SCIENCE 10 MODULE

UNIT 1. EARTH AND SPACE

Overview:

In your Grade 9 Science you learned about volcanoes. You learned the position of the
Philippines in the Ring of Fire and its relationship to the presence of active and inactive volcanoes in
our country.
The topics in the first quarter will focus on a theory that explains the existence of volcanoes
and other geologic features. You will use your science skills such as graphing, measuring, analyzing,
interpreting data and inferring to attain the desired outcomes.
The outcomes expected from you first, you should describe the distribution of active
volcanoes, earthquake epicenters and major mountain belts. Second, relate the distribution of active
volcanoes, earthquake epicenters and major mountain belts to Plate Tectonics Theory and finally, you
will describe the different types of plate boundaries.
This module contain a series of activities that will give you an idea about the driving
mechanism behind the motion of the earth’s lithosphere.

Module 1 . Plate Tectonics

I. Introduction:

Our country is blessed with so many land features such as mountains and volcanoes. These
features can be a source of different minerals or can be used for agricultural purposes. The fertile soil
along the slopes and plains of Mayon volcano are utilized by the people to grow their crops. The
Sierra Madre Mountain Range along the northern coast of Luzon is a home to many endemic species
of flora and fauna.
Which part of the earth these features are found? What is the relation of these land features
to the occurrence of earthquakes on earth? Well, this module will help you find answers to these
questions.
In this module, we will study thoroughly the framework that will enable us to understand how
and why several features of the earth continuously change.

II. Objectives:
In this module, you should be able to:
a. describe and relate the distribution of active volcanoes, earthquake epicentres
and major mountain belts to Plate Tectonics Theory.
b. describe the different types of plate boundaries

III. Pre- Assessment:

Choose the correct answer: Write only the letter of the correct answer.

1 The pieces of the earth’s crust are called__

a. continents b. plates c. puzzle d. rocks
2. What makes up the lithosphere?
a. continental crust c. oceanic and continental crust
b. crust and the upper mantle d. upper mantle
3. The pieces of the earth’s crust move on top of the __
a. mantle b. ocean c. inner core d. outer core
4. What do geologists call the earth’s crust and the upper mantle?
a. asthenosphere b. atmosphere c. lithosphere d. mesosphere
5. How many tectonic plates do scientists categorize as major plates?
a. 2 b. 3 c. 6 d. 7
6. Continental crust is ___ than oceanic crust.
a. less buoyant c. thicker and less dense
b. more explosive d. thinner and denser
7. Which is true of tectonic plates?
a. Earthquakes cause them to move.
b. They are constantly moving
c. They don’t move for centuries at a time
d. There are fewer and fewer of them
8. The fact that ice floats on top of the water, is like the fact that ____
a. the mantle is colder than the crust
b. the mantle causes earthquakes and volcanoes
c. the crust is melting.
d. the less dense crust sits on top of the mantle
9. Which of these is false about lithospheric plates?
a. have the same thickness everywhere
b. include the crust and upper mantle
c. thickest in the mountain regions
d. vary in thickness
10. The plate tectonics theory states that:
a. continental crust “flows through” oceanic crust
b. oceanic crust slides over the continental crust
c. lithospheric plates move.
d. tectonic forces cause the most damage in the center of the plates

11. What are the waves produced by an earthquake?

a. electromagnetic waves c. microwaves

b. infrared waves d. seismic

12. What is the location on the earth’s surface above where the earthquake began?

a. crust center c. hypocenter

b. epicenter d.quake point

13. You were provided with data showing the arrival time of the P and S waves recorded from three seismic
stations. Which of these can you possibly determine?

a. the damage at the focus c. the intensity of the earthquake

b. the distance to the earthquake d. the location of the epicentre

14. From the seismogram, the distance to the epicenter can be determined by measuring_

a. the arrival time of surface wave

b. the difference in the arrival times of P and S waves

c. the ratio of the amplitude of the largest P and S waves

d. the speed of the surface wave

15. You were asked to locate the epicentre of a recent earthquake. Which correct sequence of events should
you follow?

I. Determine the difference in the arrival time of S and P waves

recorded from each of the seismological stations.
II. Use the triangulation method to locate the center.
III. Obtain data from three different seismological stations.
IV. determine the distance of the epicenter from the station.

a. I,III,II,IV b. III,I,IV,II c. III,IV,I,II d. IV,II,I,III

IV. Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

Lesson 1: What is Plate Tectonics?

The earth has a solid rigid outer structure called the lithosphere. The lithosphere is composed
of the crust and the upper mantle. The crust is made of solid rocks like sedimentary, metamorphic
and igneous. It has an average density of 2.8 g/cm3 and its thickness ranges from 5 to 50 km. The crust
is thickest in a part where a relatively young mountain is present and thinnest along the ocean floor.

Figure 1.
The lithosphere

There are two kinds of crust; Figure 2, the thicker but less dense continental crust and the denser and
relatively thinner oceanic crust.

Figure 2. Kinds of Crust

According to the plate Tectonics model (Figure 3), the entire lithosphere of the earth is
broken into numerous segments called plates. There are seven relatively large plates and a number of
smaller ones including the Philippine plate. The plates move very slowly but constantly, and this
movement is called tectonics, thus the theory of the moving lithospheric plates is called plate
tectonics. The consequence of the moving plate is called earthquake.
 Figure 3. Map of Plate boundaries

Activity 1: MARK MY PLATE

Objective
1. Name and search out from the map the major tectonic plates of the world.
2. Classify the tectonic plates as oceanic or continental

Materials

world tectonic plates map

Procedure

1. Analyze the map then labels the major tectonic plates of the world using the words on
the next page of the activity sheet.
 https://www.scribd.com/document/413848955/Activity-Session-5-Earth-Science-Consemino

Fig. 4. WORLD TECTONIC PLATES MAP

Q1. Classify whether the labelled tectonic plates on the map are oceanic or continental.
Q2. In what specific type of tectonic plate the Philippines is located?
Q3. What major tectonic plates are found around the Philippines?
Q4. Describe the earth’s lithosphere?

PACIFIC PLATE COCOS PLATE

EURASIAN PLATE JUAN DE FUCA ANTARCTIC PLATE

NORTH AMERICAN
PLATE
NAZCA PLATE

ARABIAN PLATE
SCOTIA PLATE

SOUTH AMERICAN
PLATE

PHILIPPINE PLATE CARRIBEAN PLATE

AUSTRALIAN PLATE

AFRICAN PLATE

INDIAN PLATE

Glossary of terms:

Crust - outer portion of the earth

Continental - thick part of the crust ( where mountains, volcanoes and other land
features are found)
 Oceanic - thin part of the crust under the sea.
Geology - the science that studies the earth
Plates - rigid sections of the lithosphere that move as a unit
Theory - a natural explanation for a wide range of phenomena
Plate Tectonics Theory - a theory which suggests that the earth’s crust is made up of plates that
interact in various ways, thus producing earthquakes, mountains, volcanoes and other
geologic features

Rocks and the Rock Cycle 60 minutes

Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

What is a Rock?

The lithosphere is made up of rocks. We see rocks everywhere and most of us take
them for granted. Rocks are made up of minerals. Humans have used the metals and minerals in
rocks since the beginning of civilization. Where do rocks come from? How are they formed? A rock is
a naturally occurring solid made up of a bunch of different minerals. They may come from volcanoes
and others from space called meteorites. There are three main types of rocks, igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic. Each type is produced in different ways.

 Types of Rocks:

 Igneous Rocks - Igneous rocks are formed by volcanoes. When a volcano erupts, it spews out
hot molten rock called magma or lava. Eventually the magma will cool down and harden,
either when it reaches the Earth's surface (extrusive) or somewhere within the crust
(intrusive). This hardened magma or lava is called igneous rock. Intrusive igneous rocks cool
off slowly producing large crystals whereas extrusive igneous rocks cool off quickly resulting to
the formation of small crystals. Major examples of igneous rocks include basalt and granite.
Typically, granite makes up large parts of the continents. The seafloor is formed by a dark lava called
basalt.
 Basalt Granite

Extrusive igneous rocks Intrusive igneous rocks

Figure 5. Kinds of Igneous Rocks

 Sedimentary Rocks - Sedimentary rocks are formed by years and years of sediment
compacting together and becoming hard. The layers of sedimentary rocks are called strata.
Generally, something like a stream or river will carry lots of small pieces of rocks and minerals
to a larger body of water. These pieces will settle at the bottom and over a really long time
(perhaps millions of years), they will form into solid rock. Some examples of sedimentary rocks
are shale, limestone, and sandstone.
 Figure 6. Sedimentary rock

 Metamorphic
Rocks -
Metamorphic
rocks are formed
by great heat and
pressure. They
are generally
found inside the
Earth's crust
where there is
enough heat and
pressure to form
the rocks. Metamorphic rocks are often made from other types of rock. For example, shale, a
sedimentary rock, can be changed, or metamorphosed, into a metamorphic rock such as slate
or gneiss. Other examples of metamorphic rocks include marble, anthracite, soapstone, and
schist.

Rocks of any type can be converted into any other type. The rock cycle is a process in
which rocks are constantly transformed between the three rock types igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.

Figure 7. Rock cycle

1. Melted rock or magma is sent to the earth's surface by a volcano. It cools and forms an igneous
rock. 
2. Next the weather, or a river, and other events will slowly break up this rock into small pieces of
sediment.
3. As sediment builds up and hardens over years, a sedimentary rock is formed.
4. Slowly this sediment rock will get covered with other rocks and end up deep in the Earth's crust. 
5. When the pressure and heat get high enough, the sedimentary rock will metamorphose into a
metamorphic rock and the cycle will start over again. 

Questions:

5. What are the three types of rocks?

6. Which rock make up the oceanic crust? Continental crust?
7. Why does the continental crust sink under the ocean?
Activity 2.

Complete the Crossword Puzzle below:

Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth
resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough
to propel objects and people into the air, and wreak destruction across entire cities. The seismicity,
or seismic activity, of an area is the frequency, type, and size of earthquakes experienced over a period
of time. The word tremor is also used for non-earthquake seismic rumbling.
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and displacing or disrupting the
ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced
sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides and occasionally, volcanic activity.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event—whether natural or
caused by humans—that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of
geological faults but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear
tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its hypocenter or focus. The epicenter is the point at
ground level directly above the hypocenter.

What is an Epicenter?
Earthquakes can cause huge amounts of death and destruction. For this reason, understanding them is
vitally important. Like all major events, seismic or otherwise, they have to start somewhere.
The epicenter is the place on the Earth's surface under which they start.

Damage from an earthquake

Location of the Epicenter

There are two important locations in any earthquake. The most important is the hypocenter, or focus of the
earthquake. This is the point where the earthquake truly begins, deep under the ground and located at a
tectonic plate boundary, the border between two of the fragments the Earth's crust is broken into. It is
where the plate boundary begins to rupture.

The epicenter on the other hand, is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the hypocenter. This is a
more useful measure for human reporting because it can be shown on a map.
The epicenter is usually the location where the waves from an earthquake are most intense and, as a
result, it is also the location with the most damage. But this isn't always true.
If an earthquake is particularly large, it may run across a large section of the plate boundary. In this case,
the epicenter might only be one of many hotspot locations and damage could be greater elsewhere. In a
2002 Alaskan earthquake of magnitude 7.9, the greatest damage was 330 km away from the epicenter.
The epicenter was at the western edge of the rupture, but more damage occurred at the eastern edge.
 Scientists have come up with a number of ways to figure out the location of an epicenter. The
simplest requires the positioning of seismographs, equipment that measure the strength of ground tremors
and earthquakes around the area.

Here are five of the strongest earthquakes that caused major destruction in the
Philippines.

Bohol earthquake (2013).

A 7.2-magnitude tremor that killed more than 150 people, destroyed century-old churches and affected more
than 3 million families in Central Visayas. [Image source]

Mindoro earthquake (1994).

A total of 1530 houses in the coastal areas of Baco and Calapan, Oriental Mindoro were swept away by
a tsunami generated by a 7.1-magnitude earthquake. The tragedy also killed 78 people.  [Image source]

Casiguran earthquake (1968).

This 7.3-magnitude earthquake killed a total of 270 people and also caused massive landslides and tsunami in
Casiguran, Aurora. Almost 300 people were also killed when the Ruby Tower in Binondo collapsed as a result of
the tremor. [Image source]

Luzon earthquake (1990).

On July 16, 1990, one of the strongest earthquakes to ever strike the country occurred in several areas
of Central Luzon and Cordillera region. This 7.8-magnitude tremor resulted in a total of 1,621 deaths
and serious damage in properties. [Image source]

Moro Gulf earthquake (1976).

With a 7.9 magnitude and almost 3,000 casualties, this Mindanao earthquake is officially the strongest and
deadliest earthquake in Philippine history. Almost 40, 000 people in Regions 9 and 12 were also left homeless
by this tragedy.

Questions:

1. Where did the strongest earthquake occur?

2. What threats do earthquake bring to people and the environment?

3. Graph ( bar graph) the five destructive earthquakes in the Philippines.

https://filipiknow.net/earthquake-in-the-philippines/

https://study.com/academy/practice/quiz-worksheet-finding-the-epicenter-location-of-an-earthquake.html

Lesson 3: Locating an Earthquake Epicenter 60 minutes

Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

During an earthquake, three types of seismic waves are released; Primary (P- wave),
Secondary (S- wave) and long surface waves (L – waves) The first two travel into the earth’s interior ,
while the last one on the surface. These waves travel at different velocities; thus do not arrive at a
seismic recording station at the same time. The farther the recording instrument is from the focus,
the greater the time difference in arrival times of the first P- wave compared to the first S – wave. The
difference in the arrival time will tell us the distance of the earthquake’s focus from the seismic
recording station. However, it does not tell in which direction it came from. Seismic waves are
recorded by a seismograph. The record made is called a seismogram.
 If we have at least three recording stations that can tell how far away from them the
earthquake occurred, the epicentre can be determined using the triangulation method. It uses
distance information from three seismic stations to locate the earthquake epicentre. On a map, circles
are drawn around each seismic station. The radii of the circles are scaled to the estimated distance
from the station to the earthquake. The three circles will intersect at a point that locates the
earthquake.

The next activity will give you a first- hand experience on how to locate earthquake epicenter.

Activity 3. Find the Center

Objective:
Locate the epicenter of an earthquake using the triangulation method.
Materials:
Hypothetical records of earthquake waves
Philippine map
Drawing compass and ruler
Procedure:
1.Study the data showing the difference in the arrival time of P-wave and S- wave on
three seismic recording stations.

Recording station Time difference in the arrival Distance of epicenter from

time of P-wave and S-wave the station (Km)
( Seconds)
Batangas 44.8
Puerto Princesa 32
Davao 38.4
2. Compute the distance of the epicentre from each of the recording stations using this
formula.

D = Td/8 seconds x 100

Where: d = distance(km)

Td = time difference in the arrival time of P-wave and S-wave ( seconds)

This formula is suited because 8 seconds is the interval between the times of arrival of the P-wave and
S-wave at a distance of 100 km.

3. Choose one of the recording stations and measure the computed distance on the
map scale( the scale of the map in Figure 3 is 1.5 cm: 200km). Set your compass for that computed
distance.

4. Center your compass on the station you have chosen. Draw a circle.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the rest of the stations. You should get three circles that
intersect or nearly intersect at a point. This intersection is the epicentre.
 https://www.google.com/search?q=philippine+map&tbm=isch&ved

Figure 8. Map of the Philippines

Guide questions:

8. Where is the epicentre of this hypothetical earthquake?

9. What difficulty will you encounter if you only have data from two recording stations?

In the previous activity, the hypothetical earthquake happened locally, that is why we use the formula
stated in the procedure. But, if the earthquake took place at a far greater distance, seismologists use the
distance –time – graph, similar to the figure below in determining the location of the epicenter.
 Figure 9. Distance-time graph

The distance –time graph above shows that the S-P interval is about 10 minutes.

10. What is the distance of the epicentre from the seismic station?

11.What do you think is the importance of determining the epicenter of an earthquake?

Distribution of Earthquake Epicenters

Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

Earthquakes are always happening somewhere.Large earthquakes occur about once a year. Smaller
earthquakes, such as magnitude 2 earthquakes, occur several hundred times a day. It is estimated that several
million earthquakes take place on Earth each year, but that most are not even detected by instruments as they
occur in remote areas or have very low magnitudes. And if we factor in the ones that can only be recorded by
our instruments –seismographs– but which are so small that no one can feel them, this figure rises to more
than one million tremors recorded annually.

Earthquake is one of the worst natural disasters. It causes a catastrophe. But do you know why do
earthquakes occur? What are its after-effects? Let’s find out more about it.

Determining the location of earthquake epicenters plays a vital role in laying the foundations of plate
tectonics. Let us see how early geologists used the plotted positions of earthquake epicenters throughout the
world in conceptualizing crustal movements.

Activity 4. Let’s Mark the Boundaries

Objectives:

Describe the distribution of earthquake epicenters in the world

Materials:

Map of earthquake distribution

2 pcs plastic sheet used to cover books, same size as the book page
Marking pens (2 different colors)

https://www.google.com/search?q=map+of+earthquake+epicenters&tbm=isch&ved

Figure 11.Map of earthquake distribution (Red, Green and Blue dots represent earthquake epicenters)

Procedure:
1. Study Figure 11 showing the earthquake distribution around the world. Trace the approximate locations of
several earthquake “ clusters” using a marking pen on one of the plastic sheets.

Questions:
12.How are earthquakes distributed on the map?
13.Where are they located?
14Where are there no earthquakes?
15.Why is it important for us to identify areas which are prone to earthquakes?

Readings:

Volcanoes

There are about 300 volcanoes in the Philippines. Twenty-two (22) of these are active while the
larger percentage remains dormant as of the record. The majority of the active volcanoes are
located in the island of Luzon. The six most active volcanoes are Mayon, Hibok-Hibok, Pinatubo,
Taal, Kanlaon and Bulusan. Why are there several volcanoes in the Philippines? Are there countries
without volcanoes? Find out in the next activity.
 Figure

How many active volcanoes are there on Earth?

There are about 1,500 potentially active volcanoes worldwide, aside from the continuous belts of volcanoes on
the ocean floor at spreading centers like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. About 500 of those 1,500 volcanoes have
erupted in historical time. Many of those are located along the Pacific Rim in what is known as the "Ring of
Fire." In the United States, volcanoes in the Cascade Range and Alaska (Aleutian volcanic chain) are part of the
Ring, while Hawaiian volcanoes form over a 'hot spot' near the center of the Ring.

How much of the Earth is volcanic?

More than 80 percent of the Earth's surface--above and below sea level--is of volcanic origin. Gaseous
emissions from volcanic vents over hundreds of millions of years formed the Earth's earliest oceans and
atmosphere, which supplied the ingredients vital to evolve and sustain life. Over geologic eons, countless
volcanic eruptions have produced mountains, plateaus, and plains, which subsequently eroded and weathered
into majestic landscapes and formed fertile soils.
Top five largest Volcanoes in the world.
Mauna Loa, Hawaii
Mauna Loa is the biggest volcano on Earth. It is 9,170 meters tall. It is a shield volcano. Mauna Loa shares
is a hot spot in the Pacific plate.

Mount Fuji, Tokyo, Japan

Mount Fuji has a symmetric cone and for a few months its summit is covered in snow. It is an active
volcano. Mount Fuji is a stratovolcano. It is 3,776 meters tall. It is the tallest peak in Japan. It lies on the
Eurasia tectonic plate. The lava from Mount Fuji's eruption is basaltic.

Mayon Volcano, Albay, Philippines

Mayon Volcano is an active stratovolcano in the Philippines. It has steep slopes that form a symmetrical
classic volcano. It is 8,081 feet tall. It is located on a convergent boundary between the Eurasian and
Philippine plate. The lava from Mayon Volcano is pyroclastic.

Mount St. Helens, Washington, USA

Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980 and was one of the most devastating eruption in the USA. It is an active
stratovolcano located in Skamania County, Washington. Mount St. Helens is part of the Cascade Mountain
range. It's 8,366 feet tall. It consists of lava rock interlayered with ash, pumice, and other deposits. The
mountain includes layers of basalt and andesite through which several domes of dacite lava have erupted.
Mount St Helens is on the plate. 

Popocatépetl Volcano, Mexico

Popocatépetl is one of the most active volcanoes in Mexico. In Nahuatl, Popocatépetl means smoking
mountain. It is an active stratovolcano and is 5,426 meters tall. It is on the North American plate. Andesite
magma is consisted inside this volcano.

Mount Taal
The world's smallest active volcano is probably Mount Taal, located near the city of Tagaytay
in the Philippines. It is a positively gargantuan 508 meters (1,660 feet) high, more than thirty-
nine times the height of Cuexcomate, its Lilliputian cousin .
The most active volcanoes in the world

Kilauea volcano on Hawaii is the world's most active volcano, followed by Etna in Italy and
Piton de la Fournaise on La Réunion island. 

What are some benefits of volcanic eruptions?

Over geologic time, volcanic eruptions and related processes have directly and indirectly
benefited mankind:

 Volcanic materials ultimately break down and weather to form some of the most fertile
soils on Earth, cultivation of which has produced abundant food and fostered
civilizations.
 The internal heat associated with young volcanic systems has been harnessed to
produce geothermal energy.
 Most of the metallic minerals mined in the world--such as copper, gold, silver, lead, and
zinc--are associated with magmas found deep within the roots of extinct volcanoes.

Volcanic hazards

There are two classes of volcanic hazards, direct and indirect. Direct hazards are forces that directly
kill or injure people, or destroy property or wildlife habitat. Indirect hazards are volcanism-induced
environmental changes that lead to distress, famine, or habitat destruction.

Type Description Risk

Respiration problems for some

individuals
Tephra Small particles of volcanic rock emitted into the
emissions atmosphere
Significant climate cooling and famine

Damage to aircraft

Climate cooling leading to crop failure

The emission of gases before, during, and after and famine
Gas emissions
an eruption
In some cases, widespread poisoning

A very hot (several 100°C) mixture of gases and

Pyroclastic Extreme hazard — destroys anything
volcanic tephra that flows rapidly (up to 100s of
density current in the way
km/h) down the side of a volcano

Thick tephra coverage of areas close to

Vertical fall of tephra in the area surrounding an the eruption (km to 10s of km)
Pyroclastic fall
eruption
Collapsed roofs

A flow of mud and debris down a channel  Severe risk of destruction for anything
Lahar leading away from a volcano, triggered either within the channel — lahar mud flows
by an eruption or a severe rain event can move at 10s of km/h

The failure of part of a volcano, either due to an

Sector collapse/ Severe risk of destruction for anything
eruption or for some other reason, leading to the
debris avalanche in the path of the debris avalanche
failure of a large portion of the volcano

Lava flow The flow of lava away from a volcanic vent People and infrastructure at risk, but
 lava flows tend to be slow (km/h) and
are relatively easy to avoid

https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/4-4-volcanic-hazards/

https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapTour/index.html?appid=d9eabc7a3c64462bb964d1d4bbd765de

https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-are-some-benefits-volcanic-eruptions?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-
news_science_products

Activity 5

1. Study the map of active volcanoes in the figure below.

https://www.google.com/search?q=map+of+active+volcanoes&tbm=isch&ved

Figure 13. Map of active volcanoes ( Red areas represent the presence of volcanoes)

16. How are volcanoes distributed?

17. Where are they located?

18. Based on the map, mention a country that is unlikely to experience a volcanic eruption?

2. On the second plastic sheet, sketch the approximate locations of several volcanoes using a marking pen.

3. Place the earthquake plastic sheet over the volcano plastic sheet.

12. Compare the location of majority of earthquake epicenters with the location of volcanoes around
the world.

Lesson 6. Mountain Ranges

Readings

A Mountain Range is a sequential chain or series of mountains or hills with similarity in form, structure and
alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny. There are five major Mountain Ranges of
the World which are discussed below:

1. The Himalayan Mountain Range

The Himalayas or Himalaya is form of a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian
subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. It is young fold mountain of the tertiary period, which was folded over
Tethys Sea due to the inter-continental collision. It extends for about 2500 km between Indus and Brahmaputra
gorges from west to east in an arc-shaped manner. 

2. The Alps Mountain Range

The Alps Mountain Range is the highest and most extensive mountain range system of Europe, stretching
approximately 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) across eight Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Switzerland,
Italy, Monaco, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, and Slovenia. It plays an important role in the determination of
the climate of Europe.

3. The Atlas Mountain Range

The Atlas Mountains Range stretches around 2,500 km (1,600 mi) through Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It
separates the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara Desert and inhabited by Berber
populations. It was formed during the Precambrian period.

4.The Andes Mountain Range

 The Andes or Andean Mountain Range is the longest continental mountain range in the world,
stretching approximately 7,000 km (4,300 mi). It is formed by a continuous highland along the western edge of
South America.

5. The Rockies Mountain Range

The Rocky Mountain Range situated in western North America, stretches more than 3,000 miles (4,800
km) from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern
United States. It is protected by public parks and forest lands and is a popular tourist destination, especially for
hiking, camping, mountaineering, fishing, hunting, mountain biking, skiing, and snowboarding.

Activity 6. Distribution of Mountain Ranges

Study figure 14, the dark red portions indicate mountain ranges of the world.
 https://www.google.com/search?q=map+of+mountain+ranges&tbm=isch&ved
Figure 14.Mountain Ranges of the world

19. How will you relate the distribution of mountain ranges with the distribution of earthquake epicenters
and volcanoes?

20. What do you think is the basis of scientists in dividing the Earth’s lithosphere into several plates?

` Plate tectonics

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven large plates and the
movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth's lithosphere, since tectonic processes began
on Earth between 3.3 and 3.5 billion years ago. From the deepest ocean trench to the tallest
mountain, plate tectonics explains the features and movement of Earth's surface in the present and
the past. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along plate
boundaries in zones that may be anything from a few kilometres to a few hundred kilometres wide. 

Name: Date:

Tectonic Plates
1. 

The map shows the major tectonic plates. Locate the boundary line between the North
American plate and Eurasian plate as well as the boundary line between the South
American plate and African plate. Which statement best describes the processes
occurring along those boundary lines? 

a. uplift and mountain formation

b. volcano formation due to mantle hotspots
c. subduction and recycling of crustal material
d. seafloor spreading and formation of crustal material
2. 
                               plate movement means to move apart.
a. Convergent
b. Divergent
c. Subduction
d. Transform
3. 
The result of plate movement can be seen at                                 .
a. abyssal plains
b. ocean margins
c. plate centers
d. plate boundaries
4. 
                               plate movement means to slide alongside one another.
a. Convergent
b. Divergent
c. Transform
d. Subduction
5. 
                               plate movement means to move together.
a. Convergent
b. Divergent
c. Transform
d. Subduction
6. 
The Andes Mountain Range and Andean Volcanic Belt line the western side of
South America. Based on this information and the map, which statement best
describes the plate boundary interaction along the west coast of South America? 

a. The Nazca plate is subducting under the South American plate.

b. The South American plate is subducting under the Nazca plate.
c. The Nazca plate and South American plate interact along a transform
boundary.
d. The South American plate and Nazca plate interact along a divergent
boundary.
7. 
Which feature is associated with a continental-continental plate boundary?
a. a subduction zone
b. a mountain range
c. a deep-sea trench
d. a volcano
8. 
This tectonic process is associated with convection currents in the mantle that
occurs when the weight of an elevated ridge pushes an ocean plate toward a
subduction zone.
a. ridge push
b. convergent boundary
c. slab pull
d. transform boundary
9. 
What is the largest tectonic plate?
a. Scotia plate
b. Pacific plate
c. Eurasian plate
d. Antarctic plate
10. 
Two tectonic plates are diverging. Which is the most reasonable estimate of the
rate of divergence?
a. 3 mm/yr
b. 3 cm/yr
c. 3 m/yr
d. 3 km/yr

Features of the Seafloor

Before scientists invented sonar, many people believed the ocean floor was a completely flat
surface. Now we know that the seafloor is far from flat. In fact, the tallest mountains and
deepest canyons are found on the ocean floor; far taller and deeper than any landforms found
on the continents. The same tectonic forces that create geographical features like volcanoes
and mountains on land create similar features at the bottom of the oceans.

Look at the figure below. If you follow the ocean floor out from the beach at the top left, the
seafloor gently slopes along the continental shelf. The sea floor then drops off steeply along
the continental slope, the true edge of the continent. The smooth, flat regions that make up
40% of the ocean floor are the abyssal plain. Running through all the world’s oceans is a
continuous mountain range, called the mid-ocean ridge(“submarine ridge” in Figure 14.23).
The mid-ocean ridge is formed where tectonic plates are moving apart from each other,
allowing magma to seep out in the space where the plates pulled apart. The mid-ocean ridge
system is 80,000 kilometers in total length and mostly underwater except for a few places like
Iceland. Other underwater mountains include undersea volcanoes (called seamounts), which
may rise more than 1,000 meters above the ocean floor. Those that reach the surface
become volcanic islands, such as the Hawaiian Islands. Deep oceanic trenchesare created
where a tectonic plate dives beneath (subducts) another plate.
Mountains are awesome features of the Earth's surface. It
seems to us like they're permanent features, but like all Earth
features, they're born, evolve, and are eroded away. Typically a
mountain will rise at least 1,000 ft. above sea level. Small
mountains below 1,000 ft. are usually called hills.There are four
main categories of mountains.The first type are volcanic
mountains. These form from volcanic eruptions, Dome
mountains almost similar to a volcanic mountain that are bent
upward and usually isolated and may not belong to a mountain
range. Another type of mountains are fault block mountains.
Fault blocks are basically large pieces of Earth's crust that have
been twisted, and distorted, and upended, and vary in
the continental crust. These may be a combination of a plateau
and a mountain.The largest and most complex type of
mountains are folded mountains. These comprise all the world's
major mountain ranges like the Alps, and the Urals, and the
Himalayas, and the Rockies, and the Appalachians.
https://www.google.com/search?ei=Q4MJX8PeBpnm-
AaSqpL4BA&q=what+are+the+three+major+types+of+mountain&oq=what+are+the+three+major+types+
of+mountain&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQAzICCAA6BwgAEEcQsAM6BggAEBYQHjoICAAQ6gIQjwE6BAgAEEM6B
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ab&ved=0ahUKEwiDjJu57sTqAhUZM94KHRKVBE8Q4dUDCAw&uact=5
https://www.ducksters.com/science/earth_science/mountain_geology.php

These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's crust (tectonic

plates). Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts
of the orogenic process of mountain building.
Acitivty:

Mountains provide a unique habitat for animals and vegetation, supporting biodiversity. They
also provide recreation for humans, via sports and natural beauty. Mountains can be a source of
fresh water. Mountains provide for the freshwater needs of more than half of humanity, and are,
in effect, the water towers of the world. ... Mountain ecosystems are important for biological
diversity, particularly in the tropics and warmer temperate latitudes.

Mountain landscapes are particularly fragile and susceptible to change and degradation.

Landslides, avalanches, lava flows, earthquakes, torrents and rock falls can alter the landscape
unexpectedly. https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lei=cowJX9KbI5CHoASLu4noAw&q=negative
%20impacts%20of
%20mountains&ved=2ahUKEwjSnL2a98TqAhWQA4gKHYtdAj0QsKwBKAF6BAgPEAI&biw=1366&bih=608
 Most mountains are formed by the movement of
________.
What type of mountains are formed when magma erupts all
the way to the surface of the Earth?
 Plate Boundaries

The places on earth where most earthquakes originate or mountains and volcanoes were formed mark
the boundaries of each lithospheric plate. Each plate is moving relative to each other, causing geologic
events to happen along their boundaries.

Let’s take a look at the relative motion of the crustal plates in the figure below.

Figure 15 Map showing the relative motion of plates (arrows indicate the direction of motion)

Types of Plate Boundaries

Studying plate boundaries is important because along these boundaries deformation of the
lithosphere is happening. These geologic events have a great impact not only on the environment but also
on us.
There are three distinct types of plate boundaries, which are differentiated by the type of
movement they exhibit.
The first type of plate boundary is termed divergent boundary wherein plates move apart,
creating a zone of tension. Can you identify adjacent plates depicting divergent boundary on Figure 15?
Let’s take the case of the Philippine plate and the Eurasian plate. You will notice that the two
plates are moving toward each other. This is an example of zone where plates collide, and this second
type of plate boundary is called convergent plate boundary.
The third type is the transform fault boundary where plates slide or grind past each other
without diverging or converging. The best example of this is the San Andreas Fault which is bounded by
the North American plate and the Pacific plate.

Activity 7: A. THE MOVES

Objectives

1. Classify plate boundaries according to their movements;

2. Compare the three types of boundaries.

Procedure

1. From the given pictures of plate boundaries examine the movement of each and
 classify them as convergent, divergent, and transform.

A. ______________________________________________

B. ________________________________________________

C. ______________________________________________________

Analysis
Q21.Based on the movement as shown in the pictures, how did you classify the plates as
convergent, divergent, and transform?

Q22.How would you describe the movements of the following:

a. Convergent?
b. Divergent?
c. Transform?
Q23.What are the similarities and differences of the different plate boundaries? Show
your answers using a Venn diagram below.
 CONVERGENT DIVERGENT

TRANSFORM

Activity 7.B Based on figure 15, Name the plates where convergent, divergent and transform fault
boundaries are found.

Activity 7. C Plate Boundaries

Readings:

WHAT IS HAPPENING AT SURIGAO DEL NORTE?

At 10:03 PM on 10 February 2017, Friday, a strong earthquake of magnitude 6.7
shook the island of Mindanao. The epicenter is located 16 km offshore northwest of
Surigao City, Surigao Strait at a depth of 10 km. The earthquake was generated by the
movement of Surigao segment of the Philippine Fault. Small-magnitude earthquakes
followed afterwards, and as of 4:00 PM of 11 February 2017, 101 aftershocks have
been recorded by the PHIVOLCS seismic monitoring network.
Why do earthquakes occur in Surigao del Norte?
Eastern Mindanao, including Surigao del Norte, is one of the seismically active
areas in the country because of the Philippine Fault and Philippine Trench, which are
the main earthquake generators that can affect the area. In addition, there are other
local faults which can be sources of small- to large-magnitude earthquakes.
 The Philippine Trench is the zone where the Philippine Sea Plate (PSP) subducts
beneath the Philippine Mobile Belt (PMB) between offshore Bicol Peninsula and
southeast Mindanao. Convergence between the PSP and the PMB occurs at the rate
of 8 cm/year.
Aside from strong ground shaking, what other seismic hazards are life-
threatening?

Landslides, rock falls, and other types of mass movements may occur in
mountainous or hilly areas. Liquefaction, manifested by sand boils or lateral spread
may affect low-lying, water-logged, sandy areas at the banks of rivers. Tsunami is not
expected from the kind of movement of the Philippine Fault - Surigao segment. The
tsunami threat for Surigao del Norte would come from the movement of the Philippine
Trench, located east of the province.
What should be done by the affected communities?

People are reminded to be cautious of structures visibly weakened or with signs of

damage by the 10 February 2017, as these may be further damaged by aftershocks. In
case of houses and other buildings with visible damage, it is best to contact the
Municipal/City Engineering Office for advice. Engineers from the local government,
other agencies and organizations should inspect buildings and other infrastructures to
determine their integrity, and recommend appropriate actions to concerned affected
groups or individuals. Slopes should be checked for tension cracks that may have
resulted from the strong ground shaking. Tension cracks may make slopes more
susceptible to landslides. These areas should be avoided.
The best course of action is preparedness. In case of another felt earthquake, it
is recommended that people protect themselves by doing the “duck, cover and hold”.
In homes and offices, heavy furniture should be strapped to the walls, and appliances
be secured to prevent them from toppling and causing injuries to persons.
What is the role of PHIVOLCS?
PHIVOLCS operates and maintains a network of 92 seismic stations spread
across the Philippines. Data from the seismic stations are used to determine the
location, magnitude and other characteristics of the earthquakes generated.

Analysis

Q24.Illustrate how the involved tectonic plates move in a short bond paper. Label the plates involved and
classify the plate boundary.

Q25.Name the possible threats posed by the movement of tectonic plates based on the
articles/reading materials
Q26. Identify possible survival techniques

https://www.google.com/search?
q=plate+boundaries&tbm=isch&hl=en&chips=q:plate+boundaries,g_1:convergent:aOVJC7fnOJo
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&biw=1349&bih=657#imgrc=HeUi3vjMt9VxIM
https://www.google.com/search?
q=activity+session+5+consemino&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwi9xfqUwaPqAhXdwosBHZBZB6MQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=activity+session+5+consemino&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoECAAQQzoFCAAQsQM6AggA
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0NJgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nsAEA&sclient=img&ei=mAb4Xr2ZB92Fr7wPkLOdmAo&bih=657&
biw=1366&hl=en#imgrc=DvUlbT0F7Tj6pM

After learning the different types of plate boundaries, let us now explore the various effects of plate
tectonics on the earth’s lithosphere.

Activity 8. Head – On Collision

Part A: Converging Continental Plate and Oceanic plate ( C-O)

Objectives:

a. Explain the processes that occur along convergent boundaries

b. Determine the consequences of colliding plates

Procedure:
a. Study Figure 16 showing a cross-sectional diagram of plates that are converging,
and answer the questions that follow:

Q27.What type of plate is Plate A? What about Plate B? Why do you say so?
Q28. Describe what happens to plate A as it collides with plate B? Why?
Q29. What do you think may happen to the leading edge of plate A as it continues to move
downward? Why?
Q29. What is formed on top of plate B?
Q30.As the plates continue to grind against each other, what other geologic event could take place?
Converging Oceanic Crust Leading Plate and Continental Crust Leading Plate The previous activity depicts what
happens during collision of two plates; one has continental edge while the other has an oceanic edge. From the
diagram, it is clear that this event gives rise to the formation of a volcanic arc near the edge of a continental
leading plate. The reason for this is because the denser oceanic crust (Plate A) undergoes what we call
subduction process or the bending of the crust towards the mantle. Since the mantle is hotter than the crust,
the tendency is, the subducted crust melt forming magma. Addition of volatile material such as water will
cause the magma to become less dense, hence allowing it to rise and reach the crust once again and causing
volcanic activities on the continental leading plate. For the oceanic crust, one important geologic feature is
formed, and that is the trench. Also called submarine valleys, ocean trenches are the deepest part of the
ocean. One of the deepest is the Philippine trench with a depth of 10 540 meters. Another subsequent effect of
the continuous grinding of plates against each other is the occurrence of earthquakes. The subduction of plate
can cause earthquakes at varying depths. Most parts of the world experience occasional shallow earthquakes –
where the focus is within 60 km of the Earth’s surface. Of the total energy released by earthquakes, 85% comes
from shallow earthquakes. Meanwhile, about 12% of energy originates from intermediate earthquakes or
those quakes with a focal depth range of 60 to 300 km. Lastly, are the deep earthquakes whose origin is more
than 300 km to 700 km below the Earth’s surface. 18 Activity 3 Head-On Collision Part B: Convergence of Two
Oceanic Plates Procedure: 1. Study Figure 11. It shows a cross-section of two converging oceanic plates. 2.
Using your knowledge gained from the previous activity, identify the geologic events or features resulting from
this collision. www.marinebio.net Figure 11. Cross-sectional diagram of converging oceanic plates Q21. What
are the geologic processes/events that will occur because of this plate movement? Q22. What geologic
features might form at the surface of Plate A? Q23. If the edge of Plate A suddenly flicks upward, a large
amount of water may be displaced. What could be formed at the surface of the ocean? Ocean Water Oceanic
Plate B Oceanic Plate A 19 Convergence of Oceanic Plates Like the first type of convergent boundaries
discussed earlier, converging oceanic plates will cause formation of trenches, and these trenches will become
sources of earthquakes. Underwater earthquakes, especially the stronger ones, can generate tsunamis. The
Japanese term for “harbor wave,” tsunami is a series of ocean waves with very long wavelengths (typically
hundreds ofkilometers) caused by large-scale disturbances of the ocean. The leading edge of the subducted
plate will eventually reach the mantle causing it to melt and turn into magma. The molten material will rise to
the surface creating a volcanic island arc parallel to the trench. Volcanic island arc is a chain of volcanoes
position in an arc shape as seen in figure below.