Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics: Prepared By: Ms. Elijah Joy R. Tuazon
Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics: Prepared By: Ms. Elijah Joy R. Tuazon
Module Objectives:
• identify the social goals and the socially acceptable means of achieving
these goals (UCSP11/12BMSIh-17);
This belief, however, became less popular during the 20th century as more
psychologists explained through empirical studies that changes in human
behavior are closely attributed to learning. For instance, the Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov noticed that dogs salivate in the presence of food
and when exposed to anything associated to feeding. If dogs could learn by
association and conditioning, then people would surely have an even greater
capacity to do so.
Enculturation
Identity Formation
On the one hand, norms are culturally determined rules that guide people
regarding what is right, wrong, proper, or improper. Norms create
predictability in daily affairs and interactions, making it easier to live with
other members of society (Newman, 2012). These norms are fundamental to
the establishment of social order in any society (Newman, 2012).
Norms did not exist out of thin air. They were initially designed and created
by people who benefitted from their existence or suffered from their absence
(Coleman, 2000). Through the practice of such norms, order was established
—an order which allows those who created the norms to benefit from the
resulting status quo.
People are subjected to norms when they become part of society. As such,
they are also subjected to the sanctions and rewards of a society’s norms—
whether rewards for adherence to a norm or punishment for a violation of a
norm (Coleman, 2000). On the other hand, values are standards people use
to determine desirable goals and outcomes (Hewitt and Hewitt, 1986 in
Newman, 2012). Values are criteria on which people base their judgments
regarding behaviors and decisions. In the Philippine setting, values are often
used as parameters in separating what is considered normal and moral from
taboo and predatory.
Some examples of Filipino habits and practices that are considered normal
and moral include the following: respect for elders; caring for one's parents
during old age; praying the rosary and attending mass during Sundays (for
Catholics); observing the five pillars of Islam (for Muslims); and a sense of
volunteerism during emergencies and disasters in the community.
In the Philippines, there are two most popular norms. First is the norm of
appropriateness and wearing decent and appropriate clothes for a particular
occasion or event. For example, do not wear shorts when you attend mass or
church services. Instead, wear decent clothes like a Sunday dress. Second is
the norm of tact and courtesy. When somebody makes a mistake or slips in
his or her words and actions, we do not laugh or make fun of the person in
order not to embarrass him or her and, at the same time, express our
respect and courtesy. Filipinos are also noted for their excellent handling of
human relations because they significantly value personhood and human
goodness. On the other hand, the two most important values that Filipinos
poses are: first, value of industry and, secondly, utang na loob (reciprocity or
debt of gratitude). Value of industry is shown when Filipinos take pride in
their work because they toiled hard for it, regardless whether in some
instances, they fail along the way. Filipinos credit success to love of one's
work and hardwork.
Meanwhile, utang na loob is shown through good will and thoughtfulness and
being mindful and helpful to someone during trying times. For Filipinos,
utang na loob cannot be repaid by money or any treasure. Utang na loob is a
priceless value that sustains and strengthens human relations beyond the
individual, family, society, and even nation.
Values are created and shaped in the community through time. It does not
happen overnight. As standards to determine desirable outcomes and goals,
values are experimented by a particular society to check its relevance and
appropriateness to existing norms and laws. Acceptable and widely practiced
values (as well as norms) are called conventions. Some conventions become
dogmatic through time. For example, Filipino religiosity goes beyond
spirituality, which also include facets of fanaticism, such as dancing and
shouting on the streets, walking barefoot on fire, and wearing of amulets to
get rid of evil spirits and diseases.
Every person can simultaneously hold various statuses at any point in time.
For instance, a person can be a sibling, student, citizen of a country, and fan
of basketball all at the same time. (Kottak, 2000; Newman, 2012). In a
specific situation, when a person’s different statuses require him or her to
perform different roles, his or her actions will reflect which status is more
important in that certain circumstance at that given time. (Newman, 2012).
However, there are times when people find it difficult to decide which of their
different statuses is the most important. This is especially true when multiple
statuses provide numerous benefits to the individual. Thus, role conflict
occurs when two statuses, both applicable to the situation, require distinct
and divergent roles from the individual. For example, being a politician is a
prestigious status because it gives recognition to the individual as a public
leader, who is respected and obeyed by his or her constituents. Nonetheless,
he or she is also expected to be a public servant who is willing to share his or
her resources to his or her constituents, so he or she could maintain his or
her status and power in society.
The two types of status are ascribed and achieved. Ascribed status is given
at birth or assigned later in life (Kottak, 2000; Newman, 2012). Some
examples of ascribed status include age, sex, ethnicity, and membership in a
family, among others. Meanwhile, achieved status is acquired willfully and
consciously through effort, talent, decisions, and accomplishments (Kottak,
2000; Newman, 2012). Some examples of achieved status include being
someone’s girlfriend or boyfriend, being the top student in one’s class, and
being a black belter in karate.
Also, a person's ascribed status may help achieve or hinder one to acquire
an achieved status. In earlier times, for example, being a woman is simply
equated with the craft of homemaking; thus, women were deprived of the
right to education. In ancient Greece, women were also prohibited to enter
politics and the military.
Assessment
___________2. Applying the theory of the looking glass self, likes and reactions
that people gather in their social media accounts sometimes make them feel
valuable they are to other people.
___________4. Statuses and roles are directly related to each other. The status
you acquired corresponds a certain set of roles.
Mores are strong norms that are regarded as morally significant and
violations of them are considered a serious matter (Robertson, 1987: 62).
The word “mores” originated from a Roman term that means the “most
respected and sacred custom.” For instance, an individual who walks down
the street wearing nothing is considered violating one of the most important
universal mores—the requirement that people should cover their genitals
and buttocks in public. In a way, this applies to most modern societies where
decency is equated with appropriate clothing. But in the pre-modern world
society valued nakedness as a manifestation of beauty and even strength. As
a whole, mores are crucial in the maintenance of a decent and orderly
society.
Even within a culture itself the definition of a deviant behavior may change
over time. For example, in Great Britain, the English mathematician Alan
Turing was tried for homosexual acts and even prescribed drugs to possibly
“cure” his homosexuality, considered a disease in Europe then. After his
death, however, Turing was bestowed with numerous laurels for his
monumental work in World War II. Years later, the British government even
apologized for prosecuting Turing for being a deviant and esteemed him as
role model for the British youth.
First, it exists only in relation to cultural norms. Any thought or action cannot
be considered deviant unless it is correlated to a particular norm; and a norm
varies from one society to another. For instance, traditional villages in
Southern Italy, particularly Sicily, support the use of physical violence to
avenge the insult for the honor of one’s family. In this case, vengeance is
regarded a norm and not a deviance. But this is not the case in the US and
the rest of Europe. What is considered an honorable ac in Sicily will result to
arrest and prosecution in other parts of the world.
Second, people become deviant as others define them that way. In short,
being deviant is in the eye of the beholder and largely depends on the
perception, preconditioned notion, and definition of the situation of other
people. For instance, a Korean celebrity like Rain can dress like a female on
stage to the praise of adorning fans, but another man doing the same thing
in another place can be branded homosexual or receive a negative response.
Third, both norms and the way events are defined are related to patterns of
social power. This idea has been advanced by Karl Marx who considered
cultural norms, especially the laws, are likely to protect and uphold the
interest of the powerful at the expense of the powerless. For example, a theft
in a soap factory is frequently blamed by the owner to workers, whom he
looked down as possible perpetrator of a crime. In the same way, displaced
and homeless individuals who marched on the streets denouncing
government’s failure to grant them decent shelters are likely be considered
deviants by those in power, charging them of lawlessness and disturbing
peace.
Labeling theory. This theory states how members of society label others,
whether they are deviant or not. (Newman, 2012). People label others as
deviant when they defy or do not conform to social norms. Non-conformity
provides offensive signals to holders of norms; non-conformity is often
tantamount to disagreement and disapproval.
Laws. Laws are formal codes of conduct that are met with negative
sanctions (i.e. punishment) when violated (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, and
McBride, 2008). Laws are meant to guide the daily lives of members of
society by providing clear definitions of relationships among individuals,
including expectations on how people should behave in particular contexts.
Importantly, the law dictates to whom authority is given. Only those who
exercise authority are recognized by the members of society to practice
coercion in the exercise of sanctions (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, and McBride,
2008). Lastly, laws change as well. Old laws can be revised or discarded
according to the changing needs of a society. For example, the Hammurabi
laws codified for Babylonian citizenry underwent revisions in the succeeding
laws imposed by Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians in the Mesopotamian
city-states.
Whether the individual conforms to the norms imposed by the majority of the
society or otherwise, he or she should be given the appropriate space to
express himself or herself and possibly participate in democratic processes.
Societies through the years have crafted political or legal mechanisms to
protect its members. One of these mechanisms is the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948, which states in its Preamble that “the
inherent dignity” of all members of the human family is “the foundation of
freedom, justice, and peace in the world.”
Thereafter, the idea of human dignity has been at the heart of the major
human rights instruments, beginning with the two international covenants on
human rights adopted in 1966: the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (ICECSR), as well as in most treaties banning torture,
slavery, inhuman and degrading treatments, and discrimination of all sorts
(Andorno).
All human beings are “free and equal in dignity and rights” (UDHR, Article 1).
This means that all people have equal basic rights. Discrimination, racism,
and unjust treatment of different people directly oppose the concept of
human dignity and equality.
“These rights derive from the inherent dignity of the human person” (ICCPR
and ICESCR, Preambles). This means that basic human rights are inherent to
every person. Thus, basic human rights cannot be taken away by authorities
or governments. In the Philippines, the government has devised various
mechanisms to advance human dignity and protect the rights of every
Filipino. In fact, a department has been instituted to perform its mandate to
put forward the common good of every Filipino.
The Philippines also follows international human rights laws and conventions
and the UDHR, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR) and the Convention Against Torture (CAT) and Other Cruel,
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
(http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2013/ra_10368_2013.html).
Moreover, the Philippine government has also passed laws that ensure the
protection of human rights of people. These laws include the Expanded Anti-
Trafficking in Persons Act of 2012 or Republic Act (RA) No. 10364 and Human
Rights Victims Reparation and Recognition Act of 2013 or Republic Act (RA)
No. 10368, among others.
RA 10368, on the other hand, “provides for the the reparation and
recognition of victims of human rights violations” during the dictatorship of
Ferdinand E. Marcos, from September 21, 1972 to February 25, 1986
(http://www.gov.ph/2013/02/25/republic-act-no-10368/). This law recognizes
the “heroism and sacrifices” of Martial Law victims who were tortured,
summary executed, and experienced enforced or involuntary disappearance,
among others. Aiming to restore the dignity and honor of Martial Law victims,
RA 10368 acknowledges the moral and legal duty of the government to give
reparations to the victims and/ or their families “for the deaths, injuries,
sufferings, deprivations and damages they suffered under the Marcos
regime” (http://www.gov.ph/2013/02/25/ republic-act-no-10368/).
A good example is the popular notion that “poverty breeds crime.” This
presupposes that the very existence of poor people within the social
structure leads to deviance. In the Philippines, for instance, lawlessness is
often incorrectly blamed to poor people because the prevailing social
conditions force them to commit crimes in order for them to meet their daily
needs (for example, paying bills and buying food).
Merton’s theory was further expanded by the study of Richard Cloward and
Lloyd Ohlin who pointed out that the criminal type of deviance can result not
only from the lack of culturally approved means to achieve success but also
from the availability of unconventional means to do so. For instance, a youth
who has substantial opportunities to achieve success through legitimate
means can be expected to do so, while those who have relatively more
illegitimate opportunities are likely to use them. Thus, Cloward and Ohlin
attempted to explain delinquency in terms of the relative opportunity
structure available to various categories of the youth.
Assessment