TED 221 – MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE I (2 Credits)

Lecture Note Prepared by

MUSHAHID MAGAJI DANSARAI

Metalwork Technology Department

Federal College of Education (Technical) Bichi PMB 3473 Kano

Course Outline

• Safety precautions in machine shop

• Drilling machines – types and operations

• Power saws – types and operations

• The features and working principles of center lathe machine

• Turning between centres

• Heat treatment

• Drilling and lathe tool sharpening

• Taper turning

• Screw cutting on the centre lathe machine

• Turning of circular and eccentric components

• Cutting fluids – coolants and lubricants

• Components production

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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN MACHINES SHOP

General Safety Guidelines

1. Do not attempt to remove foreign objects from the eye or body. Report to the clinic for

medical treatment. If chemicals get in the eye(s), wash eye(s) for 15 minutes in an open flow

of water before proceeding for medical treatment.

2. Avoid excessive use of compressed air to blow dirt or chips from machinery to avoid

scattering chips. Never use compressed air guns to clean clothing, hair, or aim the gun at

another person.

3. Machines must be shut off when cleaning, repairing, or oiling.

4. Do not wear loose clothing, jewelry, gloves, etc. around moving or rotating machinery. Long

hair must be tied back or covered to keep it away from moving machinery. Hand protection

in the form of suitable gloves should be used for handling hot objects, glass or sharp-edged

items.

5. Wear appropriate clothing for the job (i.e. do not wear short sleeve shirts or short pants

when welding).

6. Do not work in the shop if you are tired or in a hurry - this almost always ruins the work, and

often results in injury.

7. Never indulge in horseplay in the shop areas.

8. All machines must be operated with all required guards and shields in place.

9. Remove chips and shavings with a brush, hook, or special tool from the work area. o Never

use your hands to clean cuttings - they are sharp!

10. Keep your fingers clear of the point of operation of machines by using special tools or

devices, such as, push sticks, hooks, pliers, etc. Never use a rag near moving machinery.

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11. Use a soft faced hammer. A hard hammer should not be used to strike a hardened tool or

any machine part.

12. Keep the floor around machines clean, dry and free from trip hazards. Do not allow chips to

accumulate.

13. Think through the ENTIRE job before starting. Ask for help if you have questions.

14. Before starting a machine, always check it for correct setup and always check to see if

machine is clear by operating it manually, if possible.

15. Do not drink alcoholic beverages before or during work in the machine shop area. Do not

bring food or snacks into the shop.

16. Check the hazardous materials data sheets for any specific precautions to be taken while

working with a material. Also, ask the shop personnel before cutting any unusual material.

17. Heavy sanding, sawing, grinding and painting should only be done in well-ventilated areas.

Use face masks.

18. Use the PPE that is required for the chemical you may use.

19. Follow precautions when working with solvents, paints, adhesives or other chemicals.

20. Check the power cords and plugs on portable tools for damage before using them.

The Feature and Working Principle of a Centre Lathe Machine

INTRODUCION

Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world. It is

commonly known as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a lathe is to

remove metal from a job to give it the required shape and size. An engine lathe is the most basic

and simplest form of the lathe. Some of the operation that can be perform on a lathe machine

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include turning drilling, reaming, boring, taper turning, knurling, screw thread cutting, grinding

operation etc.

Furthermore, classification of lathe machine include the following the speed lathe, Centre or

engine lathe, bench lathe, tool room lathe, special purpose lathe and automatic lathe machine.

CENTRE LATHE MACHINE

Centre Lathe is referred to as Engine Lathe machine. This lathe is the important member of the

lathe family and is the most widely used. It comprises of the following basic parts; bed,

headstock, tool post, tailstock, speed liver, carriage, feed mechanism and thread cutting

mechanism. Its headstock is robust in construction and contains additional mechanism for

driving the lathe spindle at multiple speeds. The center lathe can feed the cutting tool both in

cross and longitudinal direction with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a carriage, feed

rod and lead screw.

Moreover, Centre lathes or engine lathes are classified according to methods of transmitting

power to the machine. The power may be transmitted by means of belt, electric motor or

through gears.

OPERATIONS PERFORMED IN A LATHE MACHINE

(A) Operations, which can be performed in a lathe either by holding the work-piece

between Centers or by a chuck are:

1. Straight turning

2. Shoulder turning

3. Taper turning

4. Chamfering

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 5. Eccentric turning

6. Thread cutting

7. Facing

8. Forming

9. Filing

10. Polishing

11. Grooving

12. Knurling

13. Spinning

14. Spring winding

(B) Operations which are performed by holding the work by a chuck or a faceplate or an

angle plate are:

1. Undercutting

2. Parting-off

3. Internal thread cutting

4. Drilling

5. Reaming 6. Boring

7. Counter boring 8. Taper boring

9. Tapping

(C) Operations which are performed by using special lathe attachments are:

1. Milling 2. Grinding

1.3 COMPONENTS OF CENTRE LATHE MACHINE

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 The figure below gives a detail diagram of a center lathe machine:

i. BED:

The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are mounted. It is

massive and rigid single piece casting made to support other active parts of lathe. On left end

of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is located while on right side tailstock is located. The

carriage of the machine rests over the bed and slides on it. On the top of the bed there are two

sets of guide ways-inner ways and outer ways. The inner ways provide sliding surfaces for the

tailstock and the outer ways for the carriage. The guide ways of the lathe bed may be flat and

inverted V-shape.

ii. HEAD STOCK:

The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe.

iii. TAILSTOCK:

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 It’s commonly used for giving an outer bearing and support the circular job being turned the

on centers.

iv. CARRIAGE:

Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it can move in a direction parallel

to the spindle axis. It comprises of important parts such as apron, cross-slide, saddle, compound

rest, and tool post.

v. FEED MECHANISM:

Feed mechanism is the combination of different units through which motion of headstock spindle

is transmitted to the carriage of lathe machine.

vi. THREAD CUTTING MECHANISM:

The half nut or split nut is used for thread cutting in a lathe. It engages or disengages the carriage

with the lead screw so that the rotation of the lead screw is used to traverse the tool along the

work-piece to cut screw threads. The direction in which the carriage moves depends upon the

position of the feed reverse lever on the headstock.

ACCESORRIES AND ATTACHEMENTS OF A CENTRE LATHE MACHINE

Accessories and Attachments are additional equipment provided by the lathe manufacturer along

with the center lathe machine, which can be used for specific operations. These are used either

for holding and supporting the work or for holding the tool. The important lathe accessories

include

i. Lathe centers

ii. catch plates and carriers

iii. chucks

iv. collets

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 v. face plates

vi. angle plates

vii. mandrels.

Lathe centers:

Lath centers are used for holding the work piece in a lathe between the two centers generally

known as live center (head stock center) and dead center (tailstock center). They are made of

very hard materials to resist deflection and wear and they are used to hold and support the

cylindrical workpiece.

Carriers and catch plates:

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These are used to drive a workpiece when it is held between two centers. Carriers are attached to

the end of the workpiece by a setscrew. Catch plates are either screwed or bolted to the nose of

the headstock spindle.

Chuck:

This is one of the most important devices for holding and rotating a job in a lathe. It is basically

attached to the headstock spindle of the lathe. Workpiece of short length and large diameter or

of irregular shape, which cannot be conveniently mounted between centers, are held quickly and

rigidly in a chuck. Chuck can be classified into the following

(1) Three jaws or universal (2) Four jaw independent chuck (3) Magnetic chuck (4) Collet chuck

(5) Air or hydraulic chuck (6) Drill chuck.

Face plates:

Face plates are used for holding workpiece, which cannot be conveniently held between centers

or by chucks. A face plate possesses the radial, plain and T-slots for holding jobs or work-pieces

by bolts and clamps. Face plates consist of a circular disc bored out and threaded to fit the nose

of the lathe spindle.

Angle plates:

Angle plate is a cast iron plate having two faces machined to make them absolutely at right

angles to each other. Holes and slots are provided on both faces so that it may be clamped on a

faceplate and can hold the job or work-piece on the other face by bolts and clamps. The plates

are used in conjunction with a face plate when the holding surface of the job should be kept

horizontal.

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 Mandrels:

A mandrel is a device used for holding and rotating a hollow workpiece that has been previously

drilled or bored. Different types of mandrels are employed according to specific requirements.

CENTER LATHE MACHINE OPERATIONS

To perform different lathe machine operations on a lathe, the work piece may be supported and

driven by any one of the following methods:

1. Work piece is held and driven by chuck with the other end supported on the tail stock center.

2. workpiece is held between centers and driven by carriers and catch plates.

3. workpiece is held on a mandrel, which is supported between centers and driven by carriers and

catch plates.

4. Work piece is held and driven by a chuck or a faceplate or an angle plate.

TYPES OF CENTRE LATHE MACHINE OPERATIONS

(A) Lathe machine operations done either by holding the work piece between centers or by a

chuck:

I. Turning Operation:

It is the most common type of operation in all lathe machine operations. Turning is the operation

of removing the excess material from the work piece to produce a cylindrical surface to the

desired length.

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The job held between the centre or a chuck and rotating at a required speed. The tool moves in a

longitudinal direction to give the feed towards the headstock with proper depth of cut. The

surface finish is very good.

II. TAPER TURNING:

Taper turning means production of a conical surface by gradual reduction in

diameter as we proceed along the length of the cylinder. A conical surface will be

produced, if the cutting tool moves along a line which is inclined to the longitudinal

axis of the work piece instead of moving parallel to it. The amount of taper in the workpiece is

usually specified on the basis of the difference in diameter of the taper to its length. Taper can be

expressed using the following formula:

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 (𝐷1−𝐷2)
Taper per inch = TAN ᾱ 2𝑙

III. FACING OPERATION:

It is an operation of reducing the length of the work piece by feeding the perpendicular to

the lathe axis. This operation of reducing a flat surface on the end of the work piece. For

this operation, regular turning tool or facing tool may use. The cutting edge of the tool

should set to the same height as the center of the work piece.

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IV. KNURLING OPERATION:

It is an operation of obtaining a diamond shape on the workpiece for the gripping

purpose. This is done to provide a better gripping surface when operated by hands. It is

done using a knurling tool. The tool consists of a set of hardened steel roller, and it is

held rigidly on the tool-post. Knurling is done at the lowest speed available on a lathe.

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 V. FILING:

It is the finishing operation performed after turning. This is done on a lathe to remove

burrs, sharp corners, and feed marks on a workpiece and also to bring it to the size by

removing the very small amount of metal. The operation consists of passing a flat single-

cut file over the workpiece which revolves at a high speed. The speed is usually twice

that of turning.

VI. POLISHING:

This operation is performed after filing to improve the surface quality of the workpiece.

Polishing with successively finer grades of emery cloth after filing results in a very

smooth, bright surface. The lathe is run at high speeds from 1500 to 1800m per min, and

oil is used on the emery cloth.

(B) Operations Done by Holding the Work by A Chuck or Angle plate:

I. DRILLING:

Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a workpiece. It is done by a

rotating tool, the rotating side of the cutter, known as drilling drill. In this operation, the

workpiece is revolving in a chuck or a faceplate and the drill is held in the tailstock drill

holder or drill chuck.

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 II. REAMING:

Reaming is the operation of finishing and sizing a hole which has been already drilled or

bored. The tool is used is called the reamer, which has multi-plate cutting edges. The reamer

is held on the tailstock spindle, either directly or through a drill chuck and is held stationary

while the work is revolved at a very slow speed.

III. BORING:

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 Boring is the operation of enlarging the hole which is already drilled, punched or forged.

It cannot produce a hole. In this operation, the workpiece is revolved in a chuck or a

faceplate and the tools which are fitted to the tool post is fed into the work.

IV. TAPPING:

Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads of small diameter using a multipoint

cutting tool called the tap. In a lathe, the work is mounted on a chuck or on a faceplate and

revolved at a very slow speed. A tap of required size held on a special fixture is mounted on

the tailstock spindle.

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(C) OPERATIONS PERFORMED BY USING SPECIAL ATTACHMENTS

I. GRINDING:

This type of operation involves removing the metal in the form of chips by feeding the work

against a rotating abrasive wheel known as the grinding wheel. Both internal and external

surface of a workpiece may be ground by using a special attachment mounted on the cross

slide. For grinding external surface, the work may be revolved between centers or on a

chuck. For internal grinding, the work must be revolved on a chuck or faceplate. The feeding

is done by the carriage and the depth of cut is provided by the cross slide. Grinding is

performed in a lathe for finishing a job, sharpening a cutter, or sizing workpiece after it has

been hardened.

SCREW CUTTING ON THE CETRE LATHE

Threading is an operation of cutting threads or helical grooves on the external

cylindrical surface of the job. In this process, the carriage is connected to the lead

screw. The pitch of threads to be cut equals r.p.m. of lead screw r.p.m. of workpiece ×

Pitch of lead screw. Thus there should be an arrangement to change the ratio of r.p.m.

of work piece and the r.p.m. of lead screw. This is done by a system of gears, which

give the required ratio. Threads have a standard profile. The cutting tool profile

should match with this profile. Now the threads can be cut in the usual manner by

traversing the tool by engaging the clutch between carriage and lead screw. Such

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 screw cutting lathes are provided, with reversible motors. The r.p.m. of spindle is kept

very low for thread cutting.

DRILLING MACHINES

A drilling machine is a machine designed for making circular holes on a workpiece. It is one

of the most important and versatile machine tools in any workshop. During the operation, the

drill is rotated and fed along its axis of rotation in the stationary Workpiece thereby removing

a volume of metals from the workpiece. Besides drilling round holes, many other operations

can also be performed on the drilling machine such as counter- boring, countersinking,

honing, reaming, lapping, sanding etc.

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 COMPONENTS OF A DRILLING MACHINE

Drilling machine is made up of the following components as shown in the diagram below:

I. The head:

The head consist of the electric motor, V-pulleys and V-belt which transmit rotary motion to

the drill spindle at a number of speeds.

II. Spindle:

The spindle is made up of alloy steel. It rotates as well as moves up and down in a sleeve. A

pinion engages a rack fixed onto the sleeve to provide vertical up and down motion of the

spindle and hence the drill so that the same can be fed into the work-piece or withdrawn from

it while drilling. Spindle speed or the drill speed is changed with the help of V-belt and V-

step-pulleys. Larger drilling machines are having gear boxes for the said purpose.

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III. Drill chuck: is held at the end of the drill spindle and in turn it holds the drill bit.

IV. Adjustable workpiece table: it is supported on the column of the drilling machine. It can

be moved both vertically and horizontally. Tables are generally having slots so that the

vise or the work-piece can be securely held on it.

V. Base table:

This is a heavy casting that serves as an entire space on which all other components are

mounted. it supports the drill press structure, the column, and as well the table and head

etc.

VI. Column:

it is a vertical round or box section which rests on the base and supports the head and the

table. The round column may have rack teeth cut on it so that the table can be raised or

lowered depending upon the work-piece requirements.

TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE

Drilling machines are classified on the basis of their constructional features, or the type of

work they can handle. The various types of drilling machines are:

(1) Portable drilling machine

(2) Sensitive drilling machine

(3) Upright drilling machine

(4) Radial drilling machine

(5) Gang drilling machine

(6) Multiple spindle drilling machine

(7) Automatic drilling machine

(8) Deep hole drilling machine

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 (a) Vertical

(b) Horizontal

• Portable Drilling Machine

A portable drilling machine is a small compact unit and used for drilling holes in work-pieces

in any position, which cannot be drilled in a standard drilling machine. It may be used for

drilling small diameter holes in large castings or weldments at that place itself where they are

lying. Portable drilling machines are fitted with small electric motors, which may be driven by

both A.C. and D.C. power supply. These drilling machines operate at fairly high speeds and

accommodate drills up to 12 mm in diameter.

• Sensitive Drilling Machine

It is a small machine used for drilling small holes in light jobs. In this drilling machine, the

workpiece is mounted on the table and drill is fed into the work by purely hand control. High

rotating speed of the drill and hand feed are the major features of sensitive drilling machine. As

the operator senses the drilling action in the work-piece, at any instant, it is called sensitive

drilling machine.

• Upright Drilling Machine

The upright drilling machine is larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling machine. It is

designed for handling medium sized work-pieces and is supplied with power feed arrangement.

In this machine a large number of spindle speeds and feeds may be available for drilling

different types of work. Upright drilling machines are available in various sizes and with

various drilling capacities (ranging up to 75 mm diameter drills).

• Radial Drilling Machine

The radial drilling machine consists of a heavy, round vertical column supporting a horizontal

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 arm that carries the drill head. Arm can be raised or lowered on the column and can also be

swung around to any position over the work and can be locked in any position. The drill head

containing mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is mounted on a radial arm and can be

moved horizontally on the guide-ways and clamped at any desired position. These adjustments

of arm and drilling head permit the operator to locate the drill quickly over any point on the

work. The table of radial drilling machine may also be rotated through 360 deg. The maximum

size of hole that the machine can drill is not more than 50 mm. Powerful drive motors are

geared directly into the head of the machine and a wide range of power feeds are available as

well as sensitive and geared manual feeds. The radial drilling machine is used primarily for

drilling medium to large and heavy work-pieces. Depending on the different movements of

horizontal arm, table and drill head, the upright drilling machine may be classified into

following types

1. Plain radial drilling machine

2. Semi universal drilling machine, and

3. Universal drilling machine.

• Gang Drilling Machine

In gang drilling machine, a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side

by side on a common base and have a common worktable. A series of operation may be

performed on the workpiece by shifting the work from one position to the other on the

worktable. This type of machine is mainly used for production work.

• Multiple-Spindle Drilling Machine

The multiple-spindle drilling machine is used to drill a number of holes in a job simultaneously

and to reproduce the same pattern of holes in a number of identical pieces in a mass production

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 work. This machine has several spindles and all the spindles holding drills are fed into the

work simultaneously. Feeding motion is usually obtained by raising the worktable.

OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DRILLING MACHINE

A drill machine is versatile machine tool. A number of operations can be performed on it.

Some of the operations that can be performed on drilling machines are:

1. Drilling 2. Reaming 3. Boring 4. Counter boring

5. Countersinking 6. Spot facing 7. Tapping 8. Lapping

9. Grinding 10. Trepanning.

• Drilling

This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the

workpiece by a rotating cutting tool called drill as shown in the diagram below. Drilling

removes solid metal from the workpiece to produce a circular hole. Before drilling, the hole

is located by drawing two lines at right angle and a center punch is used to make an

indentation for the drill point at the center to help the drill in getting started. A suitable drill

is held in the drill machine and the drill machine is adjusted to operate at the correct cutting

speed. The drill machine is started and the drill starts rotating. Cutting fluid is made to flow

liberally and the cut is started. The rotating drill is made to feed into the job. The hole,

depending upon its length, may be drilled in one or more steps. After the drilling operation is

complete, the drill is removed from the hole and the power is turned off.

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 • Reaming

This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole already made by a drill. Reaming is

performed by means of a cutting tool called reamer as shown in the diagram below.

Reaming operation serves to make the hole smooth, straight and accurate in diameter.

Reaming operation is performed by means of a multitooth tool called reamer. Reamer

possesses several cutting edges on outer periphery and may be classified as solid

reamer and adjustable reamer.

• Boring

Fig. 8 shows the boring operation where enlarging a hole by means of adjustable

cutting tools

with only one cutting edge is accomplished. A boring tool is employed for this

purpose.

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 • Counter-Sinking

Counter- sinking operation is shown in the diagram below. This is the operation of

making a cone shaped enlargement of the end of a hole, as for the recess for a flat head

screw. This is done for

providing a seat for counter sunk heads of the screws so that the latter may flush with

the main

surface of the work.

the operation of sizing and finishing a hole by removing very small amounts of material

by means of an abrasive. The abrasive material is kept in contact with the sides of a hole that is

to be lapped, by the use of a lapping tool.

• Spot-Facing

This is the operation of removing enough material to provide a flat surface around a hole to

accommodate the head of a bolt or a nut. A spot-facing tool is very nearly similar to the

counterbore

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• Tapping

It is the operation of cutting internal threads by using a tool called a tap. A tap is similar to a bolt

with accurate threads cut on it. To perform the tapping operation, a tap is screwed into the hole

by hand or by machine. The tap removes metal and cuts internal threads, which will fit into

external threads of the same size. For all materials except cast iron, a little lubricate oil is applied

to improve the action. The tap is not turned continuously, but after every half turn, it should be

reversed slightly to clear the threads. Tapping operation is shown in diagram below.

POWER SAWS – TYPES AND OPERATIONS

The sawing machine is a machine tool designed to cut material to a desired

length or contour. It functions by drawing a blade containing cutting teeth through

workpiece. The sawing machine is faster and easier than hand sawing and is used

principally to produce an accurate square or mitered cut on the workpiece.

TYPES OF SAWING MACHINE

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The power hacksaw and the bandsaw are two common types of sawing machines

used to cut metal in the machine shop. The power hacksaw uses a reciprocating (back

and forth) cutting action similar to the one used in a hand hacksaw. The power hacksaw

is used for square or angle cutting of stock. The band saw uses a continuous band blade.

A drive wheel and an idler wheel support and drive the blade.

Power Hacksaw Machines

All power hacksaw machines are basically similar in design. The figure below shows a

typical power hacksaw and identifies its main parts, which are discussed below:

Base: The base of the saw usually contains a coolant reservoir and a pump for

conveying the coolant to the work. The reservoir contains baffles which cause the chips

to settle to the bottom of the tank. A table which supports the vice and the metal being

sawed is located on top of the base and is usually referred to as part of the base.

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Vice: The vice is adjustable so that various sizes and shapes of metal may be held. On

some machines the vice may be swiveled so that stock may be sawed at an angle. The

size of a power hacksaw is determined by the largest piece of metal that can be held in

the vice and sawed.

Frame: The frame of the saw supports and carries the hacksaw blade. The machine is

designed so that the saw blade contacts the work only on the cutting stroke. This. action

prevents unnecessary wear on the saw blade. The cutting stroke is on the draw or back

stroke.

Some machines feed by gravity, the saw frame having weights that can be shifted

to give greater or less pressure on the blade. Other machines are power fed with the feed

being adjustable. On these machines, the feed is usually stopped or reduced

automatically when a hard spot is encountered in the material, thus allowing the blade

to cut through the hard spot without breaking.

Speed-Change Mechanism: The shift lever allows the number of strokes per minute to be

changed so that a variety of metals may be sawed at the proper speeds. Some saws

have a diagram showing the number of strokes per minute when the shift lever is in

different positions; others are merely marked “F,” M,” and “S” (fast, medium, and

slow).

Adjustable Feed Clutch: The adjustable feed clutch is a ratchet-and-pawl mechanism

that is coupled to the feed screw. The feed clutch may be set to a desired amount of feed

in thousandths of an inch. Because of the ratchet-and-pawl action, the feed takes place

at the beginning of the cutting stroke. The clutch acts as a safety device and permits

slippage if too much feed pressure is put on the saw blade. It may also slip because of

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a dull blade or if too large a cut is attempted. This slippage helps prevent excessive

blade breakage.

Bandsaw Machines

Metal-cutting bandsaw machines fall into two basic categories: vertical machines and

horizontal machines. Band saws use a continuous saw blade. Chip removal is rapid,

because each tooth is a precision cutting tool and accuracy can be held to close

tolerances eliminating or minimizing many secondary machining operations.

Vertical Band sawing Machine: The metal-cutting vertical band sawing machine, also

called a contour machine, is made in a variety of sizes and models by several

manufacturers. The size of a contour machine is determined by the throat depth, which

is the distance from the saw band to the column.

Horizontal Bandsaw Machine: The horizontal band sawing machine does the same

job as the power hacksaw but does it more efficiently. The blade of the bandsaw is

actually a continuous band which revolves around a drive wheel and idler wheel in the

band support frame. Two band guides use rollers to twist the band so that the teeth are

in the proper cutting position.

CUTTING FLUID

Cutting fluids are the fluids which are generally applied while the machining (or cutting)

operation is taking place in order to improve the cutting condition as well tool life. It can be in

liquid as well as gaseous form.

Functions of cutting fluids

▪ Cool the cutting tool and workpiece

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 ▪ Reducing friction

▪ Protect work piece against rusting

▪ Improve the surface finish

▪ To resist thermal distortion

▪ Wash away the chips from the cutting zone

Properties of Cutting Fluid:

To perform the above-mentioned things a cutting fluid, have some particular properties, those

properties are:

• A cutting fluid should have a low viscosity so that it can easily flow above the workpiece.

• It should have a high flash point so that it can be used at high temperatures.

• It should be stable at high temperatures.

• It should have a high heat absorption rate so that during cutting operation it can easily

absorb the generated heat.

• It should have a good lubricating property to reduce the friction between tool and

workpiece and chips can easily get out from the workpiece.

• It should be odorless to avoid any bad smell even at higher temperatures.

• It should be harmless to the operator.

Types of Cutting Fluid:

cutting fluid can be classified into the following types:

• Soluble Oil

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 • Cutting oil

• Synthetic Coolants

• Solid Lubricants

i. Soluble Oil:

Soluble oil is a mixture of water, mineral oil and coupling agents. Generally, we use soap as a

coupling agent.

ii. Cutting Oil:

It is a mixture of mineral oil and fatty oil. It is mainly used in hand cutting machinery. It can be

used as a coolant as well as a lubricant for Low cutting and high cutting rates respectively.

iii. Synthetic Coolant:

This type of cutting fluid contains zero mineral oil, it has a higher cooling rate. Generally, this

type of coolant is used in grinding operations.

iv. Solid Lubricant:

Solid lubricant means it is in the solid phase, soap bar, molybdenum disulfide, graphite, the wax

stick can be used as solid lubricants

HEAT TREATMENT OF METAL

Heat treatment can be defined as the process of bringing about a desired change in the physical

properties of a metal by subjecting the metal to a controlled heating and cooling operations. It’s

performed in order to improve the structural and physical properties of the metal for some

particular use or for future work.

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PURPOSE OF HEAT TREAMENT

i. To change the properties of metal for specific application.

ii. To relieve/ remove the internal stress of the metal

iii. To increase the tensile strength and toughness of the metal

iv. To increase the metal resistance to wear and tear

v. To improve metal resistance to heat and protect it the effect of corrosion

vi. To soften the metal

STEPS OF HEAT TRATMENT

The following are the steps involved in heat treatment of a metal.

i. Heating

ii. Soaking

iii. Cooling

Heating

Heating is the first step in a heat-treating process. Many metal and alloys change structure when

they are heated to specific temperatures.

Soaking

Once a metal part has been heated to the temperature at which desired changes in its structure

will take place, it must remain at that temperature until the entire part has been evenly

heated throughout. This is known as soaking.

Cooling

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After the part has been properly soaked, the third step is to cool it. Here again, the structure may

change from one chemical composition to another, it may stay the same, or it may revert to its

original form. For example, a metal that is a solid solution after heating may stay the same

during cooling, change to a mechanical mixture, or change to a combination of the two,

depending on the type of metal and the rate of cooling. All of these changes are predictable.

TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS

There are five basic heat-treating processes:

i. hardening,

ii. case hardening,

iii. annealing,

iv. normalizing, and

v. tempering.

➢ HARDENING:

A ferrous metal is normally hardened by heating the metal to the required temperature and then

cooling it rapidly by plunging the hot metal into a quenching medium, such as oil, water, or

brine. Most steels must be cooled rapidly to harden them. The hardening process increases the

hardness and strength of metal, but also increases its brittleness.

➢ TEMPERING:

This process involves relieving the internal stress and the brittleness of the steel developed

during hardening operation. Tempering consists of heating the metal to a

specified temperature and then permitting the metal to cool. The rate of cooling usually has

no effect on the metal structure during tempering. Therefore, the metal is usually permitted to

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 cool in still air. Temperatures used for tempering are normally much lower than the

hardening temperatures. The higher the tempering temperature used, the softer the metal

becomes.

➢ NORMALIZING:

Ferrous metals are normalized to relieve the internal stresses produced by machining,

forging, or welding. Steel is much tougher in the normalized condition than in any other

condition. Normalizing is achieved by heating the metal to a specified temperature (which is

higher than either the hardening or annealing temperatures), soaking the metal until it is

uniformly heated, and cooling it in still air.

➢ CASE HARDENING:

Case hardening is an ideal heat treatment for parts which require a wear-resistant surface and

a tough core, such as gears, cams, cylinder sleeves, and so forth. The most common case-

hardening processes are carburizing and nitriding.

➢ ANNEALING:

The annealing process consists of heating the metal to a specific temperature, soaking, and

cooling to room temperature. The temperature and method of cooling depend on the type of

metal.

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