EXTN-123 : Communication Skills & Personality Page No.

Development

Unit I: Communication Skills

1 Meaning & Process of Communication 2-4

2 Verbal & Non verbal communication 5

3 Public Speaking 6-12

4 Impromptu Presentation* Refer Practical Manual

6 Individual Presentation*, Group Discussion*, Refer Practical Manual

7 Organizing Seminar & Conferences 10-11

Unit II : Writing Skills * Refer Practical Manual

8 Precise writing, Summarizing, Abstracting Refer Practical Manual

9 Listening and Note Taking, Field Diary and Lab Record Refer Practical Manual

10 Indexing, Footnote & Bibliographic Procedures Refer Practical Manual

Unit III : Personality Development

11 Meaning and definition of personality 12

12 Factors effecting personality 13

13 Personality traits 14-15

Note : * Refer Practical Manual

Meaning and Definition of Communication

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 The communication process is fundamental for human survival. It is essential to the
development of the individual, to the formation and continued existence of groups and to the
interrelations among groups. No any other social process is as important and basic as the
communication to development of human individuals, their culture and civilization, science and
technology, institutions and organization and every thing that is man-made. In fact
communication has separated human beings from animal kingdom and endowed them with a
superpower to control the world around them.
The word ‘Communication is derived from the Latin word ‘Communis’ meaning
common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish ‘Commonness’
with someone through a message. Then communication is a conscious attempt to establish
commonness over some idea, fact, feelings and the like, with others. In essence, it is a process of
getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages.

Definitions of Communication
Leagans – Communication is a process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts,
feelings or impression in ways that each gains a common understanding of meaning, intent and
use of message.

Schramm - communication as "a tool that makes societies possible and distinguish human from
other societies".

Berelson and Steiner - Communication as the transmission of· information, ideas, emotions,
skills through the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures, and graph.

Rogers and Shoemaker - Communication is the process by which messages are transferred from
a source to receiver.

The Communication is a two-way process wherein the message in the form of ideas,
thoughts, feelings, opinions is transmitted between two or more persons with the intent of
creating a shared understanding. Effective communication is when the message conveyed by the
sender is understood by the receiver in exactly the same way as it was intended.

A more comprehensive suggested definition to define communication would be: "a

process of transmitting ideas, information, attitudes (images which we have formulated for
ourselves) by the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures from the source (who is the originator
of the message) to a receiver, for the purpose of influencing with intent", So communication is
considered as a process through which senders and receivers of messages interact in a given
social context. We can conclude that communication is a process used to timely and properly
exchange information between a sender and a receiver to achieve a desired goal.

A) Process: It suggests that the components of interaction are dynamic in nature. They can not
be regarded as unchanging elements in time and space. This simply means that no single aspect
2 of communication can be meaningfully understood apart from the other elements
B) Interaction: It is the process of linking between senders and receivers of the message. The
process specifies interaction or linkages between or among countless factors; so that the changes
in any set of forces affect the operation of all other processes to produce a total effect. The

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 concept of interaction is central to an understanding of the concept of process in communication.
Communication is an attempt to bridge the gap between two individuals through producing and
receiving messages which have meaning for both.

C) Social Context: Human communication is, to a great extent. Influenced by the social context
in which it occurs. The context or the situation that consists of a set of rules which govern the
origin, flow and effect of the messages.

Communication is a process whereby information is encoded and imparted by a sender to

a receiver via a communication channel / medium. The receiver then decodes the message and
gives the sender a feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an area of
communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and
sometimes tone of voice, and non-verbal, physical means, such as body language, sign
language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, by using writing. Communication is thus a process
by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This
process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening,
observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. If you use these processes it is
developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It
is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur.

Communication Process

The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing of ideas by
the sender who then transmits the message through a channel to the receiver, who in turn gives
the feedback in the form of some message or signal within the given time frame.
Thus, there are seven major elements / components of communication process:

Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the conversation and has
conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to others.

Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain words or non-
verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information into a
message. The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great
impact on the success of the message.

Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he intends to convey.
The message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures, silence, sighs,
sounds, etc. or any other signal that triggers the response of a receiver.

Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he wants to convey
his message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make the message effective
and correctly interpreted by the recipient. The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal
3 relationships between the sender and the receiver and also on the urgency of the message being
sent. Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used communication
mediums.

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or targeted. He tries to
comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the communication objective is attained. The
degree to which the receiver decodes the message depends on his knowledge of the subject
matter, experience, trust and relationship with the sender.

Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to understand it in the best
possible manner. An effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the
message in exactly the same way as it was intended by the sender.

Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the receiver has received
the message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended by the sender. It increases the
effectiveness of the communication as it permits the sender to know the efficacy of his message.
The response of the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.

Types of communication

1. Verbal communication - It includes listening, speaking reading and writing

2. Non verbal communication - Communication without language is known as nonverbal. It is
also known as gestural communication. This includes gestures, facial expressions, etc., which
make communication more effective.
3. Intra personal communication - It occurs within ourselves and continuous as long as we are
alive.
4. Small group communication - In Mutual conversation between five to ten people. It may be
formal or informal.
5. Mass communication - It is a communication system in which an identical message is
originated by an institutional organization and sent to a large number of receiver through public
channels (TV, Radio, Newspaper, Magasines, Film, Internet)
6. Dyadic communication - In dyadic communication, two individuals communicate with each
other.
7. Interpersonal communication - Interpersonal communication most commonly occurs in face to
face situations, where we can see, hear and even touch the other person or persons.
8. Public speaking - One person addresses a large audience. Public speaking is mostly one way
from the speaker to audience. Messages are conveyed by the speaker and received by the
audience.

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

Verbal Communication

The Verbal Communication is a type of oral communication wherein the message is

transmitted through the spoken words. Here the sender gives words to his feelings, thoughts,
ideas and opinions and expresses them in the form of speeches, discussions, presentations, and
conversations.
The effectiveness of the verbal communication depends on the tone of the speaker, clarity
of speech, volume, speed, body language and the quality of words used in the conversation. In
the case of the verbal communication, the feedback is immediate since there are a simultaneous
transmission and receipt of the message by the sender and receiver respectively. The sender must
keep his speech tone high and clearly audible to all and must design the subject matter keeping
the target audience in mind. The sender should always cross check with the receiver to ensure
that the message is understood in absolutely the same way as it was intended. Such
communication is more prone to errors as sometimes the words are not sufficient to express the
feelings and emotions of a person. The success of the verbal communication depends not only on
the speaking ability of an individual but also on the listening skills. How effectively an
individual listens to the subject matter decides the effectiveness of the communication. The
verbal communication is applicable in both the formal and informal kind of situations.

Non-Verbal Communication
The Non-Verbal Communication is the process of conveying meaning without the use of
words either written or spoken. In other words, any communication made between two or more
persons through the use of facial expressions, hand movements, body language, postures, and
gestures is called as non-verbal communication.
The Non-Verbal Communication, unlike the verbal communication, helps in establishing
and maintaining the interpersonal relationships while the verbals only help in communicating the
external events. People use non-verbals to express emotions and interpersonal attitudes, conduct
rituals such as greetings and bring forward one’s personality.
The non-verbal communication in the form of signals, expressions add meaning over the
verbals and help people to communicate more efficiently. It supplements whatever is said in
words, such as people nod to acknowledge and move their hands to give directions.
The non-verbal communication defines the distance between the communicators and helps them
to exchange their emotional state of mind. Also, it regulates the flow of communication, for
example, an individual can give signals to convey that he had finished speaking or else he wants
to speak. Sometimes, the non-verbals acts as a barrier to communicating effectively as the
recipient could not understand what the sender is trying to say and may interpret it wrongly.

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 PUBLIC SPEAKING
Introduction
The process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended
to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners is known as public speaking. It is closely allied to
"presenting", although the latter has more of a commercial connotation.

Importance of Good Public Speaking

In public speaking, there are five basic elements, often expressed as "who is
saying what to whom using what medium with what effects?" The purpose of public speaking
ranges from simply transmitting information, to motivating people to act, to simply telling
a story. Good orators should be able to change the emotions of their listeners, not just inform
them. Interpersonal communication and public speaking have several components that embrace
such things as motivational speaking, leadership / personal development, business, customer
service, large group communication, and mass communication. Public speaking can be a
powerful tool to use for purposes such as motivation, influence, persuasion, informing,
translation, or simply entertaining. A confident speaker is more likely to use this as excitement
and create effective speech, thus increasing their overall ethos. Professional public speakers often
engage in on-going training and education to refine their craft. This may include seeking
guidance to improve their speaking skills such as learning better story-telling techniques, for
example, or learning how to effectively use humor as a communication tool as well as
continuous research in their topic area of focus.
Good public speaking skills works at the time of the interview. It is compulsory to face
an interview before getting a new job. Interviewer will not only judge your personality but also
your communication and fluency in general. In this technology- savvy world, your presentation
skills and public speaking skills are also counted along with your basic qualification.
It is not that we only require public speaking skills to speak in front of audience or to give
lectures. Public speaking skills are an asset that is worth millions. These skills are counted not
only in our professional life but are also useful when a person is college go-getter. For example,
a student possessing good presentation skills and public speaking skills can do wonders in his
grading criteria. It is important to have clarity of delivery element, which is the base of any
public speaking skills because unclear speech and words will do any good in general speaking in
front of audiences. It is common sense that on whatever topic you are speaking, clarity is a must
because no one would be able to convey your message or whatever you are trying to speak.
Unclear words will only show that you have not prepared the subject or you are scared of
speaking. Those who cannot convey their ideas into words cannot transform their skills in
professional life. Some scholars just pass away with their ideas still left with them just because
of the inability to transform ideas. It is true that these scholars were intelligent and conveyed
their message through writing. But the written scripts cannot convey the messages effectively
compared to speaking. They simply were not able to put their messages in front of the people of
what they actually think. They were unable to speak in front of the public. So, do not let go the
importance of public speaking skills.
People also think that public speaking skills and communication skills are not inter-
6 related. But they should know that they are inter-related to a certain degree of extent. However
public speaking is a broader term compared to communication skills, because people with good
public speaking skills have good communication skills. However, the vice-versa may not be
correct. There are many reasons behind why people with good communication cannot speak in

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 public. The reason behind why people are unable to speak in front of pubic is fear. Most of the
people are scared and have fear while speaking in front of the public. They get nervous and their
heartbeat gets fast resulting into unclear words and stammering. The common fear of public
speaking is called gloss phobia (or, informally, "stage fright").
There are numerous ways to enhance public speaking skills. No doubt, apart from the
practice you should have a great storage bank of vocabulary in your mind. You can practice
public speaking skills by speaking in front of your family members, friends and colleagues.
Gradually, your fluency will increase along with your vocabulary. Once you are able to come out
of your fear, you can be a good public speaker. Do not forget that possessing good public
speaking skills is a big asset.

Objectives of a public speaking

The objectives of a public speaker's presentation can range from simply transmitting
information, to motivating people to act, to simply telling a story. People who speak publicly in a
professional capacity are paid a ‘speaking fee’. Professional public speakers may include ex-
politicians, sports stars and other public figures. In the case of high profile personalities, the sum
can be extraordinary.
Public speaking and oration are sometimes considered some of the most importantly
valued skills that an individual can possess. This skill can be used for almost anything. Most
great speakers have a natural ability to display the skills and effectiveness that can help to engage
and move an audience for whatever purpose. Language and rhetoric use are among two of the
most important aspects of public speaking and interpersonal communication. Having knowledge
and understanding of the use and purpose of communication can help to make a more effective
speaker communicate their message in an effective way. The speeches of politicians are often
widely analyzed by both their supporters and detractors.

Tips for Public Speaking

 Know the needs of your audience and match your contents to their needs.
 Know your material thoroughly.
 Put what you have to say in a logical sequence.
 Ensure your speech will be captivating to your audience as well as worth their time and
attention.
 Practice and rehearse your speech at home or where you can be at ease and comfortable,
in front of a mirror, your family, friends or colleagues.
 Record your presentation with the help of mobile or digital camera or tape-recorder and
listen to yourself and analyze it.
 Know what your strong and weak points are. Emphasize your strong points during your
presentation.
 When you are presenting in front of an audience, you are performing as an actor is on
stage. How you are being perceived is very important. Dress appropriately for the
occasion.
 Be solemn if your topic is serious. Present the desired image to your audience.
7  Look pleasant, enthusiastic, confident, proud, but not arrogant.
 Remain calm. Appear relaxed, even if you feel nervous.
 Speak slowly, enunciate clearly, and show appropriate emotion and feeling relating to
your topic.

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
  Establish rapport with your audience.
 Speak to the person farthest away from you to ensure your voice is loud enough to project
to the back of the room. Vary the tone of your voice and dramatize if necessary. If a
microphone is available, adjust and adapt your voice accordingly.
 Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with appropriate hand
gesture or facial expression is preferred to sitting down or standing still with head down
and reading from a prepared speech.
 Use audio-visual aids or props for enhancement if appropriate and necessary.
 Master the use of presentation software such as PowerPoint well before your
presentation. Do not over-dazzle your audience with excessive use of animation, sound
clips, or gaudy colors which are inappropriate for your topic.
 Do not torture your audience by putting a lengthy document in tiny print on an overhead
and reading it out to them.
 Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your
audience effectively.
 The material you present orally should have the same ingredients as that which are
required for a written research paper, i.e. a logical progression from INTRODUCTION
to BODY (strong supporting arguments, accurate and up-to-date information)
to CONCLUSION.
 Do not read from notes for any extended length of time although it is quite acceptable to
glance at your notes infrequently. Speak loudly and clearly. Sound confident.
 Do not mumble. If you made an error, correct it, and continue. No need to make excuses
or apologize profusely.
 Maintain sincere eye-contact with your audience. Use the 3-second method, e.g. look
straight into the eyes of a person in the audience for 3 seconds at a time. Have direct eye
contact with a number of people in the audience, and every now and then glance at the
whole audience while speaking. Use your eye-contact to make everyone in your audience
feel involved.
 Speak to your audience, listen to their questions, respond to their
reactions, adjust and adapt.
 If what you have prepared is obviously not getting across to your audience, change your
strategy mid-stream if you are well prepared to do so. Remember that communication is
the key to a successful presentation.
 If you are short of time, know what can be safely left out. If you have extra time, know
what could be effectively added. Always be prepared for the unexpected.
 Pause. Allow yourself and your audience a little time to reflect and think. Don't race
through your presentation and leave your audience, as well as yourself, feeling out of
breath.
 Add humor whenever appropriate and possible. Keep audience interested throughout
your entire presentation. Remember that an interesting speech makes time fly, but a
boring speech is always too long to endure even if the presentation time is the same.
8  When using audio-visual aids to enhance your presentation, be sure all necessary
equipment is set up and in good working order prior to the presentation. If possible, have
an emergency backup system readily available. Check out the location ahead of time to

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 ensure seating arrangements for audience, whiteboard, blackboard, lighting, location of
projection screen, sound system, etc. are suitable for your presentation.
 Have handouts ready and give them out at the appropriate time. Tell audience ahead of
time that you will be giving out an outline of your presentation so that they will not waste
time taking unnecessary notes during your presentation.
 Know when to STOP talking. Use a timer or the microwave oven clock to time your
presentation when preparing it at home. Just as you don't use unnecessary words in your
written paper, you don't bore your audience with repetitious or unnecessary words in your
oral presentation. To end your presentation, summarize your main points in the same way
as you normally do in the CONCLUSION of a written paper.
 Remember, however, that there is a difference between spoken words appropriate for the
ear and formally written words intended for reading. Terminate your presentation with an
interesting remark or an appropriate punch line. Leave your listeners with a positive
impression and a sense of completion. Do not belabor your closing remarks. Thank your
audience and sit down.
 Have the written portion of your assignment or report ready for your instructor if
required.

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 ORGANISING SEMINAR AND CONFERENCE

Seminar is one of the most important forms of group discussion and is more formal in nature.
The seminar enables a study in depth to be made in specific areas under the guidance of experts.
In seminar, the discussion papers prepared by the participants on the basis of their study and
research are presented, and discussion is based primarily on these papers. A seminar may have
one or more plenary sessions. This method has the advantage of pooling together the opinion of
a large number of persons. At the end, some conclusions and recommendations are arrived at, for
taking action.

A Seminar refers to the discussion in a small group in which the result of original research
or advanced study is presented through oral or written reports. Generally one person presents a
lead paper incorporating his / her findings and then there is an in-depth discussion on the
material presented. The other members are knowledgeable and take active part in the discussion.
The main purpose of a seminar is to share knowledge and to get the viewpoints of equally well-
informed persons.

The purpose of a Conference is to confer with persons having similar interests and also to
pool their experiences and opinions. The discussion usually results in a set of suggestions or
recommendations on the central theme of the conference. Conference is an assembly of different
organization, departments and even interests for discussing issues of common interest. It is noted
for its wide and varied representation. It has an agenda for its deliberations. Its end-result is
usually a set of recommendations for policy makers and others. Its handicap is that the mode of
participation in it is speeches.
A Seminar has an objective, a Lead Speaker and a number of Participants. The person who
organises the seminar is known as Seminar Director or Seminar Coordinator. An appropriate
theme is selected, the lead speaker is determined and the participants are identified. If more than
one session is visualised, a Chairperson and one or more Rapporteurs are selected for each
session. Next, the date(s), venue and time are selected. Sub-committees are formed to look after:
Reception, Transport, Food and lodging, Conduct of the seminar including typing facility and
fixing a competent audio-visual operator. Availability of adequate fund for conducting the
seminar has to be ensured.
The participants and all functionaries are informed well in advance through a circular letter,
or through a brochure with a covering note. This communication should be properly structured
and should clearly state the objective of the seminar, venue, date, time and arrangements that
have been made to conduct it.
At the beginning, the Coordinator or any other suitable person welcomes the participants,
introduces the topic of the seminar, the Lead speaker and the Chairpersons of the sessions.
Arrangements that have been made for conducting discussion are also briefly stated. The Head
of the Organisation or any other respectable authority on the topic is then invited to inaugurate
the seminar. The inauguration session should be brief, and is generally followed by a tea / coffee
break.
10 The floor of the house is then handed over to the Chairperson of the first session. He / she
makes introductory remarks delineating the scope of the topic of the session and then invites the
Lead speaker who makes a comprehensive presentation of the topic. A discussion on it may or
may not follow. Presentations then follow for each of the sessions (may be in different

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 locations). Discussion with the participants are made in each of the sessions, and the
Chairperson and the Rapporteurs note down the important points. They have hectic time and
often have to work for long hours at night to bring out the pertinent points which have come out
of discussion.
In the last (Plenary) session, the Coordinator sums up the conclusions reached in individual
sessions and states their significance. A vote of thanks is then proposed. After the seminar is
over, the proceedings / conclusions are cyclostyled / printed and circulated to the participants.
A Conference is usually a large gathering of persons who meet to confer on a particular
theme or to exchange experience or information. Most of the steps that have to be taken for
preparation, presentation and conclusion of the seminar are broadly relevant for organisation of
a conference also. Since the information is to be sent to the potential delegates is substantial, it is
better to prepare a brochure containing all important and relevant information, including
arrangements made, and mailed to the participants well in advance.

A conference is inaugurated by a relevant dignitary. The inaugural address is scheduled

between the Welcome Address and the Keynote Address. The important addresses
(presentations) are often cyclostyled / printed and distributed to the audience. The topic is
discussed thoroughly by the participants which may take more than one session. At the end there
is the Plenary Session, where the entire proceedings are summed up and presented to the
audience.

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Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 Unit III : Personality Development

Meaning and Definition of Personality

Personality as a term originates from the Roman word “persona” meaning “a mask”,
which implies that the theatre actors who wore a particular type of mask held a particular
personality. Psychologists define personality as “an individual characteristic pattern of
behaviour”.
Psychologists define personality in different ways. Some of the important definitions are
as follows;
Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organization of a person’s character,
temperament, intellect, physique which determines his unique adjustment to his environment.
(Eysenck)
Personality is the distinctive patterns of behaviour including thoughts and emotions that
characterize each individual’s adaptation to the situation of his or her life. (Walter Mischel)
Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.
(Raymond Cattel)
Personality is made up of Id, Ego and Super ego- the three structures, the interaction of
which determines behaviour. (Freud)
Personality is a person’s unique pattern of traits (Guilford)
Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems
that determine his characteristic behavior and thought. (Allport)
Personality is the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observations over a long
enough period of time to give reliable information. (Watson)

One of the most important characteristics of personality is that it is a product of heredity

and environment. A child though not has born with a personality developers the same in course
of continuous interaction with his environment. The social and cultural factors as well as the
various experiences influence the development of personality. Personality includes the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor behaviors and covers all the conscious, sub-conscious and
unconscious also. It is specific and unique for each and every individual. It is not static but
dynamic in nature. Personality of an individual keeps adjusting it self to the environment on a
continuous basis. A fine balance is maintained between the environmental and the inner forces.

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Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 Factors Affecting Personality or Determinants for Personality

Personality is an all encompassing phenomena and many factors shape and determine human
personality all through the life. The relative contribution of each of these factors is dependent on
stage of life cycle the individual is passing through.

1. Heredity - Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at the time of conception,
through genes. Physical stature, facial features, temperament, energy levels, biological rhythm
are all inherited, which determine a wide range of personality characteristics.

2. Family factors
Parenting styles – being brought up / raised by parents who could have different styles of
parenting can be critical factors in the child’s personality. Eg. An authoritarian parent, who
places rigid rules in the child’s path, may make a child timid or on the other hand rebellious.
Democratic parenting may bring responsible behaviour in the child. Too permissive parenting
may make a child pursue fewer goals and become laid back.

Life experiences – what life experiences an individual goes through could develop certain traits
in the individual. Stressful situations can bring about distress, anxiety and diffidence in the
person. Happy and successful experiences can lead to confidence, assertive nature and goal
directed behaviour.

3. Intelligence – Intelligence is both a factor of personality as well as a factor that affects

personality. Research has shown that high intelligence is related to social success emotional
stability and success in many aspects in life, which contribute to positive personality
development.

4. Health and physical states - Health and physical states of the individual – when people
suffer health problems, personality suffers. Ill health brings down physical energy levels,
motivational levels and general vitality is lost. Personality suffers due to these conditions.

5. Neighborhood - Different kinds of neighbourhoods give very different experiences to

individuals. People must make adjustments to demands of the neighbourhoods, its people and its
expectations. For instance, children can be easily influenced if they live in crime ridden
neighbourhood to develop certain behaviours that suit that environment. Calm, quiet and cultured
neighbourhoods have calming effects on individual’s personalities.

6. Culture - Different cultures of the world have set norms, standards and acceptable patterns of
behaviour that the persons residing those cultures must abide by. This brings about vast
differences in the personalities of people. Even in a single country too, different ethnic groups
have different cultural practices which bring about diversities in personalities of people.
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Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 Theories of Personality Trait

The primary assumption of any trait theory is that personality can be described in terms of how
much of the various traits individuals possess. “Traits are described as enduring and consistent
characteristics that are often but not always evident in particular situations (Maguarsound &
Endler, 1977). One of the pioneer’s in trait theories is Gordon Allport (1961), who studied
individual’s traits from 1930s to 1960s.

Allport’s trait theory

He considered traits as “internal structures that direct the behavior of the individual in consistent,
characteristic ways.” He described 2 types of traits

Common traits- are characteristics that are common to many people and by which individuals
can be compared. Eg. Friendliness, responsibility, dominance. These traits can be compared
based on the extent to which people show these traits.
Unusual traits or trait combinations that characterize individuals and give them their unique
personalities. Eg – a sense of humour, crude cynicism, optimism.

These types of traits can be either i) cardinal ii) central or iii) secondary, depending upon how
much of each trait is expressed by the individual.
1. Cardinal Traits- lead a person to behave in similar ways in different situations. Eg-
rigid, assertive people generally have only one cardinal trait.
2. Central Traits- are similar to cardinal traits but are not as consistently seen as cardinal
traits. Common ones are shyness, optimism, cheerfulness, introversion. A person can
have many central traits.
3. Secondary traits- are only seen in particular situations or at particular times. They are
important characteristics of individuals but are not as pervasive as central or cardinal
traits; instead, they help to give a more complete picture of the person.

Eysenck's theory
Eysenck used a factor analytic study of traits and concluded that there are two dimensions of
personality;

Introversion Vs Extroversion
1. Introversion: It composes of traits such as reserve, lack of sociability, cautious and
emotional control.
2. Extroversion: It composes of traits such as sociability, activity, daring and
expressiveness. Both are placed on a continuum and people may be near one of the
extremes or at any point between them.

Stable Vs unstable (neuroticism)

14 1. Stable – traits such as well adjusted, calm, relaxed and easy going
2. Unstable – traits such as neurotic, moody, anxiousness, restlessness, temperamental
All individuals can be located on the introversion-extroversion-stability-instability dimensions.
The following figure may be studied to locate persons with traits of all the dimensions.

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani
 Cattell’s basic personality traits
Raymond Cattell (1950, 1966, 1973) used behavioral observation records of people’s life
histories, questionnaires and objective tests to arrive at trait descriptions. He describes two types
of traits.
1. Surface traits - reflected in consistent patterns of behavior. Eg. Curiosity, altruism
2. Source traits- originate from deeper part of the person. Eg. Dominance,
submissiveness, ego-strength, capacity to withstand pressure. Source traits give rise to
surface traits.
A person with dominance and ego strength as source traits might show surface traits such as
persistence and leadership in decision- making situations.

Cattell, on the basis of extensive research concluded that there are 16 basic source traits, which
lead to differences in behavior.

The big five factor theory

Personality traits have been measured by many psychologists and many traits have been
identified to describe personality, the field of trait measurement has been scattered and
psychologists in general agreed that there were few traits that could discriminate different
personalities across large groups of people. This understanding came with analyzing a number of
studies. These were identified as the big five factors.

1. Agreeableness - These individuals have optimistic view of human nature, and value getting
along with others. They exhibit traits such as generosity, friendliness, consideration, willingness
to cooperate.
2. Conscientiousness - It is concerned with the way in which we control, regulate and direct our
impulses. Conscientious individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through
planning and in persisting with the tasks. They are considered by others as intelligent and
reliable.
3. Extroversion - These individuals enjoy being with people who are full of energy and often
experience positive emotions. They are enthusiastic and action oriented.
4. Neuroticism - Refers to the tendency to experience negative emotions such as anxiety, anger,
or depression. These individuals are emotionally reactive; they respond emotionally to situations
that would not affect others and their reactions tend to be intense.
5. Openness to experience - They are intellectually curious, appreciative of art and sensitive to
beauty. They are more aware of their own feelings. They hold unconventional beliefs, though
they may not act on those beliefs.

15

Short Note prepared by Dr. Kapse. P.S., Asstt Professor (Extn Edu.), VNMKV, Parbhani