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Journal of Environmental Management: Hao Wu, Huayu Yan, Yue Quan, Huazhang Zhao, Nanzhe Jiang, Chengri Yin
Journal of Environmental Management: Hao Wu, Huayu Yan, Yue Quan, Huazhang Zhao, Nanzhe Jiang, Chengri Yin
Review
Recent progress and perspectives in biotrickling filters for VOCs and odorous T
gases treatment
Hao Wua, Huayu Yana, Yue Quana, Huazhang Zhaob, Nanzhe Jianga, Chengri Yina,∗
a
Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain and Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Yanbian University, Yanji
133002, China
b
Department of Environmental Engineering, Peking University, The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100871, China
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Pollution caused by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and odorous pollutants in the air can produce severe
Air pollution control environmental problems. In recent years, the emission control of VOCs and odorous pollutants has become a
Biofilm crucial issue owing to the adverse effect on humans and the environment. For treating these compounds, bio-
Biotrickling filter trickling filter (BTF) technology acts as an environment friendly and cost-effective alternative to conventional air
Deodorization
pollution control technologies. Besides, low concentration of VOCs and odorous pollutants can also be effectively
Microbial analysis
removed using BTF systems. However, the VOCs and odorants removal performance by BTF may be limited by
VOCs
the hydrophobicity, toxicity, and low bioavailability of these pollutants. To solve these problems, this review
summarizes the design, mechanism, and common analytical methods of recent BTF advances. In addition, the
operating conditions, mass transfer, packing materials and microorganisms (which are the critical parameters in
a BTF system) were evaluated and discussed in view of improving the removal performance of BTFs. Further
research on these specific topics, together with the combination of BTF technology with other technologies,
should improve the removal performance of BTFs.
1. Introduction halocarbons, esters, aldehydes, ketones, etc., with a boiling point ran-
ging from 50 °C to 260 °C (Kim, 2011; Zhang et al., 2018). Furthermore,
Air pollution and health are closely related and a series of adverse as a common environmental problem, emission of odorous pollutants is
health effects especially mortality and morbidity owing to cardiovas- not only a public health concern, but also a threat to personal comfort
cular and respiratory diseases are closely associated with the current- (Leuch et al., 2008). The main components of odorous pollutants are (1)
day concentrations of ambient air pollutants (Hoek et al., 2013). It has nitrogen-containing compounds (including inorganic compounds such
been reported that outdoor air pollution leads to 3.3 million (95% as NH3 and NOX, and amines such as methylamine, dimethylamine, and
confidence interval [1.61, 4.81]) premature deaths per year worldwide, trimethylamine) (Han et al., 2016; Wan et al., 2011b); (2) sulfur-con-
predominantly in Asia (Jerrett, 2015). Odorous pollutants and volatile taining compounds (including inorganic compounds such as H2S and
organic compounds (VOCs) are common and typical outdoor air pol- SO2, and organosulfur compounds such as methyl mercaptan, ethyl
lutants. They have adverse effects on the social and physical environ- mercaptan, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide) (Chung et al.,
ment, and create disproportionate disease burdens in less affluent seg- 2010; Lebrero et al., 2012b; Montebello et al., 2013; Shammay et al.,
ments of the society (Garcia et al., 2015). Thus, air pollution problems 2016); and (3)VOCs (including aromatic, aliphatic and chlorinated
caused by the emission of odorous pollutants and VOCs not only hydrocarbons, fatty acids, aldehydes, terpenes and ketones) (Munoz
threaten public health, but also deteriorate personal welfare et al., 2010; Xue et al., 2013). In addition to their potent offensive
(Balasubramanian et al., 2012). VOCs can adversely affect both short- smell, VOCs and odorous gases also result in acute toxic and chronic
and long-term health of humans and animals. They are involved in the long-term health effects (Kim, 2011; Zhang and Tay, 2015). Therefore,
formation of photochemical smog, ozone and respirable suspended air pollution caused by VOCs and odorous gas need to be immediately
particulates in the atmosphere, and contribute to sharp declines in crop solved.
yields and destruction of forests and ecosystems (Yang et al., 2010b). In recent years, to improve air quality and reduce or eliminate air
VOCs are organic compounds, including alkanes, aromatics, olefins, pollution caused by VOCs and odorous gases, various technologies have
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Yin).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.001
Received 21 November 2017; Received in revised form 19 May 2018; Accepted 1 June 2018
0301-4797/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Wu et al. Journal of Environmental Management 222 (2018) 409–419
410
H. Wu et al. Journal of Environmental Management 222 (2018) 409–419
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H. Wu et al. Journal of Environmental Management 222 (2018) 409–419
Thus, packing materials are considered as one of the core factors of the Sometimes, the concentration of odorous gases can be evaluated by
BTF systems. The main function of packing material is to promote the sense of smell. The odor concentration of a single odorant can be
contact between the contaminants and microorganisms, thereby al- determined using Eq. (7).
lowing the generation of a stable aggregate (Gutierrez-Acosta et al.,
Odorous gases concentration
2012). The packing beds in a BTF can be arranged in a single layer or Odor concentration =
Odor threshold value (7)
multiple layers (Kennes and Thalasso, 1998). Single-layer packing bed
BTF can save more space, whereas multiple-layer packing beds can aid where odorous gases concentration is the actual concentration of a
BTFs to generate lower pressure drop. Furthermore, when compared certain odorant (g/m3 or mg/m3), and odor threshold value is the
with the single-layer packing bed systems, multiple-layer packing beds lowest concentration of the odorant that is perceivable by the human
present higher VOCs and odorous gas removal rates. sense of smell. However, in measuring environmental odors, which are
In a BF system, the flow mode (up-flow or down-flow) is important generally complex mixtures of compounds, the threshold cannot be
owing to the possibility of drying of medium, which may affect the mass expressed as the concentration of the mixture, instead, the threshold
transfer. Several studies have indicated that in a BTF system, which can only be expressed as dilution-to-threshold ratios, and D/T means
mainly operates in a discontinuous irrigation mode, the choice of flow dilution to threshold ratio (V/V) (Cha, 1998; Huang and Guo, 2018).
can be counter-current or co-current for liquid and gaseous phases, with The unit of OU/m3 can be used to establish the odor index and odor
little influence on the treatment (Cox and Deshusses, 1999; Mudliar concentration (Gostelow et al., 2001). The main pain panel calibration
et al., 2010). However, this may not be true at all times, for example, gas used is n-butanol, which produces 1 OU/m3 at a certain dilution
sulfide formation is related to the sulfide/oxygen ratio in biogas de- rate. In general, the result of odorant sample measurement can be
sulfurization. In addition, because of the formation of free ammonia significantly affected by the dilution system, sample presentation, pa-
and free nitrite, the N/O ratio is altered, resulting in the inhibition of nelist selection, training, panel size, as well as panelist olfactory acuity
ammonia removal by the BTFs (Vadivelu et al., 2007). The nutrient (Cha, 1998).
solution stored in a nutrient tank can be intermittently or continuously Mineralization is the term used to describe the complete bio-
recirculated by using a pump and sprayed onto the top of the BTF. conversion of a target compound to biomass, CO2, water and possibly
Below each layer of medium, a perforated plate (carrier plate) prevents inorganic salts or acids. In aerobic biodegradation, VOCs are ultimately
the column packing from falling off, while simultaneously ensuring that degraded to CO2, and water by microorganisms, and the energy (ATP)
gas and water can pass through easily. generated during this process is utilized by the microorganisms for
biomass production. Thus, the CO2 production rate may provide valu-
3.2. Parameters during operating period able information about the performance of a BTF. The mineralization
degree of organic pollutants denotes the amount of organic C being
The results of treatment performance in a BTF can be illustrated converted to CO2 (Vert et al., 2012), and also reflects the degradation
using EBRT (s), RE (%), EC (g/m3h) and IL (g/m3h). The EBRT is the level of VOCs. For example, the mineralization degree of CO2 can be
relative measure of how long gas is retained within the packing calculated as shown in Eq. (8). In addition, for accurate quantification
medium; this parameter critically affects the treatment performance of of mineralization levels, the C levels fixed in the biomass should also be
a BTF (Rene et al., 2010a). The IL is the pollutant mass applied to a BTF taken into consideration.
per unit volume of medium per unit time. The parameter RE is the mole of CO2 produced
measure of pollutant removal efficiency and is expressed as a percen- CO2 % = ∗100%
Mole of C in VOCs consumed (8)
tage of the initial pollutant that is removed. The EC is defined as the
pollutant mass removed per unit volume of medium per unit time and it
represents how much pollutant mass can be removed under a given 4. Mass transfer in BTFs
condition. The EBRT, IL, RE and EC can be calculated using Eq. (1)–(5):
As shown in Fig. 4, mass transfer in BTF systems consists of gas-
Vbed
Empty bed retention time, EBRT = liquid and liquid-biofilm transfer, and is frequently assumed to be a
Q (1)
balance of the two processes at the interfaces of the two phases
C (Kraakman et al., 2011). As contaminated air flows through the packing
Inlet load, IL = ⎛ in ⎞ ∗Q
⎜ ⎟
bed, pollutant vapors, oxygen, and other molecules can be transferred
⎝ Vbed ⎠ (2)
to the trickling water phase or directly to the biofilm (Cox and
C − Cout ⎞ Deshusses, 1998). The mass transfer rate for pollutants from air to
Removal efficiency, RE = ⎛ in
⎜ ∗100%
⎟
water phase in the BTFs is related to Henry's law constant of pollutants.
⎝ Cin ⎠ (3)
As the contact between the microorganisms and pollutants occurs after
C − Cout ⎞ VOC diffusion into the liquid film, the liquid flow and cyclic frequency
Elimination capacity, EC = ⎛ in ⎜ ∗Q ⎟
⎝ Vbed ⎠ (4) of trickling liquid are critical parameters for mass transfer. The pH, salt,
or metabolite concentration can be controlled by the trickling liquid to
or guarantee a favorable environment for microorganisms to metabolize
C − Cout ⎞ C C − Cout ⎞ pollutants. When the water membrane surrounding the microorganisms
EC = ⎛ in
⎜ ∗ Q= ⎛ in ⎞ ∗Q∗ ⎛ in
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ = IL∗RE
⎟
is saturated by pollutants, liquid solution can dilute the pollutant con-
⎝ Vbed ⎠ ⎝ Vbed ⎠ ⎝ Cin ⎠ (5)
centration and decrease the diffusion limitation (Wu et al., 2016b). The
where Q is the gas flow rate (m /h), Vbed is the packing medium volume
3
trickling liquid also supplies nutrients for the growth of microorgan-
of the BTF (m3), and Cin and Cout are the inlet and outlet concentrations isms, and usually contains N, P, and trace elements. Besides, the VOCs
of the gas pollutant (g/m3 or mg/m3), respectively. In some studies, in waste gas usually serve as the C source to be metabolized by mi-
pollutant concentrations are reported in ppmv. The conversion of mass croorganisms (Cheng et al., 2016a). However, sometimes other C
concentration to volumetric concentration at room temperature (25 °C) sources need to be added into the nutrient solution to act as co-meta-
can be achieved by using the ideal gas law, shown by Eq. (6) (Iranpour bolism substrates to promote the removal of odorants and VOCs. For
et al., 2005). example, toluene, methane, phenol, and methanol can make tri-
24776∗Concentration (g/m3) chloroethylene (TCE) more bioavailable and have been proved to be
Concentration (ppmv) = good primary C sources during TCE removal in BTFs (Chheda and
Molecular weight of pollutant (g/mol) (6)
Sorial, 2017). Furthermore, co-metabolites may help stimulate the
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H. Wu et al. Journal of Environmental Management 222 (2018) 409–419
surfactant. Due to the low water solubility and high vapor pressure of
some VOCs (such as styrene), removal by typical wet-scrubbing pro-
cesses is difficult. Song et al. (2012) reported that by adding Triton X-
100, the RE of their BTF under three different inlet loads increased from
87% to 96%, 70%–92%, and 50%–82%, respectively.
Although surfactants can promote mass transfer during the removal
process of VOCs and other waste gases, some problems occur with their
use. Some surfactants themselves are contaminants of water and air,
and some are toxic to humans and microorganisms, and may lead to
several serious diseases (Fabrega et al., 2014). Also, most surfactants
with low concentration can act as a carbon resource for some micro-
organisms. Thus, excessive metabolism of surfactants by microorgan-
isms may decrease the metabolism of VOCs and other odorants, re-
sulting in a decrease in the treatment performance of a BTF. Thus,
finding new surfactants and novel methods of surfactant usage is es-
sential to improve the VOC removal performance of BTFs. Wang et al.
(2013) used Zn2+ combined with non-ionic surfactant Tween-20 to
remove ethylbenzene in a BTF; as a result, RE was increased and ex-
cessive biomass was removed.
Recently, the use of biosurfactants in the biodegradation of VOCs
and odorants has attracted much attention because these natural
compounds have advantages over synthetic surfactants, including being
more environment friendly, less toxic, and more biodegradable (Zhou
et al., 2011). Biosurfactants are surface-active substances synthesized
by living cells, especially by bacteria or other microorganisms. To en-
hance mobilization and bioavailability of hydrophobic compounds,
biosurfactants have been extensively studied. Some popular microbial
biosurfactants include emulsan produced by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus
(Foght et al., 1989), sophorolipids produced by several yeasts belonging
to Candida and the Starmerella clade (Kurtzman et al., 2010), and
Fig. 4. Mass transfer and the function of surfactants during the biodegradation rhamnolipids produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Li et al., 2014). Tu
of biotrickling filter (BTF) system. The truck icon denotes factors that can et al. (2015) indicated that the biosurfactant saponins can considerably
promote mass transfer, such as added surfactants. enhance the n-hexane removal performance of a BTF and decrease the
biomass accumulation rate in the packing bed. Rhamnolipids consists of
release of substrate-oxidizing enzymes that assist the catalytic trans- one or two hydrophilic rhamnose molecules (Rha-) and up to three
formation of target pollutants along with the primary substrates molecules of hydrophobic hydroxyl fatty acids, and stimulate the de-
(Suttinun et al., 2012). gradation of some VOCs such as hexadecane, octadecane and phenan-
Owing to the removal mechanism, BTFs are more adapted for the threne by P. aeruginosa (Li et al., 2014). If present in the liquid phase,
elimination of water soluble VOCs. However, many VOCs are hydro- rhamnolipids are expected to solubilize VOCs within the micelle
phobic (such as ethane, pentane, hexane, and cyclohexane) or moder- structure (or cause the biofilm surface to become more hydrophobic, or
ately hydrophobic (including TCE, chlorobenzene, BTEX, styrene, etc.) both), and decrease the surface and interfacial tensions between gases,
(Henry coefficient Hc = Cg/Cl, ranging from 0.1 to 70) (Cheng et al., liquids and biofilms, thereby increasing the availability of VOCs to the
2016a), and thus, the main rate-limiting factor might be the transpor- bacterial cells (Li et al., 2014).
tation of hydrophobic VOCs from the gas phase to the liquid and biofilm
phase (Hassan and Sorial, 2010). To lower the mass transfer limitations, 5. Packing materials in BTFs
some hydrotropic agents should be added into the reactor.
Fig. 4 indicates that the addition of mass transfer factor can promote 5.1. Classification of packing materials used in BTFs
the process of mass transfer. To increase the solubility of hydrophobic
VOCs, the addition of surfactants is a common choice. Surfactants are The packing materials used for VOCs and odorant removal in BTFs
commonly classified as (1) anionic surfactants; (2) cationic head can be typically divided into three categories: inorganic, organic and
groups; (3) zwitterionic (amphoteric) surfactants; and (4) nonionic mixed materials. Some traditional inorganic packing materials usually
surfactants. They are usually organic compounds that are amphiphilic come directly from nature such as perlite and lava. Their shape may be
owing to their hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads (Rosen, 2012). irregular but these natural materials have good surface properties.
When diffusing into water, surfactants get adsorbed at the interfaces Other inorganic packing materials (such as ceramic or Raschig rings)
between air and water. In the case of water mixed with organic phase, can be synthesized, and a foaming agent is sometimes used to improve
surfactants are adsorbed at the interface between the organic phase and porosity and surface area of these materials (Lee et al., 2013). Although
aqueous phase. As a result, the water-insoluble hydrophobic group the inorganic packing materials require the addition of mineral nu-
extends out of the bulk water phase into the air or organic phase, trients, they have the advantage of uniform structure and size, which
whereas the water-soluble head group remains in the water phase (Hu reduces compaction and allows better airflow distribution (Ortiz et al.,
et al., 2013). 2003).
Surfactants make the hydrophobic compounds more bioavailable in Initially, organic packing materials used in early BTFs were similar
the BTFs by reducing the mass transfer resistance between the gas phase to those used in BFs, such as soil, peat and wood chips. Subsequently, a
and liquid (or solid) phase (Yang et al., 2010a). Ramirez et al. (2012) variety of synthetic organic packing materials, such as plastic pall rings,
reported that when Brij-35 (a non-ionic surfactant) was added, the rubber particles, and other materials have been applied in the BTF or
methane conversion doubled with respect to that of BTFs without other systems (Park et al., 2011). These kinds of organic packing ma-
terials have smooth surface and do not contain pore structure.
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H. Wu et al. Journal of Environmental Management 222 (2018) 409–419
Table 2
Removal of commonly found VOCs and odorous compounds in BTFs.
Packing material Waste air composition Performance
Pollutant Conc. (mg/m3) EBRT (s) RE (%) EC (g/m3h) Reference
Odorous N and S compounds
PU and organism-suspend H2S 300–650 53–79 65–100 39.95 Chen et al. (2016b)
PU Methyl mercaptan 20–25 7–50 47.8–100 < 17.28 (Lebrero et al., 2012b)
Maifanite/ceramic Dimethyl disulfide < 25 123 100 19.0/16.6 Chen et al. (2016a)
Perlite Nitro-benzene 100–300 24 80–90 13.1 Oh and Bartha (1997)
Structured plastic tube Ammonia 9.6 1.2 82 24 Melse et al. (2012)
Ceramic particle Aniline 10–60 42–166 42–100 6.9–12.2 Li et al. (2012)
Chlorinated VOCs
Lava rock TCE 53.6–337.1 202.5 20.8–92.2 1.7–2.6 Quan et al. (2017)
PUF cube Chlorobenzene 200–800 20–75 < 91.6 < 117 Zhou et al. (2016)
Ceramic material Chlorobenzene 100–1750 15–60 < 96 < 95 Zilli and Nicolella (2012)
Non-chlorinated VOCsr
Ceramsite Toluene 384–8420 8–128 98.86 234.23 Sun et al. (2013)
Ceramsite Methyl acrylate 75.3–7234 200–400 40–100 < 8.39 Wu et al. (2016b)
Pall ring Styrene 500–1200 60–120 95 70–110 Zamir et al. (2015)
Perlite Acetone 10–8900 17.1–137 75.6 < 257 Rene et al. (2010b)
Plastic and PU Isopropanol 298–1095 14–160 > 80 30.11–59.25 Pérez et al. (2013)
PU Hexane 600 7.5–30 56.8–91.3 < 99.8 Tu et al. (2015)
Lava rock Formaldehyde 100 72–108 > 80 15–43 Prado et al. (2008)
However, owing to their special shape and strength, they can maintain surface area for both pollutants mass transfer and microbial im-
more biomass and increase the contact area of gas and liquid to improve mobilization (Devinny et al., 1999a; Kennes and Thalasso, 1998). It
the removal performance of BTFs. For example, when compared with a must be noted that owing to the inertness of the packing materials, the
Raschig ring, the different structure and shape of the Pall ring improved adsorption of pollutants is usually minimal in the BTFs. However, if the
the gas-liquid distribution and utilization of the inner surface of the concentration of the contaminants does not reach a high level, biode-
ring, thus, increasing the performance by more than 50% and reducing gradation cannot occur. Therefore, good packing material should ac-
the pressure drop at least by half. In recent years, new organic packing cumulate relatively high concentrations of pollutants to ensure biode-
materials (such as polyurethane foam) have been developed that have gradation occur. Moreover, liquids should be uniformly distributed on
the advantages of both good surface properties and special shapes the surface of the packing material and air should easily flow through
(Hernandez et al., 2013). These novel materials are not only able to the packing material. Besides, low-cost and recyclable sources should
maintain or intercept more microorganisms, but also adsorb the pol- also be considered when selecting packing materials for BTF systems.
lutant molecules (Singh et al., 2010b). Although nutrients are always externally provided in the BTFs, the
Packing materials (inorganic or organic) that can operate in BTFs packing material should also contain some nutrients that can promote
for long periods are called inert packing materials. In general, inert biofilm formation and microbial metabolism (Hernandez et al., 2010).
packing materials are the most commonly used in BTFs (Cox and In addition, in a BTF, the packing bed can be either randomly filled
Deshusses, 1998). Mixed packing material can be described as the with small packing materials or with specifically designed structured
combination of natural organic packing material and inert packing packing materials (Dorado et al., 2015; Montebello et al., 2014). Dif-
material in a BTF, or as a single packing material that has different ferent packing structures have varied surface areas and void space be-
components. Mixed packing material can be used to minimize bed tween the packing bed, which influence the mass transfer and removal
compaction and avoid clogging. Chen et al. (2016b) achieved high RE performance of the BTF systems. San-Valero et al. (2014) reported that
and EC of H2S from air using a two-layer BTF packed with activated the structured packing material (specific surface area and mass transfer
carbon-loaded polyurethane in the upper layer and modified organism- coefficient of 410 m3m-2 and 175 h−1, respectively) exhibited a higher
suspended fillers in the lower layer. mass transfer coefficient, when compared with that presented by two
types of random packing materials (348 m3m-1, 130 h−1, respectively,
and 207 m3m-1, 130 h−1, respectively) in a series of BTFs to treat iso-
5.2. Characteristics of packing materials in BTFs
propanol. These results also indicated that a high specific surface area
could improve the mass transfer in BTFs. Similarly, with a high specific
As one of the core factors in BTF systems, packing materials must
surface area, the structured packing material can also exhibit a higher
satisfy some requirements such as optimal environmental conditions for
mass transfer, which could be attributed to the effect of different flow
microbial activity, adequate area to sustain growth and activity of mi-
paths within the packing materials. However, a significant decrease in
croorganisms, optimal particle size to prevent high bed pressure drop,
mass transfer may occur when clogging develops in the structured
and ability to resist compaction to avoid high bed pressure drop and
packing material. Conversely, random packing materials could more
allow uniform air flow distribution through the bed. Many factors (such
readily promote channeling than structured packing materials. Thus, a
as specific surface area, moisture holding capacity, density and ten-
mixed packing bed, with upper layer packed with structured packing
dency to compact, adsorption properties and nutrient supply) de-
material and lower layer packed with bulk packing material may be a
termine the characteristics of a packing material to be used in a BTF
good strategy to improve the mass transfer in BTF systems. Table 2
system (Dorado et al., 2010). Good packing materials must have spe-
summarizes the biodegradation of a wide range of pollutants in BTFs
cific physicochemical properties such as high porosity, high surface
and the packing materials used, operation conditions, and removal
area, good mechanical resistance and water retention capacity to
performance. It can be noted from the table that many odorous com-
guarantee microbial growth and biofilm adhesion (Kim and Deshusses,
pounds and VOCs can be efficiently removed by BTFs with suitable
2008). Furthermore, good water-holding capacity (40%–80% by weight
packing materials.
for organic packing materials) of the packing material is necessary, and
Sometimes packing materials can act as the link between BTF
in most cases 40%–80% of porosity or void volume can ensure both gas
technology and other technologies. Wu et al. (2018) reported the use of
plug flow and low pressure drop. For bulk packing materials, the par-
a self-made conductive packing material in a BTF to treat toluene waste
ticles should be relatively small (diameter of 1–5 cm) to ensure large
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H. Wu et al. Journal of Environmental Management 222 (2018) 409–419
gas, and analyzed the influence of applied voltage on toluene removal drastically so that the analytical result does not reflect the actual bio-
performance and microbial community. Their findings indicated that film that exists in BTFs. Many biological molecular methods have been
during the biodegradation process an electrical potential difference applied to examine biofilms and analyze the microbial community in
could be generated between the bottom and top of the packing bed BTFs, including fluorescence in situ hybridization (Kristiansen et al.,
without external voltages, and that the potential difference decreased 2011), polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electro-
with increasing total flow rate. However, application of an external phoresis (PCR-DGGE) with cloning and sequencing (Wu et al., 2016b),
voltage was found to significantly change the bacterial community. and high-throughput sequencing (Hu et al., 2016). Of these methods,
Some researchers have used coke, which is also electrically conductive, PCR-DGGE and high-throughput sequencing appear to be the most
as a packing material to combine BTF technology with microbial fuel popular (Cheng et al., 2010; Li et al., 2012; Quan et al., 2017; Wu et al.,
cell (MFC) technology. In their BTF-MFC system, a graphite rod and 2016b).
porous coke were used as the anode, and a polyvinyl alcohol membrane DGGE is widely applied to evaluate microbial diversity of several
electrode assembly was used as the cathode to form an electric circuit, environments, to “profile” complex microbial communities and to infer
with both the anode and cathode connected with titanium wire (Wu the phylogenetic affiliation of the community members (Aguirre et al.,
and Lin, 2016). This BTF-MFC not only removed ethyl acetate with high 2018; Perez et al., 2015, 2016; Wei et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2016b). The
efficiency, but also continuously generated electricity and ensured ef- experimental workflow and change in DNA during an experiment are
fective use of chemical energy in waste gas (Wu et al., 2016a). Thus, shown in Fig. S2 (Supplementary Data).
combining BTF with other technologies could also be a possible way of High-throughput (formerly “next-generation”) sequencing can si-
developing new packing material. In addition, development of new multaneously detect tens of hundred to million DNA sequences, and has
packing materials in BTF systems that can chemically react with air many applications in the BTF systems (de Magalhaes et al., 2010; Quan
pollutants, such as the Fe-C packing materials used in wastewater et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2018). Besides, this technology allows massive-
treatment (shown in Fig. S1 in Supplementary Data) is also an attractive scale DNA sequencing at a low cost and high speed. Currently, high-
option (Li et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2016) and needs further in- throughput sequencing used in microbial community analysis mainly
vestigation. The electrochemical reaction between the packing mate- includes Illumina® Solexa™ methods, Roche 454 GS FLX System, ABI
rials and pollutants could promote the biodegradation of refractory SOLiD® (Supported Oligo Ligation Detection), and Life Technologies Ion
pollutants and enhance the removal performance of BTFs. Torrent™ (Mardis, 2008; Meyer et al., 2008; Quail et al., 2008). All of
these sequencing platforms have the advantages of high-throughput,
6. Microorganisms in BTFs high speed, and low costs (Mason and Elemento, 2012). Similar to
DGGE, these platforms produce sequencing results that can be further
The removal performance of VOCs and odor pollutants by BTF analyzed to obtain diversity indices and some other useful information.
systems is not only significantly affected by the physicochemical
properties of the pollutants, but also by the microorganisms (Cheng 6.2. Microorganisms in BTF systems
et al., 2016a; Cox and Deshusses, 1998; Zehraoui et al., 2012). In BTF
processes, ensuring adequate supply of nutrients to the microorganisms The effectiveness of a BTF depends on the ability of the micro-
is essential to support their growth. The microbial growth is controlled organisms to biodegrade pollutants (Prachuabmorn and Panich, 2010).
by nutrients in trickling liquid, temperature, pH, O2 content, and Microorganisms differ in their degradation performance in treating a
moisture, and the optional conditions are listed in Table 3 (Schiavon particular pollutant. The biofilms in BTFs usually consist of high
et al., 2016). The microbial community is a critical parameter in BTF numbers of bacteria and low numbers of fungi; thus, most articles focus
systems. Usually, microbes are the decomposer organisms in the natural on the analysis of bacterial communities (Zhao et al., 2014). Bacteria of
environment and can completely degrade many pollutants. The mi- the genera Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Staphylococcus and Rhodococcus are
crobial species that are present, their population densities, the meta- most often found in BTFs. Pseudomonas has been identified as the
bolic transformations they are catalyzing, and their interactions with dominant species of the bacterial population in different bioreactors
their environment and each other are fundamental to BTF operation. To used to remove nitrogen, H2S and many VOCs (Giri et al., 2014; Li
acquire a better understanding of the relationship between microbial et al., 2014; Zheng et al., 2016). Bacillus can occur simultaneously
diversity and the performance of a BTF, knowledge about the structure under aerobic nitrification-denitrification conditions, Staphylococcus
and dynamics of microbial communities is required. Thus, the analysis can reduce nitrate to nitrite (Cheng et al., 2010), and Rhodococcus has
of the microbial communities that are present in BTFs is important and the ability to metabolize harmful environmental pollutants, including
necessary. toluene, naphthalene, herbicides, and other compounds (Baltrenas
et al., 2015).
Although pollutant degradation in BTFs is usually attributed to
6.1. Microbial community analysis methods
bacteria, sometimes, fungi may play an important role. Some studies
have indicated that fungi exhibit a higher VOC removal performance
The analysis of the microbial community in BTFs usually examines
than bacteria (Cox and Deshusses, 1998; Giri et al., 2014). Moreover,
the biofilm on the surface of packing materials. However, as some
fungi allow easy absorption of many VOCs from the bulk gas phase
species of microorganisms in BTFs are unculturable and the complex
because of their filamentous structures with aerial mycelia and a large
environment in BTFs is difficult to reproduce and simulate outside of
surface area (Kraakman et al., 2011). Meanwhile, the resistance of fungi
BTFs, the strategy for analyzing biofilm after the culturing and pur-
to low humidity favors mass transfer of hydrophobic VOCs from the gas
ification of strains should be limited (Vaz-Moreira et al., 2013). After
phase to fungal surfaces. Compared with bacteria, fungi can better re-
culturing, the variety of species of microorganisms may decrease
sist the environments of low humidity and high acidity (Prenafetaboldú
et al., 2008). Therefore, using fungi as the main degradation micro-
Table 3
Optimal conditions for the growth of microorganisms in BTFs.
organism in BTFs has great potential.
Filamentous fungi belonging to the genera Scedosporium,
Nutrient Temperature pH O2 content Moisture Paecilomyces, Cladosporium and Cladophialophora, white-rot fungi and
C:N:P = 100:5:1 10–40 a
7–8 °C 5–15% 60–80%
yeasts of the genus Exophiala are often obtained in BTFs (Repeckiene
et al., 2015). Jin et al. (2007) indicated that a fungi-dominated BTF
a
In general, for heterotrophic species, when removing acid (such as H2S), showed a good potential to withstand shock loads in the treatment of
the optimal pH should be 1–2. alpha-pinene and could rapidly achieve its full performance after a 3–7
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H. Wu et al. Journal of Environmental Management 222 (2018) 409–419
Table 4
Studies on the RE, and microbial community of current BTF systems for removing VOCs and odor waste gases.
Contaminant Max RE Microbes type Predominate strain Reference
days starvation period. Furthermore, fungi can remove highly con- pretreatment because it transforms pollutants into more soluble and
centrated VOCs in highly acidic conditions (Zehraoui et al., 2014). biodegradable compounds. Besides UV, plasma or other photolysis
However, fungi also have some drawbacks. Compared to bacteria, fungi pretreatment strategies can also be applied (Dobslaw et al., 2017; Wei
have generally lower metabolic rates that make the start-up periods of et al., 2013; Zeng et al., 2016).
BTFs much longer and their filamentous structure often leads to clog-
ging in BTFs.
Studies on the characteristic of current BTF systems for several ty- 8. Conclusions and perspectives
pical VOCs and odor waste gases removal are summarized in Table 4.
To improve the removal performance of BTF, bacteria-dominated BTF BTF systems play an important role in the intensive treatment of
and fungi-dominated BTF can be combined. Cheng et al. (2016b) set up VOCs and odorants that occur in large volumes and low concentrations.
three different BTFs (bacterial BTF, fungal BTF and bacterial-and-fungal Many factors affect the removal performance of VOCs and odorous
BTF) to study the difference in the treatment of toluene. The bacterial- pollutants in BTFs. Briefly, the operation of BTF needs suitable inlet
and-fungi BTF reached an RE of 90%, while the RE of the fungal BTF concentration/load and trickling recycling rate to guarantee optimized
and the bacterial BTF were 60% and 20%, respectively. mass transfer, nutrient supplementation, and microbial activity.
Packing materials in BTFs should have specific physicochemical prop-
erties and provide an adequate environment for the growth of micro-
7. Other techniques combined with BTF systems
organisms and enhance the performance of biological activities.
Superior quality packing materials can also be used in pollutants de-
Combination of a BTF system with other types of treatment can
gradation reactions. As different microorganisms have their own ad-
achieve much better removal performance than the use of BTF system
vantages, it is important to choose a suitable microbial community.
alone. Some microorganisms can produce different kinds of enzymes
Some enzymes produced by microorganisms can also convert refractory
such as monooxygenase, which can enhance the degradation of re-
pollutants to simple and soluble ones, which can enhance the removal
fractory VOCs to simple molecules (Pant and Pant, 2010). Co-metabo-
performance.
lism can help the microorganisms to stimulate the release of substrate
Moreover, further developments of BTF systems should focus on
oxidizing enzymes. Quan et al. (2017) used a static magnetic field
innovations that combine a BTF system with other physical, chemical,
combined BTF to treat TCE waste gas and compared this combined
and biological technologies. These combinations can not only improve
technique to a single BTF. The results indicated improved TCE removal
the pollutant removal performance but also give BTF technology a
performance and alteration in the bacterial community under 60 mT of
function of resource renewal by power generation. Hence, to improve
magnetic field intensity. Magnetic field strengthening can produce si-
the performance of BTF systems for removing VOCs and odors, there is
milar effects of pollutant removal with the addition of phenol and so-
a need for continuous innovation in bioreactor configurations.
dium acetate as co-metabolic substrate. Furthermore, different mag-
netic field intensities significantly affected the fungal community in the
BTF systems and improved the abundance of the phylum Ascomycota, Acknowledgments
thus increasing the TCE removal rate (Quan et al., 2018). Similar to
using enzymes, pretreatment of refractory VOCs could promote the This work was supported by the National Natural Science
metabolism of pollutants by microorganisms. For example, in the Foundation of China (No. 21662038, No. 21661031).
treatment of some aromatic compounds such as styrene and chlor-
obenzene, UV pretreatment is usually used prior to a BTF system (Zhu
et al., 2015). The UV energy can directly convert the hydrophobic and Appendix A. Supplementary data
stable VOCs into water-soluble and easily biodegradable intermediates,
making it an efficient pretreatment step prior to BTF treatment. As a Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.
result, both mass transfer and reaction rate are enhanced by UV doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.001.
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