some cases an Indian might have imposed himself as
chief over local populations, establishing Indian-styled Kingdoms. The serv-
ices of the Brahmans were enlisted, who merged the Hindu religious system
with local cults and made the rulers as avataras (incarnations) of god. The
vaisya hypothesis may be criticized on the following points: (1) merchants
were not enlightened enough to transmit a higher culture or to have contact
with royalty; (2) they were versed in vernacular language only and not in
Sanskrit; (3) the scholastic character of Indian culture in Southeast Asia had
been learned by the people and not brought by Indians; (4) if the traders
had played a major role in spreading Indian culture, the early centers of
Indian civilization would have been found in the coastal regions, whereas
these were in the interior of Java and the royal abodes were also not in coastal
regions; and (5) commercial contacts were not enough for the transmission of
civilization. In spite of serious objections to the vaisya theory, it contains
elements of truth. It would be wrong to assume that merchants were not com-
petent to transmit elements of culture. In spite of the caste system in India,
there was social mobility among different castes. The Brahmans performed
functions other than acting as priests. If they traveled overseas despite injunc-
tions mentioned in ancient scriptures, they could also take on vocations
including trade. The ksatriyas were not warriors only, and there are numerous
instances of kings and princes well versed in literature. So it would be wrong
to say that the vaisyas were not at all acquainted with Sanskrit and were famil-
iar with vernacular literature only. It is also not convincing to say that the
character of Indian culture was scholastic—whether the people who had
learned elements of Indian culture were locals or Indians who had come to
Southeast Asia. It is also not correct to say that only interior areas were centers
of Indian influence. Oc eo, Palembang, Trang, and Kedah were ports with
traces of Indian influence. They were not only centers of commercial activities
but places of cultural interaction. At Oc eo, archaeological excavations have
proved Indo-Southeast Asian contact. Sanskrit inscriptions of earlier periods
have been found from Kedah. The Amaravati sculptures were found on the
sea route joining Kedah, Palembang, the east coast of Java, and Western
Celebes. Among the merchant groups, the practice of Buddhism was strong.
The removal of caste barriers and restrictions on maritime voyages resulted
in the arrival of sailors. The Jataka stories dealt with maritime activities of
the traders. Images of the Buddha at the Amaravati School were discovered
in Southeast Asia. The sailors were devotees of Dipankara Buddha (“Calmer
of Waters”) and evidence of Indianization is said to be revealed in these
Buddha images. The activities of Buddhist missionaries gave further impetus
32 The History of Thailand
during this early period of history. Vishnu’s consort Laksmi became the
goddess promoting fertility in the rice fields of west Java. Siva was trans-
formed to the tradition of cult of earth god in Campa. In the site of Ba Phanom
of Cambodia, the goddess receiving sacrificial rituals was an amalgamation of
the earlier goddess Me Sa (“white mother”) with the Indian goddess Mahisa-
suramardini. The stories of the Ramayana were transformed into Thai, Lao, or
Indonesian versions. In the devaraja cult, Hindu concepts blended with South-
east Asian mountain cult ideas. The Southeast Asian people took cultural
customs from Indian elements and adapted them to fit their own indigenous
traditions. Indian culture itself consists of a plurality of traditions that
evolved out of interaction between Sanskrit culture and vernacular lore of
dominant groups. It spread to Southeast Asia also as a result of interactions
between indigenous and imported cultures, resulting in the adoption of Indian
religions, ideas of kinship, administration, law, writing, literary traditions,
festivals, art, and architecture. During the last 2,000 years, the region that
has become modern Thailand was under the influence of major civilizations
of the world—above all Indian traditions. India’s contact with Thailand could
be dated to the fourth century B.C.E. as is evident from the excavations in the
Iron Age burial site of Ban Don Ta Phet, where bronze bowls have been found.
The late prehistoric sites such as Ban Chieng, Ban Na Di, Non Muang, and
Ban Tha Kea have yielded glass beads, which were tangible indicators of the
contact of Thailand with the outside world.
Evidence of Buddhism coming to Thailand could be found from the discov-
ery of an ivory comb that bears a Buddhist motif and icons of the Amaravati
school of art. The Mon Kingdom of Dvaravati had Buddhist sites yielding
Buddha images. The Tai conquest of the thirteenth century gave further impetus
for the spread of Buddhism. In the development of Buddhism in Thailand, influ-
ences from India, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Myanmar were quite discernible.
One finds the impact of Hinduism on Thai society presently through festi-
vals, music, architecture, language, and literature. The rulers have legitimized
their position by taking recourse to the Hindu dharmasastras (religious scrip-
tures) and brahmanical rituals. The Brahmans (priests, phrams in Thai) perform
various rituals connected with royalty. The Thai culture has appropriated
certain elements of Hinduism. Images of Hindu gods and goddesses such as
Parvati, Hanuman, Ganesha, Vishnu, Indra, and Brahma adorn wats (temples)
of Thailand. The icons of Ganesha are installed in newly constructed build-
ings as symbols of good omen. The Erawan shrine in Bangkok is the site of a
statue of Brahma that is venerated by the Thais. The Ramayana (Ramakien in
Thai) tradition is a perennial source of inspiration for the people and the per-
forming arts forms like classical dance, masked plays, theater shows, and
shadow plays have used the stories from this classic. The Thai festivals such
as Loh Chingecha (swing ceremony), Loi Krathong (festival of lights), Baruna
34 The History of Thailand
Satra (rain festival), and Songkran (astrological New Year) possess elements of
Hindu and Buddhist traditions. The Brahmans conduct family ceremonies
such as births, deaths, purifications, and weddings. Nonetheless, Thai society
has retained its distinct identity in spite of adapting certain Indian cultural
norms.
NOTES
1. For details regarding Indianization, please see, Patit P. Mishra, “Critique
of Indianization Theory”, Full Article in Proceedings of Indian History Congress,
58th Session, Bangalore (Aligarh, 1998), pp. 799–807. See also, Presidential
address of Indian History Congress, Patit P. Mishra, “A Discourse on Indo-
Southeast Asian Relations: Prejudices, Problems and Perception”, 65th Session,
Bareilly, December 28–30, 2004, Section, IV (Delhi, 2005–2006), pp. 912–45.
2. J. G. de Casparis and I. W. Mabbett, “Religion and Popular Beliefs of
Southeast Asia before c. 1500,” in N. Tarling, ed, The Cambridge History of
Southeast Asia, Vol. 1 (Singapore, 1992), p. 281
3. M. Aung Thwin, “The Classical Southeast Asia: The Present in the Past”
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 26 (1995), f.n. 22.
4. J. C. van Leur, Indonesian Trade and Society (The Hague, 1955),
p. 95: “The Indian priesthood was called east-wards certainly because of its
wide renown for the magical, sacral, legitimacy of dynastic interest and the
domestication of subjects, and probably for the organization of the ruler’s
territory into a state.”
3
The Emergence of Thai States:
Sukhothai and Lan Na
There are many hypotheses about the origin of the Thai race. One theory
postulated is that they migrated from the Siachun province in central China
and set up a Kingdom in southern China called Nanchao (Nanzhao/Dali
Kingdom). The Nanchao rulers occupied parts of Myanmar and North
Vietnam. It was incorporated into the Mongol empire in 1253 by Kublai Khan
(1215–1294). This theory argued that the migration that proceeded southward
into northern Thailand was slow early on but was sped up by the Mongol
conquest. Based on evidence from archaeology and anthropology, another
theory claims that the Thais were living in Thailand for a long time. They
were forced by the Mons and Khmers northward into what is today the
Yunnan area of China. Once again the Thais migrated to their original home-
land in Thailand. Another hypothesis argues that the Thais migrated from the
Malay archipelago northward. Another claimed that they came from southern
Chinese provinces, including those we know today as Guangdong, the former
Guangxi Zhuangzu, and Yunnan. The Thai migration from these three prov-
inces has been accepted by most scholars. The Thais belong to the Tai ethnic
group living in neighboring areas of Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, China, and
northeastern areas of India. Before the establishment of Kingdoms, the Thais
36 The History of Thailand
SUKHOTHAI KINGDOM
The local Thai princes Pho Khun Bang Klang and Pho Khun Pha Muang,
who were governors of Ban Yang and Rad, revolted against the Khmer rule.
They established the independent Kingdom of Sukhothai (“Dawn of Happi-
ness”) in 1238. In the Thai imagination, Sukhothai was seen as the first Thai
Kingdom to have material prosperity and cultural blossoming. Bang Klang
became the King of Sukhothai with title of Sri Indraditya (r. 1238–1270). The
wave of migration after the Mongol victory over Nanchao in 1253 reinforced
the nascent Thai state. The army was bolstered due to an influx of Thai sol-
diers from Nanchao. The formative stage of Thailand’s history began with
powerful monarchs operating from Sukhothai on the banks of the Mae Nam
Yom River. The Kingdom of Sukhothai’s dominance was due to the fact that
it had tremendous potential for agricultural production. It controlled water
resources for the entire Chao Praya basin, as it was situated at the top of the
main flood basin. A surplus of production in this fertile land made it possible
to have a large army. The minor Thai princes lent support to Sukhothai, which
increased the strength of the Kingdom considerably. Indraditya was suc-
ceeded by his second son Pho Khun Ban Muang (r. 1270–1277). The territorial
extent of Sukhothai was the area between the rivers of Ping and Nan.
There was further expansion under Rama Khamheng (1239–1298), who
ruled from 1277 until 1298. A younger bother of Ban Muang, Rama Khamheng,
also known as Rama the Great, was one of the greatest monarchs of Thailand
and at the time of his death he left a vast Kingdom. His domain in the north
extended up to Luang Prabang and to Nakhorn Sri Thammarat in the south.
Substantial parts of the lower Chao Praya, the upper Mekong, and the lower
Salween Valleys came under his subjugation. He adopted both diplomacy
and warfare to expand Sukhothai’s domain. The stability of Sukhothai was
assured by friendship with China. A Chinese mandarin named How Chow
Chi came to Sukhothai in 1282 and a treaty of friendship was signed between
The Emergence of Thai States: Sukhothai and Lan Na 37
China and Sukhothai. Rama Khamheng visited Peking (Beijing) in 1282 and
brought Chinese potters back with him, establishing a ceramic industry that
was economically important for a long time. The kilns of the Kingdom pro-
duced glazed ceramic wares known as sangkhalok. These were exported to
countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia, where specimens of this type
of ceramic have been found. Rama Khamheng was determined to check any
future Khmer aggression and developed friendly relations with Lanna ruler
Mangrai (r. 1259–1317) and Prince Ngam Muang of Phayao. Sukhothai was
secure in the west through friendship with Makato, the ruler of Pegu. Rama
Khamheng’s Kingdom was larger than present-day Thailand. However there
was no direct control of outlying provinces, which acknowledged his
suzerainty.
Rama Khamheng’s reign was marked by general peace and prosperity for
the people. He was a benevolent monarch. A bell hung in front of his palace
bore testimony to his sense of justice. The king would listen to grievances after
the ringing of the bell. Rice and fish were in abundance so that his subjects did
not have any food shortages. There was no road tax. People did not have to
pay tax on merchandise and inheritance. Trade in horses, silver, and gold
was brisk. Rama Khamheng was interested in moral education for his subjects
and persuaded them to lead a life following Buddhist precepts. The Thai soci-
ety that evolved in the Sukhothai period was elitist in nature with the presence
of a non-Thai slave population. The Thai aristocracy resembled that of the
Mongols.
Many important facets of Thai culture developed under Rama Khamheng’s
reign. Sukhothai was one of the early Kingdoms that emerged in Thailand
integrating traditional muang administration with the Indian mandala concept
of a centralized state. It also borrowed from the Khmer various art forms and
administrative structures. The impact of the Mongols could be discerned in
military units beginning from 10 onward to 20, 30, and so on. Legal traditions
came from the Mons. In spite of influences from India, Sri Lanka, and neigh-
boring regions, Sukhothai evolved its own cultural pattern, still maintaining
its identity. The legacy of Sukhothai was in the realm of language, script,
and religion that became an essential part of Thai culture.
The Mons, Khmers, Indians, and Sri Lankans had close cultural contact
with Sukhothai. The Sri Lankan variety of Buddhism (Theravada Buddhism)
became predominant in Sukhothai. Rama Khamheng invited monks from Sri
Lanka to come to Sukhothai to free existing Khmer-dominated Buddhism.
The monks of Sukhothai went to Sri Lanka to learn about Buddhist cannons.
Nakon Sri Tammarat became an important center of Sri Lankan Theravada
philosophy. It had close religious ties with Sri Lanka, with which contact
was established through Nakon Sri Tammarat. In continuity with the indige-
nous tradition of worshiping spirits, Rama Khamheng continued to make
38 The History of Thailand
LAN NA KINGDOM
The Lan Na (“land of a million rice fields”) Kingdom, another contemporary
Thai state, emerged in northern Thailand in the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury. Its founder, Mangrai (r. 1259–1317), hailed from the Yuan Tai family that
ruled over the Chiang Saen region. The ancient city of Chiang Saen was called
by various names such as “Nakhapun Singhanuwat Nakorn” and “Yonok
Nakorn Chaiburi Sri Chiang Saen.” It was established by the Tai chieftain
King Singha Nuwat, who had migrated from Yunnan around the middle of
the sixth century. For about 500 to 600 years, it had been difficult to construct
a reliable history of the region due to a paucity of materials. But it can be
safely assumed that small principalities were in existence in the upper
Mekong River region, stretching from Lu in Yunnan to Lunag Prabang in
Laos. The advent of Mengrai, a person of intellect, farsightedness, and valor,
changed the scenario. His heritage was impeccable, as his mother was the
daughter of the ruler of Lu in Yunnan. After the death of his father in 1259,
Mangrai ascended the throne at Chiang Saen (Yonok Nakhon). His first task
was to unify various warring tribes from different principalities into the
Lanna Tai Kingdom. The leaders of various communities came to Chiang Saen
to pay homage, and any recalcitrant fief was subjugated. After extending the
territorial boundary of the new Kingdom, Mengrai established the capital city
of Chiang Rai in 1262. But Chiang Saen remained as an outpost for defensive
purpose in the northern area. Its location was strategic as the Mekong River
formed a natural border in the east. Troop movements to Chiang Saen were
40 The History of Thailand
easier due to its location among waterways of rivers such as the Mekong, Mae
Chan, and Mae Ruak. It had eight watchtowers and eleven gates. The Ping
River Basin came under control of the king, who named it Khwaen Ping.
The Chiang Khong area was captured in 1268, and four years afterward the
capital was moved to Fang, from where further expansion of the Kingdom
would be carried out.
Another factor that facilitated the security of Mengrai’s Kingdom was the
close alliance with the powerful Thai rulers of Phayo and Sukhothai. Apart
from Sukhothai, the Phayao Kingdom was another autonomous Thai state,
although not as powerful as Lan Na or Sukhothai. Until its annexation to
Lan Na in 1338, the independent Phayo Kingdom east of Chiang Mai, with
its capital near Phayo Lake, was famous for Wat Sikhom Kham. Mengrai,
Rama Khamheng, and Muang became close allies and never fought against
one another. Mengrai turned his attention toward the south, where the Mon
Kingdom of Haripunchai (Lamphun) was located. The Mons tried to extend
their territory in the Ping River Basin. The capture of the prosperous trading
city of Haripunchai would bolster trade and enrich the treasury of Lan Na.
Mengrai knew that a war with the Mons would be disastrous, and he devised
a plan to capture Haripunchai. Ali Fa, a merchant and confidant of the king,
was sent to the Mon Kingdom to foment discontent and rebellion against
the Mon ruler Phaya Yi Ba. At the opportune moment, Mengrai seized the city
of Haripunchai and, after staying in the city for three years, appointed Ali Fa
as his representative to rule over the Mons. Mengrai looked for a new capital
city. Muang Cha Wae, located northeast of Haripunchai, was chosen. But fre-
quent flooding compelled the king to search for another capital. The fertile
basin of the Oing River was chosen and the city of Wiang Kum Kam was set
up. Mengrai stayed in the new capital for five years, but heavy flooding
forced him to look for another site again. The relics of this ancient capital are
present in the Sarapee district of the Chiang Mai province.
In 1296, Mengrai discovered a meadow near a mountain that had many
waterfalls. The legends surrounding the place spoke of the Hindu god Indra’s
order for a city that would be free from any misfortune. Although mythology
and favorable omens were responsible for the choice of the site, its strategic
position between the Kok and Ping rivers, abundance of fertile land for
agriculture, and location along the north-south route weighed heavily in the
mind of Mengrai for building the new capital. He was still not satisfied with
all these, and invited close friends Ngam Muang and Rama Khamheng to
help with the planning of the new capital, ultimately giving his final approval.
In 1287, the three kings took a vow to never invade each other’s Kingdom.
Phayo, Sukhothai, and Lan Na had expanded their domain and were assured
of each other ’s neutrality. The new city named Nopburi Sri Nakorn Ping
Chiang Mai was constructed in 1296. Shortened to Chiang Mai, the city
The Emergence of Thai States: Sukhothai and Lan Na 41
became the center of a unique northern Thai culture and a tourist attraction in
modern times. In the center of the capital city, a monument was built for the
three kings. It currently adorns the facade of the Chiang Mai City Hall. Within
four months the construction of the rectangular shaped city, which was 1,000
wah (one wah equals two meters) in length and 900 in width, was completed.
The city walls had gates on each side, eight meters in width. A royal monas-
tery was constructed in the garden adjacent to the Western gate of the city,
where relics of Buddha brought from the Sukhothai Kingdom were preserved.
A threat, however, was looming at large from the northern direction.
The Mongols were constantly harassing Mengrai’s Kingdom and in 1301
the combined army of Sukhothai and Lan Na repulsed the Mongol attack.
Mengrai was not only a warrior, who expanded the territorial boundary of
the Kingdom, but also a compiler of law codes known as Mangraisart. The
king also established markets in the cities of Chiang Mai and Wiang Kum
Kam. He patronized and brought skilled artisans from the Pagan area. He
organized the administration by parceling the Kingdom into rice-growing
areas. A prince was to get 1,000 rice fields apart from getting territories in out-
lying areas for defense purposes. A commoner was to get cultivated fields for
growing 5 muen (about 60 kilograms). After his death in 1311, 17 kings and
queens after Mengrai ruled over Lan Na.
Phaya Chai Songkhram, son of Mengrai, ruled over the Kingdom from
Chiang Rai. Songkhram’s successor Saen Phu constructed a city in Chiang
Saen, which was made into the royal abode. The notable event during the reign
of Phaya Kham Fu (r. 1334–1345), successor of Saen Phu, was the annexation of
the Phayo Kingdom in 1338. Pha Yu (r. 1345–1367), the next ruler, was instru-
mental in spreading Buddhism in the Kingdom. He shifted the capital to Chiang
Mai and built the Wat Li Chiang. Keu Na, the sixth ruler (1367–1385), intro-
duced the Lankavong Buddhism of Sri Lanka and invited the Sukhothai monk
Phra Sumana Thera. The Wat Buppharam, constructed in 1373, became the
disseminator of the Lankavong sect. He also assisted King Mahathammaracha
II in 1372 in Sukhothai’s war with Ayudhya. Keu Na’s successor, Phaya Saen
Muang Ma (r. 1385–1401), made an abortive attack against Sukhothai. There
was also a war with Ayudhya King Boromaraja I (r. 1370–1388) in 1387. The
invading forces of Ayudhya were defeated at Sen Sanuk near Chiang Mai.
The victory was mainly due to the bravery of the Lan Na princess Nang
Muang, who fought with the invading army on the back of an elephant
dressed as a man. Muang Ma also began the construction of the Phra Chedi
Luang. He was succeeded by his son Phaya Sam Fang Kaen (r. 1401–1441),
who forced the retreat of the Haw toward Sipsong Panna. Kaen’s son Phaya
Tilokaraj (r. 1441–1487) was a notable ruler of the Lan Na dynasty.
The Nan Kingdom was inhabited by Tai Lao and Tai Lu, and had come into
existence in 1368. It was incorporated into Lan Na in 1449. Tilokaraj also
42 The History of Thailand
From the middle of the fourteenth century, Thai political power shifted
farther south with the emergence of the Kingdom of Ayudhya, which lasted
for the next four centuries. Ruling over much of the former Angkorean
empire, it became the most powerful political entity of the peninsula. Domi-
nating Thailand as well as mainland Southeast Asia, the capital Ayudhya
was an island-city located at the meeting point of the Chao Praya, Lopburi,
and Pasak rivers. It was well protected from invasion due to its strategic
location on an island. One of the most famous metropolises of the middle
ages, Ayudhya was a well-developed city with its monasteries, buildings,
international settlements, and waterways. A major tourist attraction today,
the city was declared by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1991.
RAMA TIBODI I
The Ayudhya Kingdom was founded by General U Thong after capturing
some principalities held by Sukhothai. He assumed the title of Rama Tibodi
(r. 1350–1369) at the time of his coronation in 1350. He named the new capital
city Ayudhya after the capital of the Kingdom of Rama, the hero of the
46 The History of Thailand
Ramayana. From a modest settlement of teakwood houses, the city became the
center of imperial grandeur. Known as Rama Tibodi I in Thai history, adven-
turous Rama Tibodi had matrimonial alliances with royalty in the cities of
Lop Buri and Suphan Buri. The king followed a policy of expansion, taking
advantage of the weakening power of Sukhothai and Angkor.
The strategic location of the capital Ayudhya facilitated the task of attacking
the Khmers. The control of people living in the borderlands of the two King-
doms had become one of contention. Tibodi also was bent upon claming over-
lordship of the region. He began to exert pressure against the Kingdom of
Angkor, which was followed by his successors until the complete subjugation
of the Khmers. Beginning with Jayavarman VII’s death in 1219, the decline of
the Khmer empire continued. Warfare between the Thais and Khmers contin-
ued from the middle of the fourteenth century onward. The expedition against
the Khmers in 1352 under the king’s son Ramesuan ended in a disastrous
defeat at the hands of Khmer king Jayavaman Parameswar (r. 1327–1353).
Tibodi went on exerting pressure against the Kingdom of Angkor. The second
attack was led by the king’s brother and Angkor was subdued by it in 1369.
The important consequence of the victory was an influx of Khmer bureaucrats,
artisans, and brahmins to Ayudhya. Tibodi extended his domain to the lower
Chao Praya River, the Gulf of Martaban, and the Malay Peninsula. He had to
suppress frequent rebellions in Chiang Mai and Sukhothai.
Composed of self-governing principalities, the Kingdom had to be held
together by the monarch’s sagacity and vigilance. Rama Tibodi had to buttress
authority and legitimize his claims by following the practice of Indian kings,
who declared themselves to be the devaraja or divine king. The laws promul-
gated by Rama Tibodi continued in principle for six centuries. A combination
of indigenous practices and Indian legal concepts, this legal system exhibited
characteristics of the society of that time. The royal decrees were added to
the legal code written in Pali, and it was operational until the last decade of
the nineteenth century. In administering the Kingdom, the king was assisted
by ministers such as the khun klahng (minister of finance), khun muang (minis-
ter of local government), and khun nah (minister of agriculture). A deadly out-
break of cholera spread in 1357, resulting in innumerable deaths. Tibodi
embraced Theravada Buddhism in 1360, which became the state religion of
Ayudhya. The monks came from Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism.
Ayudhya occupation was only for a brief period, as Prince Intaburi, who had
been installed as the new king by his father, Boromaraja II, died within a few
months. The Khmers relocated the capital to Phnom Penh in 1434, as Angkor
Thom was close to the Thai border. The sacking of their capital incurred
heavy losses in terms of men and material for the Khmers. But from the Thai
viewpoint, they had gained supremacy by these invasions and Ayudhya was
safe from any attack from the Khmers.
A general pattern also was emerging in the internecine wars between
Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar. Apart from ransacking the towns and
imposing tributes, the victorious power would take much of the local popula-
tion to make up for persons killed in the wars. One result produced is the
ethnic mix now found in mainland Southeast Asia.
Sukhothai formed a part of the Ayudhya Kingdom by becoming a province
of it in 1438, with Prince Ramesuan appointed as governor. Four years after-
ward, Boromaraja II led an unsuccessful campaign against Phaya Tilokaraj
of the Lan Na Kingdom. His army was defeated by the Chiang Mai forces.
Boromaraja II developed an illness during the campaign and died in 1488. His
eldest son, Prince Ramesuen (Trailoknath), the governor of the Phitsanulok
province since 1438, became the next king of Ayudhya.
TRAILOKNATH
The reign of Trailoknath (r. 1448–1488) formed an important period in the
history of Ayudhya. After the beginning of Thai migration from Nan Chao,
the Thai princes established small principalities independent of one another
and constantly at war. The control of central authority was nominal. The
absence of a unified state resulted in losses of revenue and the neglect of both
forest and agricultural lands. Trailoknath turned his attention toward the
administrative problems faced by the expanding nation because the existing
structure was not adequate. The king brought all the Thai principalities
together under centralized control and divided the Kingdom into a number
of provinces, each headed by a Chao Phraya, or governor. He organized the
central administration on a departmental basis with a high-ranking official
in charge of each department.
The five krams (departments) were established in the capital city so that
the king could have direct control over them. A chief minister headed the
Ministry of Interior. The city and province of Ayudhya was under the ministry
of the local government. The Ministry of Finance looked after taxes and state
income. In light of growing maritime commerce, a separate branch for foreign
affairs and trade was created under this ministry. Cultivation, food supplies,
and land tenure were under the Ministry of Finance. The Kalahom, or head
of military affairs, with the same status as that of a minister, looked after a
The Kingdom of Ayudhya 49
Trailoknath also did much to encourage the arts and literature. He was a
devout Buddhist and his palace was used for activities of the Buddhist
Sangha. The king also built Buddhist monasteries and trade centers in the city
of Ayudhya and other places of the Kingdom. A new sect of Buddhism,
named Vanaratnavong or the Pa-Kaeo, became popular during the reign of
Trailoknath. He joined the Buddhist seminary as a monk at Wat Chulamanee
in Phitsanulok, where he died in 1488.
His son Settathirat was installed as the king. Chai intervened but was
repulsed by the Chiang Mai army and afterward by Lan Xang troops while
retreating. Chai Raja died in 1546, to be succeeded by his 11-year-old son,
Keo Fa (r. 1546–1548). But the real power was with his mother, Queen Sri
Suda Chan, who acted as the regent. There were palace intrigues, adultery
committed by the queen, and assassinations. A younger brother of Chai,
Prince Tian Raja, became the king of Ayudhya with the title Maha Chakraphat
(r. 1548–1568). He along with his queen, Suryothai, fought against the
Myanmarese menace from the west.
who surrendered to the invading army in 1556 and agreed to pay an annual
tribute. But Mekuthi had to face invasion from Lan Xang, the ruler of
Settathirat. In 1558, Bayinnaung defeated the Lan Xang ruler. Settathirat and
Chakraphat made a formal alliance after Bayinnaung’s departure to his
homeland. In 1563, Bayinnaung invaded Ayudhya. The pretext was the Thai
king’s refusal to surrender two elephants to him. But the real motive was to
control the northern and central Thai states. He launched a two-pronged
attack. Bayinnaung himself led a large army and reached Ayudhya after pass-
ing through the Sittang Valley, Chiang Mai, Kampengphet, and Sukhothai.
Another army from Myanmar came through the Mae Lamow Pass in the
Tak province. The war resulted in the defeat of Ayudhya so that Bayinnaung
was forced to return with four white elephants and some hostages from the
royal family. Chakraphat’s son Mahindra ruled as a vassal ruler with a
Myanmarese garrison controlling him. When Bayinnaung reached Pegu, he
found Pegu burning along with the palace. The rebellion caused by the Shan
and Thai prisoners of wars was crushed ruthlessly and the capital was built
again. A split in the royal family of Ayudhya in 1565 facilitated an attack
from Myanmar again. Chakraphat and Mahindra wanted a close relationship
with Lan Xang. But Tammaraja, holding the second most powerful position
in Ayudhya as the governor of Phitsanulok, was well disposed toward
Bayinnaung. Mahindra and Lan Xang, the ruler Settathirat, joined forces
and attacked Phitsanulok. Chakraphat, held as a hostage in Pegu, was even-
tually allowed to return to Ayudhya on a pilgrimage. But he discarded the
saffron robe of the monk and joined the attack against Phitsanulok. Another
attack was launched in 1568 by Bayinnaung, who marched through the
Mae Lamow Pass. After capturing Phitsanulok, he besieged the city of
Ayudhya in 1568.
Chakraphat died and his son Mahindra succeeded him. Ayudhya soldiers
offered fierce resistance, but ultimately the city fell due to the treachery of
Phaya Maha Thamraja and Prince Chakri. Ayudhya was plundered and the
victorious king returned with a large number of prisoners. Maha Thamraja
(r. 1569–1590) was installed as a vassal ruler and his son Naresuan, a boy of nine
years, was taken as a hostage to ensure the loyalty of Thamaraja. Mahindra had
died while being taken as prisoner to Pegu. Ayudhya remained under Toungoo
occupation for 15 years, until 1584.
The Dhammathat based on Manu’s code of law was introduced in Ayudhya.
The Thai also adopted the Era of Myanmar beginning from 638 C.E. The
system remained in force until the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1887.
Naresuan was allowed to return to Ayudhya in 1576. He was put in charge of
Phitsanulok. A capable leader, Naresuan organized an army and was waiting
for the opportune moment to make Ayudhya independent. He successfully
repulsed the Khmer during the years 1575 to 1578. Nandabayin became the
The Kingdom of Ayudhya 53
ruler after the death of his father Bayinnaung in 1581. A rebellion had broken
out in the Shan states and Naresuan suppressed it after his help was requested
by Nandabayin. The success and popularity of Naresuan created jealousy in
the mind of Nandabayin. He wanted to get rid of Naresuan before he proved
to be too dangerous. Naresuan was again requested by Nandabayin to quell
the rebellion of Prince of Ava and a plan was hatched to murder him. Naresuan
became aware of it on the border area and in a declaration before his soldiers
proclaimed his intention to throw off the yoke of servitude.
After killing the leader of Myanmar’s army, Naresuan reached Ayudhya
in 1584. Ayudhya was once again free and was put in charge of the defense
of the Kingdom by his father, Maha Thamraja. Naresuan undertook the task
of strengthening Ayudhya by building a strong army. He persuaded people
from the northern area and the Shan states to join him. Nandabayin mounted
another attack in 1584, but Naresuan defeated the invading troops. The second
invasion three years later was also abortive. Naresuan also repulsed an attack
by the Khmers, pursuing the army to the capital of Lovek.
Naresuan became the king of Ayudhya with the title Somdej Phra Naresuan
Maharaj (r. 1590–1605) after the death of Thamaraja. Trade agreements with
European powers were made during his reign. After the Portuguese, the
Dutch and Spanish signed similar agreements with Ayudhya. A similar treaty
in 1592 gave the Dutch a privileged position in the rice trade.
Spain had brought the Philippines under its colonial rule in 1598. Don Tello
de Aguirre, the Spanish envoy came from Manila to Ayudhya to sign the
Treaty of Friendship and Commerce. Nandabayin launched the fifth attack
against Ayudhya in 1593. Naresuan marched to Nong Sarai to meet the troops
of Crown Prince Min Kyawsaw. Both fought on elephant back, and Naresuan
killed the prince.
Commemorating the victory, the King of Ayudhya erected a pagoda at Don
Chedi in Suphanburi that is still extant. There is a fair on January 25 each year
in honor of Naresuan. It is also Thailand’s National Armed Forces Day. Some
of the weapons and belongings of Naresuan find a place in Royal Regalia
even now. The king then took the initiative and attacked Myanmar.
For her maritime commerce, Thailand needed ports in the Indian Ocean,
and in 1593 two armies under Generals Chao Chakri and Phaya Praklong were
dispatched to southern Myanmar. Chakri seized Tenesserim and Praklong
occupied Tavoy. Naresuan wanted to secure the southeast frontier and
marched against Cambodia. The Khmer king Raemea Chung Prei fled from
the capital in 1594 and Naresuan returned with prisoners of war to be relocated
in the depopulated northern provinces. Naresuan received an appeal from
the Chiang Mai ruler, Tharrawaddy Min, a son of Bayinnaung, for help after
an attack by Lan Xang. In 1595, Lan Na came under suzerainty of Ayudhya
again, but Myanmar regained it after 20 years. Naresuan made an abortive
54 The History of Thailand
Patani, along with Ayudhya, dispatched a navy to capture him, but Parames-
vara escaped. Melaka soon became prominent politically as well as commer-
cially. The spice trade route was from Maluku to India through Melaka. This
port attracted traders from neighboring areas as well as India, and many of
the traders were Muslims. The Gujratis, Parsis, Arabs, Bengalis, Kalingans,
and others constituted the trading communities. The Tamils were also involved
in politics and rose to high positions. These Marakkayars from the Coromandel
were playing a major part in politics as well as trade. Melaka was also becom-
ing the main diffusion center of Islam in Southeast Asia. On the eve of the
Portuguese conquest of Melaka in 1511, Islam had been firmly entrenched in
Southeast Asia.
Islam came to Thailand from various regions including China, India, the
Middle East, the Malay–Indonesian archipelago, Myanmar, and Cambodia.
As noted, Muslims as a whole constitute about 10 percent of the total popula-
tion today. But Malay-speaking Muslims, who inhabit the southern provinces
bordering Malaysia, make up about 3 percent of the population. In the four
southern provinces of Thailand—namely Patani, Narathiwat, Satul, and Yala—
about 76 percent of the people adhere to the Islamic faith. In its initial phase,
roughly between the seventh and twelfth centuries, the Muslim traders played
an important role in propagating Islam. Maritime commerce was an important
activity of the Thai states.
The southern ports played major roles in oceanic trade. The traders from
the Middle East, South Asia, and neighboring Kingdoms began to arrive
and south Thailand witnessed the advent of Islam through trade. The religion
was not confined to south Thailand only, as the city of Ayudhya was a center
of commerce that had international settlements, including the Muslim
traders. The indigenous traders as well as people of Thailand were attracted
to Islamic preaching, its egalitarianism, and its belief in one god. Islam, with
its prohibition of idol worship and images, presented a new form of faith.
The prosperity of Muslim traders coming to Thailand might have been an
added factor. But it was the creation of states ruled by Muslim sultanates that
was responsible for making southern Thailand Islamized. Islam began to hold
its sway here as compared to other areas of Thailand. The Hindu–Buddhist
tradition was not as firmly established here as it was in north and central
Thailand.
In the beginning of the Common Era, city states like Tun-hsun, Ch’ih-t’u,
P’an-p’an, Tan-tan, Tambralinga, and Langkasuka emerged in the Thai–
Malay Peninsula. The first century C.E. state of Langkasuka was the predeces-
sor of the Patani sultanate established in 1374. The Langasuka and Tambral-
ing areas witnessed its continued importance in regional and international
trading network. The Melaka sultanate and Ayudhya Kingdom desired to
bring it under their sphere of influence. Tamralinga, located between Chaiya
56 The History of Thailand
and Pattani, was already in existence in the second century C.E. It was
the precursor of the Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom. With the decline of
Srivijaya, it became dominant in the region.
Nakhon Si Thammarat was paying tribute to the Sukhothai Kingdom and
afterward to Ayudhya. In turn Songkhla was a vassal of Nakhon Si Tham-
marat, and according to Royal Thai chronicles its ruling aristocracy were
Muslim landlords. Farther south was Patani, which assumed much more
importance in the history of southern Thailand. The greater distance from
Ayudhya facilitated the Islamization of Patani. Islam came to Patani even
before the Melaka sultanate was established. Patani, like the Malay states of
Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah, and Pahang, had a tenuous relationship with
Ayudhya in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Kedah had contact with Ayudhya, as is evident from sources of Kedah,
which had a Muslin name for Rama Tibodi I, Sultan Mad Zafar Syah III.
One of his sons was buried in Alor Setar, Kedah. When the central authority
was strong enough, the Malay states had a vassal status. But most of the time
they enjoyed almost an independent status.
After the Islamization of Pasai on the island of Sumatra toward the last decade
of thirteenth century—as is evident from Sultan Malikul Saleh’s tombstone
dated 1297—Patani had Pasai Muslims living there in a village called Kampung
Pasai. Patani was not unknown to the Islamic world before it was Islamized.
Local legends mentioned in the chronicle Hikayat Patani state that Patani was
Islamized toward the latter part of the fourteenth century at the time of its ruler
Raja Indra. The name, “Patani” came into vogue at the time of his father, Raja
Sri Wangsa. The state was prosperous due to trade and it was visited by mer-
chants from different regions. A learned Pasai Muslim named Sheik Syafialudin
once cured Raja Indra on the condition that he would be converted to Islam.
The sheikh began to indoctrinate members of royalty in Islamic laws and
precepts. Raja Indra took the name Mahmud Shah with the title of sultan.
Incorporating the neighboring provinces of Narathiwat, Yala, and Satun
gradually, the state came to be known as Patani Raya. In the fifteenth century,
Melaka, Ayudhya, and Patani endeavored to dominate each other as well
as the Thai–Malay peninsula. Sometimes it resulted in war and at other times
friendship. The Melaka sultanate under Iskandar Shah and his successors
spearheaded the spread of Islam and cultivated a relationship with the royalty
of the peninsula.
The Sultan of Patani, Mahmud Shah, sent ambassadors to Melaka, who
returned with gifts for him. The two Muslim sultanates became allies. Patani
became known to the outside world, and traders from Ayudhya, China, Japan,
India, Arabia, and Persia came to the sultanate of Patani. Rivalry between
Melaka and Ayudhya became intense, with trade and religion playing impor-
tant parts. The Thai king Trailoknath had attacked Melaka in 1456 but did not
The Kingdom of Ayudhya 57
succeed. Patani threw its lot with Melaka, keeping in view the long-standing
enmity with Ayudhya. Both wanted to have mastery over the isthmus of Kra
so that it would be easier to control the Straits of Melaka. Ayudhya also had
an eye on the lucrative trading port of Melaka in the fifteenth century and
the Malay states south of Nakorn Sri Thammarat.
From the isthmus of Kra, Patani began to launch attacks against Ayudhya,
and the latter left no stone unturned to bring Patani under its control. Under
the rulers of the Ayudhya dynasty, southern Thailand and particularly the
Patani region enjoyed alternate phases of independence and subjugation.
The population of Patani increased, as did the progress of trade. Ships car-
rying goods came through the mouth of the Patani River. In 1516, a Portuguese
ship loaded with different commodities came from Melaka for the first time to
the Sultanate of Patani, who was very much impressed with the arms and
ammunition that the Portuguese brought. Afterward the Portuguese ships
came regularly for trade. There were about 300 Portuguese living in the city
of Patani. Sultan Mahmud Shah, a capable ruler, died in 1538, to be succeeded
by his son Muzafar Shah. Muzafar visited Ayudhya during the reign of Maha
Chakraphat but was not treated well. However, the sultan was presented with
slaves from Pegu and Cambodia. As they were Buddhists, a monastery was
built for them in a village called Kedi (monk’s house), and the Kampung Kedi
still exists today.
Taking advantage of Ayudhya’s war with King Bayinnaung, the sultan
launched an attack against Ayudhya in 1563 with warships. His younger
brother Raja Mansur and some chiefs accompanied the sultan. But the attack
proved inconclusive and the sultan died while retreating. Raja Mansur became
the next sultan with the title Sultan Mansur Shah. Then, after a palace revolt,
Raja Bahadur, son of Mansur Shah, became the sultan. He had three daughters
named Raja Hijau, Raja Biru, and Raja Ungu (Green Princess, Blue Princess,
and Purple Princess).
After Bahadur died, Raja Hijau became the first female sultan to govern
Patani. At this time, Patani had become virtually independent from Ayudhya.
Hijau governed with skill and to the best of her ability. She was quite well
known in the chancelleries of Europe, Ayudhya, and Japan. She sent her
representatives to these places. The king of Japan sent envoys asking for
permission to have trade and commercial relations with the sultanate of
Patani. Hijau granted the request in 1592. She also sent emissaries to Japan
in the years 1599 and 1606 requesting friendship and a trade relationship.
In spite of a rivalry with Ayudhya, the trade relationship was not hampered
between the two. There were also exchanges of friendship missions. Ayudhya
kings always referred to the queens of Patani by the honorable title Pra Nang
Chau Ying (Her majesty, the female Raja). But beneath the surface, there was
the lurking desire of Ayudhya as well as Patani to subdue each other.
5
History of Thailand,
1605–1782
The remaining 162 years of rule by Ayudhya kings were eventful in Thai
history. The Kingdom was consolidated by absorbing Malay states and
thwarting invasion by neighbors. International contact increased, and the
name Siam became familiar among royalty, travelers, adventurers, and schol-
ars of the world. After 1767, the Kingdom of Ayudhya ceased to exist, but its
name and culture remained.
interested in the Netherlands, where the telescope was invented. In 1608, the
king sent a delegation to the Hague with a letter and gifts. The Prince of
Orange was impressed by the Thai ambassador ’s espousal of Thai–China
friendship, as the Dutch were also interested in China.
The first Portuguese Jesuit missionary, Balthazar de Seguerra, arrived in the
year 1609. Shortly afterward, in 1612, the British and Dutch established trad-
ing factories in Thai territory. In June 1612, the first British ship, The Globe,
sailed from Java to Patani, from where the merchants could reach Ayudhya
for trade. A Japanese settlement in Ayudhya called Ban Yipun was inhabited
by traders, unemployed Samurais, and Christian converts from Japan. Com-
modities like silver and handicrafts were being imported from Japan in
exchange for Thai deer hides. Some of the Japanese were military men and
there was a department in the administration for these “volunteers” called
Krom Asa Yipun. Yamada Nagamasa (1590–1630), a Japanese adventurer,
became the chief of Ban Yipun around 1610. He rose rapidly in the hierarchy
of Thai nobility, becoming Okya Senaphimuk. During the reign of Ekatosrost,
the Anglo–Dutch rivalry was intense and both fought between 1618 and
1620 in Patani and Ayudhya.
Sri Sauvapark, a son of Ekatosrost, became the next ruler, in 1620. He
was killed and Indraraja, his stepbrother, became the king as Songtham
(r. 1620–1628). In 1624, the Portuguese had captured a Dutch ship but had
to return it after Songtham’s intervention. The king began the tradition of
paying homage to footprints of Buddha in Saraburi province. Songtham also
wrote books on Buddhism. The king proclaimed Prince Jeta as the successor
to the throne, and he ruled as Phra Jetathiraj from 1628 to 1630.
Sri Voravongse, an uncle of King Songtham, was powerful, and he became
the Chao Phya Kalhom (head of military). He murdered the king, and after-
ward the younger brother King Atitaya ruled for about a month. The Kalhom
proclaimed himself to be the king of Thailand as Phra Chao Prasart Thong
(r. 1630–1655). Thong turned his attention toward the southern sultanate of
Patani. Ayudhya was bent upon subjugating Patani because of its commercial
value. A sovereign ruler in the south that could block access to Ayudhya was
not to be tolerated. King Naresuan had made an abortive attempt in 1603,
when a Thai armada landed in Kuala Patani. The attack was repulsed by
Patani’s ruler, Raja Hijau (Green Princess). In 1632, during the reign of Raja
Biru (Blue Princess), Ayudhya attacked Patani for the second time. The prom-
ised help of the Dutch company based in Jakarta did not arrive and the Thai
forces suffered defeat at the hands of the combined army of Patani and Jahor.
The next year, at the time of the reign of Raja Ungu (Purple Princess), Patani
was attacked again under the same commander, Okya Decho. The Thai armada
battled with Patani-Jahor troops for some months and had to retreat due to
shortage of food and affliction of diseases. The six warships of the Dutch
History of Thailand, 1605–1782 61
arrived very late. Thong sent an emissary to the new ruler of Patani in 1635 to
submit. But Kuning, daughter of Ungu, the new ruler, declined.
Yamada Nagamasa, who had been given the charge of the Nakhon Si
Thammarat province, was asked by the king to attack Patani, but he also
failed. Afterward, there was no major conflict between Ayudhya and Patani
for quite a long time. Both sides were exhausted by the continuous warfare.
The local history mentioned that Patani remained independent. But according
to some sources, the Patani ruler in 1636 accepted nominal suzerainty of
Ayudhya in light of Dutch advice.
which gave the latter monopoly of trade in hides and China–Ayudhya trade
as well as extraterritorial rights of jurisdiction. Like a wise strategist Narai
began cultivating relations with the British and French in order to countervail
the Dutch dominance. The British factory at Bantam urged London to assist
Narai. But the Ayudhya factory was under the jurisdiction of Madras (Chennai)
in India, and London did not want to interfere in Thai affairs.
Roman Catholic missionaries had arrived from France around 1664. Narai
was not interested in their religion but took the help of Father Thomas, an
engineer, to build forts in Thonburi, Nonthaburi, and Ayudhya. The French
were allowed to open a trading station in Songkhla. De Lamar, a French
engineer, put 18 guns around the city as a deterrent against hostile forces
coming from the Gulf of Thailand. The French built a church and for some
time Ayudhya was their headquarters in Southeast Asia. The king also shifted
his residence to Lopburi and constructed a new palace. All these moves were
for the purpose of weakening the Dutch influence in his Kingdom. In 1673,
Pope Clement IX presented a letter to Narai urging him to convert to Roman
Catholicism; however, the attempt under the auspices of French Jesuits to
convert Narai failed.
A British ship, the Phoenix, arrived in Ayudhya in 1675 with Constantine
Phaulkon (1647–1688), a Greek adventurer, as one of its trading staff. A linguist
and thoroughly pro-French, Phaulkon began his remarkable career in Songkhla.
He was known as the “Falcon of Siam” as his personal seal carried the image of
a falcon. Phaulkon became the Superintendent of Foreign Trade and afterward a
close confidant of the king. His advice to the king concerning trade affairs with
Europeans was accepted. Marrying a Portuguese–Japanese Roman Catholic
woman, Phaulkon discussed with the king the merits of Catholicism. The
extravagant lifestyle, hobnobbing with royalty, favoring private traders, and
other shortcomings would eventually come back to haunt him later.
The exchange of diplomatic relations between Ayudhya and France began.
In 1680, a ship was sent by the French East India Company to trade with
Ayudhya. A second Thai embassy embarked for the court of Louis XIV
(r. 1638–1715) in 1684, as the first one sent four years before had been lost at
sea. Chervalier De Chaumont (1640–1710) came to Ayudhya as an ambassador
of France in 1686. He accompanied the Thai ambassador Phra Wisutsuntorn in
the Kingdom’s third diplomatic mission to France. Narai was not interested in
changing his religion to Christianity, but he desired a trade agreement.
Songkhla was ceded to the French and they monopolized the tin trade on
Phuket Island. There was also a tax exemption of the French East India Com-
pany. France was the predominant trading partner with extraterritorial rights
in Ayudhya. Meanwhile, the India Company had claimed compensation from
Ayudhya for damage to British ships along the Indian Coromandel coast
caused by ships sailing under the Thai flag.
History of Thailand, 1605–1782 63
In August 1687, Narai declared war against the EIC upon advice of
Phaulkon. King Louis XIV decorated Phaulkon in 1687 and he became a
Knight Order of St. Michael and St. Peter because of his services to France. The
unlimited power wielded by Phaulkon had made him a hated figure among
certain sections of the nobility of Ayudhya. The pro-French attitude of the
king along with stationing of the French soldiers in Bangkok and Mergui (sit-
uated on the southern Myanmarese coast but under Thai control) were also
resented. A powerful general and foster brother of Narai, Phetraja became
the leader of an anti-foreign group. Sentiments against the Farangse (French,
abbreviated to Farang afterward, which is used until now for a foreigner in
Thai) rose to a high point. When the king became seriously ill with dropsy
in 1688, Phetraja used the king’s weakness to keep him as a virtual prisoner
in the palace of Lopburi. Phaulkon was executed for treason. Phetraja killed
the royal heirs and proclaimed himself king with the title Somdej Phra
Phetraja (r. 1688–1703), after the death of Narai in July.
Narai was one of the greatest Thai kings. He cultivated international
relations and diplomatic contact with rulers from Asia and Europe, putting
Ayudhya on the map of oceanic trade. In 1664, he had a sent a mission to
the Golconda sultanate of south India. After five years, another went to court
of the Safavid ruler, Shah Solayman (r. 1666–1694). The legacy of a close
relationship with France remained. The French accounts of Chevalier de
Chaumont, the Abbe de Choisy, Fr. Tachard, Claude de Forbin, and de la
Loubere regarding Ayudhya became important source materials for histori-
ans. In the French cities of Brest and Marseilles, streets were named Rue de
Siam in honor of diplomatic missions of the king. The cannons given as a gift
to Louis XIV by Narai were functional at the time of the French Revolution on
July 14, 1789. However, he allowed Phaulkon unlimited powers and in the
process alienated the majority of the nobility, leading to his downfall as well
as Phaulkon’s execution. An anti-foreign feeling began, which developed into
a policy of isolation. It continued until the middle of nineteenth century.
END OF AYUDHYA
A Kingdom or dynasty cannot last forever. Myanmar was now in an expan-
sionist phase and Ayudhya bore the brunt of its growing power. A new and
powerful dynasty was emerging in the west, which would close the Ayudhya
period in the history of Thailand. In 1752 Alaungpaya (r. 1752–1760) was rec-
ognized as the king of Ava and founded the Konbaung dynasty. He captured
Pegu five years afterward and in 1760 launched the first attack against
Ayudhya. After regaining the cities of Tavoy, Mergui, and Tenesserim,
Alaungpaya besieged Ayudhya for about a month. Uthumpon was recalled
by Boromaraja V to rule on his behalf as the latter felt that he was not compe-
tent enough to protect Ayudhya. Meanwhile Alaungpaya had been wounded
severely and died while retreating.
The next ruler was his eldest son, Naungdawgyi (r. 1760–1763), who was
succeeded by his brother Hsinbyushin (r. 1763–1776). He followed the policy
of his father, with attempts to conquer Ayudhya. He planned to attack it from
the north after overrunning Lan Xang and Vientiane. In 1764, he began his
campaign by subduing both Kingdoms in the north and marching south with
the intention of capturing Ayudhya. A supporting army marched toward the
east from Myanmar. By October 1765, much of the southern, Western, and
northern territories of Ayudhya had come under Hsinbyushin. The siege of
Ayudhya began in February 1766, and after a year it capitulated in April 1767.
Hsinbyushin declined the offer of Boromaraja V to become a vassal king and
unleashed a reign of plunder, destruction, and devastation after storming
the city gate of Ayudhya on April 8, 1767.
Hsinbyushin’s marauding army of 1.5 million soldiers and 6,000 elephants
destroyed everything in Ayudhya and burned the city to the ground.
Ayudhya’s soldiers and civilians perished along with Buddha icons, royal
chronicles, temples, and literary works. The destruction reduced the heritage
of Ayudhya to ashes. Thus ended one of the most beautiful cities of the world
and its history of 417 years. The body of Boromaraja V lay in the west gate of
Ayudhya. Uthumpon was a prisoner of war in the city of Pegu, where he
penned the book Khun Luang Hawat (The Priest Monarch).
66 The History of Thailand
between the three lovers of rival cities ended in a tragedy. The Mahachat Kham
Luang, story of Prince Wetsandon, was a commissioned work ordered by King
Trailoknath.
Literature developed a great deal during the reign of King Narai. Phra
Horathibodi wrote the first textbook on the Thai language, entitled Chinda
Mani. The didactic literature of the period included works such as Khlong
Phali Son Nong, Khlong Thotsarot Son Phra Ram, and Khlong Ratchasawat, which
discussed principles for entering into royal services and the art of governance.
The festivals of each month, royal as well as public, were described in the
chronicle Phraratcha Phongsawadan Krung Si Ayutthaya. In the nirat tradition,
the work Khlong Nirat Hariphunchai described the poet’s longing for his
beloved while going to Lampun located in the Kingdom of Haripunchai. The
Samutthakhot Kham Chan (The story of Prince Samutthakhot) and Sua Kho
Kham Chan (The Tiger and the Cow) were also written during King Narai’s
time. The former had beautiful couplets such as “Cease heart, heart without
joy, heart with its everlasting memories of her beauty/memories that remain with
me.” The life of Narai as an exile was depicted in Khlong Kamsuan (A Mournful
Journey), written by Si Pat. In the reign of Boromakot, Thai literature flour-
ished with the coming of excellent work like Kap He Ruea (boat song), written
by Prince Thammathibet in the nirat tradition. The description of natural
beauty while on a boat journey influenced later-day poets. In the procession
of royal barges, the verses of this work are recited. Phra Maha Nak’s poetic
work entitled Punnowat Kham Chan was about a visit to Phra Phutthabat
(Buddha’s Footprint Shrine) located in the Saraburi province.
Art and architecture flourished brilliantly in the Ayudhya period. It was
influenced by traditions from Cambodia, Sri Lanka, and India. The impact
of Sukhothai lingered on for sometime. But the Ayudhya artisans developed
a unique style producing masterpieces. In spite of the destruction caused by
the events of 1767, many had survived, reflecting the resilience of Ayudhya
art. Religious architecture became massive and the structures were imposing.
Steep-roofed Ayudhya temples had their own pattern with elaborate orna-
mentation. The spires of the chedis became elongated. Wat Phutthaisawan,
Wat Mahathat, and Wat Phra Ram were some of the earlier constructions of
the Ayudhya period. The Wat Mahathat was a royal monastery and excava-
tions in 1956 yielded relics of Buddha, Buddha images, votive tablets, and
plaques made of gold. The Wat Phra Si Sanphet was constructed during
the period of Trailoknath. Rama Thibodi II installed a standing image of
Buddha, Phra Buddha Chao Sri Sanphet, 16 meters in height. The icon was
covered in gold. The Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an imposing structure, was built
by King Prasat Thong in 1630.
The gilt-lacquered Buddha images of the gallery in mara vijaya mudra (“vic-
tory over evil posture”) were exquisite. The Buddha icons of the Ayudhya
68 The History of Thailand
Kingdom had a unique hair frame and small line engraved above the upper
lip and eyes. The Buddha figures were made of stone in the early Ayudhya
period, which gave way to gilted bonze icons. One of the best specimens
was found in Wat Phra Sri San Phet, which was shifted to Hor Phra Nag
and afterward was enshrined in the temple of the Emerald Buddha. The Bud-
dha images were in various postures, such as reclining and standing. In the
late Ayudhya period, the Buddha icons were adorned in royal attire and the
base of sitting images was profusely ornamented. The scenes of Ramakien
and Jataka stories were also found in the bas-relief of temples. The Ayudhya
sculptures encompassed icons of Hindu gods and the Buddha. The inscrip-
tion of Rama Tibodi I is mentioned in the installation of images of Siva and
Vishnu from the Hindu pantheon. Many of the beautiful artworks in bronze,
woodcarving, and stucco were lost to posterity because of destruction by the
army from Myanmar in 1760s.
The performing arts also reached greater achievements. The dance, khon,
based on the Ramakien was popular. The artists used masks for the first time
during the Ayudhya period. The royalty encouraged nang yai (shadow puppet),
hun (marionette), and piphat (musical orchestra).
for building the capital. Strategically located near the mouth of the Chao
Praya River, Thonburi was a suitable port. Trade was essential to revive the
Thai economy. There was much maritime commerce, and the Chinese-Thai
traders took a large part in it.
Taksin took recourse to guerrilla warfare against the troops of Hsinbyushin
and occupied many towns. Bangkok and finally Ayudhya came under his
sway. He had complete control over central Thailand areas like Bangkok,
Ratchaburi, Nakhon Pathom, Jaksi, Prachin, Chantaburi, and Nakhon Sawan.
There were independent rulers as well, such as Chao Nakorn controlling
Nakhon Si Thammarat and other southern provinces. The governor of Phitsa-
nulok named himself as King Ruang. Korat and the adjoining eastern area
were under control of a son of Boromakot named Prince Pimai. The extreme
northern part was under the control of the “Priest King,” Chao Phaya Fang,
who also seized Phitsanulok in 1768. At the outset, Taksin defeated Pimai
along with his Myanmarese commander and brought the Korat area under
his control. The following year, Nakhon Si Thammarat came under Thonburi.
But his Cambodian adventure failed. The exiled king, Ang Non, had come to
Thonburi in 1769 and Taksin had asked Ang Tong, ruler of Cambodia, to pay
tribute. An army was sent to restore Ang Non, but it did not succeed. Taksin
led a large army against Fang and it was successful. Afterward he marched
to Cambodia and installed Ang. Ang Tong ousted the Thai army in 1772 with
help from Vietnam, but he could rule for a year only. The next year, the Thais
again controlled the affairs of Cambodia and Ang Non was made ruler of
Cambodia. Taksin repulsed the attack of Myanmar against Chiengmai and
Chiensen in 1774 and 1775. Hsinbyushin and his troops no longer posed any
threat to Taksin.
The Kingdom of Luang Prabang under Inta Som became an ally of Thailand
in 1774, throwing off the Myanmarese domination. Vientiane, whose ruler
Ong Boun had defied Taksin by maintaining an alliance with Myanmar, was
occupied in 1778. The famous Emerald Buddha, in Vientiane’s possession
since 1564, was brought to Bangkok at that time.
The frequent campaigns took a toll upon the health of Taksin and he began
to show signs of insanity. He grew ever more paranoid. He had fantasies of
becoming an enlightened figure like Buddha. Taksin also claimed he had
mystical powers and desired sainthood. By the year 1782, he had become
depraved and brutal. The hostility of Buddhist monks against Taksin’s
demand of respect and homage led to his downfall and imprisonment.
General Chao Praya Chakri and his younger brother Chao Praya Surasi, the
commanders of the Thai army, declared Taksin insane and deposed him.
The historical consensus is that he was executed, but one Thai tradition men-
tioned that he was dispatched secretly to Nakhon Si Thammarat, where he
passed the remaining years of his life as a Buddhist monk. Nevertheless,
70 The History of Thailand
The Chakri dynasty was established on April 6, 1782, when Chao Phaya Chakri
was crowned the king of Thailand as Rama I (r. 1782–1809). In the history of
Thailand, what is known as the Rattnakosin or Bangkok period began with
Rama I’s rule. The rulers belonging to the House of Chakri have been kings
of Thailand ever since. The present ruler, Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), the
ninth ruler of the Chakri dynasty, became the king in 1946. They have built
up the administrative institutions of the illustrious rulers of the past and also
made new contributions. The country has remained united ever since. The
illustrious Chakri rulers have managed to steer clear of the difficulties faced
by the country during the troubled times of earlier colonial rule. They have
modernized Thailand with a great vision.
RAMA I
Thong Duang was born on March 20, 1737, to Phra Aksorn Sundara
Smiantra, a noble of the Ayudhya Kingdom. After finishing his education in
the Buddhist temples, he served in the royal household for some time and
finally joined Thaksin’s army. He conquered Vientiane in 1778 and it became
72 The History of Thailand
and military administration. The king took special care in appointing persons
to head the ministries. Some of the appointees in the ministries were not
Thais, as they were actually the Brahmans from India and Bunnag family
from Persia.
There was a flowering of Thai literature under Rama I. He had initiated the
royal writings known as Phra Rajanibondh. He was the author of the Thai
version of the Indian epic, the Ramayana, which depicted the hero, Rama.
The Ramakien of Rama I differed significantly from the original, with many
interpolations throughout. Prose literature developed during this time as
well. The Sri Lankan Mahavamsa was translated. The Unarut, based on the
Indian epic the Mahabharata, depicted the life history of Krishna’s grandson,
Aniruddha. In the performing arts, apart from the Ramakien, dance dramas
such as Dalang and I Noa were adapted from Javanese Panji. Verse recitals
accompanied by musical instruments were also fairly common. Rama I died
on September 7, 1809, in Bangkok, leaving 42 children from 29 wives. Many
of his children renovated 23 temples in Bangkok and Thonburi. He was suc-
ceeded by his son Prince Isarasundorn as King Rama II (r.1809–1824). Rama
I had left his mark in Thai history as a patron of literature, lawgiver, benevo-
lent ruler, and empire builder.
RAMA II
The Kingdom held by Chakri rulers was fairly strong, with Thai suzerainty
extending over most of Laos, part of northeast Myanmar, west Cambodia,
and the northern portion of the Malay Peninsula. Rama II ruled smoothly
during a time of peace and stability. The king appointed his confidants from
among the royal relations and especially from the side of his mother, Queen
Amarindra, strengthening his power base. Myanmar invaded the Peninsula
region in 1810 and occupied Takau-Pa and Thalang in Phuket. But it was
repulsed soon by a contingent of 20,000 soldiers. The town of Talang was dev-
astated and depopulated by the army of Myanmar. It took quite some time to
bring back normalcy. There was much increase in Sin-Thai trade with the
important export of rice to China. Rama II asked the traders to import
Chinese ceramics. The king also made Buddha images. He introduced the
Niello ware and artisans were sent to Nakorn Sri Thammarat to set up a
manufacturing center.
Thai literature reached its pinnacle of glory due to the writings of the king
and the court poet Sunthorn Phu (1786–1855). The Ramakien’s two episodes
were scripted by Rama II for dramatic performance. Authorship of the epic
poem I Nao also was credited to him. Much of Thai social history pertaining
to the early nineteenth century could be gleaned from this work. He was the
author of the story titled The Prince in a Conch Shell, which is still read by
The Chakri Dynasty: Rama I to Rama IV 75
students in Thai schools today. The Sang Thong and Kraithong were written for
dramatic performance as well. Sunthorn’s life was a colorful one. He had a
love affair with a lady of the court and he married her afterward. He became
a court poet. Sunthorn was jailed in 1821 due to his involvement in a brawl.
After Rama II’s reign, he lost his royal patronage and became a monk. His
poetic romances were in the sepha (a type of ballad) style. His magnum opus,
the Phra Aphai Mani, narrated the romantic adventure of Prince Aphai in
ancient Thailand. Sunthorn also penned nine nirats. He wrote in a simple lan-
guage for the common people. The Khun Chang Khun Phaen was another epic
poem of the period. The story behind the poem’s 30,000 lines originated in the
folk tradition. It was indigenous in origin without influence from India or
Java. The story revolves around two male characters, Phlai Kaeo and Khun
Chang, who love Nang Phim. The three pass their lifetime amid happiness,
sorrow, love, and war. They are not from royalty and belong to ordinary
families. The story ends in tragedy with the heroine’s death.
The reign of Rama II witnessed the resurrection of relations with the
European power once again. The Thai monarchs had the difficult task of deal-
ing with colonial powers expanding in Southeast Asia. Due to the sagacity
and willingness to compromise of the kings, Thailand would remain free
from Western imperial domination. The European countries had undergone
dramatic changes after the Industrial Revolution. Development of technology
had put them ahead of Asian countries. From traders, they became colonial
masters. The Indian subcontinent had become a British colony. Southeast Asia
was coming under their sway gradually. Penang Island and Melaka were
acquired in 1786 and 1795 respectively. When the Napoleonic Wars were over,
there was a renewed political and commercial offensive. After the reign of
King Narai, Thailand had avoided having any treaty with European coun-
tries. It was Rama II who once again started signing treaties. From Macao, a
Portuguese representative named Carlos Manoel Silveira arrived in Thailand
in the year 1818. He became the Portuguese consul in Thailand after signing a
trade agreement. The only expansionist act of Rama II was ousting the Sultan
of Kedah, who fled to Penang in 1821. The mission of John Crawford in 1821
to Thailand failed and no treaty could be signed, as there was disagreement
over Anglo–Thai trade procedures and the status of the Kedah sultanate.
RAMA III
Rama II died in 1824 and his son Prince Tub began to rule Thailand as
Rama III (r. 1824–1851). Myanmar was no longer a threat to Thailand as it
was directing its attention toward the west, and the first war between Britain
and Myanmar broke out (1824–1826) because of a dispute along the border
between Myanmar and India. The British wanted the support of Thailand
76 The History of Thailand
and east Cambodia, however, remained unchanged. Its ruler, King Ang Chan II
(r. 1806–1834), no longer sent the bunga mass, a symbol of vassalage status. The
eastern portion was under Vietnamese domination. In late 1840, a large-scale
revolution occurred in Cambodia against the Vietnamese, when Thieu Tri
(r. 1840–1847), Emperor of Vietnam, began to impose a direct rule. In 1841, the
Thai troops again invaded and installed Ang Duong (r. 1841–1859) as the king.
By a compromise formula, the ruler showed allegiance to both Vietnam and
Thailand. The distant vassals like Terenganu, Perak, and Kedah continued to
pay tribute to the Thai court. In 1838, the mutiny by way of an attempt of the
Sultan of Kedah to be independent was crushed.
The trade and commerce of the Kingdom continued to flourish and its
income rose. Rama III strengthened the economic base of the Kingdom. The
Chinese trade had developed to its fullest extent with the export of rice, tin,
pepper, and cardamom, among many other things. Bangkok imported silk,
paper, tea, porcelain, and saltpeter. Rama III had kept the profits from the
Chinese trade in bags near his bed called “red bag money.” The production
of tobacco, sugarcane, and pepper increased manifold. Industries connected
with sugar, tin, iron, and shipbuilding developed tremendously. The royalty
and the emerging Chinese commercial elite had befriended each other. The
Chinese could buy land and property. Emphasis on money and the economy
had started a new age. It gave Thailand the semblance of a modern state in
the context of a changing world. It was further developed by his successors.
Although the threat from Western colonialism was renewed later, skillful
negotiations by the king preserved Thai dominance in the outlying provinces.
The king diplomatically avoided war and disallowed preferential trading
privileges to Europeans. Rama III preserved his Kingdom in Southeast Asia
at the time the region was being dominated by a Western presence, the
British. He neither succumbed to Western pressure nor alienated Western
countries completely. Rama III was a devout Buddhist. During his reign,
about 50 temples were constructed and others received major renovations.
He died in 1851 and was also known as Nangklao posthumously. As the king
had not named a successor, the Council of Ministers decided to put Rama III’s
half-brother Prince Mongkut on the throne.
believed in Western medicine. Bradley, who had established the printing press
at the time of Rama III, was also a doctor credited with introducing the small-
pox vaccination in Thailand. Mongkut received it from the doctor’s hands. He
also encouraged medical work of the missionaries.
With his love of English language and Western knowledge, Mongkut wanted
the members of the royalty to be trained in English. Initially, the wives of the
missionaries like Ms. Bradley and Ms. Jones taught the ladies of the court
religious texts in an effort to convert them to Christianity. Afterward the king
recruited the services of Ms. Anna Leonowens (1834–1914), a British widow
from Singapore. She arrived in Bangkok in 1862 to teach English to Mongkut’s
children. She taught them English language skills, science, literature, and
history. All the sons and daughters of the king, numbering 60, were taught by
her. One of her promising students was the Crown Prince Chulalgkorn. The role
of Leonowens in influencing the modernization program in the nation has
generated much debate. The king had set the agenda of modernizing Thailand
much before he came into contact with her. Her exaggerated claim has been
disproved by modern research and her autobiographical account, The English
Governess at the Siamese Court Being Recollections of Six Years in the Royal Palace
(1870), contained lies and half truths. At best, it could be said that Leonowens
made the royal children educated in the English language and the king had
respect for her as she was the tutor of his beloved children. Her “favorite” stu-
dent Chulalongkorn did not invite her to the Kingdom after she had left in
1867. But the saga of Anna Leonowens had caught the imagination of novelists
and moviemakers. In certain quarters, her story is much more important than
the life and philosophy of Mongkut himself. The king was an erudite scholar
and an enlightened person. By no stretch of the imagination would he have been
influenced by the tutor of his progenies. In 1944 Margaret Landon wrote Anna
and the King and screen versions of it came afterward. There was a movie entitled
Anna and the King of Siam (1946). The Broadway play The King and I (1951) is still
banned in Thailand for distorting Thai history and portraying Mongkut to the
point of ridicule. More recently, the motion picture Anna and the King (1999)
generated further controversy in Thailand. The Thai Censor Board ruled that
Thais should not see the movie, which was said to misrepresent the monarchy
and exaggerate the extent of impact of Leonowens on Mongkut.
One of Mongkut’s greatest accomplishments was to keep Thailand free
from colonial rule by use of diplomacy, treaty arrangements, and grants of
concessions. Rama III had just begun this policy, but it was left to Mongkut
to make a major breakthrough. He had already done his homework and knew
very well that the times had changed and that Thailand must keep pace with
them. The king had created an atmosphere of amity and trust by removing
suspicion from the minds of foreigners. John Bowring (1792–1872), an author
of repute and the fourth governor of Hong Kong, was the emissary of Her
80 The History of Thailand
Majesty’s Government to sign a new treaty with Thailand. London was deter-
mined to square up the unfinished task of James Brooke. He arrived from
Singapore in the warship the HMS Rattler and desired attendance with the
king and not with the finance minister. Bowring was greeted by the king,
whose demeanor charmed him. The 1855 April Treaty of Friendship and
Commerce between Britain and Thailand was the precursor to treaties signed
with other European countries and the United States. These treaties were
more or less similar with the agreements that China signed with foreign
powers. The advantage was with the foreign countries as they received the
status of most-favored nation, extraterritorial jurisdiction, and tariff control.
Therefore, these unequal treaties were abrogated afterward in the reign of
Rama VII (r. 1925–1935). The Thai treaty with Britain allowed British nationals
to own land property in Bangkok. The import of opium was made duty-free,
rice trade was opened, and for the rest of the imports from Great Britain the
customs duty was 3 percent only. The British Consul only would handle cases
concerning offenses committed by the British subjects in Thailand. The Thai
laws and courts did not have any jurisdiction over them.
Mongkut had no other way out but to sign a treaty with Britain. By 1852,
the southern provinces of Myanmar had become a part of the British empire,
making Britain an immediate neighbor of Thailand and establishing itself as
the most powerful colonial power on the Asian continent. It was a judicious
decision of the king, lest the British might expand their territorial aggrandize-
ment further. The other colonial power, France, rival of Britain, had to be
contained, too. A similar treaty was signed with France in 1856, when an
envoy of Napoleon III (1808–1873), the vice-consul of Shanghai de Montigny,
arrived in Bangkok. The Thais were apprehensive of French designs on
Cambodia. In fact, the French interests were a combination of economic,
political, and religious motives. In 1867, Thailand recognized Cambodia as a
French protectorate and annulled earlier treaties between the two countries.
The century-old Thai domination of major parts of Cambodia had ended
except for its ports in the provinces of Siem Reap and Battambang. A few
months before the French treaty, a Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Immigra-
tion had been signed with the United States in May 1856 and Stephen Mathon
became the first American consul in Thailand. Similar treaties were signed
with Denmark (1858), Portugal (1859), the Netherlands (1860), Prussia
(1862), Sweden–Norway (1868), Belgium (1868), and Italy (1868). One of the
major consequences of the treaty system was the end of Chinese dominance
in the foreign trade of Thailand. The British gained a major foothold and
profited from trade, investment, and shipping. The foreign trade of Thailand
increased phenomenally from the middle of the 1850s, most of it going
through Singapore. British companies opened branches in Bangkok. Invest-
ments were made in the tin and timber business. The so-called free trade
The Chakri Dynasty: Rama I to Rama IV 81
benefited the British. Remittance abroad became easy, as the British had
abundant reserves in gold. The British economic predominance over Thailand
continued until the 1940s and the Thais continued its policy of allying with
the most powerful regional power.
An avid astronomer, Mongkut had invited the courtiers and foreign
communities to Thailand to observe the total solar eclipse, which he had
calculated two years earlier. After observing it in 1868 in malaria-infested
Sam Roi Yod, Mongkut and Prince Chulalongkorn were stricken with the dis-
ease. The king died a few days afterward and Chulalongkorn, who survived,
became the next king of Thailand. Mongkut is venerated in Thailand for his
modernization program and introduction of Western science and technology.
An astute statesman and one of the most remarkable kings of Thailand, he
ruled the country with dignity and preserved its independence.
7
King Chulalongkorn (Rama V)
As we saw in the previous chapter, it was Mongkut and his son Chulalongkorn
who preserved the independence of Thailand at the time of Western colonial
expansion in Southeast Asia. Both father and son ushered in an era of moderni-
zation and propelled the country toward a new age. Mongkut had laid the
foundation and Chulalongkorn followed his father’s footsteps. He demolished
the power brokers of the earlier regime and built a support base to assist him in
his schemes. Gradually, Thailand began to free itself from the late medieval age
and entered into the modern period.
REFORMS
Chulalongkorn reformed Thai society. His changes in administration, edu-
cation, and the judicial system had a lasting impact on the country. In 1873,
the system of prostrating before the presence of the king was done away with.
By a royal proclamation it was declared that any person born during the
king’s reign was a free man, which was the first step toward the abolition of
slavery. Children born of slave parents would be free by the age of 21. It took
31 years for the complete abolition of slavery. Gradual abolition of slavery did
not raise protests from any quarters, not even from conservative elements. In
1874, privy councils were created. The lower one was in an advisory capacity,
bringing important matters to the court. The higher council, composed of
King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) 85
princes and nobles, was an advisory body regarding matters of revenue and
loyalty of the subjects. It was presided over by the king. With consultative
functions only, these bodies did not represent the will of the people, and it
would take a long time for democracy to arrive in Thailand.
The king was deeply committed to educational reforms. A school was
established to impart secular education. It became the Royal Pages School in
1902. In addition to offering training in civil services, its curriculum included
international relations, engineering, medicine, and commerce. It was named
the Civil Service College in 1911 and after seven years the famous Chulalong-
korn University came into being. In 1887, a separate department of education
was created. The king instituted a scholarship program for students. The
princes and scholars were sent abroad for higher education. In 1880, the king
established the first public museum inside the Grand Palace; after seven years
it was converted to the National Museum. A medical school was also estab-
lished. James W. McKean, an American doctor and Protestant missionary,
did yeoman service in the Thai medical field. He supplied quinine tablets,
vaccinated for smallpox, and helped persons afflicted with leprosy. In Sirirat,
the first public hospital was established in 1887. It offered services in both
indigenous and Western medicines. Prince Damarong set up a medical school
in 1890 that afterward became a college. Thai students benefited a lot after the
printing of a textbook entitled Paetsart Sonkhra in 1895. The printing press of
the state provided school textbooks and a Royal Gazette was also published.
Damarong and British civil servant Robert Morant (1863–1920) did much for
educational improvement during the reign of Chulalongkorn. Morant also
was in charge of tutoring the royal family. Press freedom was guaranteed by
royal decree and nonlibelous writing against the royalty was tolerated to a
certain degree. Chulalongkorn announced religious toleration in 1878.
Sunday was declared a holiday. With the abolition of the traditional lunar cal-
endar, Thailand followed the Western pattern of calendar.
From the 1880s, the administrative apparatus of Thailand was changed dras-
tically and most of it was at the behest of the principal advisor and most trusted
person of the king. Prince Damrong had been Minister of Education and after-
ward Minister of Interior. The provincial administration was overhauled, with
the division of the Kingdom into monthon (circles), which were subdivided into
changwat (provinces) and amphur (districts). The samuthathespiba was the head
of circles. Provincial autonomy was curtailed a great deal with nominated gov-
ernors, who received their salary from the ministry. Thus central control over
outlying regions was ensured. The districts were under control of nai amphur,
or district officers, who were appointed by the center. The village was the small-
est unit and the kamnan or chief belonged to the local community. Generally a
leader represented a hamlet of about 20 families and he would have a major
say in the appointment of kamnan. The ministries were also revamped.
86 The History of Thailand
the Kraus of Germany. In 1905 the British government provided the king
loans for meeting expenses connected with the railways.
Thailand was increasingly known to the outside world due to the influx of
foreign advisors and opening of Thai consulates in major cities of the world.
Out of a total of 549 advisors, the majority belonged to Great Britain. They
were mainly in the field of finance, education, police, and mining. Rolin-
Jaequemyns from Belgium had helped in the Thai judicial reforms and
foreign affairs. The Americans helped the government in medical advance-
ments and negotiating Thailand’s treaty system with colonial powers. Francis B.
Sayre, an American lawyer, was a foreign office advisor. The Danes, French,
Belgians, Germans, and Italians worked in various projects of the state. The
role of the Europeans was in an advisory capacity and ministries were headed
by the Thais. Loyalty to throne was a must for any person residing in Thailand.
Chulalongkorn was in correspondence with the heads of state from different
countries in Asia and Europe. He traveled around Europe in 1897 and 1907.
Czar Nicholas II of Russia (1868–1918) and the German Kaiser Wilhelm II
(1859–1941) supported Thailand’s endeavor to be a part of the international
system. Chulalongkorn became the first Thai monarch to visit Europe. The
major cities of the world like Berlin, Tokyo, Paris, St. Petersburg, London,
and Washington, D.C., had Thai consulates. The foreign office under knowl-
edgeable and efficient foreign Minister Varopakar was reorganized. By skill-
ful diplomacy, he made a harmonious balance between Anglo–French
interests in Thailand and preserved the nation’s independence.
for Western-style dressmaking. The capital became one of the biggest markets
in Southeast Asia, with imported consumption goods flowing. Watches,
jewelry, perfumes, German beer, canned milk, typewriters, and liquor were
sold by different shops. The lifestyle of urban people changed with boriphok
niyom (consumerism) becoming the catch word for rich people of the cities.
Clubs and holiday resorts also sprang up. The wealthier people constructed
Western-style houses with materials imported from abroad. Concrete, iron,
and chandeliers came from Britain. Singapore, Italy, and Belgium supplied
cement, marble, and glass, respectively. Skilled artisans came from abroad.
The popular sayings about cuisine were kinkhao kin pla (“eat rice and fish”)
and numprik phaktom (referring to a sauce of shrimp paste, chili, and boiled
vegetable). After the establishment of rice mills, white rice became popular.
In the cities, the age-old custom of betel chewing gradually fell out of favor.
The use of spoon, knife, and fork was much in vogue. Chulalongkorn asked
his minor wives to prepare soup, stew, steak, salad, sandwiches, and desserts.
Soda and ice were becoming popular in certain quarters. The first ice factory
was the Nai Loet ice factory. The rich mainly adopted Western values and
purchased luxurious goods. Consumerism came to society because of the
remarkable changes during the reign of Chulalongkorn.
The Thai economy witnessed the impact of reforms in all its ramifications.
International trade expanded, becoming the biggest source of state income.
Rice was the major item of export. Teak, tin, textile, pepper, gemstones, rhi-
noceros leather, ginger, nutmeg, wax, and lead were other items of export.
Rice business was under the Chinese, and the European companies controlled
teak production. The imported commodities were mostly of consumer goods
for the elite. These were opium, copper sheets, tea, eyeglasses, mirrors, metal-
ware, liquor, chinaware, face powder, camphor, pigments, perfumes, ceramic
ware, and paper. For monetary transactions the British opened banks between
1888 and 1894. In 1897, the French opened Banque de l’ Indochine. Goods were
imported and exported mainly in ships, with the British and German ships
providing most of the shipping facilities. The prices of land for residential
and shopping purposes increased. Investment in land became a profitable
business. The unused land between Silom Road and Ban Thawai in Bangkok
was developed for the Chinese and Europeans, who constructed houses as
well as shops. There was demand for rental housing for the floating popula-
tion of Bangkok, many of whom came to the capital only for a short time.
Apart from economic reforms, the era saw developments in Buddhist religion
and literature. Vachirayan, half-brother of the king, was appointed as head of
a new Buddhist academy in 1893. By the Sangha Act of 1902, the monks were
organized into a single order under the king. The Supreme Patriarch was
Vachirayan. The Thammayut order of King Mongkut spread to different
provinces of Thailand. In 1899 the king ordered the construction of a Buddhist
90 The History of Thailand
temple in Bangkok. The Wat Benchamabophit (Marble Temple) was one of the
most magnificent examples of modern Buddhist architecture, with its Italian
marble and orange tiered roofs. The Thai epic poem Khun Chang Khun Phaen
had another revision by Prince Damrong in 1910. It became the standard text
with, including interpolations and deletions from the original.
France was determined to extend its hold over Laos after controlling
Tonkin, Annam, Cochin–China, and Cambodia by 1885. A clash between
French ambition and Thai suzerainty over Laos was inevitable. Four years
afterward France proposed to Britain that Thailand be declared a buffer zone
between the spheres of influence of both the countries along with division of
Thailand along the Mekong River. Britain declined the proposal. France
planned for conquest of Laos, which was the last stage of French imperialism
in Laos. Thailand had reduced the king of Luang Prabang, Oun Kham
(r. 1872–1887 and 1889–1895), to the status of a governor following the French
advance. In 1885, it also sent a military expedition to Luang Prabnag under
the pretext of protecting it from Ho tribes. The French were alarmed over
the events as they did not want Laos coming under Thai authority. An agree-
ment with Bangkok in May 1886 resulted in the creation of the post of a vice
consul in Luang Prabang. Auguste Pavie (1847–1925), a famous explorer
who was responsible for bringing Laos under French colonial rule, joined
the post in 1887. The Thai army chief had made another raid to Luang
Prabang, but the Ho tribes sacked the city after it had left. Pavie decided to
take initiative with the backing of Parti Colonial in France and he received
additional staff and financial support for his mission. In 1892, Pavie was
appointed the chargé d’affairs with the rank of a consular general in Bangkok.
He was determined to acquire territory east of the Mekong River and used
force to secure the compliance of Bangkok. Thus the Paknam incident began.
The Paknam (Phra Chulachomklao) fort at the estuary of the Chao Praya
River had been completed in 1893 and the French navy was fired upon from
the fort in July. The 25-minute battle resulted in the loss of 151 Thai soldiers.
The casualty figure for the French was 32. Afterward, the French moved
15 miles upstream to Bangkok, threatening to bombard it. The guns of the
two ships, the Comete and the Inconstant, were targeted at the royal palace.
The king received an ultimatum of two days to recognize the French rights
to territories east of the Mekong River, withdrawal of Thai garrisons and a
compensation of two million francs. The Thais did not receive any support
from Britain and agreed for a treaty in October by establishing the French
protectorate over Laos. The French empire extended from the coast of Vietnam
to the Mekong across the whole of Laos. It was further noted in the agreement
that Thailand would not use the Mekong River for warships, and on the west
bank of the river on a width of 16 miles, military activity was disallowed.
France acquired the right over disputed land, where 600,000 people were
living over an area of 55,000 square miles. The Paknam clash also demon-
strated the weakness of the Thai army. Although it was strong enough to quell
local rebellions, it was no match for a Western army. In many quarters of
Thailand, the incident is taken as a cause of grief due to territorial loss after
the humiliating treaty. An Anglo–French agreement of 1896 guaranteed the
92 The History of Thailand
LEGACY OF CHULALONGKORN
A remarkable change had taken place in Thai society. The society and
economy had changed beyond recognition due to the advent of Western cul-
ture, increase in international trade, changes in the taxation system, and the
reforming zeal of Chulalongkorn. He intensified the reforms that had started
during his father’s reign and took Thailand toward the threshold of a modern
age. A feeling of Thai nationalism took incipient form. The Thais looked
toward his reign with pride. A national identity had been formed. The Thai
language was taught in all the provinces, where new schools had been estab-
lished. The reign of Chulalongkorn has often been criticized as undemocratic,
with the king resisting the move toward a representative form of govern-
ment. Actually, the movement started during the reign of the king. This was
suppressed or sometimes even ignored by the throne. Anybody involved in
writing against the government was punished. A journal, Sayam Praphet,
was edited by Kulap Kritsanon. It reached a circulation of 1,500. Thianwan
Wannapho, an advocate, was jailed in 1882 for criticizing the ruling aristoc-
racy for corruption and exploitation. In 1885, a memorandum signed by a
group of foreign-returned students and three princes urged the king to move
toward democracy under a constitutional monarchy. It also called for equal
rights and freedom of the press. Chulalongkorn replied that the country was
not ready for constitutional monarchy and that benevolent despotism suited
Thailand the best. Chulalongkorn had written to the Crown Prince Vajirunhis
in July 1893, saying that the monarchy was not for wealth and pleasure.
A king should try to reduce the sufferings of his subjects. The reward would
be fame and glory after death. The letter aptly summed up Chulalongkorn’s
notion of monarchy. Although he was not prepared to pave the way for
democracy, his policy of modernization bore fruit and subsequently became
a contributing factor in taking Thailand toward the revolution of 1932. When
Chulalongkorn died on October 23, 1910, in Bangkok, he had left a modern
94 The History of Thailand
A new Thai identity was emerging in the first few decades of the twentieth
century as we saw in the preceding chapter. The centralized, bureaucratic,
and strong state sans slaves had intellectuals as well as a ruling aristocracy
who were westernized. The different groups such as intellectuals of urban
areas, ambitious generals, Thai–Chinese businessmen, and communists
wanted a share of the nation-state. There was clamor for a democratic transi-
tion. The changes in China, World War I, the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution of
Russia, and the world depression of 1929 had a profound impact on the
course of Thai history. The above events generated internal dynamics in the
country transforming its society and economy. Thailand became a constitu-
tional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government in 1932. This was
a period of great developments in education and literature. Thailand also
enhanced its international standing by joining the Paris Peace Conference
and League of Nations. The extraterritorial rights granted to the United States
and European nations were done away with.
96 The History of Thailand
VAJIRAVUDH
Vajiravudh (Rama VI) became the king of Thailand after his father
Chulalongkorn died in 1910. He was born in 1881 to Queen Sri Bajarindra
(1864–1919). The crown prince since 1894, Vajiravudh was educated at
the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and Christchurch College, Oxford.
He had great love for traditional Thai drama as well as Thai and English lit-
erature. His coronation in Bangkok on December 2, 1911, was attended by
royalty from Japan and European countries. Vajiravudh preached his notion
of social relations and patriotism through his plays and writings. The state-
sponsored nationalism of the king was eclectic, with elements of Western
values and Thai traditions. The king emphasized three parameters of nation-
alism: Chat, Sasana, and Phramahakasat (Nation, Religion, and Monarch). These
were worth defending and dying for all Thais. These ideals were propagated
through public addresses and the writings of the king. Whatever demerits
might have accrued from Vajiravudh’s idea of nationalism, he is revered in
many circles as the “father of Thai nationalism.” During Vajiravudh’s reign,
monarchies were abolished in countries like China, Russia, and Turkey. The
overseas Chinese were feeling a sense of nationalism with allegiance to China.
The Chinese society was pushing for Chinese education. The Thai capitation
tax law of 1910, which was applicable to all residents, was resented by the
Chinese of Thailand. A general strike was announced for three days in
Bangkok, bringing Chinese business to a standstill. There was, however, Thai
resentment against them. The king published a pamphlet, The Jews of the East,
criticizing the Chinese. Writing under the penname Asvapahu, he mentioned
that the Chinese had enjoyed the privileges of citizenship but were not show-
ing loyalty to the adopted country. The Chinese, who were the largest minor-
ity group, felt alienated by the king’s emphasis on Thai nationalism.
The king ignored the advice of state councilors and succumbed to the
flattery of a group of courtiers. He had alienated many of the powerful prin-
ces of his earlier reign. Vajiravudh was also profligated and his lifestyle was
not in conformity with the tradition of Thai aristocracy. His extravagant
expenditure on his coronation, official functions, and travels had depleted
the state coffer. There was criticism against the king because of his luxurious
living, which included constructing the Sanam Chal palace and importing
expensive horses from Australia. Much of his time was being spent on liter-
ary and dramatic activities. In spite of his stay in Britain, the United States,
and Japan, where he inculcated Western values and learned about a
representative form of government, the king remained a diehard conser-
vative as far as monarchy was concerned. He believed in absolute monarchy
and propped up a figurehead to buttress his position as an absolute monarch.
In May, the king established the Sua Pa (Wild Tiger Corps), a paramilitary
Democratic Transition 97
vaccines against cholera and antidotes for poison in 1913. The earlier practice
of studying Thai as well as Western systems was abolished. The Medical
License Act of 1923 brought Thai medical practices to an end, finding them
“nonscientific.” Smallpox vaccinations were given free in the clinics estab-
lished by the king’s order. Vajiravudh ordered the creation of surnames for
every Thai family in 1913 and a deadline of six months was given to the head
of the family for registering the surname. He began the process of simplifying
the names of his predecessors by using the name Ramathibodi for all the
kings. His name became Rama VI. The king also banned lotteries and gam-
bling in the same year. In December 1923, the metric system of weights
and measures was introduced. The game of soccer was encouraged. Thai
Buddhism developed during the reign of Vajiravudh. Prince Wachirayan
Warorot (1860–1921), the head of the Thammayut sect, became the supreme
patriarch of Buddhism (1910–1921). The Thai Sangha had been centralized
in the previous reign, linking the capital with the 80,000 monks of the whole
country. There was also reform in Sangha education. Wachirayan made the
study of the Pali language somewhat simpler by writing the textbooks in
six volumes, Bali Waiyakon. Buddhism had become one of the three pillars
of Thai nationalism. Nation, Religion, and Buddhism became interdepen-
dent in the scheme of the king. In education and public morality, the Tham-
mayut order had done commendable service. Presently it wields a lot of
influence. The social status of a person became interlinked with the educa-
tion he or she had, and King Vajiravudh had done yeoman service for Thai
education. He introduced compulsory education in 1921 and Thailand
became the second country after Japan in Asia where boys and girls were
required to join schools. In March 1917, the first University of Thailand
was established. The Chulalongkorn University became the premier educa-
tional institution of the nation. It had been formed out of a merger of the
Civil Service School and other institutions. The Thai students, numbering
303, went abroad for higher studies. The king also sent royal officers for
training in foreign countries. In November 1918, the king outlined a pro-
gram for female education. Women could now pursue subjects like medi-
cine, education, law, and science. Female enrollment in schools increased
rapidly, from only 7 percent in 1921 percent to 38 percent four years later.
Apart from state-run schools, private schools also were available. A text
entitled Sombat khong phu di (The Qualities of Gentlefolk) by Chaophraya
Phrasadet emphasized the moral character of students. He established the
Department of Municipal Affairs and improved upon the skuhaphiban (local
government). Some of the other measures taken were the setting up of the
Sam Sen power plant, a population survey, the registration of vehicles, and
improvement of the water supply.
Democratic Transition 99
Central powers in Southeast Asia was the naval raid by the German cruiser
Emden off the Penang coast of Malaysia. The German agents were active in
Batavia and Bangkok with arms and money to incite anticolonial insurrec-
tions. But its impact was very limited.
The Oxford- and Sandhurst-educated Vajiravudh knew the advantage
of joining the Allied cause. He was hopeful of revoking extraterritorial
rights imposed by France, Britain, and the United States. It would also assist
Thailand in getting equal status with other nations of the international
community. The Anglophile king donated large amounts to the British war
effort. Moreover, he was an honorary army general of the British army. The
Thai neutrality was only for official purposes and the king was looking for
an opportune moment to join the war. The American entry on the side of
the Allies in April 1917 turned the tide against the Central powers. King
Vajiravudh sided with the Allied powers and made his independent country
a belligerent nation on July 22, 1917. Immediately, the unequal treaty signed
with Germany was canceled and German citizens were arrested. The 12 ships
of the North German Line were seized.
Major-General Phya Pijaijarnrit (afterward Lieutenant-General Phya
Devahastin) led an expeditionary force of 1,284 persons to fight the battle on
the Western front along with Allied battalions. A medical unit was dispatched
and its nurses served in the trenches of the Western front. Thailand also had
sent a contingent of the Army Air Corps, which underwent training at the
French Army Flying Schools at Avord and Istres. The pilots were further
trained in bombing (Bomber School, Le Crotoy), reconnaissance missions
(Reconnaissance School, Chapelle-la-Reine), gunnery (Gunnery School,
Biscarosse), and conversion courses at Piox. The Thai Air Force had just been
established and the three most important officers—all of whom had finished
their training in France in 1913—were Major Luang Sakdi Sanlayawut, Captain
Luang Arwut Sikikorn, and First Lieutenant Tip Ketuthat (afterward Air
Marshal Phraya Thayanpikart). The three officers completed their training
in August 1913. The movie First Flight (2007) depicted the exploits of the
pilots and Thai–French cooperation in aviation. The Thai soldiers did not
experience any combat as the war had ended in November 1918 before its
training was over. But, this had been disputed and the Monument to the
Expeditionary Force was erected in Bangkok, where the names of 19 soldiers
killed during the First World War battle were engraved. The Thai troops,
along with the victorious troops of the Allied countries, paraded on July 19,
1919, in Paris. They came back home on the ship, and each one was decorated
by the king.
The end of the war on November 11, 1918, and the defeat of the Central
powers formed a watershed in Asian history. The prestige of some of the
Western powers suffered drastically. The mutual bickering and fratricidal
Democratic Transition 101
struggle among European powers convinced the Asian countries that the
Western nations were not at all superior. A new Asian self-consciousness
developed. Arabs, Jews, Indians, Vietnamese, and others felt deceived by
the double-dealings of the colonial powers. With renewed zeal, they strove
hard to oust the imperialists. The Fourteen Points of U.S. president Woodrow
Wilson, particularly the principle of self-determination, had raised high
hopes. However, these ideas were applied in Eastern Europe only. Thailand
received most of the direct benefit due to war.
The country participated in the deliberations of the Paris Peace Conference.
The Articles 135, 136, and 137 were devoted to it in the provisions of the
Treaty of Versailles. Thailand became a founding member of the League of
Nations in January 1920. The First World War was an excellent opportunity
for Thailand to be treated on par with other countries. Its international pres-
tige increased. Thailand had lobbied in the Versailles palace for ending the
extraterritoriality rights granted to Western countries during the earlier
regimes. Prince Devawongse Varopakar, the Foreign Minister since the reign
of Chulalongkorn, endeavored hard for an end to extraterritoriality and
unequal treaties that infringed upon Thai sovereignty. The United States gave
up its extraterrestrial rights and tariff restrictions in 1920 without any condi-
tion. The treaty was to be over after 10 years and finally the treaty was abro-
gated in 1930. President Wilson’s son-in-law, Francis B. Sayre (1885–1972),
who was an adviser to the Thai foreign office (1920–1927), helped a lot with
the revisions of the unequal treaties. Tokyo acquiesced in March 1924. Sayre
went to Europe in 1925 in hopes of persuading France and Britain to abrogate
the unequal treaties. France relinquished its rights in February 1925. Britain
was the largest trading partner of Thailand, with 30 percent of exports and
67 percent of imports. Tariffs on goods such as cotton yarn, fabric, and iron
and steel products were limited to 5 percent for 10 years. The British advisors
at law courts were withdrawn. In 1925 Sayre concluded the treaties ending
extraterritoriality rights with five more European countries. The following
year, four countries signed the treaties. By 1939, all the special treaties had
been abrogated. For his work, Sayre was endowed with the title Phya Kalyan
Maitri (Pyha means Royal/a honorific title, Kalyan Maitri means a kind friend).
The Thai economy was affected in various ways by the war. In fact eco-
nomic conditions after the war were quite bad. As the value of silver had
increased, the exchange rate between the pound sterling and the Thai baht
was 1 to 9.54. Previously it was 13 baht. A bad harvest after the war contrib-
uted to the economic malaise. In 1922, Thailand borrowed 2 million pounds
at 7 percent interest and after two years another 3 million at 6 percent from
Britain. In 1923, the exchange rate was at 11 baht per pound sterling. There
was also a huge trade deficit. The expenditure of the Kingdom went unabated
with the military consuming 23 percent of state’s budget. A cruiser (a type of
102 The History of Thailand
PRAJADHIPOK
Prajadhipok became the next king of Thailand under the title Rama VII
(r. 1925–1935). A younger brother of Vajiravudh, he was born in 1893 to Queen
Sri Bajarindra. Educated at Eton as well as the Royal Military Academy at
Woolwich and afterward in France at the Ecole Superieure de Guerre,
Prajadhipok came back to Thailand in 1924. As per the law of succession,
since Vajiravudh had no male heir, the sons of Chulalongkorn would be the
next king. The elder brothers of Prajadhipok had died, and thus he became
the king in November 1925. He was quite unprepared for it and the elderly
princes of the royal family advised him in administration. They began to hold
top positions. He was thorough with all official papers and listened to the
suggestions of experts. The king was a liberal and intelligent man. The stri-
dent nationalism of Vajiravudh had mellowed down to an extent with an
emphasis on “Thailand for the Thais” only. He would have governed very
well, but the time and circumstances were against him. The king was inclined
toward political reforms. He was aware of the fact that these were necessary
and an absolute monarch could not last long. In 1927, he wanted to enlarge
the Privy Council and the Supreme Council of the State. In the Council of
the State, five important members of the royal family were appointed due to
pressure from the princes. Prince Damrong Rajanubhab was a member of
the Privy Council and wielded a lot of influence. He dissuaded the king from
taking radical measures. The king lacked self-confidence and also was not
willing to go against the advice of senior members. The princes began to
monopolize the prized posts in the administration, much to the chagrin of the
rising educated intelligentsia. Thailand was in disarray after the end of the First
World War and the continued financial chaos became one of Prajdhipok’s
pressing problems. He had to take measures that led to discontentment among
many sections of the society. Moreover, the world financial crisis of 1929 was
approaching.
The king had brought about notable changes in the country before he was
ousted from power in 1932. He cut down the expenditure of the royalty to
40 percent. During his reign, the Civil and Commercial Code was promulgated
Democratic Transition 103
in 1925. He believed in monogamy and had one wife only, Queen Rambai
Barni (1904–1984). He encouraged cooperative farming, enacting a law in
1928 benefiting the farmers. The king enacted legislation such as the Land
Expropriation Act and amended the Marriage Law. The king took special mea-
sures toward the improvement of libraries, publication of Buddhist textbooks,
and preservation of ancient monuments. Thai literature developed to a great
extent during the reign of Prajadhipok. Many novels came out centering
around the theme of lovers with a happy ending. Various social problems
including inequality, polygamy, and prostitution, among others, also formed
the theme of the writings of the period. Manutsayatham (humanism) was one
of the dominant themes in Kulap Saipradit’s (1905–1974) novels. Writing
under the pen name Siburapha, his Khang Lang Phap (Behind the Painting) has
become a classic in Thai literature. It revolved around the tragic love affair
between a student and an unhappy Thai aristocratic woman. In 1928, he wrote
Luuk Phuu Chai (A Real Man). He published another important work entitled
Songkhram Chiwit (Life Struggle), dealing with poverty and inequality. Phajon
Barb (Facing Sin), a novel whose theme was religion, was written in 1934.
Akatdamkoeng Raphiphat penned the popular novel Lakhon haeng chiwit
(The Circus of Life) in 1929, describing the struggle for social change by a
foreign-returned young man. Wichit Wathakan’s Prawatisat sakhon (Universal
History), written in the genre of nonfiction analyzed Thai nationalism. The
publishing industry experienced a proliferation, with 14 publishers and 127
printing presses in the country. A journal on agricultural affairs was started
by Prince Sithiporn Kridakara.
The history of Thailand after 1932 is a turbulent one. The experiment with
democracy had many pitfalls. Political instability and military coups became
the hallmark of Thai history and politics. Very soon Thailand became involved
in the Second World War, with devastating consequences. In the subsequent
Cold War, Thailand became one of the closest allies of the United States. It also
joined the Vietnam War, which had a great deal of impact on its society, poli-
tics, and economy. The communist rebellions in northeastern Thailand threat-
ened the security of the nation. Unrest in society and ideological polarization
brought about rifts and acrimonious feelings among the votaries of different
ideologies, which was also a threat to the very unity of the nation.
POST-1932 SCENARIO
The political system of Thailand was dominated by elite infighting,
the dominance of bureaucracy, and the influence of the army. After the prom-
ulgation of the Constitution on December 10, 1932, the government of Mona-
pahorn Nitithada was beset with several problems. The leaders of the coup
were composed of both civilians and military personnel. Factionalism among
the ruling elite soon became conspicuously divisive. The civilian movement
108 The History of Thailand
led by Pridi Phanomyong was pitted against the military clique. The latter
also had two factions, the senior group led by Phahon Phonphayuhasena
and the junior army officers supported by the navy under Phibun Songkh-
ram. But the two merged under the leadership of Phanon afterward and
toppled the government of Nithiada on June 20, 1933. Another party called
Khana Chat (Nationalist Party) had been established in January 1933 under
the leadership of Luang Wichit (Luang Vichitr Vadakarn, 1896–1962), which
was vocal in its criticism against dominance of the Khana Rasdr. The manifesto
of the Khana Rasdr at the time of the revolution had become the guiding prin-
ciples of the new government. It had envisaged the economic betterment for
people, equal rights, liberty, educational opportunities, and preserving the
independence of the country. On March 1, 1933, Pridi, who was in charge of
finance, chalked out a revolutionary economic program for the entire country.
It was accepted as one of the principles in the 1932 revolution. Bordering on a
socialist agenda, it called for dividing the economy into cooperatives, the
nationalization of natural resources, and imposing taxes on inheritance as
well as income. Pridi’s plan was opposed by the conservative faction of the
party and it was denounced as being communist by Prime Minister Monapa-
horn Nitithada and Praya Siwisanwacha (Srivisar Vacha, 1897–1968), the for-
eign minister. The army leaders also were against the plan. Cracks began to
appear in the government over the question of the registration of the new
party, the Khana Chat.
Amid all the foregoing developments, the conservatives gained the upper
hand. Prime Minister Monapahorn, along with the tacit support of the king,
adjourned the National Assembly, the power base of Khana Rasdr, on April 1,
1933. A new cabinet was formed and Pridi fled into exile to France and his
supporters were sidetracked. A jail term for 10 years was earmarked for any-
body professing communism. Thailand was not yet ready for an overhaul
in the social and economic structure of the country. The abolition of absolute
monarchy with the rudiments of a democratic system was enough. The new
cabinet ordered all officials to withdraw themselves from Khana Rasdr mem-
bership, and in Thai politics there was to be no legal party. On April 22, the
Khana Rasdr called itself the People’s Party Club, without any political objec-
tive. The move by the premier to induct top officers of the pre-1932 regime
alarmed the military leaders of the coup such as Phahnon and Phibun, who
had already resigned from the party. These disgruntled members staged a
coup on June 20 and Phahnon became the new premier. The national assembly
was reopened and the military faction of the erstwhile Khana Rasdr began
to wield real power. Monapahorn went to the British colony of Penang Island,
where he lived the last years of his life. In September Pridi came to Bangkok
again with promised cooperation with the new government’s economic mea-
sures. The anti-Khana Rasdr group was not sitting silently. It was planning to
Wars and Coups 109
monarch for the first time in its history. Prajadhipok died of heart attack on
May 30, 1941, in Britain.
The premiership of Phahnon from June 21, 1933, to December 16, 1938, was
marked by a struggle between the military and civilian forces for dominance
in Thai politics. It became all the more intense after the abdication of the
king. Phibun, who had proved his mettle in crushing the royalist counter-
revolution of October 1933, was emerging as the spokesperson of the military
force. The army was in an advantageous position with its dedicated cadre,
strength, and discipline. Once it dabbled in politics, it would be difficult to
challenge it. The share of the military in the budget was increased to 26 percent.
One of the acts of Phibun was the pro-Japanese stance that became responsible
for Thailand’s abstaining from the censuring motion in the League of Nations.
After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (Dongbei or northeast), the League
had passed a motion in 1933 branding the Japanese as the aggressors. The
Thai military officers were sent to Japan for training in 1935. An Association
of Friendship was established between the two countries. Thailand purchased
24 warships from Italy and Japan. Both the army and the air force were mod-
ernized and equipped with sophisticated weapons. Phibun’s collaboration
with the Axis powers was evident in the Second World War. The government
also passed censorship legislation in 1934 to muzzle newspapers and radio
broadcasts.
Pridi, the law professor and author of the 1932 revolution, also endeavored to
consolidate the civilian base. He had the support of the Thai intelligentsia. Pridi
had a genuine desire for the participation of people in democracy and wanted
ordinary people to have an education. He was instrumental in setting up the
University of Morals and Political Science in 1934, which came to be known as
Thammasat University (University of Morals). There was a fourfold hike in
expenditures on education, which increased the literacy rate. In primary
schools, the student enrollment increased from 700,000 in 1931 to 1.7 million
in 1939. A special school for dance and drama was started in January 1934.
The government also initiated major reforms in various spheres. Trade recov-
ered as the baht went off the gold standard. In 1937, direct elections were
held for the National Assembly. Phahon once again became the premier. The
local bodies were also empowered. The parental consent for marriage was
abolished.
It was approved and on September 11, 1938, Phahnon dissolved the assembly
by saying that the proposal would restrict the functioning of the government.
He did not accept the post of prime minister again and Phibun became the
new premier with the support of second category members on December 16,
1938. He took over the post of Minister of Defense as well as commander-in-
chief of the army. He was the supreme leader of Thailand, and his policies
went hardly unopposed. Thailand drifted toward military dictatorship. His
political enemies were arrested. A special court sentenced 25 persons to life
imprisonment and 18 were given capital punishment.
Phibun Songkram dominated Thai politics as the premier from 1938 to 1944
and again between 1948 and 1957. His concept of nationalism bordered on the
concept of an extreme xenophobia, chauvinism, irredentism, the superiority
of the Thai race, and a personality cult. He was an admirer of Nazism and
fascism. Phibun made close alliances with Japanese militarism. Instead of an
absolute monarch, Thailand now had a dictator and the Vajirbudh’s “king”
was replaced by Phunam (Leader). The ideological basis of Thai politics made
a complete volte-face; from prativad (revolution) to phadetkan (dictatorship).
Phibun wanted the Thais to emulate the doctrine of fascism; credere, combat-
tere, and obbedire (“believe, fight, and obey”). Paramilitary youth organizations
similar to Nazi Germany’s brown-shirted SA, the Sturmabteilung (storm
troopers), and black-uniformed S.S., the Schutzstaffel (security echelon), were
established. The Thai militarism glorified the martial values and army recruit-
ment increased with the military budget. A combination of traditional Thai
cultural mores, Western practices, and discrimination against non-Thais were
some of the parameters of Phibun’s cultural nationalism. The rathaniyom, or
state regulations, made Western style of dress mandatory. The Ministry of
Culture insisted upon putting on Western clothing, gloves, and hats. The
wearing of the panung (indigenous skirt) was discouraged. Chewing of the
betel nut was prohibited. Around 1938, Phibun began to set up a national
code of honor, the wiratham, in line with the Japanese busido. It stressed loy-
alty, economic self-sufficiency, and certain Buddhist doctrines. The people
residing in outlying areas were identified with Thai connotations such as Thai
Muslim and Thai Isan. The Chinese were targets of sustained racial cam-
paigns undertaken by the state. The government closed down 271 Chinese
schools. Chinese newspapers were suppressed. Luang Wichit Wathakan,
the spokesperson of Phibun’s regime, was the head (1934–1942) of the new
Fine Arts Department established in January 1934. A number of plays, dance
dramas, and writings came out, glorifying Thai history and its culture. He
harped back on the cultural efflorescence of the Thais during the Sukhothai
period. Wichit’s play Nanchao (1939) was full of venom against the ethnic
Chinese. The state-run schools received free copies of Luat Suphan (Blood of
Suphan), which delineated the invasion of Myanmar during the Ayudhya
112 The History of Thailand
slogans such as “Asia for Asiatic” and “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere” appealed to the anti-Western sentiments of nationalist leaders.
Phibun collaborated with the Japanese to spare the country devastation as well
in an attempt to regain the lost territories. Thailand had sent a mission to Tokyo
to purchase weapons. The increasing Thai-Japanese cooperation was evident.
Japan was the second largest trading partner with Thailand after Britain.
Japan had a full-fledged embassy in Bangkok with consulates in Chiang Mai
and Singora. Moreover, the Axis was the winning side in 1940–1941. To be on
the safe side, Phibun had signed provisional nonaggression pacts with France
and Britain on June 12, 1940. On the same day, he had also signed a friendship
treaty with Japan. But the situation changed after the triumphant Nazi army’s
entry to Paris on June 14 and the signing of the armistice at Compiègne eight
days afterward. Marshal Henri Philippe Petain (1856–1951) was the premier
of the puppet Vichy government. Bangkok took advantage of Vichy Indochina’s
weakness to secure the lost provinces in Laos and Cambodia. Thailand’s
demand in October for the return of territories was rejected by Vichy France.
Phibun took recourse to an undeclared war from November, which continued
for three months. The five divisions of the Thai army, numbering around
50,000, began to mobilize itself. It also had 100 modern fighter planes and its
navy was superior to that of French Indochina. By the third week of November,
there were border clashes and the Thai army crossed the Mekong River
in December. In the first week of January 1941, the Thai army launched a
full-scale invasion on Laos, Dangreks zone, and the Battambang province.
Although the Thais were in advantageous positions in both the ground
and air wars, they were defeated in the naval war of Koh Chnag by the Vichy
forces on January 17, 1941. With Japanese mediation, an armistice was signed
aboard the Japanese warship Natori and a treaty was signed on May 9, 1941.
Thailand gained the disputed territories of Laos, the Battambang province,
and a part of Siem Reap. But after the end of the Second World War, the terri-
tories once again reverted back to the possession of the French colonial
government. In 1941, Phibun was the national hero of Thailand and was pro-
moted to the rank of field marshal.
Japan was the real wielder of balance of power in mainland Southeast Asia.
By skillful diplomacy, it aimed at increasing its dominance in Indochina.
Afterward Japan would acquire the British possessions in the Malayan archi-
pelago. For this, close relations with Thailand were not sufficient. December 7,
1941 ( Japan Standard Time, December 8), was an important day in the history
of the Second World War. The Japanese war machine moved deep into South-
east Asia, incorporating it with the Greater East Asian Co-prosperity Sphere.
The Japanese Imperial army landed in Thailand from its bases in Indochina.
The war had also become truly global after Japanese warplanes struck the
military and naval installation of Pearl Harbor at 7:55 a.m., on December 7
114 The History of Thailand
(03:25 a.m., Japan Standard Time, December 8). The next day, the United
States declared war on Japan. Germany and Italy declared war on the
United States three days afterward. Fighting broke out between the Thai
army and the Japanese 1st Infantry Battalion of the 143rd Infantry Regiment
at Chumphon for a few hours during the morning hours of December 8.
Singora (Songkla) port on the eastern coast of the Thai Malay Peninsula was
the headquarters of the Sixth Army Division of Nakhon Sri Tammarat. The
harbor along with its airfield was the ideal place to launch the Japanese inva-
sion into Malay. On December 8, Lieutenant General Tomoyuki Yamashita,
commander of the Japanese 25th Army, landed in Singora. There was hardly
any fighting because of the order of Phibun. He also gave orders for an
immediate cease-fire and consequently fighting in places like Patani, Hat
Yai, Surat Thani, Samut Prakan, and Prachuap Khiri Khan also stopped.
Thailand followed the pragmatic course of action and prudently spared
Thailand the devastation that was experienced by Burma (Myanmar). The
country maintained its sovereignty and the only price to be paid for was
permission granted to the Japanese for using Thai territories and facilities.
Right of passage was given to the Japanese army for marching into the
British colonies of Myanmar and Malay. On December 21 Thailand and
Japan signed a mutual defense pact in the Temple of the Emerald Buddha,
by which the former would get back territories lost to Britain. The Anglo–
Thai Convention of 1909 had stipulated renunciation of sovereign rights
over the four southern states of the Malay Peninsula: Kedah, Perlis, Kelan-
tan, and Trengganu. Thailand also would possess the areas of Myanmar,
Mongpan, and Kengtung. Bangkok would assist Japan in its war with the
Allied powers. On January 25, 1942, Thailand became a belligerent country
in the Second World War and the Allied planes began raiding Bangkok.
The pro-Japanese policy of Phibun was not liked in many quarters, and a
clandestine organization against the Japanese was set up called Khabuankarn
Seri Thai (Free Thai Movement). Apart from the stigma of siding with the
fascist forces, the pro-Japanese policy was creating havoc with the Thai
economy. There was a phenomenal increase in cost of living. The stationing
of 150,000 Japanese soldiers created a burden on Thailand and shortages of
essential goods and materials. The external trade of the country also declined.
Some of the officials took recourse to shady dealings with the Japanese. The
Chinese became targets of persecution at the behest of the Japanese and their
assets were frozen. The bombing raids resulted in causalities and damage
to properties. In the war front, Lieutenant General Tomoyuki Yamashita
(1885–1946) was instrumental in conquering the British colonies of Malaya
and Singapore in February 1942. Three months afterward, the American and
Filipino troops surrendered in Manila Bay. The Japanese reached the borders
of India after occupying Myanmar. In Thailand, the Free Thai movement
Wars and Coups 115
centered around Pibun’s rival, Pridi. He had resigned from the post of finance
minister and was the regent for King Ananda. The United States Office of
Strategic Services (OSS) and the British Force 136 based in Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
were in touch with the agents in various places of Thailand. With the Allied
assistance, about 50,000 Thais were resisting the Japanese. A plan to establish
a parallel government in north Thailand was given up and instead a core
group of Free Thai known as the X-O Group came up.
Seni Promoj (1905–1997), the Thai ambassador in Washington, organized
the Free Thai movement in the United States. He did not deliver formally the
government’s declaration of war against the United States. Therefore, techni-
cally, Thailand was not at war with the United States and the latter did not
declare war on Thailand. Seni had also met the U.S. Secretary of State, Cordell
Hull (1871–1955), and discussed the matter with him. He also used the frozen
Thai assets in the United States and organized the Free Thai movement with
the help of Thai expatriates in the United States. Seni submitted to the American
authorities a list of notable Thai nationals such as his brother Kukrit Promoj
(1911–1995), Pridi, Khuang Aphaiwong, and Direk Chaiyanam, who were
anti-Japanese and supporters of Free Thai. About 40 Thai students studying
in various universities of the United States expressed their willingness to join
the OSS and were sent as Free Thai officers to China in the middle of 1943.
The military attaché, Colonel Luang Khunchon commissioned the volunteers
as Free Thai officers. As the government of Britain received the letter of decla-
ration of war from Thailand, it declared war against Thailand. But the Thai
residents of Britain also had formed the Seri Thai. The important members
were persons belonging to the royal family such as Queen Rambai Barni,
widow of King Prajadhipok, her brother Prince Suphasawat Wongsanit, and
Prince Chula Chakrabongse. The queen was the head of the Seri Thai in Britain
and was one of the four women taking up nonmilitary tasks. The Thai stu-
dents (numbering 36) of Britain like Snoh Tambuyen and Puey Ungphakorn
became members of the Pioneer Corps. Prince Suphasawat joined as a major
in the British army.
In July 1944, Phibun was forced to resign as Nazi Germany’s defeat was
imminent. Events were not going in favor of the Japanese either. Khuang
Apaivongse, one of the leaders of the Free Thai, became the prime minister
in August. The political prisoners were released and many of the projects of
Phibun were done way with. Meanwhile, the Free Thai was gaining momen-
tum during the last year of the war. The local representatives of the national
assembly mobilized the common mass against the Japanese. They maintained
regular contact with anticolonial groups of Indochina. One notable figure of
the region was Tiang Sirikhanth (1909–1952), a member of Parliament of Sakon
Nakhon, who had supported Pridi’s social and economic programs. Peasants
were given training in arms in the Phu Phan Mountain area. Tiang also was in
116 The History of Thailand
touch with Lao leaders. By the end of Second World War, the Free Thai cadres
had reached 3,000 in Isan. The volunteers of the Free Thai recruited from all
over Thailand had been armed, and contact was maintained with the Allied
High Command in Sri Lanka. The Thai 1st Army was in readiness against
the Japanese troops stationed in Bangkok. The Allied bombing increased on
Japanese installations and paratroopers landed on Thai soil. Pridi was very
much active in recruiting Thai students from the Universities of Chulalongkorn
and Thammasat for underground work. He was also in touch with the
Allies for taking the best possible advantages for Thailand at the end of the
war. At the behest of Pridi, Admiral Sangvara Suwannacheep launched a police
training program and the Japanese commander General Akeo Nakamura was
told that it was for resisting Allied invasion. The strategic ruse worked very
well. Pridi also was careful not to antagonize the British as the Shan states of
Myanmar had been occupied by the Thai Phayap army since May 1942. Mean-
while, the Allied bombings inflicted causalities and damaged buildings as they
missed their targets. On March 5, 1945, 78 people were killed on the east bank
of the Chao Praya River along with damage to Pridi’s residence, hospitals,
and Thammasat University. After 17 days, a train carrying Thai soldiers was
hit near Paknampo. The indiscriminate bombing continued throughout April,
damaging railway stations, airports, and power plants. Hundreds of civilians
were killed.
The Free Thai units were ready for a coordinated attack on the Japanese
installations, and Pridi was waiting for a green light from the Supreme Allied
Commander of Southeast Asia, Lord Louis Mountbatten (1900–1979), for the
Allied invasion. However, the dropping of atomic bombs on August 6 and 9
led to the Japanese surrender. Japan signed the instrument of surrender on
the USS Missouri in Tokyo Harbor on September 2, 1945. Japan was placed
under international control of the Allies and lost all its overseas possessions.
The efforts of the Free Thai Movement spared Thailand the fate that befell
the Axis powers. There were reports about Thailand being ceded to Britain,
but the plan was scotched and Bangkok had to supply 3 million tons of rice
to London as reparation. Thailand’s diplomatic relations with the United
States and Britain were restored on January 5, 1946. The reparation claim of
the British and the French was reduced to a large extent due to the role of the
United States, which honestly believed that many Thai people were not behind
Phibun. The Thai leaders had also lobbied in the United States and Pridi had
gone to meet the American president Harry S. Truman (1884–1972). Even the
Free Thai had considerable support from police as well as the army. The Thai
military did not come under control of the Allies after the war. It retained its
strength and once again dominated Thai politics after three years. Thailand
surrendered the territories annexed during the war from Myanmar, Malay,
Cambodia, and Laos. Phibun was imprisoned in Japan as a war criminal
Wars and Coups 117
and was allowed to return to Thailand in 1947. Many of the Free Thai mem-
bers had distinguished careers in Thai politics, bureaucracy, and business.
Pridi and Promoj became premiers. Puey Ungphakorn (1916–1999) was the
chairperson of the Bank of Thailand and Rector of Thammasat University.
Siddhi Savetsila (1919–) became the Air Chief Marshal and Foreign Minister.
which was the largest party with enough funds to spend. Less than a month
after the February 1957 elections, which were rigged according to the oppo-
sition, Phibun formed a new government with Phao as the interior minister.
After Sarit criticized Phibun vehemently relations between the two became
strained and cooled off. Phibun had ordered that military or civil officials
should not have any dealings with business establishments. It hit Sarit hard as
he had commercial interest in many companies. On September 17, Sarit, who
had become commander-in-chief of the army, deposed Phibun and Phao in a
bloodless coup. Phibun went to Japan as an exile. Phao fled to Switzerland,
where he had deposited a huge amount of his ill-gotten money in Swiss banks.
SARIT–THANOM REGIMES
Pote Sarasin served as the caretaker prime minister between September 21
and December 26, 1957. After general elections, General Thanom Kittikachorn
(1911–2004), a close aide of Sarit, became Prime Minister on January 1. Tha-
nom handed over the power to Sarit after the latter’s return to Thailand from
the United States, where he had received medical treatment. Sarit became the
Prime Minister of Thailand on February 9, 1959, as head of the Revolutionary
Party. After his death on December 8, 1963, Thanom headed the government
until October 14, 1973. The Sarit–Thanom regimes did not see any changes
in domestic and foreign policy. Thailand became more closely aligned with
the United States. The military elite became rich as their pockets swelled with
large portions of the billions of dollars’ worth of American aid that passed
through their hands at the time of the Vietnam War. Relations with China
and North Vietnam deteriorated. Sarit decided to rule the country with an
iron fist by banning opposition parties and newspapers and suspending
constitutional amendments, while simultaneously seeking to stamp out
Thailand’s opium trade, police corruption, and organized crime. He tried to
build up traditional Thai values. The promotion of Buddhism and cultivation
of the monarchy were important features of his policies. Sarit cleverly utilized
the monarchy both to enhance his own legitimacy and to strengthen the institu-
tion of the monarchy itself. The components of nation in his concept were the
Phokhun (Leader), Kharatchakarn (Bureaucracy), and Prachachon (People).
The economic policies of Sarit encouraged huge U.S. and Japanese investment
and gave rise to a new wealthy class due to land speculation and sustained
economic growth of 5 percent per year. Major projects of electrification and
irrigation were undertaken with assistance from international agencies.
Thailand formed the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA). It was the first step
toward regional integration of Southeast Asia, along with the Philippines and
Malaya (since 1963, Malaysia). The legacy of Sarit after his death in 1963
was the Thai involvement in the Vietnam War and the establishment of
Wars and Coups 123
Thailand was for a friendly regime in Laos and all the while it supported the
rightist RLG. The failure of the Geneva Accords of 1962 saw Laos embroiled in
the Vietnam War.
On March 6, 1962, the United States and Thailand signed the Rusk–Thanat
agreement, which spelled out that obligations under SEATO were “individual
as well as collective.” The United States declared a unilateral defense guaran-
tee, and military assistance to Thailand was doubled. American troops in
Thailand were increased to 49,000 by 1972. Thailand became the sanctuary
for the air war against Indochina. From air bases in Don Muang, Korat,
Nakhon Phanom, Takhli, Utapo, Ubon, Udorn, and Khon Kaen, B-52 bombers
delivered million of tons of bombs. The aircrafts used napalm and defoliants
sometimes and bombing was characterized by heavy civilian toll and was
responsible for creating a large number of refugees. The number of Thai
troops increased in Laos; from 5,000 in 1965–1966 to 20,000 in 1972, and Thai
pilots were flying the special planes called T-28s in bombing the Pathet Lao
areas in Laos. In 1966, the first Thai contingent, called “The Queen’s Cobra
Regiment,” was sent to Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City) and the number of Thai
troops increased to 12,000 afterward. The Thai government also granted the
United States the use of the large naval base at Sattahip.
Thailand’s involvement in the Vietnam War witnessed infrastructural
developments of the country. These included growth of Thai business and
economy. But most of the benefits were enjoyed by the upper strata of the
society. A culture developed, particularly among the middle and upper
classes, with an emphasis on consumerism. This emphasis was there earlier,
as noted, after Thailand’s entry into the modern age, but it became more
widespread with the coming of the Vietnam War. From the middle of the
1960s large segments of Thai society came into contact with Western fashions
and styles of living. The cities of Thailand transformed their hotels, clubs, and
massage parlors, and the sex industry grew in order to accommodate the
American military personnel coming for rest and recreation (R&R) as men-
tioned earlier. Although it would be naive to say that prostitution came to
Thailand with the Vietnam War, there was no doubt of its proliferation
because of the war. Sex tourism was one of the reasons for the influx of tou-
rists. Anti-American sentiments were expressed in some quarters of society.
A feeling developed that the Thai culture was being threatened. A sense of
resentment developed due to the presence of foreign troops on Thai soil and
the alignment of Thai policy makers with U.S. interests.
10
Contemporary History
of Thailand
noble cause. The king interfered and further violence was averted. Prime
Minister Thanom resigned and left the country, along with his son and the
Deputy Premier Prapass. The rule of the “Three Tyrants” was over. Thailand
had witnessed two revolutions in a span of 41 years, each resulting in
momentous changes. The critics had castigated the 1932 revolution as elite-
initiated and the one in 1973 for leading to the dominance of the military after
three years. The character and leadership of both had come under the scanner
of critics. But the fact remained that injustice and inequality would not last
long. When the boundary of tolerance reaches its optimum point, a revolution
has to occur. The gains of it in the long run can be realized if one takes a long-
term view of progress in the history of a country. In that sense, 1932 as well as
1973 were not lessons in failure but turning points in the hopes and aspira-
tions of people toward democratization. Even under the military regimes,
there was apprehension about another mass upsurge. A ruling clique,
whether military or civilian, could not afford to drive the masses to a point
where the clique would be obliterated in another mass upsurge. The ruling elite
in the post-1973 era would be conscious of the needs of the common people.
Professor Sanya Thammasak (1907–2002), Rector of Thammasat University,
was appointed as the prime minister of Thailand by a Royal Decree on
October 14. He remained in the office until May 22, encountering the prob-
lems arising out of students and bringing normalcy after the revolution. The
militant student faction was unhappy over the direction toward which the
government was heading. The NSCT had been divided into moderate and
radical factions. The former was composed of university students belonging
to the middle class. The students from technical schools were radicals who
were not averse to violence. However, in spite of different groups among stu-
dents such as the People for Democracy of Thirayuth Boonmee (1950–) and
the Federation of Independent Students led by Saeksan Prasertkul, the
involvement of students in the affairs of the nation was increasing. They were
in various committees of bureaucracy. The students developed contact with
laborers and peasants, who became vocal in asserting their rights. Even some
in the police and military service began to question the counterinsurgency
policy. The membership of the CPT increased. Somkid Srisangkom’s (1918–)
Socialist Party of Thailand also became more active. The secretary of the party
was Boonsanong Punyodyana (1936–1976), who, along with 13 other activists,
had been arrested by Thaonom’s regime. The Thai Party was organized by the
former president of NSCT, Sombat Thamrongthanyawong, and the academic
Pongpen Sakultpai. The ideological divide among students, intellectuals, and
other sections of the society became conspicuous. The communist victories
in neighboring Indochina and the withdrawal of American troops from
Southeast Asia made the conservative section of society apprehensive of
leftist dominance.
Contemporary History of Thailand 129
the military was constantly lurking behind the scenes, ready to seize
power. This was due to weakening of the civilian forces, changing regional
as well as international scenarios, and economic travails. The military seized
upon the opportunity when the whole of Indochina went red. The commu-
nist insurgency within the country was also increasing. The bogey of
communism provided the military an opportunity to crush the civilians after
unleashing a reign of terror. It led to the downfall of Seni’s government on
October 6, 1976.
There began stage-managed crises of which the left bore the brunt. Facing
violent retaliations by the rightists, they were branded as communists and
antinationals. In August Prapass, one of the “Three Tyrants,” appeared in
Thailand, but he had to make a hurried departure to Taiwan after widespread
demonstrations against him. Thanom returned after a month, donning a
monk’s robe. He was well protected by rightist organizations like Nawa Phon
and Luk Sua Chaoban. Students who protested against his stay in Thailand
were accused of being communists because of their opposition to a Buddhist
monk, and two protestors were hung in Nakhon Pathom. The government
was demoralized and there were conflicts between the liberals and rightists
after a reshuffling of the cabinet. Emotions ran high, leading to a volatile
atmosphere. The students had gathered in Thammasat University and staged a
play enacting the hanging of the two student protestors. On October 5, the
right-wing newspapers published manipulated images of a student actor
resembling the crown prince. A pretext was made to attack the rally of the
students as they had indulged in the act of lèse-majesté. On October 6, hun-
dreds of right wingers followed by the police as well as the military stormed
the campus of Thammasat University, killing hundreds of students and
arresting 3,000. Violence and mayhem were perpetrated against some stu-
dents as they tried to escape. The army seized power and established the
National Administrative Reform Council (NARC). The civilian government
of Seni was ousted, the constitution abrogated, and martial law proclaimed.
The experiment with democracy was over and Admiral Sangad Chaloryu
(1915–1980) became chairperson of the National Administrative Reform
Council (NARC). He continued in this post until November 23, 1980. A new
government under Thanin Kraivichien, an ex-judge of the Supreme Court,
was formed with the support of the king and NARC. A diehard conservative
and an avowed anticommunist, he remained in the office from October 8,
1976, to November 12, 1977.
The Thanin government was one of the most repressive regimes that
Thailand had witnessed. It enforced strict censorship of media, tight control
of trade union activities, and the expulsion of communists from bureaucracy
as well as from universities. The leadership among communist cadres swelled
after the Thammasat massacre as intellectuals along with students and farm
Contemporary History of Thailand 131
and labor leaders fled to the jungles to escape secret punishment from
the coup leaders. On March 26, 1977, General Chalard Hiranyasiri made an
abortive coup and was summarily executed. The oppressive rule was too
much even for the military and Thanin was replaced by General Kriangsak
Chomanand (1917–2003), who became prime minister on November 12,
1977. Sangad Chaloryu became the defense minister.
The government of Kriangsak showed comparative political stability.
Thailand and its communist neighbors followed a policy of rapprochement. In
1978, Thailand signed agreements on trade with Laos as well as China. It also
restored diplomatic relations with Vietnam. China declared in 1979 that it
would no longer help the CPT. This was the period when the communist states
fought against one another. Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia in December
1978 was followed by the Chinese attack against Vietnam in February 1979.
The events in Cambodia had great repercussions on Thailand’s security
and economy. The Thai and Vietnamese forces confronted each other after
the proclamation of the pro-Vietnamese People’s Republic of Kampuchea.
Thailand, members of ASEAN, the United States, and China demanded the
withdrawal of Vietnamese forces from Cambodia. Thailand provided logisti-
cal and financial support to different factions operating against the Phnom
Penh regime. The influx of a large number of refugees placed a great strain
on the Thai economy, resulting in inflation, which greatly affected country’s
industry and agriculture. On the domestic front, the CPT was weakened due
to the new direction of foreign policy of the government, the rift among com-
munist nations, and the reconciliatory policy of Kriangsak. He had raised the
minimum daily wage for workers in Bangkok and surrounding areas. The 18
dissidents arrested in the wake of the October 1976 events were pardoned in
September 1978. The general amnesty program resulted in the surrender of
8,000 insurgents. The constitution of 1978 established a bicameral national
assembly. The 225 members of the Senate were to be appointed by the prime
minister. It was powerful as it could block important measures concerning
national security and economy, which were already passed by the House of
Representatives. The members of the House of Representatives, numbering
310, were to be elected. The military and civil servants received a stay of five
years for appointment to ministerial posts. The April 1979 elections resulted
in the victory of moderate rightist parties. A coalition government was formed
with Kriangsak remaining as the prime minister. The opposition to his
government was increasing as Thailand was witnessing deteriorating eco-
nomic conditions due to the international oil crisis. The prime minister
announced a hike in the prices of oil, gas, and electricity. He was forced to
resign on March 3, 1980, due to the large scale opposition to his policy, and
General Prem Tinsulanonda (1920–), the commander-in-chief of the army,
became the prime minister.
132 The History of Thailand
Chuan had faced criticism in 1987, when he was the Speaker. His brother had
fled from the country after embezzling U.S. $10 million. Chuan’s cabinet min-
isters were accused of large-scale corruption. Banharn Silparcha (1932–) of the
Pak Chart Thai (Thai Nation Party) became the prime minister on July 13, 1995,
after winning the elections. Banharn’s government also was plagued with
corruption. He was compelled to conduct elections soon and thereby General
Chavalit Yongchaiyudh, leader of the Pak Kwam Wang Mai (New Aspiration
Party), took office on December 1, 1996. The Asian financial crisis of 1997
doomed his fate and he had to resign, paving the way for Chuan’s second
term from November 9 onward. Meanwhile a new constitution had been
promulgated on October 11. This was hailed as the most democratic Con-
stitution that Thailand ever had. The Constitution was, to a considerable
extent, in conformity with the meaning of the word “constitution” in the Thai
language. It was governance as per dharma or ratha thama noon. The drafting
assembly had been elected by popular election. The party system was
strengthened and the various articles enshrined in the constitution were
democratic. Both of the houses of the Parliament were to be elected. The
1997 constitution made several innovations as compared to previous constitu-
tions. Voting became compulsory and there was a provision for an indepen-
dent election commission. A system of checks and balances was introduced
with the creation of new agencies including the Office of the Auditor General,
the National Counter Corruption Commission, the National Human Rights
Commission, and others. Perhaps the most laudable feature of the consti-
tution was the section on human rights, which truly made the constitution a
democratic one like any other document of a modern democratic state. There
were as many as 40 rights provided in it compared to only 9 rights in the
constitution of 1932. The Thais had rights to free education, freedom of infor-
mation, public health, and protests.
Chuan’s government of seven party coalitions came under bitter criticism
because of corruption, violations of human rights, the nomination of Thanom
as an honorary royal guard to the king, and favor shown to large financial
institutions. The ministers holding key positions were found guilty of embez-
zling millions of dollars. The villagers protesting against the Pak Mun dam
had to bear police brutality. The editor of the newspaper Pak Nua faced an
assassination attempt. Chuan’s decision to honor Thanom was dropped due
to protests. The social activists, intellectuals, and business entrepreneurs criti-
cized the neo-liberal policy of government and launched a self-sufficiency
campaign. The victory of the Thai Rak Thai (TRT, Thai Loves Thai) party of
telecommunications billionaire Thaksin Shinawatra (1949–) in the January
2001 elections was on a nationalist platform. He had a program of popular
scheme of economic distribution campaigning against corruption, organized
crime, and drugs. Thaksin’s popular mandate was larger than that of
Contemporary History of Thailand 135
any other prime minister and he took office on February 9, 2001. Thaksin
endeared himself to the royal family, business class, and military personnel
to consolidate his position. In the Asian financial crisis of 1997, Thailand
had borrowed heavily from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). It was
paid back well before time. The economy was once again booming. The coun-
try became the leading exporter of rice by 2004 and world’s seventh-leading
exporter of automobiles in 2005. The sophisticated manufacturing units pro-
duced goods for the domestic market as well as for exporting.
Thaksin also became the first elected prime minister in Thai history to com-
plete a full term in office and get reelected. His policies pertaining to health,
education, foreign relations, finance, drugs, and energy got him a landslide vic-
tory. Poverty had gone down remarkably by half in a span of five years. The
healthcare system improved. His populist measures included medical facilities,
housing plans, and credits at a subsidized rate. There was a revamping of the
school curriculum. For the less affluent students, loans were given for educa-
tion. Thaksin’s drug policy became highly controversial. His all out campaign
for drug eradication resulted in the killing of about 2,700 people. The provincial
governors had a more active role to play as they became chief executive officers.
He vehemently criticized the old order and outmoded institutions with the
slogan, Think new, act new. The new slogan, The heart of TRT is the people, became
very popular in 2003. Thaksin’s measures became universal and people in gen-
eral felt the presence of a benevolent government. The popularity rating of the
prime minister rose from 30 to 70 percent. On December 26, 2004, a tsunami
hit Thailand’s southern coast; particularly the holiday resort islands of Phuket
and Phi Phi as well as the province of Phang Nga. The consequence was devas-
tating with 5,400 causalities and 2,800 missing persons. The emergency
response and relief operations undertaken by the government were praised by
the international community. Utapao air base and Sattahip naval base became
centers of international relief efforts for the entire region. Thaksin won a spec-
tacular victory in the 2005 election by getting 61 percent of the vote and winning
377 out of 500 seats. But within a year he was no longer in power. The opponents
of Thaksin did not appreciate his aggressive mode of functioning, abuse of
power, and undermining of institutions, and they alleged corruption against
him. The court’s ruling absolving the prime minister over shares in the Shin
Corporation was not accepted by the opposition. His detractors argued that
his personal and authoritarian style ran counter to development of a healthy
democracy. Thaksin publicly expressed his disdain for old institutions, acade-
micians, rule of law, and human rights, all of which he claimed were quite often
hindrances in working for the benefit of people. From December 2005 onward,
the anti-Thaksin campaign became intense. In an ever present tussle between
military and democracy, he was ousted in a coup on September 19, 2006, led
by General Sonthi Boonyaratglin (1946–).
11
Thailand Today
In recent years, the focus of attention in Thailand has been on Islamic insur-
gency, the economy, foreign policy, and the workings of the present military
government. Islamic insurgency has a historical background and there is no
sign of any meaningful solution. In the last few decades, Thailand has become
a major economic power in Southeast Asia, and its economy had been revived
after the Asian financial crisis. Coming out of the compulsions of the Cold
War, Thai policy makers had reformulated their foreign policy so as to cope
with changing circumstances.
ISLAMIC INSURGENCY
Religion has been an important factor in shaping the destinies of the people
of Southeast Asia. Brunei, Indonesia, and Malaysia are predominantly Islamic
countries. In the Philippines and Thailand, there are sizable numbers of
Muslims. At the time of the decline of the Indianized Kingdoms of Southeast
Asia, Islam began to penetrate the region. Islam had arrived at Thailand from
various regions like India, China, the Malay-Indonesian archipelago, Myanmar,
and Cambodia. The Arab and Indian traders were pioneers in bringing Islam.
The spread of Islam accelerated after the founding of Melaka. The Persian
138 The History of Thailand
traders, who were frequent visitors to Ayudhya, also brought Islam. There
was also an influx of Sulawesi Muslims, who fled from the Dutch persecu-
tion in southern Celebes around 1666 and 1667. In the central plains, there
are Muslims of Persian, Pakistani, Indian, and Indonesian and Cham
descent. In the northern provinces of Lampang, Chiangmai, and Chiang
Rai, the Muslims were from Myanmar and southern China. The insurgency
in southern Thailand’s Muslim-dominated regions has escalated in recent
years. Secessionist tendencies were not new in the region. There were alter-
nate phases of independence and subjugation from Thai central rule in the
three southern provinces of Patani, Narathiwat, and Yala. As noted earlier,
the Malay-speaking Muslims constitute about 6 million or nearly 10 percent
of the country’s total population. The economic disparities between Bangkok
and rural areas has resulted in the economic underdevelopment of the south.
There seems to be an imagined as well as a real perception that the region is
neglected by Bangkok.
The Patani region remained as a vassal state, but there were revolts against
the Thai rule. In 1786, Patani was annexed by the Thai kings of the Chakri
dynasty. It was divided into seven zones under a centralized bureaucracy.
By the Anglo-Thai Convention of 1909, Thai control over Patani was recog-
nized and the four states of Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Trengganu were
given to the British. The convention thus fixed the present existing boundary
between Malaysia and Thailand. The Muslims of the Malay states were freed
from the Buddhist rule of Thailand, but those of Patani hoped that they
would be united with their counterparts of the Malay states. Thus the sepa-
ratist movement in southern Thailand had a historic legacy, which was
aggravated afterward in the modern period.
Thailand followed a policy of noninterference in the first three decades of
the twentieth century. But under the military dictatorship of Phibun, the policy
of forcible assimilation alienated the Thai Muslims. The government wanted
to bring minority groups into mainstream Buddhist Thai culture. The intro-
duction of Buddhist laws in place of the shariyat (Islamic laws), discrimination
against the Malay language, and the banning of sarongs and of carrying loads
on one’s head (Malay-style) created bitterness among the Thai Muslims. The
latter did not have soft feelings toward the influx of poor Buddhist cultivators
to the south with governmental support. The installation of a massive statue
of Buddha outside Narathiwat, cancelation of Friday as a holiday, looking
down upon the Malay language as pasar khaek (language of strangers), and
the visit of Thai officials to mosques without removing their shoes angered
the Muslim population of southern Thailand. The attitude and behavior
of the Thai bureaucracy had not helped in solving the minority problem. It
had hampered progress toward a climate of understanding. The rural areas
of the south are underdeveloped. Even though Thailand belongs to the
Thailand Today 139
The insurgency movement that began in the 1940s continued until 1980s. But
again it has flared up in the twenty-first century with unabated violence. The
rise of Islamic fundamentalism and free flow of money from the Middle East
has intensified the separatist movement.
Separatist movements advocating for an independent Patani have emerged
since the 1940s in its first phase and remained until 1980. The four main actors
in the irredentist movements were as follows: the minority group (Thai
Muslims), host government (Thailand), mother government (Malaysia), and
the sympathizers in the mother government. When the government of Phibun
undertook the policy of the assimilation of Thai Muslims, a leader of the Thai
Muslims, Haji Sulong, demanded recognition of Islamic laws, 80 percent
reservation in government jobs for Muslim youths, and that locals remain in
charge of the administration of Muslim-dominated provinces. Haji was
arrested and about 2,000 Thai Muslims fled to Malaysia. There was even a
demand for the incorporation of southern Thailand into the newly formed
Federation of Malay. The Patani National Liberation Front (Barisan National
Pemberbasan Patani, or BNPP), which can trace its roots to the year 1947, was
led by Yala Nasir, a descendent of the Patani sultanate. Badri Hamdan led the
movement after Nasir’s death. Its army wing, the Patani People’s National
Liberation Army (Tantera Nasional Pemberbasan Patani, or TNPP), was led by
Bapa Idris. It was known for the kidnapping of Chinese businessmen for ran-
som. In 1969, the Patani United Liberation Organization (PULO) was formed
under the leadership of Tunku Bira, a Patani aristocrat, who used to travel fre-
quently to Middle Eastern countries and Malaysia. The problems of Thai
Muslims are voiced in international Islamic conferences. It made a daring
attack on the life of the royal couple when they visited the province of Yala
in September 1977. Another organization known as the Organization of
Warriors of Allah (Perrubuhan Agkatan Sabilullah) was urban based and came
to the surface in 1975 after the killing of 11 Thai Muslims. It advocated for a
militant Islamic state.
The left-leaning and rural-based National Revolutionary Front (Barisan
Revolusi Nassional, or BRN) was formed in 1960. Led by Ustad Karim, it advo-
cated for an Islamic state on socialist lines. It was closely aligned with the
Malay Communist Party (MCP). The MCP appealed to Muslims on both sides
of the border and set up the Partai Persaudaraan Islam (Islamic Fraternal Party).
The CPT joined and formed the Muslim Liberation Army of Thailand
(MLAT). It called for autonomy in southern Thailand. The secessionist move-
ments in its first phase were characterized by sporadic attacks against police
forces, throwing a bomb sporadically, and demonstrations. It received exter-
nal assistance. The secessionist leaders like Suolng and Yala had their stra-
tegic operations from the territory of Malaysia. Arms and money from
private quarters poured into southern Thailand. The leaders went to Middle
Thailand Today 141
Eastern countries to garner support for the cause of Thai Muslims. The Thai
government contained the secessionist movement by intensified police opera-
tions. From 1980 onward, the Thai government changed its policy. It stopped
the assimilation policy, declared a general amnesty, and brought out a devel-
opment plan. But the relatively quiet period was soon over and in its second
phase the separatist movement was intensified with terrorist activities.
The belief that terrorism was waning was short-lived. After the Septem-
ber 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, the country saw a recrudes-
cence of terrorist violence. It flared up with a series of raids, attacks, and
murders. The secessionist organizations had regrouped themselves. At the
time, when the secessionist organizations remained low-key and had almost
stopped violent activities, attention was diverted toward organizational mat-
ters. Talks were held to coordinate different factions. The United Front for the
Independence of Patani or Bersatu (United) was formed for pooling resources
from different organizations. The leaders from PULO and the newly formed
Mai PULO (New PULO), BRN, BNPP, and Mujahadden Patani met on
August 31, 1989, and established the Payong organization. It was decided that
there would be a unity of purpose for the struggle. Apart from getting help
from the fellow ethnic Malay Muslims of the provinces of Kenantan and
Kedah of Malaysia, the secessionist organizations were provided with money
and arms by Osama bin Laden’s (1957–) Al Qaida, formed on August 11, 1988.
The Patani Islamic Mujahideen Movement (Mujahideen Islam Patani) estab-
lished in 1995 is believed to be affiliated with Al Qaida. With the motive of
setting up the Islamic state, terror groups like Al-Maunah (Malaysia), Laskar
Jihad (Indonesia), the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (the Philippines), and
BRN, along with the Mujahideen Islam Patani (Thailand), stepped up terrorist
activities. Transnational Islamic fundamentalism was active in southern
Thailand with the help of persons educated in religious schools abroad. The
growth of Islamic identity among Thai Muslims had been increasing. The
donations from the Middle East had fostered fundamentalism in the religious
schools that dotted southern Thailand. These had become breeding grounds
for radical Muslims. The Thai Muslim students, who had graduated from
schools in Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, returned home and became votaries
of Islamic fundamentalism.
The latest outburst of violence that began in 2001 witnessed the murder of
19 police personnel and about 50 terrorist activities in the three southern
provinces of Thailand. The following year, there was an upsurge in violence
with 75 incidents and the killing of 50 police officers. Since January 2004,
about a 1,000 people have met violent deaths due to rebellion. Martial law
was imposed in several districts of the Narathiwat province after rebels
stormed an arms depot and burned 18 schools on January 4, 2004. On Febru-
ary 15 a village official and telecommunications workers were shot dead.
142 The History of Thailand
FOREIGN POLICY
Thailand today has strayed a long way from the close military alliance it
had with the United States during the Vietnam War period. The Thai foreign
policy aimed to mend relations with the communist countries and increase
regional integration. In spite of different political ideologies, Thailand estab-
lished full diplomatic relations with China in 1975. An attempt was made to
improve relations with Indochinese countries. But the special relationship
with the United States continued. It was the largest trading partner of
Thailand in the beginning of the new millennium. Thailand, the “major non-
NATO ally,” had allowed the air base of Utapao and a naval base in Sattahip
Thailand Today 143
to be used for logistical support for the U.S. military in Afghanistan and Iraq.
After the September 11, 2001, attacks, the Thai government established the
Counter Terrorism Intelligence Center (CTIC) for intelligence sharing
between Thai intelligence agencies and the CIA. In August 2003, the dreaded
terrorist Riduan Isamuddin of the Jemaah Islamiyah (1993–) outfit of Indonesia
was arrested in Ayudhya. Thailand had committed itself to fight international
terrorism in Southeast Asia. It was assumed that if violence in southern
Thailand escalated with the involvement of international Islamic networks,
Bangkok might expand its cooperation with the United States at an increased
level of commitment. Thailand, the United States, Japan, and Singapore par-
ticipated in the joint military exercise in Thailand known as Cobra Gold
2005. In 2006, a security alliance was formed including, in addition to the
United States and Thailand, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and the Philippines.
In case things should get out of hand, the alliance might come to the rescue of
Bangkok. It had also sent around 450 troops to Iraq in the “reconstruction”
effort of that country, despite criticism from many quarters in Thailand.
It withdrew its troops in September 2004.
Regionalism played a significant role in Thai foreign policy after the
end of the Cold War. The spirit of ASEAN aimed at pacific settlement of dis-
putes among members. With the inclusion of the three communist states of
Indochina, it became broad based and created a space for it in international
relations. The member countries like Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam
had bilateral as well as multilateral agreements on trade, tourism, industry,
energy, education, science, banking, and culture. The development of South-
east Asia as a whole had been an undergoing process and Thailand was con-
tributing substantially to it. Thailand, along with the rest of the members of
ASEAN, had endeavored to tackle problems such as drug trafficking, traffick-
ing in women, money laundering, terrorism, and other transnational crimes.
In December 1997, the leaders of the ASEAN countries envisaged the ASEAN
Vision through organizations like the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), Special
ASEAN Ministerial Meetings, ASEAN Chiefs of Police (ASEANAPOL),
ASEAN Centre for Combating Transnational Crime (ACTC), Senior Officials
Meeting on Transnational Crime (SOMTC), and ASEAN Ministerial Meeting
on Transnational Crime (AMMTC). Steps were taken to combat various forms
of crimes affecting Southeast Asia in particular and the world in general. On
October 30, 2005, Thailand hosted the ASEANPOL conference, where
cooperation in matters relating to drug trafficking, cybercrime, terrorism,
and credit card fraud were discussed.
The ASEAN group looked beyond Southeast Asia for political and eco-
nomic cooperation. Thailand had been an active participant in the endeavor
of ASEAN. The member countries attended the meetings and participated in
144 The History of Thailand
THAI ECONOMICS
The economic growth of Thailand was remarkable from the middle of the
1980s. From a regional agrarian economy, the country became a globalized
industrial economy. Thailand became one of the Asian tigers along with
Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong by 1991. It was the new
member of the “newly industrializing countries.” With the fad for a socialist
economy on the wane worldwide, many countries took recourse to a
market-oriented economy. Thailand became entrenched within the global
economy. With the new mantra of liberalization and globalization, the world
had become a huge market for investments and sales of commodities.
Thailand did not lag behind in the race. The shift from rural to urban areas
led to the consequent growth of urbanization. Social mobility became
common, and the employment boom especially within the 10 years after
1985 resulted in people flocking from rural to urban areas.
146 The History of Thailand
There was ample foreign investment in Thailand. As the baht had been
attached to the U.S. dollar, it became cheaper for the Japanese to invest, as
the value of the dollar went down against the yen. Thailand had increased
exports as well as trade with Japan. The Stock Exchange of Thailand (SET)
reached a high figure of 1753.73 in the beginning of 1994. The financial institu-
tions and banks were flooded with foreign funds. Private capital inflows
surged the financial market of Thailand. The offshore banks began to arrive
from Japan and the West. But from late 1996 cracks began to appear and bub-
bles began to burst. Thailand, which was a model for economic development,
was going to be hit by a crisis resulting in foreign debts, currency deprecia-
tion, unemployment, and inflation. What started in 1997 as a regional eco-
nomic crisis beginning in Thailand developed into a worldwide economic
crisis within a year. The Asian economic crisis commenced from July 2,
1997, when the Bank of Thailand decided to float the baht. The repercussion
was swift with great impact over the money market of Southeast Asia. The
value of the Philippine peso, Malaysian ringgit, and Indonesian rupiah went
down. The fixed exchange rate of the baht, the plunge in price of the property
market, and decline in exports became responsible for the Thai economic pre-
dicament. The baht, which was pegged at 24.3 to the U.S. dollar in June 1997,
went down as low as 44 by the end of December. In January 1998, it made a
slide to 52.5. The situation in the financial sector became critical and 56
finance companies were shut down by the end of 1997. The SET reached its
lowest point in 1999 with an index of 481.92. Thailand faced recession and
its economic growth rate was 5.9, −1.7, −10.2, and 4.2 for the years 1996,
1997, 1998, and 1999. The halt in high-rise construction projects resulted in
massive amounts of defaulted loans. The ambitious sky train project linking
different areas of Bangkok also was shelved. The country’s credit rating went
down and investments decreased considerably, with a capital outflow from
private sectors amounting to a staggering sum of 645,096 billion baht. In
August the IMF gave a credit of U.S. $17.2 billion to Thailand with the condi-
tion that it maintain a budget surplus. The Thai government would have to
cut down expenditures and increase its revenues so that the surplus would
amount to 60 billion baht. The government had to initiate major reforms in
financial sectors. It increased the value-added tax (VAT) from 7 to 10 percent.
Consumer spending went down. About 2 million people lost their jobs, lead-
ing to a lowering in the standard of living. The Thai economic crisis also wit-
nessed a major change in the ownership of companies and financial
institutions. Foreign firms went for joint ventures with local business houses,
and their share in banks also increased.
The government initiated a series of economic reforms such as making
changes in lending practices, encouraging incentives, and making corporate
governance strong. There was gradual economic recovery. In the middle of
Thailand Today 147
1998, the IMF also loosened its hold over the government in the face of criti-
cism. The measures initiated by Chuan’s government resulted in bitter social
protest, and there was a perception that the government was averse to the
plight of the common people. The prime minister cooperated with the IMF.
Globalization was attacked from many quarters because there was bank-
ruptcy. Unemployed people flocked to their ancestral villages to earn their
livelihood. The emphasis became more focused on local communities and
welfare plans. The community-based plans were mooted by governmental
departments to ward off the economic crisis. By the year 2000, the country
had weathered well the economic consequences of the crisis and limped back
to economic recovery. The Thaksin government launched an ambitious pro-
gram of reforms by which domestic demand would be stimulated. Support
was accorded to domestic firms. But at the same time, there was a promotion
of open markets as well as foreign investments. The agenda of Thaksinomics
were: distribution of 1 million baht to each village, a three-year moratorium
on small-scale debts of farmers, disbursement of loans to poorer sections,
and the creation of the National Asset Management Corporation (NAMC).
The NAMC took over bad debts from banks at a discount. The customers
again received new credits from the banks. By 2001 Thailand had recovered
from the crisis, and its GDP was 5.2 percent the next year.
Thailand witnessed an economic boom again. In 2004, 55 percent of the
labor force was employed in the industrial and service sectors. Educational
opportunities increased manifold. Avenues of opportunities opened along
with foreign investments, industrialization, and the growth of technology.
Women’s empowerment was marked as a vast majority of women were
employed in different sectors. In human development, Thailand showed
tremendous progress. There was a rise in the per capita income from U.S.
$7,010 to $7,595. The average life span also increased from 69 to 70 years.
With a Human Poverty Index Rate of 28, the population below poverty line
came down to 10 percent only, although poverty was still significant in poorer
regions and villages. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew by 5 percent in
2006. The manufacturing share of GDP increased from 22 percent in 1980 to
35 percent after about 25 years. The foreign reserve of Thailand was U.S.
$67 billion. The import growth fell from 9.3 percent in 2005 to 1.6 in 2006.
The main items of imports were capital and intermediate goods, raw materi-
als, and fuels. Thailand was exporting rice, textiles, fishery products, jewelry,
automobiles, and electrical appliances. The volume of exports increased
steadily from 4.3 percent for the year 2005 to 8.5 in 2006. Increases in exports
and falls in imports were major factors behind the GDP growth. The inflow
of foreign capital had increased and the exports accounted for about
70 percent of the GDP. The Thai economy was strong enough to weather any
storm. Its future seemed to be bright.
148 The History of Thailand
formed Council for Democratic Reform, dissolved the Parliament and abro-
gated the constitution. The PAD announced its dissolution on September 21.
Remaining as prime minister for 11 days, Sonthi handed over charge to
Surayud on October 1.
As the coup was backed by the king, the large majority of people did not
oppose it. There was no shedding of tears generally at the removal of Thaksin.
Speculations and different interpretations emerged for his ouster. In the white
paper issued by the junta, factors like corruption, abuse of power, and the
destruction of Thai unity were cited. Conflict with royalty as well as class
conflict between the rural poor and urban elite also led to Thaksin’s removal.
It seemed that the combination of many factors inherent in Thai politics were
responsible for the seizure of power by the military. There had been cycles of
Parliamentary elections, coming of democratic governments, corruption in
civilian regimes along with factionalism, military coups, and elections.
It was arrogance of power that ultimately destroyed Thaksin. The question
remained as to how many months or years it would take for the military
regime to hand over power. After the September coup, the first public protest
was staged on September 22, with less than 100 demonstrators at Siam
Square. Three days afterward, 30 demonstrators and 100 journalists organ-
ized a rally at Thammast University. In September and October there were
sporadic protests at Chulalongkorn University, Thammasat University, near
Democracy Monument, and in front of the Arm Headquarters. On October 10,
Constitution Day, 2,000 demonstrated in front of the Democracy Monument.
There were also online petitions. However, the military regime was quite safe
as there was no coordinated movement against it. The coup leaders went on a
witch hunt against Thaksin and his supporters. Chidchai Vanasatidya and
Defense Minister Thammarak Isaragura were soon arrested. The Thaksin loy-
alists in the military were purged. The diplomatic passport of Thaksin was
revoked on December 31. Committees were set up to look into irregularities
committed by the earlier government.
In January 2007 the Constitutional Drafting Council was appointed with
the military having control over the membership. On April 26, the Drafting
Committee prepared a draft constitution, which would go for a referendum.
The draft provided for a bicameral legislature with an elected House of
Representatives consisting of 400 members. The 160 members of the Senate
would be an appointed body by a royal order after the selection by the Senator
Selection Commission. The draft envisaged fundamental rights for the Thais
such as equality before the law, the right to liberty, and freedom of expression,
among others. The draft charter would be approved by the public referendum
on August 19. The constitution would be the 18th one since Thailand became
a constitutional monarchy. The main criticism against it was that unlike the
1997 Constitution it included a provision for an appointed Senate. The number
150 The History of Thailand
Buddha (563–483 B.C.E.). Although Buddha was not born in Thailand, his life
and teachings have had considerable influence on Thai history, culture, and
society. The Buddhist Era in Thailand is calculated taking the year 543
B.C.E. as the base year. The year 2010 is 2553 the Buddhist Era. Lord Buddha
was born in Kapilavastu, Nepal, and began his spiritual journey in 543 B.C.E.
He preached the first sermon at Sarnath, India, called turning the Wheel of
Law. After his death, Buddhism spread to different parts of Asia. Buddhism
had taken roots in Thailand from the lifetime of Buddha himself, as per tradi-
tions. Under King Ashoka (273–236 B.C.E.), the Buddhist Theras Sona and
Uttara came to Suvarnabhumi, with its capital at Nakon Pathom, to propagate
Buddhism, and a huge stupa, Pathom Chedi was built to commemorate the
event. The majority of the people (about 90 percent) profess Buddhism in
Thailand. The genius of Thai artists can be discerned in the Buddhist Wats,
stupas, and icons of Buddha.
Mangrai (r. 1259–1317). Mangrai was the founder of the Lan Na Kingdom in
northern Thailand, contemporary with that of Sukhothai. He belonged to the
Yuan Tai family ruling over the Chiang Saen region. Various warring tribes
from different principalities were unified under his leadership. The capital
154 Notable People in the History of Thailand
city of Chiang Rai was established in 1262. He had a close alliance with
Sukhothai as well as another autonomous Thai state called Phayao. Mangrai,
Rama Khamheng, and Ngam Muang of Phayo never fought against each
other. Mangrai subjugated the Mon Kingdom of Haripunchai (Lamphun) in
south. He kept his capital changing and in 1296 established the city of Chiang
Mai, which became the center of a unique Isan culture. The Kingdom of
Mangrai was subject to frequent raids from the Mongols, who were repulsed
with the help of Sukhothai’s army. Mangrai compiled law codes known as
Mangraisart. After his death, 17 kings and queens ruled over Lan Na.
Rama Khamheng (r. 1277–1298). Rama Khamheng, or Rama the Great, was born
in 1239. He was the son of the founder of the Sukhothai dynasty, Sri Indraditya
(r. 1238–1270). One of the greatest monarchs of Thailand, Rama the Great left
a vast Kingdom in the south at the time of his death in 1298. His domain
included Luang Prabang and Nakhorn Sri Thammarat, as well as parts of the
lower Chao Praya, the upper Mekong, and the lower Salween Valleys. He
made friendship with China, assuring the stability of his Kingdom. The king
also developed friendly relations with the Lan Na ruler Mangrai (r. 1259–1317).
Rama Khamheng visited Beijing in 1282, bringing Chinese potters back with
him. The ceramic industry became important economically for a long time.
A true dharmaraja, he looked after the welfare of his subjects. Rama Khamheng
was the originator of Thai script, and many facets of Thai culture originated
during his reign period.
Rama Tibodi I (r. 1350–1369). The founder of the Ayudhya Kingdom, General
U Thong, assumed the title of Rama Tibodi at the time of his coronation in
1350. The capital city was named Ayudhya after the capital of the Kingdom
of Rama, hero of the Ramayana. He expanded the Kingdom at the cost of the
declining powers of Sukhothai and Angkor. Administrators, artisans, and
Brahmans came to Ayudhya from Angkor. His Kingdom penetrated to the
lower Chao Praya River, the Gulf of Martaban, and the Malay Peninsula. He
followed the practice of the Hindu kings and styled himself as the devaraja,
or divine king. Thus his legitimacy was established. He was also a lawgiver.
His decrees were added to the legal code written in Pali and remained in force
until the last decade of the nineteenth century. Tibodi embraced Theravada
Buddhism in 1360, and it became the state religion of Ayudhya.
Queen Suryothai (d. 1548). Suryothai was the Queen of the Ayudhya ruler
Maha Chakraphat (r.1548–1568). The ruler of the Toungoo dynasty of Myanmar,
Tabinshweti (r.1531–1550) attacked Ayudhya in 1548 and both the rulers fought
on elephants. Donning the uniform of a male soldier, Suryothai joined the battle
mounting an elephant. The queen fought bravely and put herself between the
two rulers as her husband was losing the combat. Tabinshweti killed Suryothai
and retreated afterward. As per legend, the valor and sacrifice of the queen
shamed the Toungoo ruler. Suryothai is famous in Thai history, culture, and
popular imagination for her bravery. She is a revered figure in Thailand. Her
saga of bravery has been immortalized in the Hollywood movie The Legend of
Suryothai (2003). The Thai version released in 2001 became one of the biggest
box-office hits. The ashes of Suryothai are preserved in a chedi (reliquary) at
the Suan Luang Sobsawan temple.
Patani Queens (r. 1584–1688). Under the rulers of the Ayudhya dynasty, the
Patani region enjoyed alternate phases of independence and subjugation.
Patani was a prosperous Kingdom because of international trade. The Queens
of Patani were looking after the subjects well. They tried their best to maintain
independence, but were not always successful. After the death of Sultan Baha-
dur (r. 1573–1584), his daughters Raja Hijau (Green Princess r. 1584–1616), Raja
Biru (blue Princess r. 1616–1624), and Raja Ungu (Purple Princess r. 1624–1635)
became successive queens. They were named after the colors of the rainbow.
Hijau was quite well known in the Chancelleries of Europe, Ayudhya, and
Japan. Under Biru and Ungu, the Thai attacks were repulsed. Simultaneously,
there were also exchanges of friendship missions between the two Kingdoms.
Raja Kuning (r. 1635–1688), daughter of Raja Ungu, was the last queen of
Patani. Known as the “Yellow Queen”, her reign was marked by the decline
of Patani. She visited Ayudhya in 1641 and was welcomed by King Prasat
Thong (r. 1630–1656). She accepted nominal suzerainty of Ayudhya and sent
bunga mas (gold leaves) as a sign of tribute.
156 Notable People in the History of Thailand
Naresuan Maharaj (r. 1590–1605). After the plunder of Ayudhya, the Toungoo
ruler Bayinnaung (r. 1551–1581) installed Maha Thamraja (r. 1569–1590) as a
vassal ruler, and his son Naresuan, a boy of nine years was taken as a hostage.
He was allowed to return in 1576. Naresuan organized an army and made
Ayudhya independent in 1584. He became the king of Ayudhya after the death
of his father Thamaraja. There were trade agreements with European powers
during his reign. In 1593, the invading troops of Myanmar were defeated
again. He erected a pagoda at Don Chedi in Suphanburi to commemorate
the event. A fair is organized every January in honor of Naresuan, and it is also
Thailand’s National Armed Forces Day. The king then took initiative of attack-
ing Myanmar. For maritime commerce, Thailand needed ports in the Indian
Ocean and in 1593 troops were dispatched to southern Myanmar. The south-
east frontier was secure after a successful invasion against Cambodia. In
1595, Lan Na came under his suzerainty. He died after falling sick with a car-
buncle on his face, while on a march against Myanmar.
Narai, the Great (r. 1656–1688). Narai was the son of Ayudhya king Prasat
Thong. He became preoccupied with rebellion in the northern states and sign-
ing treaties with European powers. Narai established diplomatic missions
with Asian and European countries. His reign witnessed the beginning of
influences from the West. The newly constructed palace in Lopburi had con-
tributions from Jesuit architects. Determined to have a trade monopoly, the
Dutch blockaded the mouth of the Chao Praya River. Narai signed a treaty
in 1664, which gave the Dutch a monopoly of trade in hides and extraterrito-
rial rights of jurisdiction. The king took the help of French engineers to build
forts in Thonburi, Nonthaburi, and Ayudhya. The French were allowed to
open a trading station in Songkhla. In spite of efforts of the French Jesuits,
Narai did not change the religion. The king made the Greek adventurer
Constantine Phaulkon (1647–1688) his confidant. The relations between
Ayudhya and France became close due to efforts of Phaulkon. Narai became
very sick with dropsy in 1688 and died afterward.
Phya Taksin (r. 1767–1782). The half-Chinese general Phya Taksin, the governor
of Tak province, restored the pride of Thailand after the devastation of
Ayudhya in 1767. Known as the ”Liberator of Siam”, he became the leader
of the resistance against Myanmar. He established himself as king of Thailand
in the town of Thonburi. A new capital was built with help from his paternal
home in Chaozhu. The Chinese supplied labor force and building materials.
Finally Ayudhya came under his sway. He had complete control over central
Thailand. The Vietnamese influence over Cambodia diminished temporarily
and was replaced by Thai influence in 1771. Luang Prabang became an ally
in 1774. Vientiane was occupied in 1778 as it had defied Taksin by maintaining
Notable People in the History of Thailand 157
Rama I (r. 1782–1809). Born on March 20, 1737, to a noble of the Ayudhya King-
dom, Phra Aksorn Sundara Smiantra, Chao Phraya Chakri had a distinguished
career in the army of Phya Taksin. After becoming the king as Rama I, he
shifted the capital from Thonburi. The attacks from Myanmar were success-
fully repulsed in 1785 and 1787. The Sultans of Malay Peninsula such as
Kedah, Kelantan, and Trenggannu acknowledged the suzerainty of the Thai
monarch. They used to send bunga mas (gold leaves) as a mark of insubordina-
tion to the Thai court. Rama I annexed provinces of Battambang and Siem
Reap of Cambodia. The Sultan Muhammad II of Patani acknowledged the
suzerainty of Rama I. He made changes in the administration and introduced
a new code in 1804. He initiated the royal writings known as Phra Rajanibondh.
He was the author of the Thai version of the Indian epic, the Ramayana. Rama I
died on September 7, 1809, in Bangkok and was succeeded by his son Prince
Isarasundorn as King Rama II (r. 1806–1809). He left his mark in Thai history
as patron of literature, law giver, and empire builder.
Sunthorn Phu (1786–1855). One of the great Thai literary figures, Sunthorn
was born in Bangkok. He led a colorful life in the royal court. Even his child-
hood was spent there as his mother was working as a wet-nurse. He had a
love affair with a woman of the court and married her later. He became a
court poet and Rama II (1809–1824) bestowed on him the title Khun
Sunthorn Wohan. Sunthorn was jailed in 1821 due to his involvement in a
brawl. After Rama II’s reign, he lost royal patronage and became a monk.
His poetic romances were in the sepha (a type of ballad) style. His magnum
opus, the Phra Aphai Mani, narrated the romantic adventurers of Prince
Aphai in ancient Thailand. It began while he was a prisoner and was fin-
ished after 20 years. Sunthorn also penned nine nirats (travelogues), records
of his visits to different places. He wrote in a simple language for the
common people, describing everyday life. Thailand celebrates Sunthorn
Phu Day June 26.
Nititada, and Phahon became the second prime minister of Thailand. His pre-
miership from June 21, 1933, to December 16, 1938, was marked by struggles
between the military and civilian forces for dominance in Thai politics. A mili-
tary coup under the leadership of Prince Boworadet (1878–1953) was sup-
pressed by Phibun in October. Phanon dissolved the national assembly in
September 1938. He did not accept the post of prime minister again. He retired
from public life and died of a stroke on February 14, 1947. A highway joining
Bangkok and the border of Myanmar in the north is named after him.
Phibun Songkhram (1897–1964). Born into the farmer family of Keed and
Sam-Ang Keetasangka in Nonthabui on July 14, 1897, Phibun received his
education in Bangkok and at the Fontainebleau Military Academy, France.
In Paris, he came into contact with the leaders of Khana Rasdr and one of the
coup leaders in 1932. He was the army chief and defense minister before
becoming prime minister on December 16, 1938. He dominated Thai politics
as the premier from 1938 to 1944 and again between 1948 and 1957. An ardent
admirer of Nazism and fascism, his concept of nationalism bordered on an
extreme xenophobia, chauvinism, irredentism, superiority of Thai race, and
personality cult. He allowed the Japanese troops passage through Thailand
in the Second World War. Phibun made Thailand an aggressive nation on
January 25, 1942, a move that was opposed by many. Close alliance with the
United States in the Cold War period and a repressive state apparatus became
the hallmark of his second tenure. On September 17, 1957, he was over-
thrown. Phibun went to Japan as an exile and died on June 11, 1964.
Pridi Phanomyong (1900–1983). The Thai political leader, prime minister, and
author was born on May 11, 1900, in the Ayudhya province to a rich Chinese
rice merchant and Thai mother. A bright student, he studied in Thailand
and France. He organized the Thai Student’s Association in France and after-
ward was mainly instrumental in forming the Khana Rasdr. In the govern-
ments formed after 1932, he held positions of the Interior, Foreign, and
Finance. He was instrumental in setting up the University of Morals and
Political Science in 1934, which came to be known as Thammasat University.
He was the leader of the Free Thai movement in the Second World War. Pridi
was prime minister between March 24 and August 23, 1946, and resigned
after the mysterious death of the King Ananda Mahidol. He remained in
China until 1970 and moved to Paris until his death on May 2, 1983. The Imper-
manence of Society (1957) and What Is Philosophy? were his two major works of
Pridi, who had believed in “Democratic Scientific Socialism.”
His father, Chao Praya Abhayahubet, was the governor of the Battambang
province. Khuang studied engineering at the Ecole Centrale de Lyon in
France. He was the Director of the Telegraph department and later joined the
Royal Guard. He was one of the free leaders of the Free Thai movement and
became prime minister on August 1, 1944. He released political prisoners. In
the elite political infighting, he resigned on August 31, 1945. His second term
was for three months. Khuang had formed the Pak Prachathipat (Democratic
Party), which dominated Thai politics many times. He became prime minister
for the third time on November 10, 1947, but was forced to resign on April 8,
1948, after a disagreement with the military. He remained in the opposition
as leader of the Democratic Party. Khuang died on March 15, 1968.
Queen Rambai Barni (1904–1984). The only wife of King Prajadhipok, Queen
Rambai Barni was born on December 20, 1904. When the king abdicated the
throne on March 2, 1935, she accompanied him to Britain. The royal couple
lived in Surrey. As they had no children, the couple had adopted an infant
son from one of Prajadhipok’s deceased brothers, who became a fighter pilot
in the Royal Air Force. The queen became the leader of the Seri Thai (Free Thai)
movement of Britain, organized by Thai residents. The important members
were the queen’s brother Prince Suphasawat Wongsanit and Prince Chula
Chakrabongse. She was one of the four women taking up non-military tasks
in the Second World War. The queen returned to Thailand in 1949 with the
ashes of her dead husband. She died on May 22, 1984.
Kulap Saipradit (1905–1974). Kulap Saipradit, born on March 31, 1905, was a
political activist, journalist, and novelist. He was jailed between 1942 and
1944. Kulap was the president of the Thai Newspaper Association in 1944
and 1945. The activities of his Peace Foundation of Thailand invited the wrath
of the dictator Phibun. He was imprisoned from 1952 and 1957. He went to
China to attend the Afro-Asian Writer’s meeting. Apprehensive of a jail term
again, he remained in China for rest of his life and died of pleurisy on June 16,
1974. Manutsayatham or humanism characterized his novels. Writing under
the pen name Siburapha, he wrote Khang Lang Phap (Behind the Painting, 1936)
depicting a tragic love affair between a student and unhappy female Thai
aristocrat. It became a classic in Thai literature. His other works were Luuk
Phuu Chai (A Real Man, 1928), Songkhram Chiwit (Life Struggle, 1931) and
Phajon Barb (Facing Sin, 1934).
in Washington. Seni organized the Free Thai movement in the United States
and did not formally deliver the government’s declaration of war against the
United States. He became prime minister on September 17, 1945, and found
that the political atmosphere in Bangkok was not suitable to his temperament.
He negotiated hard for avoiding the British protectorate over Thailand. He
resigned on January 31, 1946. Seni became the leader of the Democratic Party
in 1968. On February 15, 1975, he became the prime minister, leading a three
party coalition government. After a month in office, he did not get the vote of
confidence and resigned. On April 21, 1976, Seni became the prime minister
again, heading a coalition government of four parties. There was a rightist
backlash headed by the military, unleashing a reign of terror, which led to the
downfall of Seni’s government on October 6, 1976. Seni left politics and turned
to legal practice. He died on July 28, 1997.
Sarit Thanarat (1909–1963). Son of Major Luang Detanan, Sarit was born in
Bangkok on June 16, 1909. He graduated from the military academy of Chula
Chom Klao in 1929. An efficient and ambitious army officer, Sarit became
commander of the First Division and commander-in-chief. He engineered a
nonviolent coup overthrowing the government of Phibun. He proceeded to
rule the country with an iron fist after becoming premier on February 9,
1959. He banned opposition parties and newspapers. Constitutional amend-
ments were suspended. Simultaneously he sought to stamp out Thailand’s
opium trade, end police corruption, and battle organized crime. Bilateral
relations between Thailand and the United States were further strengthened
by the Rusk–Thanat Agreement of 1962, which represented an American
guarantee of Thai security. Sarit supported the rightists in Laos in their fight
against the communist-oriented leftist organization Pathet Lao. His economic
policies resulted in U.S. and Japanese investment, rise of a new wealthy class
due to land speculation, and sustained economic growth of 5 percent per year.
He died on December 8, 1963. His legacy was the Thai involvement in the
Vietnam War and the establishment of development-oriented technocratic
agencies.
the creation of surnames for every Thai family. The Chulalongkorn University
was established in March 1917 under his reign. He had a great love for tradi-
tional Thai drama and acted in plays as well. The king had some of the works
of Shakespeare translated. His notable works were Phra non Kham Luang and
nationalist articles entitled, Muang Thai Chong Tun Thoet (Wake up all Thais).
He was considered to be an extravagant person. There were rumors and gos-
sip about the king’s fondness for men and dislike for the opposite sex. He was
married late at the age of 38 to Queen Suvadhana (1905–1985). He died on
November 25, 1925.
Thanom Kittikachorn (1912–2004). Born in the Ban Nhong Ploung, Tak prov-
ince to Amphan and Linchee Kittikachorn on August 11, 1912, Field Marshal
Thanom Kittikachorn was a military dictator, ruling Thailand from January 1,
1958, to October 20, 1958, and again between December 9, 1963, and
October 14, 1973. He had graduated from the royal military academy of
Chula Chom Klao in 1931. His second term witnessed major developments
in Thai history. Thailand became more closely aligned with the United States.
Relations with China and North Vietnam deteriorated. The Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established on August 8, 1967.
Military rule was imposed in 1971. Thanom, Field Marshall Prapass
Charusathiara (1917–2001), and son of Thanom, Narong Kittikachorn, who
was also the son-in-law of Prapass, were called the “Three Tyrants.” Student
unrest and mass demonstrations led to the end of the regime on October 14,
1973. Thanom fled to the United States. The government’s decision to honor
Thanom in 1999 for his service to the Royal Guard was dropped due to
protests. He died on June 16, 2004.
164 Notable People in the History of Thailand
Queen Sirikit (1932–). Queen Sirikit, wife of King Bhumibol, was born on
August 12, 1932, to Colonel Mangkala Kitiyakara and Bua Kitiyakara. She
was educated abroad in countries such as France, Denmark, and Britain,
where her father was the Thai ambassador. While studying in Switzerland,
she met King Bhumibol. In July 1949, they got engaged in Lausanne and were
married in April 1950 at Pathumwan Palace, Thailand. She was the regent,
when the king was a monk in 1956. A respected figure, her birthday is observed
as the country’s official Mother’s Day. The queen devotes her time to charitable
work and is revered throughout the country. She has been the president of the
Thai Red Cross since 1956. The queen promotes Thai culture and because of
her initiative the movie The Legend of Suriyothai was produced. The royal couple
have four children.
Maha Chakri Sirindhorn (1955–). Born on April 2, 1955, to King Bhumibol and
Queen Sirikit, Maha Chakri Sirindhorn was a very bright student, at the top of
her class in school and on university examinations. She had obtained a
168 Notable People in the History of Thailand
ACARIYA/AJAHN — teacher
BAHT — basic unit of currency
BODHI — Enlightenment
BORIPHOK NIYOM — consumerism
BOT — hall
BRAH MAHA UPARAJA — vice king
BUNGA MAS — gold leaves
CHAKRAVATIN — the World Emperor as per Hindu–Buddhist cosmology
CHANGWAT — provinces
CHAOPHRAYA — One of the highest nonroyal titles in the traditional
ranking system
CHAT — race/nation
CHATPRATHET — nation-state
CHEDI/STUPA — reliquary temple. A domed edifice containing relics
of the Buddha
DHAMMA/THAMMA — doctrines of faith, teachings of Buddha regarding
righteous conduct
170 Glossary of Selected Terms
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Index
Abhisit Vejjajiva, 19, 151, 168 143–144, 146, 148, 150–151, 157,
Anand Panyarachun, 17, 133 159–160, 162, 163, 166, 168
Anna Leonowens, 79, 83, 158 Britain, 66, 75–76, 78, 80, 88–92, 96,
Architecture, 14, 24–26, 28–29, 33, 99–101, 110, 113–116, 120–121,
38, 42, 67, 90 158–159, 161, 164–165, 167–168
ASEAN, 123, 131, 133, 143, 144, Buddha, 11–15, 24, 26, 28, 31, 33, 38,
150, 163 41–43, 60, 64–65, 67–69, 72, 74,
Australia, 5, 96, 121, 143, 144, 167 97, 114, 127, 138, 153, 157
Ayudhya, 2, 38, 39, 41–43, 45–57, Buddhism, 1, 8, 11, 12, 15, 24, 26, 28–
59–71, 73, 97, 111, 138, 143, 31, 33, 37–38, 41, 46, 50, 60, 64, 73,
154–157, 160, 167 77, 98–99, 112, 122, 153–155
Burma/Myanmar, 2, 5–6, 12, 24, 27,
Baht, 4, 10, 86–87, 101, 110, 29–30, 42, 48, 51–55, 61, 64–65,
146–147, 150, 68, 69–70, 72–76, 80, 90, 92, 99,
Bangkok, 2–3, 5–6, 8, 12, 14–15, 18, 111–112, 114, 116, 132–133,
19, 28, 30, 33, 42, 50, 63, 69, 71–74, 137–138, 143–145, 155–157
76–80, 87–93, 96, 100, 105, 108–
109, 113–114, 116–117, 120–121, Cambodia, 5, 8, 15, 24, 26, 28, 33, 43,
123, 126–127, 129, 131, 133, 138, 48, 53, 55, 57, 61, 64, 67, 69, 72–74,
180 Index
76–77, 80, 91–93, 112–113, 116, Islamic Insurgency, 3, 18, 125, 137,
120–121, 123, 129, 131, 137, 145, 165
143–145, 156–157, 167
Canada, 3, 90 Khuang Apaivongse, 115, 160–161
Chakri Dynasty, 71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, King, 2, 13–16, 19, 22, 24–26, 31,
105, 138, 159, 36–41, 43, 46–53, 55–57, 59–68,
Chao Praya River, 1, 6, 8, 24, 26, 71–81, 83, 87–89, 91–99, 103, 106–
46, 50, 61, 68–69, 72, 78, 91, 116, 109, 115–120, 130, 132, 138, 149
154, 156 Kukrit Pramoj, 14, 115, 129, 163
Chulalongkorn University, 5, 85, Kulap Saipradit, 103, 161
98, 149, 163, 167
Communism, 104, 108, 119–121, Lan Xang, 38–39, 43, 50–53, 64, 65
123, 130 Lan Na, 35, 37–43, 47–51, 53, 66,
Communist, 3, 107–109, 117, 119– 153–154, 156
121, 123, 126, 129–132, 139–140, Laos, 3, 5, 25, 35, 38, 39, 43, 50, 64,
142–143, 159, 162, 165, 167 73–74, 76, 90–91, 93, 112–113,
116, 120–121, 123–124, 126, 131,
Democracy, 3, 16, 85, 93, 99, 103–104, 143–145, 162
106–107, 110, 117, 127–130,
132–133, 135, 148–150, 166–167 Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, 167
Dvaravati, 1, 13, 24–25, 33 Maha Vajiralongkorn, 167
Malay, 2–3, 5–6, 8, 13, 27, 35, 46, 49,
First World War, 2, 99–103, 112 54–57, 59, 66, 72–74, 76, 90, 92–93,
France, 62–63, 66, 78, 80, 90–92, 100, 114, 1116, 138, 140–142, 145,
99–102, 104, 106, 108, 112–113, 154, 157, 159
121, 156, 160–161, 164, Malaysia, 6, 8, 12, 54–55, 92, 100,
122–123, 137–141, 143, 145–146
Geography of Thailand, 5–8 Mangrai, 37, 39, 41, 153, 154
Thai society, 8–10, 12, 21, 32–34, 37, United States, 3, 76, 78, 80, 96, 99,
46–47, 66, 84, 88–90, 93, 95, 97, 100–101, 107, 114–117, 119,
106, 109, 118, 120, 124–126, 159 120–124, 129, 131, 142–143, 158,
Thaksin Shinawatra, 18, 134, 166 160, 162–163, 166
Thanom Kittikachorn, 122–123, UNO, 118
126–128, 130, 133–34, 163
Thammasat University, 5, 87, 110, Vietnam, 10, 12, 25, 27, 35, 69, 73,
116, 128, 130, 149 76–77, 101, 112, 120–121, 123,
The Philippines, 37, 53–54, 121–123, 126, 129, 131, 142–145, 156,
137, 141, 143 162–163
Thirayuth Boonmi, 167 Vietnam War, 9–10, 107, 119,
Trailoknath, 48–50, 56, 66–67, 154 121–124, 142, 162