Module of Ag Eco 1

ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT COLLEGE
POBLACION, AURORA, ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
COURSE PACKET IN
AG ECO 1: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE
PREPARED BY:
2020
1
2
FOREWORD
Welcome to the Zamboanga del Sur Provincial Government College (ZSPGC) and be
part of the College of Agriculture.
Agriculture Ecology is the study of agricultural ecosystems and their components as they
function within themselves and in the context of the landscapes that contain them. Agriculture is
a broad term encompassing all aspects of crop production (food and fibre), livestock farming,
fisheries, forestry, and etc. Although these change have had the positive effect, they also caused
some serious environmental and social problems such as erosion of topsoil, depletion and
pollution of groundwater and other water resources, unemployment of farm laborers due to
their replacement by farm machinery. So, sustainable agriculture incorporates many
environmentally safe agricultural practices and offers innovative and economically viable
opportunities for farmers, laborers, consumers, policymakers and many others in the entire
food system. This course, however emphasizes the role of biodiversity in ecological agriculture,
enhancing plant biodiversity for ecological pest management in agro-ecosystems, agro-
ecological basis for the conversion to organic management, agro-ecology and food
sovereignty, agro-ecology and the design of resilient farming systems for a plant in crisis,
comparison of various models or approaches to ecological agriculture, concept of sustainable
agriculture and the SALT.
This study guide has been prepared to provide the student with the learning
experiences needed to attain the objectives. The activities required at the end of each unit have
been designed to enable the student to apply the concepts have been discussed.
If there are problems encountered pertinent to the course, please feel free to contact
your instructor or the Office of the College of Agriculture.
3
ZSPGC College of Agriculture Vision, Mission, and Goal
Vision
The ZSPGC, College of Agriculture visualizes the importance of research as a tool for
the development of appropriate technologies and innovations designed to ncrease
awareness, productivity, agri-preneurial skills, development, and enhancement of the
quality of life of the farmers.
Mission
The ZSPGC, College of Agriculture shall wield to produce business-oriented

professionals and practitioners with exceptional leadership qualities in farm management,
entrepreneurship, research, and extension services.
Goal
The ZSPGC, College of Agriculture aims to provide quality instructions to produce a

globally competitive graduate, promote research and training on sustainable development,
encourage agribusiness, and implement programs for poverty alleviation and food security.
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page Number
Cover page i
Preface/Foreword ii
Table of Contents iii
ZSPGC, College of Agriculture VMG iv
Week 1
Chapter 1: The crisis of Industrial Agriculture 1
Activity No. 1 5
Chapter 2: Concepts and Principles of Agro-ecology 6
Activity No. 2 12
Week 2
Chapter 3: The Role of Biodiversity in Ecological Agriculture 13
Activity No. 3 16
Week 3
Chapter 4: Enhancing Plant Biodiversity for Ecological Pest 17
Management in Agro-ecosystems
Week 4
Chapter 5: Agro-ecological Basis for the Conversion to Organic 20
Management
Activity No. 4 27
Week 5
Chapter 6: Agro-ecology and Food Sovereignty 28
Activity No. 5 31
Week 6
Chapter 7: Agro-ecology and The Design of resilient Farming Systems 32
for a Planet in Crisis
Activity No. 6 36
Week 7 and 8
Chapter 8: Comparison of Various Models or Approaches to 37
Ecological Agriculture
Activity No. 7 55
Week 9 and 10
Chapter 9: Concept of Sustainable Agriculture 57
Activity No. 8 67
Week 11 and 12
Chapter 10: SALT 69
Activity No. 9 80
References 94
5
CHAPTER ONE
THE CRISIS OF INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE
THE planet is facing multiple inter-related crises: economic, financial, energy, ecological
and social. Climate change represents only one dimension of the ecological crisis. These
crises do not evolve randomly but are a result of a dominant and exploitative capitalist
system that promotes economic growth at the expense of people, nature and planet. We
cannot continue with the same approach, as nature has her own tipping points and
boundaries and if these are breached, the whole world is threatened.
With this kind of development, there are different spikes (representing large
increases) in different measurements such as population and associated consumption.
However, it must be clear that not all populations have the same consumption patterns.
For example, one per cent of the population controls 80 per cent of the wealth and the
other 99 per cent control the remaining 20 per cent of wealth. Similarly, with regard to
climate change, there is a spike in carbon dioxide emissions, but one person in the United
States (US) or Europe could be responsible for 20 times as much carbon dioxide emissions
as a small farmer in Asia or Africa.
There is also an extinction spike – we are losing thousands of species daily. Each organ-
ism plays an important ecological role and we do not yet have full knowledge on the
implications of such losses. Our natural systems are under stress due to deforestation, soil
erosion, climate change and other factors, all associated with a globalized economy.
Environ- mental problems are linked to socio-economic problems such as poverty,
hunger, inequity and ecological refugees. Agriculture is the sector where all these issues
converge.
Agriculture is the artificialization or simplification of nature. When we have
monocultures, we need to start to apply external inputs and increase management intensity,
because monocultures lack biological diversity, which plays key ecological roles.
Monocultures can be conventional or even organic, which would still require inputs, where
botanical pesticides substitute for chemical pesticides. In a natural forest, there is no need
for these interventions, because all the organisms interact to form a self-regulating system.
Unfortunately, 90 per cent of the world’s 1.5 billion hectares under agriculture is
dominated by industrial monocultures that are highly dependent on external inputs and
energy. The world is largely dependent on only 12 types of grains and 23 species of
vegetables. Yet, these monocultures are extremely vulnerable to pests, diseases and climate
change.
It contributed to the great famines in history, for example, in Ireland and India,
where genetically homogeneous agriculture failed.
The advance of industrial agriculture arose with the Green Revolution in the 1960s.
The North created international agricultural research centres with temperate-region
scientists to ‘teach’ farmers in the tropics to do agriculture. Science became an instrument
of those in power. Agricultural projects were funded to fit a particular political agenda
and promoted uniform so-called high-yielding varieties at the expense of local crop
varieties.
The Green Revolution first took off in Mexico and then spread to India and other
regions. The technologies were not scale-neutral but favored large-scale farmers. All over
the world today, this model is still prevalent. The number of farms is decreasing while the
size of farms is increasing. There has however been a tremendous erosion of genetic
diversity. Industrial farming has replaced many natural, diversified farming systems.
Monocultures may have temporary economic advantages but in the long run do not
represent ecologically optimal systems. Most major crops are genetically uniform and very
vulnerable to pests and disease (as well as climate variability). This has given rise to an
addiction to pesticides. Chemical pesticides do not work eventually because insects and
weeds develop resistance, so we have to develop new pesticides and apply more; this is
called the “pesticide treadmill”. Moreover, the law of diminishing returns has
shown that yields decrease after hitting a peak with the further application of synthetic
fertilizers.
6
The Green Revolution was based on three assumptions: that there would always be
abundant and cheap energy; the climate would be stable and unchanging; and water
would always be available. All of these assumptions are not valid today.
Soil carbon losses are highest where industrial farms are and industrial agriculture is a
major contributor to climate change, emitting 17-32 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions,
in the form of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. There are in turn many effects of
climate change on agriculture, including the loss of biodiversity and lowered yields. In
2012, the US Midwest experienced its worst drought in 30 years and farmers lost 30 per
cent of their corn and soybean harvest. So, industrial monoculture systems are not resilient,
but are vulnerable to climate change.
Globally, agriculture uses 12 per cent of the land base but 70 per cent of all water
withdrawn. We do not have enough water to maintain our current consumption levels; for
example, the beef industry uses 15,000 litres of water per kg while cereals use 1,500 l/kg
and fruits, 1,000 l/kg.
There are now dead zones in the oceans due to eutrophication. The main
contributors are nitrogen and phosphorus agricultural inputs that have leached into
rivers, ending up in the ocean. They promote algae growth, which in turn sucks up all the
oxygen.
The bottom line is that industrial agriculture is simply not feeding the world as it was
heralded to. To produce only 30 per cent of the food we eat, it uses 70-80 per cent of arable
land, 70 per cent of the water, and 80 per cent of the fossil fuels used in agriculture. Indus-
trial agriculture actually produces more biofuel and fodder than food. Global hunger is
meanwhile on the rise. Half the world’s populations are not fed well; 3.4 billion suffer
hunger, malnutrition, and obesity. About 33-40 per cent of the food produced in agro-
industrial chains is wasted in production, transport or thrown away. About 40 per cent of
our global grain supply feeds animals.
Hunger is therefore less related to production and more to poverty and inequality.
The root cause of hunger, however, is that the food system is controlled by a small group
of multinational corporations. In 2008, food prices hit an all-time high because of market
speculation, which led to people not being able to afford food. Yet, top corporations like
Cargill and Bunge earned record profits at this time. This food empire controls the food to
be produced, the technologies to be used, the food quality and quantity that consumers
will eat, and the price they will pay for it. Both consumers and producers are victims of
this globalized food system. Today, the productivist discourse continues. The aim is to
double food production by 2030. And the new magic bullets being promoted are
genetically engineered or modified (GE/GM) crops.
It is important to note that the corporate food empire is closely linked with other
industries; there is an agro-industrial convergence with car and petroleum companies,
where the drive now is to produce agrofuels. Seventeen countries use 50 per cent of the
world’s energy while the other 175 countries use the other half. However, oil resources are
running out. About 25 million ha representing two per cent of cropland are being used for
agrofuel production. South America, Africa and Asia are providing the land to grow
agrofuels. As a result, land grabbing is rampant. As of 2010, 140 million acres of land had
been grabbed, 75 per cent of which was in Sub-Saharan Africa. Land grabs and the
incidence of serious hunger are positively correlated.
Associated with agrofuels are GE crops. There are more than 180 million hectares
under GE crops. The top four GE crops are soybean (65 per cent of global acreage), corn,
cotton and canola. These are channelled largely for agrofuels, animal feed or cash crops. So
although companies are saying that we need GE crops to feed the hungry, there is no
evidence to show that GE crops are indeed doing so. They are also not solving
environmental problems. Herbicide-tolerant soy makes up the bulk of GE crops grown. In
the US, Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil, soybean volunteers and weeds resistant to glyphosate
have sprung up, so more toxic herbicides are now being applied.
Golden Rice, genetically engineered to be nutritionally enhanced with Vitamin A, is

promoted to address Vitamin A deficiency. One of the reasons for this deficiency in rural
areas is the destruction of biodiversity in traditional rice farms, which had previously
provided a balanced diet. Leafy vegetables, cassava, mangoes and other fruits provide
7
more Vitamin A than Golden Rice. Furthermore, farmers who plant rice in an integrated
manner with ducks, fish, and so on, provide enough Vitamin A and other nutrients. We
therefore need to restore agricultural diversity (at genetic and species levels) – not only
plant diversity, but also culinary diversity and curative diversity in the fields.
There are also externalities associated with agriculture, such as adverse health and
environmental impacts. This means that the current cost of food is actually higher when
we account for greenhouse gas emissions, water contamination, loss of biodiversity, soil
losses, public health impacts and other externalities. In the UK, the price tag of industrial
agriculture’s externalities is about £205 per hectare.
The agricultural challenge then, for the coming decades, is to increase food production
substantially and sustainably, using the same arable land base with less petroleum, water
and nitrogen within a scenario of climate change, social unrest and financial crisis. We need
to rethink agricultural systems and we need a totally new paradigm. That future agricultural
system must be de-coupled from fossil fuel dependence, be nature-friendly and have low
environmental impacts, serve multiple functions, be resilient to climate change and other
shocks, and be a foundation for local food systems, including indigenous and local
innovations.
We are thus looking for systems that have high productivity, efficiency, and
biodiversity with high recycling rates, use low external inputs, are resilient and efficient
in use of local resources, and have a high level of synergy and integration. These new
systems are based on agro-ecology. It is the way to bypass the corporate food empire.
Agro-ecology is the application of the science of ecology to agricultural systems. It
therefore seeks to develop an ecological structure that does not need external inputs and
which allows the necessary interaction among species for the system to work. For example,
an ecological farm that is surrounded by a forest will receive many services from the forest,
such as beneficial insects and enhanced soil organic matter. This is in stark contrast with,
for example, a cotton plantation where only cotton plants are present which need constant
external energy subsidies.
Conventional agriculture simplifies nature as it involves a change from natural
ecosystems to monocultures (see Box 1). There are significant differences between
agricultural ecosystems and natural ecosystems; for example, the former have low genetic
diversity and open mineral cycles whereas the latter have high genetic diversity and
closed mineral cycles. The inherent strengths of a natural ecosystem are: inter-
dependency, self-regulation, self-renewal, self-sufficiency, efficiency and diversity. When
we move to monocultures, the system loses these strengths and is simplified, thereby
requiring external inputs. Agro-ecology, on the other hand, mimics and rebuilds in agro-
ecosystems strengths inherent to the natural ecosystem.
Box 1: Schools of thought influencing conventional agriculture
THE conventional system of agriculture came about due to the influence of four
schools of thought. The first (arising from De Cartes) was to break up the whole and
study the different parts in detail; scientists and agronomists would then specialize.
However, this ignores the need for a science that integrates everything and looks at the
system in a systemic, holistic way.
The second approach emerged when Darwin introduced the concept of the survival
of the fittest. However, he failed to see there is much more cooperation and interaction in
nature than competition. His theories influenced biologists and economists to focus on
competition.
The third approach is based upon von Leibeig’s theory that there will always be a
factor that will limit productivity, so in order to reach optimal productivity one must
overcome the limiting factor. Therefore, for example, if your limiting factor is nitrogen, you
have to add nitrogen; if the limiting factor is a pest, then you have to remove the pest.
However, this approach ignores the fact that the limiting factors are symptoms of a deep
ecological dysfunction and that attacking the symptoms only creates more problems. When
we control one limiting factor, another arises. With chemical inputs, yields increase up to a
point and then decrease. For example, yields do not increase at the same rate as applying
nitrogen fertilizer. Conventional agriculture concludes that it is the variety that is not being
responsive and thus, a new variety is needed. However, yields decrease because of too
8
much chemical fertilizer in the soil, which makes it acidic. This in turn affects microbial
communities and availability of other nutrients in the soil. Also, when we apply chemical
fertilizer, it is very soluble and the nitrogen that is absorbed by the plant cannot be
metabolized into protein and amino acids. The free nitrogen in the foliage attracts and
stimulates insect pests such as aphids that use nitrogen for reproduction. Agro-ecology, on
the other hand, examines the root cause of the problem instead of addressing the symptoms.
In this case, using legumes to put nitrogen into the soil would be a better alternative, as the
nitrogen is slowly released and does not lead to nitrogen accumulation in the foliage. Many
researchers have found that increases in fecundity and developmental rates of aphids are
highly correlated with increased levels of soluble nitrogen in leaf tissue. The idea that
chemical nitrogen fertilizer inhibits protein synthesis, making plants more susceptible to
pests and diseases, was advanced by French scientist F. Chabboussau in the 1960s.
The fourth approach was based on Malthus who theorized that the gap between
population growth and food productivity is hunger and the solution is to produce more food.
Malthus had a big influence on the Green Revolution, which focused on increasing
productivity through yields, above all else. Thus conventional agriculture is obsessed with
closing the “yield gaps” between production that highly subsidized farms obtain in the
North and that of poor farmers in the South.
Agro-ecology is a science, a practice and a movement. It is based on scientific and
traditional knowledge (Figure 1). It is a science that bridges ecological and socio-economic
aspects. It can work at various levels – farm, community, national, regional, and so on.
Biological processes are enhanced using agro-ecological principles and these principles
can be shared via farmer-to-farmer exchanges.
Agro-ecology needs to be built from the bottom up, especially through social
movements in rural areas. There is a need to create alliances between rural and urban
communities. Agro-ecology is a pillar of the food sovereignty framework which promotes
the provision of land, water, seeds and other productive resources to small farmers and
landless people, along with economic opportunities.
Figure 1. Agroecology combines elements of traditional farmers’ knowledge with elements of

modern ecological, social and agronomic science, creating a dialogue of wisdoms from which
principles for designing and managing biodiverse and resilient farms are derived
Ecology
Anthropology Sociology
Etnoecology
Traditional farmers’
knowledge
Biological control
Ecological economics
Participatory research in
Principles
Basic agricultural farmers’ fields
sciences
Specific technological
forms
9
Ag. Eco 1: Introduction to Ecological Agriculture

Activity No. 1
Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course – Year & Section: _____________________ Score: ________________
Directions: Please answer the following essay questions.
1. How does agriculture affect ecosystem?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. What are the impact of agriculture on land-use and environment?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. What is the importance of ecology?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
10
CHAPTER TWO
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF AGROECOLOGY
2.1 Principles
AGROECOLOGY is a science that draws on social, biological and agricultural sciences

and integrates these with traditional knowledge and farmers’ knowledge. This gives rise to
basic principles that materialize in specific technological forms. At the heart of the agro-
ecology strategy is the idea that an agro-ecosystem should mimic the functioning of local
ecosystems, thus exhibiting tight nutrient cycling, complex structure and enhanced
biodiversity. The expectation is that such agricultural mimics, like their natural models,
can be productive, pest-resistant and conservative of nutrients. Learning from nature
allows development of agro-ecosystems with a minimum dependency on agrochemical
inputs and energy, emphasizing interactions and synergisms among the many biological
components of agro-ecosystems to enhance recycling and biological control, thus
improving overall ecological efficiency and environmental protection.
A key agro-ecological strategy in designing a sustainable agriculture is to
reincorporate diversity into the agricultural fields and surrounding landscapes.
Diversification at the field level occurs as variety mixtures, rotations, polycultures,
agroforestry, crop-livestock integration, etc., and at the landscape level in the form of
hedgerows, corridors, etc., giving farmers a wide variety of options to assemble spatial
and temporal combinations. Emergent ecological properties develop in diversified agro-
ecosystems, which allow the system to function in ways that maintain soil fertility, crop
production and pest regulation. Agro-ecological management practices that increase
agro-ecosystem diversity and complexity act as the foundation for soil quality, plant health
and crop productivity.
Agro-ecology has its roots in ecology, applying the understanding of natural
ecosystems and comparing these to mechanized agro-ecosystems. There are six
principles of ecology:
 Networks: nature is a network of living systems nesting within other living systems that
are interconnected.
 Cycles: matter cycles continually through the web of life, hence ecosystems do not
generate waste.
 Solar energy: this is the fundamental source of energy that drives all ecological
cycles. (This is why agro-ecology gives emphasis to plant diversity as plants
transform solar energy into chemical energy which drives all other networks and
food webs.)
 Partnership: exchanges of energy and resources in an ecosystem are sustained by
pervasive cooperation, not competition. (The challenge then is to design synergistic
systems.)
 Diversity: all ecosystems derive stability and resilience through the richness of
diversity.
 Dynamic balance: an ecosystem is a flexible, ever-fluctuating network.
Borrowing from the above principles, the design of farming systems based on agro-
ecology is based on the application of the following five principles:
• Enhance recycling of biomass, optimizing nutrient availability and balancing nutrient

flow.
• Secure favorable soil conditions for plant growth, particularly by managing organic
matter and enhancing soil biotic activity.
• Minimize losses due to flows of solar radiation, air and water by way of microclimate
management, water harvesting and soil management through increased soil cover.
• Species and genetic diversification of the agro-ecosystem in time and space at the
field and landscape levels.
• Enhance beneficial biological interactions and synergisms among agro-biodiversity
11
components, thus resulting in the promotion of key ecological processes and services.
Agro-ecological principles take technological forms or practices in order to be

applied. For example, the principle of diversification in space and time at the farm level
takes, in practice, the form of polycultures. These practices promote processes that are
fundamental for an agro-ecosystem to function, such as nutrient cycling, pest regulation,
and allelopathy for weed control. If we want to know how agro-ecology works, we then
use indicators like soil quality and plant health, which allow us to take the pulse of a
system and see if the principles are being correctly applied.
Appropriate technologies should be based on indigenous knowledge and rationale;
be economically viable, accessible and based on local resources; be environmentally
sound and socially, culturally and gender sensitive; be risk-averse and adapted to
heterogeneous circumstances; and enhance total farm productivity and stability. There
should no longer be a top-down approach with farmers as passive recipients of information,
but farmers should exchange information within farmer networks, supported by
organizations ready to commit to the agenda of farmers.
2.2 Agro-ecological practices and systems
The tendency of nature is to move towards complexity; however, with industrial

agriculture a chemical ‘wall’ is applied to maintain monocultures and simple systems.
Agro-ecology designs complex agro-ecosystems, accompanying nature in its tendency
towards complexity. There are many strategies for agro-ecosystem diversification, such as
crop rotations, cover cropping, crop-livestock mixtures, agroforestry, polycultures and
intercropping, multi-lines and variety mixtures (genetic diversification), field crop
border diversification and corridors linking fields and natural vegetation. All these agro-
ecological practices restore vegetation diversity in agricultural fields and surrounding
landscapes, giving farmers a wide variety of options to assemble spatial and temporal
plant-animal combinations.
The main goal of designing a diversified farming system is the enhancement and
maintenance of agro-biodiversity as a strategy for provisioning ecological services which
emerge from beneficial ecological interactions among crops, animals and soils deployed in
the farms. By strengthening the weak ecological functions in the agro-ecosystem, farmers
first reduce and substitute external with internal inputs. Farmers gradually eliminate inputs
altogether by redesigning the farm system to rely primarily on ecosystem functions.
Emergent ecological properties develop in diversified farms, allowing the system to
provide for its own soil quality and fertility, pest regulation and total farm production.
There are many agro-ecological management practices that increase agro-
ecosystem diversity and complexity as the foundation for soil quality, plant health, and
crop productivity. In agro-ecology the emphasis is on diversifying and strengthening the
agro-ecosystem by adding regenerative components such as combining crops in
intercrops, animals and trees in agrosilvopastoral systems, using legumes as cover crops
or in rotations or raising fish in rice paddies (see Box 2).
More and more benefits emerge as biodiversity increases in agro-ecosystems: there
will be more beneficial interactions, better resource use efficiency, higher associational
resistance to invaders and increased nutrient cycling. Farmer-designed diversity should
result in improved biotic diversity and abiotic (soil, microclimate, etc.) conditions, which
in turn will lead to good system qualities or ecological processes characteristic of healthy
and productive farms. A farm can provide for its own soil fertility, its own pest regulation,
and so on, just by imitating the way nature functions, allowing for interactions to occur
between the different soil, plant and animal components.
Box 2: Temporal and spatial designs of diversified farming systems and their main
agro-ecological effects
Crop rotations: Temporal diversity in the form of cereal-legume sequences. Nutrients

are conserved and provided from one season to the next, and the life cycles of insect
pests, diseases, and weeds are interrupted.
12
Polycultures: Cropping systems in which two or more crop species are planted within
certain spatial proximity, resulting in biological complementarities that improve
nutrient use efficiency and pest regulation, thus enhancing crop yield stability.
Agroforestry systems: Trees grown together with annual crops, in addition to
modifying the microclimate, maintain and improve soil fertility as some trees
contribute to nitrogen fixation and nutrient uptake from deep soil horizons while their
litter helps replenish soil nutrients, maintain organic matter, and support complex soil
food webs.
Cover crops and mulching: The use of pure or mixed stands of grass-legumes, e.g.,
under fruit trees, can reduce erosion and provide nutrients to the soil and enhance
biological control of pests. Flattening cover crop mixtures on the soil surface in
conservation farming is a strategy to reduce soil erosion and lower fluctuations in soil
moisture and temperature, improve soil quality and enhance weed suppression,
resulting in better crop performance.
Green manures are fast-growing plants sown to cover bare soil. Their foliage smothers
weeds and their roots prevent soil erosion. When dug into the ground while still green,
they return valuable nutrients to the soil and improve soil structure.
Crop-livestock mixtures: High biomass output and optimal nutrient recycling can be
achieved through crop-animal integration. Animal production that integrates fodder shrubs
planted at high densities, intercropped with improved, highly-productive pastures and
timber trees all combined in a system that can be directly grazed by livestock, enhances
total productivity without need of external inputs. system where the interactions of rice,
weeds, insects, fish and ducks promote key processes (nutrient cycling, pest control, etc.),
allowing the rice system to function without need of external inputs.
13
Figure 2. Interactions of various agrobiodiversity components in a rice paddy resulting in
processes such as nutrient cycling and pest regulation vital for the productivity of the system
Agro-ecology can be carried out at different scales/levels: plot, field, and

landscape (including surrounding plots and matrices of vegetation surrounding the
system). The plots could be used for experiments, the results of which can be then
brought onto real farms where other elements of the landscape will add additional
complexities to the system. Agro-ecology principles (in terms of design) can be applied at
the large farm level, but the social and political aspects need to be critically discussed. In
any case, large farms also need to transition towards being more sustainable.
2.3 Agro-ecology and traditional farmers’ knowledge
The evolution of agro-ecosystems is a result of interactions between social and

ecological systems. We need to understand how people have designed the systems and
what knowledge has nurtured the management of these systems. Agricultural systems are
the product of the co-evolution and interaction over centuries between nature and society.
The more harmonious the interaction, the better the result in agricultural system. For
example, the waru waru system in the Andean region was revived over hundreds of hectares
to overcome the problem of frost in the highlands. The raised beds surrounded by water
allow farmers to grow crops in the midst of frost at 4,000 m above sea level as the water
absorbs heat in the day, and releases heat at night. In many places, crop species and
genetic diversity are dependent on cultural diversity and thus agro-biodiversity is
maintained through cultural traditions.
Agro-ecological systems are deeply rooted in the ecological rationale of traditional
small- scale farmers who for centuries have developed farming systems, many of which
offer promising sustainability models as these systems promote biodiversity, thrive without
agrochemicals, and sustain year-round yields meeting local food needs. . The evolution
of these systems has been nourished by complex forms of traditional knowledge about
vegetation, animals, soils, etc. within a certain geographical and cultural area. Rural
knowledge is based on observation and on experimental learning. Successful adaptations
are passed from generation to generation, and historically, successful innovations have
been widely shared with members of the community.
Agro-ecological innovations are born in situ with the participation of farmers in a
peer- to-peer or horizontal (not top-down) manner and technologies are not standardized
but rather flexible and respond and adapt to each particular situation. Undoubtedly, the
ensemble of traditional crop management practices represents a rich resource for agro-
ecologists seeking to create novel agro-ecosystems well adapted to the local agro-
14
ecological and socioeconomic circumstances of smallholders. There are several benefits
and contributions that can emerge from the correct retrieval and use of traditional
ecological knowledge:
• detailed local knowledge of productive resources and environment (soils, plants, rain-
fall conditions, etc.);
• time-tested, in-depth knowledge of the local area as an essential part of any agro-
ecological intervention;
• identification of best farmer practices for dissemination to other farmers and areas;
• use of locally adapted crop varieties and animal species;
• criteria for technology development considering local goals and priorities, gender
preferences, etc.; and
• a basis for testing new technologies and their ‘rightness-of-fit’ to local systems and
circumstances.
Farmers have a deep knowledge of the ecosystem as they live within it and interact
with nature. In many instances, this knowledge has been eroded and lost. In any case,
instead of imposing Western science and values on them, we should create a dialogue of
wisdoms. At the same time, we cannot romanticize traditional knowledge. With climate
change, conditions are changing and farmers may not be able to deal with new challenges
with just traditional knowledge. Agro-ecological approaches combined with traditional
approaches would facilitate the optimization of systems and build resilience.
2.4 Agro-ecology and rural social movements
Agro-ecology is not a neutral science; it is tied to the concept of food sovereignty

advanced by the international peasants’ movement, La Via Campesina. It aims to make
farmers autonomous and self-sufficient, i.e., to allow people to define their own models of
development. Agro-ecology plays a central role in rural social movements struggling to
adopt agro-ecological farming as an alternative to the destructive practices and unhealthy
food produced by industrial agriculture. In the defence and/or conquest of material territory,
e.g., through land occupations or policy victories in favor of land redistribution, peasants
adopt agro-ecological farming as part of (re)configuring peasant or family farm territories.
For peasants and family farmers and their movements, agro-ecology helps build
autonomy from unfavourable markets and policies, and helps them restore degraded soils
and the productive capacity of their farms and communities.
Through social processes and farmer-to-farmer methods (horizontal exchange of ideas
and innovations) rural movements are helping to bring agro-ecological alternatives to an
unprecedented scale.
Agro-ecology is compatible with the rationale of peasants and conforms to a key
technological strategy in their food sovereignty framework due to several reasons:
• Agro-ecology provides methodologies that allow the development of technologies
closely tailored to the needs and circumstances of specific peasant communities.
• Agro-ecological techniques and designs are socially activating since they require a
high level of popular participation.
• Agro-ecological techniques are culturally compatible since they do not question peas-
ants’ rationale, but actually build upon traditional farming knowledge, combining it
with elements of modern agricultural science.
• Practices are ecologically sound since they do not attempt to radically modify or trans-
form the peasant ecosystem, but rather to identify management elements that, once
incorporated, lead to optimization of the production unit.
• Agro-ecological approaches are economically viable and break technological
dependence by emphasizing local resources and inputs.
The factors needed to support agro-ecology include enabling policies, fair markets,
extension, participatory research, and farmer-to-farmer exchanges. The end result should
be a new, biodiverse, organic agriculture which is community or family-based, is
biologically and culturally diverse, is small- to medium-scale, and provides a strong
linkage between consumers and farmers.
15
Agro-ecology is highly knowledge-intensive, and is based on techniques that are not
delivered top-down but developed on the basis of farmers’ knowledge and experimentation.
For this reason agro-ecology emphasizes the capability of local communities to experiment,
evaluate, and scale up innovations through farmer-to-farmer research and grassroots
extension approaches. Technological approaches emphasizing diversity, synergy,
recycling and integration, and social processes that value community involvement, point to
the fact that human resource development is the cornerstone of any strategy aimed at
increasing options for rural people and especially resource-poor farmers. Agro-ecology
promotes community- oriented approaches that look after the subsistence needs of its
members, emphasize self- reliance and also privilege local provisioning for local markets
that shortens the circuits of food production and consumption.
The expansion of agro-ecology in Latin America and other regions has initiated an
interesting process of cognitive, technological and socio-political innovation, intimately
linked to the new political scenarios such as the emergence of progressive governments and
resistance movements of peasants and indigenous people. Thus the new agro-ecological
scientific and technological paradigm is being built in constant reciprocity with social
movements and political processes.
Agro-ecology is not neutral and is self-reflexive, giving rise to a critique of the
conventional-industrial agricultural paradigm. The technological dimension of the agro-
ecological revolution emerges from the fact that contrary to Green Revolution and other
intensification approaches that emphasized seed-chemical packages and ‘magic bullet’
recipes, agro-ecology works with principles that take multiple technological forms
according to the local socio-economic needs of farmers and their biophysical
circumstances. Agro-ecological innovations are developed with the participation of
farmers in a horizontal manner; the flexible nature of the technologies allows them to
respond and adapt to the specific circumstances prevailing.
16
Ag Eco 1: Introduction to Ecological Agriculture

Activity No. 2
Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

1. What are the principles of agro-ecology?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. How important the study of agro-ecology?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. What is agro-ecology and sustainable agriculture?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the difference between ecology and agro-ecology?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
17
Chapter Three
THE ROLE OF BIODIVERSITY IN ECOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE
BIODIVERSITY is one of the key components that agro-ecology tries to optimize and
use. Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on earth – plants, animals, microbes, the genes
they contain, the ecosystems they form, and the interactions between life forms and the
environment. When ecosystems are diverse, there are many pathways for ecological
processes, so if one is damaged or destroyed, an alternative pathway can be used.
Therefore, if native biological diversity is diminished, the functioning of ecosystems is also
put at risk. There are many types of biological resources tied to agriculture such as genetic
resources, edible plants and crops, livestock, soil organisms, wild resources and naturally
occurring insects, bacteria, and fungi. Functional biodiversity includes those organisms that
provide key processes, and that through their interactions can, for example, contribute to
nutrient cycling, biological regulation and increased productivity.
There are many mechanisms of biodiversity loss such as habitat destruction and
frag- mentation; the displacement of native varieties by introduced modern varieties;
pollution of soil, water and air; climate change; and industrial agriculture and forest
plantations. The main cause of genetic erosion in crops is the Green Revolution, which
imposed high-yielding but uniform varieties. Along with all this, indigenous and traditional
knowledge, which has conserved biodiversity, has further been devalued and lost.
Agro-ecology exploits not only a variety of crops and animals, but also the many
ways by which farmers exploit biological diversity to produce and manage agro-ecosystems.
Higher diversity within the cropping system leads to higher diversity in associated biota. In
turn, this leads to more effective natural pest control and pollination, and tighter nutrient
recycling as well as more stable and resilient systems.
The types of diversity that can be present in an agro-ecosystem are:
 species diversity (number of different species in the agro-ecosystem);

 vertical diversity (number of different levels and strata, e.g., in agroforestry
systems, trees play important roles in providing nutrients via leaves, and as
barriers to winds, hurricanes etc.);
 genetic diversity (degree of variability of genetic information in the agro-
ecosystem (within and between species));
 functional diversity (the complexity of interactions, energy flow and recycling of
materials between the components of the agro-ecosystem, e.g., in a maize-bean-
squash polyculture, each crop has different functions (see Box 3));
 temporal diversity (degree of heterogeneity of cyclical changes in the agro-
ecosystem, e.g., seasonal crops such as cover crops that are planted in spring and
incorporated in winter to provide nutrients to the soil or to enhance soil structure).
Box 3: The maize-bean-squash system
Three seeds of maize and three seeds of bean are planted together, with squash planted in between
seeding points. The bean grows up with the maize and is a legume that fixes nitrogen into the soil. Maize
flowers attract beneficial insects while squash leaches allelopathic chemicals that deter weeds. The
system thus provides important processes − pest regulation and nutrient cycling − and is also good for
controlling erosion. In the dry season, clover seeds are planted after the maize, bean and squash are
harvested. The clover will be a source of fodder for the animals. The clover has very deep roots and
can withstand dry conditions. After the animals eat the clover, they will leave behind a lot of manure for
the next planting season.
In any farm the level of existing biodiversity can make the difference between the
system being stressed or resilient when confronting a biotic or abiotic perturbation. In all
agro-ecosystems a diversity of organisms is required for ecosystem function and to provide
environmental services. When agro-ecosystems are simplified, whole functional groups of
species are removed, shifting the balance of the system from a desired to a less desired
state, affecting their capacity to respond to changes and to generate ecosystem services.
18
Two categories of diversity can be distinguished in agro-ecosystem: functional and response
diversity. Functional diversity refers to the variety of organisms and the ecosystem services
they provide for the system to continue performing. Response diversity is the diversity of
responses to environmental change among species that contribute to the same ecosystem
function. An agro-ecosystem that contains a high degree of response diversity will be more
resilient against various types and degrees of shocks. Many researchers have found that
maintenance of diverse traditional crop varieties (maize, potatoes, rice) is essential for
adaptation and survival by poor farmers. Even when planted alongside modern crops,
traditional crop varieties are still conserved, providing a contingency when conditions are
not favorable.
Biodiversity enhances the performance and function of farms because different
species or genotypes perform slightly different functions and therefore have different
niches. In general there are many more species than there are functions and thus
redundancy is built into the agro-ecosystem. Therefore, biodiversity enhances ecosystem
function because those components that appear redundant at one point in time become
important when some environmental change occurs. The key here is that when
environmental change occurs, the redundancies of the system allow for continued
ecosystem functioning and provisioning of ecosystem services. A diversity of species acts
as a buffer against failure due to environmental fluctuations, by enhancing the
compensation capacity of the agro-ecosystem, because if one species fails, others can
play their role, thus leading to more predictable aggregate community responses or
ecosystem properties.
There are many advantages of diversity including: less impact of pests,
diversification of production, and major species conservation. In addition, polycultures
have proven to be more productive than monocultures when productivity is calculated in
the form of land equivalent ratio (LER) (see Box 4).
Box 4: Land equivalent ratio
Land equivalent ratio = Yield of corn in polyculture + Yield of bean in polyculture

Yield of corn in monoculture Yield of bean in monoculture
If the value is 1 or more than 1, it means that the polyculture over-yields. For example, if the LER is 1.5,
this means that you need 1.5 ha of land grown under monoculture to get the same yield as 1 ha under
the polyculture.
Crop genetic diversity comprises traditional varieties, modern cultivars and crop
wild relatives and other wild plant species that can be used. In Latin America, there is a
wide range of traditional varieties of maize while in Asia, the same occurs for rice. In the
Andes, there are also thousands of varieties of potatoes. Modern varieties can yield more,
but demand more water and more fertilizer. So if we calculate productivity with respect to
water and fertilizer use, we find that traditional varieties perform much better when there
is no water or fertilizer. Diseases also increase when there are fewer varieties of species
as the crops are then more susceptible. Mixing varieties is a good strategy to reduce crop
diseases. Genetic diversity is closely connected to cultural diversity. The regions with more
biodiversity are the ones with more indigenous peoples who maintain traditional
varieties as part of their culture. Many of these varieties are disease-resistant and drought-
tolerant varieties that perform stably in marginal conditions. Seed exchange underpins this
farmer-man-aged seed system. There are numerous practices for enhancing biodiversity
that are tied to rich cultural diversity and local knowledge. For example, in an island in
Chile, women have kept traditional varieties of potato as they give potatoes to their
daughters when they get married. Rural women are particularly knowledgeable about
diverse plant and tree species and their uses for healthcare, fuel, fodder and food.
It is also very important to maintain landscape diversity. Examples of landscape
diversity are the chinampas in Mexico, the waru waru in Peru and the rice terraces in Asia, all
of which illustrate a deep knowledge of biodiversity and its interactions. In the Andes,
farmers have plots at different altitudinal belts with diversified crops. More plots dispersed
along the mountain means lower risk (Figure 3). The community manages the
landscape/territory together and follows long-established traditions, such as practicing a
19
7-year rotation.
Soil diversity is also critical. This comprises micro-organisms, micro-fauna (protozoa
and nematodes), meso-fauna (acari and springtails), macro-fauna (earthworms and termites)
and plant roots which interact with one another and with other plants and animals in the
ecosystem. The soil biota maintains soil health, control pests and diseases, perform
ecosystem functions such as decomposition and recycling, and maintain production.
Earthworms improve the soil’s structure by regulating water infiltration and improving root
growth. Arthropods improve the soil structure with the creation of faecal pellets, which
stimulate microbial activity and ensure a healthy soil food web. Meanwhile, fungi
decompose carbon compounds, improve the accumulation of organic matter, retain
nutrients in fungal biomass, bind soil particles, improve plant growth, compete with
pathogens and decompose certain types of pollutants. Bacteria decompose organic matter,
enhance soil structure, compete with disease-causing organisms, and filter and degrade
pollutants. Management strategies to enhance soil biodiversity include no-tillage farming,
crop rotations, minimal ploughing, mulching, return of plant residues as green manures to
the soils, supply of organic matter such as compost, enhanced plant diversity, and the
protection of the habitat for soil organisms.
Many traditional and organic farmers add large quantities of organic materials on a
regular basis via animal manures, composts, tree leaves, cover crops, rotation crops that
leave large amounts of residue, etc. as a key strategy used to enhance soil quality. Of utmost
importance for resiliency is that soil organic matter improves the soil’s water retention
capacity, enhancing drought tolerance by crops, as well as improves infiltration,
diminishing runoff and avoiding the transportation of soil particles with water under
intense rains. Soil organic matter also improves surface soil aggregation, holding the soil
particles tightly during rain or windstorms. Stable soil aggregates resist movement by wind
or water. Organically rich soils usually contain symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi, such as
arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, which form a key component of the microbial
populations influencing plant growth and soil productivity. AM fungi are important in
sustainable agriculture because they improve plant-water relations and thus increase the
drought resistance of host plants. The abilities of specific fungus-plant associations to
tolerate drought are of great interest in areas affected by water deficits as AM fungi
infection has been reported to increase nutrient uptake in water-stressed plants and to
enable plants to use water more efficiently and to increase root hydraulic conductivity. In
summary, at the agro-landscape or farm level, there should be species and genetic
diversity, with surrounding forest resource biodiversity, insect biodiversity, soil organism
biodiversity, plant and animal genetic diversity, habitat diversity, and the related
diversities of culture and knowledge.
Figure 3. Andean farmers divide the mountain into various altitudinal belts. Crops and
varieties are deployed according to their adaptation to changing temperature with altitude,
and farmers manage various plots distributed along the slope to minimize failures
20
Ag Eco 1: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE

Activity No. 3
Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

1. What is the ecological role of biodiversity?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_________
2. Why is biodiversity important in agriculture?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_________
3. How do humans influence biodiversity?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
./
21
CHAPTER FOUR
ENHANCING PLANT BIODIVERSITY FOR ECOLOGICAL PEST

MANAGEMENT IN AGROECOSYSTEMS
INTENSIVE agriculture has displaced many ecosystem services provided by natural

ecosystems, with many negative externalities such as pollution and salinization. We can,
however, restore ecosystem functions at the plot, field and landscape levels by using
polycultures, insectary strips, crop rotation, crop borders, riparian corridors, nature
reserves, and so on.
The components of functional biodiversity include pollinators, predators and
parasites, herbivores, non-crop vegetation, earthworms, soil micro-fauna and micro-flora.
These carry out important functions such as pollination, pest regulation and improving soil
structure. Once we know the components and their functions, farmers can enhance
biodiversity in a multiple-use farming system. The challenge lies in how to assemble and
enhance functional biodiversity.
Agro-ecology has two pillars that we need to focus on: soil quality (below ground,
i.e., enhance organic matter and biological activity) and plant health (above ground, i.e.,
enhance habitat for beneficial biota) (Figure 4). Both pillars interact and complement each
other. Soil fertility can be enhanced by different practices, such as the use of organic
fertilizers, cover crops, green manures, mulching, compost, intercropping and crop
rotations. Pest regulation can be enhanced with crop diversity, cultural practices, microbial
insecticides and habitat modification (Figure 5).
The first step in the conversion of farms to agro-ecology is diversification, whereby
the monoculture is broken. As biodiversity increases, there will be more beneficial
interactions and high resource-use efficiency. An increasing body of literature documents
the effects that plant diversity has on the regulation of insect herbivore populations by
favoring the abundance and efficacy of associated natural enemies. Research has shown
that mixing certain plant species usually leads to density reductions of specialized
herbivores.
Agro-ecology is preventive and not curative in nature, i.e., creating systems that
inhibit pest invasion. Weeds can provide flowers with pollen and nectar that beneficial
insects need. But to avoid weed infestations, farmers need to cut the weeds before they
seed. An- other alternative is to plant flowers in the system to attract and feed natural
enemies. This creates an ecological infrastructure for natural enemies of pests. The plants
should be flowering all the time throughout the growing season and must be present
before the crops are planted, so that an army of beneficial insects build up before insect
pests reach too high densities. Natural enemies work best at lower densities of pests, so
we need to build and maintain their levels as a preventive approach.
Figure 4. The two fundamental pillars of the agroecological conversion process
22
Planting strips or corridors of flowers in the middle of crops or as borders breaks the
monoculture and provides pollen and nectar for natural enemies that can move to the
adjacent crop and control pests. Several researchers have introduced flowering plants in
strips within crops as a way to enhance the availability of pollen and nectar, necessary for
optimal reproduction, fecundity and longevity of many natural enemies of pests. Commonly
used flowers include Phacelia, buckwheat and Alyssum strips in various crops, leading to
enhanced abundance of aphidophagous predator especially syrphid flies and ladybugs that
consequently reduce aphid populations. Many predators and parasitoids only move 50 m
from the forest edge or the corridor, which means that corridors should be established every
100 m. The distance between each flowering strip or corridor depends on the insects you
wish to attract, e.g., if they are flying or creeping insects. There needs to be consideration of
the size and shape of the flowers and the exposure of the pollen. Different insects are
attracted to different kinds of flowers. Flowers that are good for natural enemies are usually
small, open, but not too tubular so that the nectar is easily accessible to all kinds of insects,
otherwise they will not be effective in providing food to beneficial insects.
Why are pests attracted to monocultures? Many pests use visual and/or olfactory
clues to locate crops. It is easier for pests to find the plant (by smell and sight) if there is a
monoculture. In Costa Rica, where it was not possible to grow tomatoes due to high virus-
transmitting whitefly populations, one innovative farmer grew tomatoes successfully along
with cilantro, as the whitefly could not find the tomato. When corn is grown with beans and
squash, the pests are confused, so it is more difficult for them to colonize the crop. The
squash is also a good border trap crop, especially for cucumber beetles. Monocultures do
not provide pollen and nectar for beneficial insects (predators of pests), unlike a
polyculture. So in a polyculture natural enemies find many resources and build up in
numbers, regulating pests. In Africa, researchers developed a push-pull system associating
plants with maize, some of which attract the parasitoids of the pest while others attract the
pest away from maize (acting as a trap crop). Napier and sudan grasses are used as border
trap crops. Molasses grass and silver leaf (Desmodium) are planted as intercrops to repel
the maize stem borer (Figure 6). Desmodium also suppresses the growth of the striga weed,
fixes nitrogen, and is excellent forage for increasing milk production in cows. The system
produces a 15-20 per cent increase in maize yield and a return of $2.30 for every dollar
invested.
Even certain weeds play an ecological role. They should not be so abundant as to
compete with the crop. We need to discover the critical period of competition of weeds, for
example, only allowing weeds after the crop’s cycle so that the crop is established. There
are weeds that trap insects and weeds with repellent action, while flowering weeds serve as a
source of alternative food for beneficial insects (pollen, nectar, neutral insects).
For example, in Mexico, a weed (lupin) is grown with maize because it is more
attractive to pests than the maize. When the weeds are full of the pests, the farmers cut and
burn them. Another example is wild brassica, which insects prefer to cabbage because the
former has six times more essential oils than cabbage and is more attractive to insects such
as cabbage worms and flea beetles. In Colombia, grass weeds grown around beans act as a
repellent to pests because they emit a particular odour that leafhopper pests do not like.
Certain weeds can also provide cues (akin to ‘cries for help’ when attacked by pests) to
attract beneficial insects.
Cuba has shown that polycultures can be successful on a large scale and researchers
there have identified combinations of crops that regulate specific pests; for example, sweet
potato and maize grown together control sweet potato weevil. The pollen of maize attracts
predators and so maize can be used to enhance the population of predators as well as act as a
physical barrier to avoid dispersion of pests (such as thrips) to other plots. Maize grown with
vetch controls nematodes. Another widely used combination is maize and beans. Different
combinations of plants can be used to control different pests, e.g., using cassava with beans to
control cassava pests and growing cabbage with sesame to control the whitefly.
Different kinds of cover crops serve different functions, for example, to enhance soil
structure, improve soil fertility and manage pests. Legumes are used mainly to increase soil
fertility while a mix of legumes and grass improves soil structure. Cover crops serve as
habitats for natural enemies to control pests. Ladybugs, ground beetles, spiders and wasps
are very important predators that are to be encouraged. Cover crops must be planted early
when the population of the pest is low so there is time to build up the population of natural
23
enemies. The cover crops must be mowed regularly to force the predators to move to the
crops to find prey, otherwise they may just stay in the cover crop area. The timing for forcing
the movement is critical and must coincide with the most vulnerable stage of the pest. This
can be determined by closely monitoring populations.
Animals can also be used to control pests. For example, fish in rice fields can consume
weeds and push the rice plants in a way that shakes off the pests. The fish then feed on the
leafhoppers that fall off. Ducks can also be used to control the larvae of many insect pests.
Landscape heterogeneity is important too. If there is diversity in the surrounding landscape,
this can be used and connected with the farm, allowing natural enemies to disperse into the
crop fields. Sometimes, instead of corridors, ‘islands’ can be made. These islands composed
of flowering plants serve as habitats of natural enemies where they concentrate. Placing
perches or nest boxes for birds is another strategy, as birds are efficient in controlling the
population of certain types of insects.
Figure 6. The push-pull system to control the stem borer in Africa combines plants that act as
trap crops of the pest and others that attract parasitic wasps of the pest
24
Chapter Five
AGROECOLOGICAL BASIS FOR THE CONVERSION TO ORGANIC

MANAGEMENT
HOW does one convert from a high-input conventional to a sustainable low-external-

input agricultural system? Many people conceptualize this conversion as a transitional
process with three marked phases:
(1) Increased efficiency of input use as emphasized by traditional integrated pest

management. In this stage, for example, with Integrated Pest Management (IPM), fields
are monitored to see if there is a pest population, and action (application of pesticides
or repellents) is only taken when a certain threshold of damage, injury or pathogenicity
is reached. It is a good step as it reduces the use of pesticides and encourages more
selective usage, but the agro-ecology goal has not been reached yet.
(2) Input substitution or substitution of agrochemical inputs with environmentally benign
inputs as practiced by many organic farmers. This second stage is where farmers use
external inputs such as commercial compost or botanical pesticides, which occurs in
the majority of organic farms. However, such farms may still be monocultures, thus the
ecological infrastructure of the system has not changed. Although chemical pesticides
are not used, sometimes farmers use a product that contradicts another, e.g., applying
sulphur to kill a plant pathogen, which also kills many beneficial insects. Input
substitution is not the same as agro-ecology. The former focuses on the symptoms,
overcoming of limiting factors, external inputs, maximization of yields, monocultures
and usually one product, while agro-ecology deals with root causes, optimizing
processes, interactions and synergy, stabilization of yields, diversification and
multiple functions and products. Increasingly many organic farmers are getting closer
to the agro-ecological approach, but more could still be done to reduce external
inputs.
(3) System redesign: diversification with an optimal crop/animal assemblage, which
encourages synergism so that the agro-ecosystem may sponsor its own soil fertility,
natural pest regulation, and crop productivity. To redesign farms there are two ways to
break monocultures: by introducing temporal and spatial diversity. Diversity can be
built over time by using crop rotation, including a “charging phase” – where the system
enhances organic matter (e.g., through legumes) – alternating with an “extracting
phase” with more demanding crops (e.g., cereals). A good rotation has to have an
equilibrium between the two phases.
Many of the practices currently being promoted as components of IPM or organic farm-
ing fall in categories 1 and 2. Both of these stages offer clear benefits in terms of lower
environmental impacts as they decrease agrochemical input use and can often provide
economic advantages compared to conventional systems. Incremental changes are likely
to be more acceptable to farmers than drastic modifications that may be viewed as highly
risky or that complicate management. But does the adoption of practices that increase the
efficiency of input use or that substitute biologically based inputs for agrochemicals, but
leave the monoculture structure intact, really have the potential to lead to the productive
redesign of agricultural systems?
In general, the fine-tuning of input use through IPM does little to move farmers toward
an alternative to high-input systems. In most cases IPM translates to “intelligent pesticide
management” as it results in selective use of pesticides according to a predetermined
economic threshold, which pests often ‘surpass’ in monoculture situations. On the other
hand, input substitution follows the same paradigm of conventional farming: overcoming the
limiting factor, but this time with biological or organic inputs. Many of these “alternatives
inputs” have become commoditized, therefore farmers continue to be dependent on input
sup- pliers, many of a corporate nature. Clearly, as it stands today, “input substitution” has
lost much of its ecological potential.
25
System redesign, in contrast, arises from the transformation of agro-ecosystem function
and structure by promoting management guided to ensure fundamental agro-ecosystem
processes. Promotion of biodiversity within agricultural systems is the cornerstone
strategy of system redesign, as research has demonstrated that higher diversity (genetic,
taxonomic, structural, resource) within the cropping system leads to higher diversity in
associated biota, usually leading to more effective pest control and tighter nutrient cycling.
As more information about specific relationships between biodiversity, ecosystem
processes, and productivity in a variety of agricultural systems is accumulated, design
guidelines can be developed further and used to improve agro-ecosystem sustainability
and resource conservation.
5.1 Crop rotations
Crop rotations are key strategies to start the conversion process. A farm can be divided
into four to six large fields such that after a period of time a succession of crops circulates in
every field. The rules for good rotation include: avoid planting the same crop family in the
same field; alternate cover crops with cash crops; alternate deep-rooted crops with
shallow, fine-rooted crops; precede heavy feeders (like corn and rice) with nitrogen-
fixing crops; and avoid following a root crop with another root crop. There is a rule in crop
rotation that determines the optimal time before which one can grow the same plant
family in a plot of soil to avoid build-up of pathogens in the soil. This also helps to optimize
the diversification of the system as no one plant family dominates the rotation (Figure 7).
Rotations essentially break the life cycles of diseases and certain combinations of crops
eliminate or reduce pests/diseases. Rotations decrease diseases by incorporating plants
that are toxic to pathogens – this is called bio-fumigation. Plants in the Cruciferae family
(brassicas) like mustard have a chemical in their tissues which, when churned under,
releases secondary compounds (glucosinolates or allelochemicals) which act as bio-
fumigants that kill pathogens in the soil. Other plants that have this effect include marigold
and Crotalaria. Rotations can break the cycle of pests, especially when rotated crops belong
to different botanical families. Some pathogens that cause diseases survive in the soil from
year to year in one form or another, usually as sclerotia, spores or hyphae. Continuously
cropping the same crop builds up the population levels of any soil-borne pathogen of that
crop that may be present. The populations can potentially build up to such an extent that it
becomes difficult to grow that crop without yield losses. But growing a crop that is not a
host plant for that pathogen will lead to the pathogen’s death due to starvation.
Rotations also reduce weed populations by breaking their life cycles. The biomass of
weeds under crop rotation with green manure is reduced and that of the crop is
increased. Green manure helps the crop but also suppresses weeds, as opposed to
chemical fertilizers that stimulate the growth of large seeded weeds.
How can we avoid losing nitrogen from the soil in a rotation? One way is to grow a
legume and, when it is flowering, to under-sow wild mustard. Once the legume is
harvested, the mustard will capture the nitrogen that would otherwise be lost from the soil
because there is too much time between the legume and the next crop. The mustard acts
like a bridge that retains the nitrogen in the system until the new crop (cereal) is planted.
We can incorporate the mustard into the soil before planting maize. Mustard also has
allelochemical properties. In southern Brazil, the farmers usually plant three cover crops:
vetch, forage radish and rye as green manure. They then roll over the crops to flatten
them. The material will start decomposing and releasing allelochemicals that form a toxic
layer in the top two centimetres below the soil surface. This kills most of the weeds as the
weed seed bank is in the first 2-3 cm of the soil. So the weed (or any other) seeds will not
germinate in this toxic layer. The farmers sow maize and beans seeds deeper into the soil,
say 3 or 4 cm deep, so they will not be affected by the toxins and freely germinate. The
farmers discovered this through observation and experimentation.
Some benefits of rotation only take place over a long time. After a few years generally there
is no statistical difference in the yields of conventional and organic crops. However, organic
farms do better in droughts since organic matter acts like a sponge, increasing the water-
absorbing capacity of soils. In addition to the above benefits, rotations maintain healthy soil,
allow diverse products for the market that will provide economic stability, diversify tasks
to spread labour out over the year to keep workers happy and productive, and minimize
26
off-farm inputs and capture solar energy wherever possible.
Figure 7. An optimal crop rotation with sequences of distinct functional groups or

families of plants that have various nutrient requirements and do not share pest
complexes
5.1 Enhancing soil health
The most important goal of conversion is to enhance soil health. We want to have soil
that has good structure and a lot of organic matter, and soil biological activity. Organic
matter produces substances that allow soil particles to aggregate, with lots of micropores
where water and air can permeate. Soil organic matter provides the fuel for microbes and
meso- and macro-fauna. Through decomposition, the soil microbes mineralize minerals
that become used by plants. Just 10 grams of soil contain millions of organisms that interact in
very complex food webs.
As the microbial biomass is concentrated in the top layer of the soil, we have to protect
topsoil. Large quantities of organic matter – different kinds like fresh and dry leaves
(cellulosic material), branches (lignin), compost, etc. – should be applied to soils on a
regular basis. Soil cover should be maintained with cover crops and mulches. Erosion can
cause the loss of not only nutrients but micro-organisms too, and should be minimized
with proper soil conservation measures. The loss of 1 mm of soil is equivalent to 14 tons
per ha. To rebuild that will take 50-100 years with good practices.
The basic ecological principles behind soil biological management are:
• The supply of organic material for food. There are two types of organic material, labile
and non-labile. Labile organic matter decomposes quickly and usually comes from leaves
and straw. Non-labile material decomposes more slowly, such as lignins and branches
from trees. A mixture of both labile and non-labile material is needed to produce good
organic matter. Material that decomposes quickly provides nutrients while those that
decompose slowly give structure to the soil. Farmers also need to stimulate soil organ-
isms with good temperature, nutrients and air.
• Increased plant diversity. Many plants release substances from roots (root exudates).
Each exudate stimulates a different population of bacteria. The more the exudates, the
more complex the soil microbiology near the roots.
• Maintain good soil structure to stimulate microbes and improve water, air, temperature
and nutrient conditions.
• Use different types of organic materials because they have different effects on soil
biological, chemical and physical properties.
27
• Keep soil covered with living vegetation and/or crop residues by using cover crops,
sod crops in rotations, and/or reduced tillage practices. This encourages water to
infiltrate into the soil instead of running off the field, taking sediments (and organic
matter) along.
• Reduce soil compaction to a minimum by keeping off fields when they are too wet,
redistributing loads, using traffic lanes, etc.
• Use a variety of practices to reduce erosion. These include some mentioned above,
such as keeping soil covered with living vegetation or crop residues (using cover
crops, rotation sod crops, and reducing tillage), as well as other practices such as
terracing, grassed waterways, strip cropping along the contour by alternating a row
crop with a sod crop, using natural or planted buffers between fields and streams, etc.
• Use practices to supply supplemental fertility sources, when needed, that better
match nutrient availability to crop uptake needs (which vary during the season). This
helps to reduce both weed and insect damage.
When we add organic matter, we increase the carbon in the soil and create conditions
for balanced biota. The food web in the soil becomes very complex, with bacteria, fungi,
nematodes and protozoa all playing a role. Some soil organisms feed on other organisms
and control their populations; for example, there are nematodes that eat fungi and vice-
versa. Other micro-organisms mineralize nutrients, others protect crops against pathogens
and others produce plant-growth-promoting hormones (Figure 8). In the rhizosphere, there
are not just plant roots, but also thousands of beneficial bacteria and fungi that surround the
roots. Mycorrhizae help plants to acquire certain nutrients such as phosphorus and improve
water use efficiency. If there is drought, crops with mycorrhizae survive better than crops
without. Mycorrhizae also cover roots and protect them against pathogens. It is difficult to
introduce mycorrhizae into a planted field. It is best to harvest litter from a nearby natural
forest, which has a lot of mycorrhizae, and then incorporate this material in the compost so as
to inoculate it.
5.2 Crop diversity
Increasing plant diversity in agro-ecosystems provides checks and balances, nutrient

availability to plants, checks on disease outbreaks, etc. Intercropping is an important
strategy, given that it enhances plant diversity, with crop combinations that can
complement each other. For example, intercropping can reduce disease incidence. In
order for a disease to occur, there must be a susceptible plant, a favorable environment
(temperature, humidity, soil conditions) and an aggressive pathogen with many races (this
is called the “disease triangle”). Intercropping can alter temperature and humidity to
levels that are not favorable to the pathogen. Intercropping mixes varieties of different
plants of various heights, so that tall plants block the dispersal of the disease spores. A
Chinese experiment found that alternate rows of short and tall rice varieties greatly
reduced the incidence of disease and fungicide use, hence increasing yields. The tall rice
varieties had blocked the movement and spread of fungal spores.
Intercrops can include varieties that exhibit horizontal resistance. Usually, traditional
crop varieties have medium resistance to all pathogen races (horizontal resistance), but
Green Revolution crop varieties tend to have vertical resistance (a high degree of
resistance to a single race of a pathogen, but not to other races), making modern varieties
more vulnerable.
Can this work on a large scale? Simpler diversification schemes based on two or three
plant species may be more amenable to large-scale farmers and can be managed using
modern equipment. One such scheme is strip intercropping, which involves the
production of more than one crop in strips that are narrow enough for the crops to
interact, yet wide enough to permit independent cultivation. Agronomically beneficial strip
intercropping systems have usually included corn or sorghum, which readily respond to
higher light intensities. Studies with corn and soybean strips 4 to 12 rows wide
28
demonstrated increased corn yields (5 to 26 per cent higher) and decreased soybean
yields (8.5 to 33 per cent lower) as strips got narrower (Figure 9). Alternating corn and
alfalfa strips provided greater gross returns than single crops. Strips of 20 ft
(approximately 6.1 m) width were the most advantageous, with substantially higher
economic returns than the single crops. This advantage is critical for farmers who have
debt-to-asset ratios of 40 per cent or higher ($40 of debt for every $100 of assets). Such a
level has already been reached by more than 11-16 per cent of farmers in the mid-western
United States who desperately need to cut costs of production by adopting diversification
strategies.
Building an ecological infrastructure is the last stage of the design where one deploys
biodiversity in time and space optimally. An agro-ecological farm can supply all the
dietary needs of farmers and their families, with surplus, via diverse foods and nutrients.
Once the system is working, it takes care of itself and there is no more need for a lot of
external inputs or much labour. Large-scale agro-ecological conversion on cooperative
farms has been achieved by introducing contour farming on slopes, restoring corridors of
biodiversity, green manure application to recover soil fertility, planting trees, strip
intercropping, rotation, relay green manuring providing multi-strata habitats such as
hedges with multiple species of trees and shrubs which also provide flowers, fruit, fuel
and protect against wind, and integration of livestock, which are equally important agents
of recycling and pest control. Animals integrated into the farm eat all the crop residues
and provide manure for fertilization. It is important to select the right animals, for
example, local animals that do not demand too much energy and food. In Brazil, family
farmers release chickens into the field once the crops have grown to a certain height to
control pests, produce manure and control weeds. In Colombia, farmers use guinea pigs
to feed on grass, the urine and manure form these animals are good fertilizers and can be
used to make vermicompost, and their manure can also be fed to fish.
5.3 Indicators of sustainability
Conventional agriculture is not sustainable. How can we evaluate an agricultural sys-

tem to see if it is sustainable?
Firstly, we need to see if the system is being managed according to agro-ecological
principles. Is it enhancing spatial and temporal genetic and species diversity at farm and
landscape levels; is it promoting crop and animal integration (nutrient cycling); is it
enhancing biologically active soils and promoting high biomass recycling rates; and is it
optimizing the use of space (agro-ecological design)? Many tools have been developed to
assess the sustainability of farming systems. One methodology offers a set of indicators
(see Box 5) consisting of observations or measurements that are done at the farm and
landscape levels to assess agro-ecological features of the farms and the performance of
the farming systems and determine if changes in species biodiversity, soil quality, plant
health, crop productivity, etc. are positively evolving. If this is not the case, the
methodology offers the opportunity to prioritize the agro-ecological interventions
necessary to correct observed soil, crop or system deficiencies.
Soil quality indicators include: soil structure, signs of erosion, compaction, percentage
of soil cover, root development, soil micro-organisms, colour and odour of the organic
matter, presence of invertebrates, and microbiological activity. Crop health indicators in-
clude diseases and pest incidence, functional diversity (abundance and diversity of natural
enemies) and so fort. Since all the measurements made are based on the same indicators, the
results are comparable and it is possible to follow the evolution towards resilience of the
same agro-ecosystem along a timeline, or make comparisons between farms in various
transitional stages.
Each indicator is valued separately and assigned a value between 1 and 10,
according to the attributes observed in the soil or crop (1 being the least desirable value, 5
a moderate or threshold value and 10 the most preferred value). Once the indicators are
applied, each farmer can visualize the conditions of his or her farm, noticing which of the
landscape, soil or plant attributes are sufficient or deficient compared to a pre-
established threshold.
29
Box 5: Indicators used to assess if farms are utilizing agroecological principles in their
design and management
• Landscape diversity (amount and type of vegetation surrounding farm)

• On-farm crop and animal diversity (number of species)
• Genetic diversity (number of local crop varieties and/or animal races)
• Soil quality (organic matter content, structure, soil cover, infiltration, etc.)
• Signs of degradation or resource losses (soil erosion, deforestation, habitat frag- mentation,
state of water courses, efficiency in use of water, nutrients, etc.)
• Plant health (presence of pests, diseases and weeds, crop damage)
• Dependence on external inputs (percentage of inputs originating outside farm)
• Levels of food self-sufficiency (percentage of food originating on farm)
• Interactions and bioresource flows between farm components (recycling of crop residues and
manure, effective use of biomass, complementarities between plants, level of natural pest
control, etc.)
• Resilience to external disturbances (capacity to resist and recover from pests, droughts,
storms, etc.)
Figure 9. Yield comparison of a three-crop strip intercropping with monoculture cropping

(the broken line is the yield of each crop under monoculture) as affected by row position.
The positive edge effect in corn occurs mainly in the rows at the crop strip border with
soybean. This positive effect may extend to the second outside rows; however, the yield in the
centre of strips wider than four rows is equivalent to sole-cropped corn.
The indicators are more easily observed by using an amoeba-type graph as it allows
one to visualize the general status of soil quality and crop health, considering that the closer
the amoeba approaches the full diameter length of the circle, the more sustainable the system
(a 10 value). Farms with an overall value lower than 5 in soil quality and/or crop health are
considered below the sustainability threshold, and rectifying measures should be taken to
improve the low indicators on these farms (Figure 10).
The amoeba graph shows which indicators are weak (below 5). Allowing the
farmers to prioritize the agro-ecological interventions necessary to correct soil, crop or
system deficiencies. At times it may be possible to correct a set of deficiencies just by
addressing one specific attribute. For instance, increasing species diversity or soil
organic matter will in turn affect other system attributes. By adding organic matter, one is
increasing the soil’s water-carrying capacity, augmenting soil biological activity, and
improving soil structure.
30
Figure 10. Amoeba diagram representing the soil quality status of two vineyard systems
(transitioning to organic, and biodynamic) in northern California. The biodynamic farm exhibits
better soil quality values for structure, compaction, status of residues, and soil depth, while the
transition farm exhibits higher values for biological activity, soil cover, water retention, and organic
matter, probably reflecting the positive effects of maintaining the dry cover as mulch.
31

Activity No. 5
Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

1. How do I make my land organic?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. How does conventional agriculture affect the environment?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Why conventional agriculture is not sustainable?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
32
CHAPTER SIX
AGROECOLOGY AND FOOD SOVEREIGNTY
THERE are about 1.5 billion peasants in 380 million small farms worldwide. Fifty to 75
per cent of the world’s food is produced by small farmers, even though they only control 25-
30 per cent of the land, and use 30 per cent of the water and 20 per cent of the fossil fuels used
in agriculture. Globally, more than 90 per cent of the world’s farms are small, less than 2 ha.
These farms have contributed to agricultural biodiversity by breeding 7,616 animal races
and 1.9 million crop varieties since 1960, which are freely available to humankind (in contrast
to the Green Revolution which has produced only 8,000 new crop varieties since 1970). Small
farms are more productive than large farms, if the total output is considered rather than
yields from a single crop. They also have a tendency to use locally available resources in an
efficient manner and rely on indigenous knowledge.
Small farmers play important roles as custodians of agricultural biodiversity,
repositories of indigenous knowledge, producers of food, innovators and experimenters.
Much of the agricultural biodiversity has been maintained through cultural traditions,
which include community seed banks and community harvesting encouraging exchange
of many varieties.
Many small farmers use agro-ecological techniques such as intercropping and
complex systems. These farms are not new and have existed for centuries. For example, the
chinampas were developed by the Aztecs 5,000 years ago, and consisted of mixed
agriculture and aquaculture. Small, rectangular artificial islands were made in shallow lake
beds. The mud was used as fertilizer, and floating weeds were composted and contributed
to the recycling of organic material. The system was very productive and supported fish,
ducks, chicken, maize, beans, vegetables and fruit trees. One hectare of land could
produce enough food for 15-20 persons per year. The chinampas fed more than 10 million
people of the Aztec empire.
Another example is in the Andes, where farmers still manage the terraces that were
created 5,000 years ago. There are about 120,000 hectares of terraces planted to sweet
potato, potato, and Andean crops rich in protein such as amaranth and quinoa. There are
efforts going on to recover terraces that have been abandoned, by using lupin, which is a
legume, as a green manure.
The ancient waru waru system in the Andes combines raised beds with irrigation
channels. It allows the production of potatoes and grains at 4,000 m above sea level,
despite the frost. Water absorbs heat in the day and the heat is released at night, changing
the microclimate. It is a perfect adaptation strategy that was developed thousands of
years ago. The system was destroyed by colonialism, but there are hundreds of farmers
who are now re- constructing the system. So far, some 4,720 hectares have been
recovered.
Agro-ecological methods produce more food on less land, using less energy and less
water while enhancing the natural resource base, providing ecological services and
lowering outputs of greenhouse gases. Agro-ecology is not one more tool in the toolbox to
fix the problems of conventional agriculture. It is an alternative system; a break away from
conventional agriculture. Food sovereignty means bypassing the industrial system of
agriculture to make food systems more localized and less globalized. Agro-ecology
provides the production strategies and methodologies, and needs strong social
movements to organize and spread the technologies and pressure governments to
provide access to markets, credit and agro-ecological extension and research. A central
issue is land reform so that peasants can have access to land, water and seeds.
Food sovereignty is about the right to healthy harvests, the right to food that is culturally
appropriate, and the right of each country or peoples to define their own food policies
without intervention from outside. Food sovereignty is also the right to produce with fair
prices for consumers and producers. There is an emphasis on access to national and local
33
markets for small-scale producers; produce is exported only after requirements at local
and national levels are met.
Governments need to put in place appropriate policies: for example, to protect small
farmers against free trade, provide them with credit, eliminate monopolies, scale up
agro-ecology projects, protect public goods research, and so on. One fundamental aspect
of food sovereignty lies in seeds, which are peoples’ patrimony at the service of
humankind. Food sovereignty is also tied to energy sovereignty and technological
sovereignty, which in the case of agro-ecology means that there is no need to use inputs,
promoting the use of farm-saved seeds. Features of appropriate technologies for poor
farmers are that they are: based on indigenous knowledge and rationale; economically
viable, accessible, and use local resources; environmentally sound; socially just; risk-
averse; and enhance total farm productivity and stability. Cuba provides an amazing
example of what can be achieved with agro-ecological agriculture (see Box 6).
Box 6: Cuba – A model of agro-ecological agriculture
Historically, Cuban agriculture was one of monocultures, export orientation, and

natural resource exploitation. After the revolution, there were changes in socio-
economic terms, but not in natural resource exploitation and industrial agriculture. Prior
to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990, Cuba traded sugar in exchange for fertilizers,
pesticides and petroleum. Agriculture then was very industrial, with heavy use of
chemical pesticides and fertilizers.
The motivation for its agricultural redesign was its economic collapse following the
collapse of the Socialist bloc. Without resources from abroad, the inefficiency and fragility
of its industrial agricultural system became apparent; it could not function. Cuba faced low
food self- sufficiency, high external dependence and deeply rooted socio-economic
problems in the countryside. Cuba is unique in that the revolution invested in education,
resulting in a country that makes up two per cent of the Latin American population having
11 per cent of the scientists. Cuba thus had human capital and with no inputs forthcoming,
they were forced to go organic and realize the importance of peasant agriculture.
From 1990-2014, three fundamental trends emerged in Cuba:
• A change from monoculture to diversification by increasing diversity and
heterogeneity.
• A move from centralization to decentralization. This involved changes in land
tenancy structure, a decline in state-owned lands, and reductions in farm size.
• A move from dependence on food imports to food self-sufficiency, prioritizing
local food production over exports.
The process of conversion to agro-ecology took place at four levels:
Level 1 − increased efficiency of conventional practices by, for example, using legumes,
reducing energy inputs, and improving technology efficiency;
Level 2 − input substitution, e.g., biological pest control and better use of
renewables; Level 3 − system redesign, based on ecological processes;
Level 4 − agro-ecological connection; developing a culture of sustainability that
considers all interactions between all components of the food system.
Urban agriculture has also developed rapidly in Cuba, as the petroleum shortage
resulted in production moving from rural to urban areas. Urban agriculture became the
model for the transformation of rural agriculture. Urban and peri-urban agriculture is
supported by state policy. Sixty per cent of the vegetables consumed in the cities now come
from a variety of urban and peri-urban farms. On average, these farms produce 18.444
kg/m2/year. Cities have also started recycling programme to make compost for use in
urban agriculture. There is also traditional poultry production, which requires selection of
suitable races of chicken adapted for the urban environment.
The contribution of small farmers to agriculture increased after the collapse of the
Soviet Union. The farmer-to-farmer network “campesino y campesino” has enabled many
farmers to switch to organic and natural farming. Today, there are some 20,000 families
practicing agro-ecology from 216 some years ago. These families use agro-ecological
strategies such as polycultures, animal integration, crop rotation, green manure and organic
amendments. Their most sophisticated technology is animal traction, which allows them to
34
get into the fields after the rains. There is also a lot of innovation with organic fertilizers, for
example, compost with forest litter. Many small farmers work on the hillsides and have also
used local technologies for water harvesting to ensure that their plots are well irrigated.
The small farms are extremely productive. Small farmers with 25 percent of the land
are able to produce more than 65 percent of the domestic food supply. For example, there is
one farm that has a land equivalent ratio of 1.76, that is, it is 76 percent more efficient than its
neighbors with monocultures. That farm can produce enough food to feed 21 people
carbohydrates and enough protein to feed 12 people from one hectare of land. The actual
size of the farm is 40 hectares, so it can feed about 800 people. It is also energy-efficient,
putting in 1 kcal and getting back 11 kcal. Another farm is diverse with a dynamic system of
rotation, and includes fruit trees, pastures, crops, and multi-purpose hedgegrows. It
produces multiple products such as food, forage and charcoal, and can feed 34 people with
protein per hectare, and is energy-efficient. Many of the farms also conserve and
sustainability use curative diversity, incorporating medical plants.
35

Activity No. 5
Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

1. How do agro-ecological practices contribute to food security?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. How can we promote food security?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Is agro-ecology could be the key to food security?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
36
CHAPTER SEVEN
AGROECOLOGY AND THE DESIGN OF RESILIENT FARMING SYSTEMS

FOR A PLANET IN CRISIS
NATURAL disasters are often costlier than technological and economic disasters. With
climate change, these are likely to become more frequent. At the same time, the
phenomenon of climate refugees is already happening. Can modern agro-ecosytems
confront climatic extremes? The effects of climate change are linked to industrial
agriculture, and these conventional large-scale monoculture systems due to their
homogeneity and associated vulnerability have suffered a lot due to climate change
impacts, such as drought.
There is also the issue of climate justice – who causes climate change and who suffers
the most? In the agriculture sector, it is conventional agriculture that is producing more
emissions than traditional agriculture. Those who farm traditionally do not produce much
emissions and did not have anything to do with climate change, but are suffering the most.
There is therefore an ecological debt owed by those who promote industrial agriculture.
The risk an agro-ecosystem is exposed to can be measured with this equation:
Risk = Threat + vulnerability Response

capacity
The agro-ecological definition of resiliency is the propensity of a system to maintain its
organizational structure and production after a perturbation. Shocks can consist of frequent
stressful events that can be cumulative or unpredictable. Resiliency exhibits two
properties: the capacity to resist shocks and the capacity to recover from shocks.
Resilient farms are therefore at lower risk from climate change.
There are also different types of resiliency:
• Ecological resiliency – which pertains to the design of a system; and

• Social resiliency – which focuses on the management of the landscape by social
networks.
The components of agro-ecosystem resilience are: diversification at the genetic,

species and landscape levels (through agroforestry, polycultures, and animal
integration); complexity of landscape matrices; and soil and water management.
In the Andean region in Peru, farmers have diversified their varieties according to the
altitude, which is at least 4,000 m above sea level. They have divided the slopes into differ-
ent belts and planted them accordingly. If a particular crop is destroyed because of frost,
risk is minimized as the farmers have planted different crops at different altitudes. There is
also social resiliency as the slopes are managed communally.
Another way of building resiliency is through polycultures; for example, in the

Mexican highlands, farmers do not only rely on maize, which is susceptible to frost, but
also plant other, complementary food crops such as fava beans, which can better withstand
frost. Another important strategy in adapting to climate change is the conservation of
genetic landraces resistant to drought. Centres of origin and genetic diversity harbour
thousands of varieties, some of which would perform well in low water situations or at
different altitudes. In Mexico for example, farmers plant a specific maize landrace which
can perform well without much water. How it is grown also contributes to the crop’s
drought resistance; the maize is planted about 20 cm deep, where compost is added,
protecting the seedling from desiccation.
Crop diversification can enhance the resiliency of agro-ecosystems and protect
production capacity in various ways including protection of crops against extreme weather
effects and fluctuations in water and temperature. For example, during Hurricane Mitch,
which devastated parts of Central America in 1998, diverse farms using soil conservation
practices (such as mulch, living or dead barriers, terraces) were better able to resist the
impact of the hurricane than farms managed under monoculture. The occurrences of
37
mudslides in conventional farms were higher than in agro-ecological farms. Although the
latter did also suffer, they recuperated faster, demonstrating resiliency.
Similarly, when Cuba faced Hurricane Ike in 2008, areas under industrial monoculture
suffered more damage and exhibited less recovery than diversified farms. Losses were
90- 100 per cent for the former as compared to 50 per cent for the latter. The diversified
farms were protected by hedgerows; although they still suffered damage, they were able
to recover faster.
Furthermore, complex systems such as agroforestry systems provide more
ecosystem services. In Colombia, for example, fruit trees are grown together with coffee
and other plants. If coffee is grown without shade, it is more susceptible to pests and climate
change. There is more evapotranspiration and the coffee without shade cannot survive
droughts. If it is grown in shade, there will be less evapotranspiration, so that when there is
a drought, the plant can survive.
Silvopastoral systems, where trees provide better microclimatic conditions and
where there are also legumes that animals can feed on, are less vulnerable to drought.
Silvopastoral systems are important for livestock. The more the tree and shrub biomass, the
better the animals’ body conditions and the higher the carrying capacity and production of the
system. The three strata in a silvopastoral system are grasses, shrubs and small trees, and
large trees. Such complex systems create a special microclimate where the animals can still
browse grasses and shrubs even under severe dry conditions.
One factor that influences resiliency is the landscape matrix within which farms are
inserted. For example, forests surrounding farms play a key role in controlling the effects
of climate change, such that those farms can better withstand excessive rain, drought and
other climate phenomena. In south China, most rice farmers suffered with the 2011 droughts
but those living in the Yuanyang terraced region were spared since they were surrounded
by forests, which played an important role in maintaining the local water cycle.
Organic matter can enhance soil structure and increase the soil’s water-holding
capacity. Organic crops out-yield conventional crops during drought because of the
increased organic matter and higher soil moisture content. Organic matter also creates a
suitable environment for plant roots. The role of fungal mycorrhizae is important; it
increases the absorption capacity of roots, increases mobilization and transfer of nutrients,
increases the plant’s tolerance of root pathogens, and increases the production of plant
growth hormones. Soil cover is also important to decrease evapotranspiration. Cover crops
increase organic matter in the soil and improve water storage. In Central America, farmers
plant vetch as cover crops, to control erosion on slopes and to also fix nitrogen. Mulching
can also reduce evaporation, conserving water for crops under stress.
Adaptation for farmers is the priority, but there could be mitigation benefits as well.
The common features of successful adaptation for farms based on agro-ecological principles
are:
• The landscape matrix influences the resiliency of farm fields as it influences the local
water cycle. When biodiversity is reduced, ecosystem services such as water-holding
capacity are affected.
• Organic matter and good soil structure are important for water-holding capacity, good
infiltration, etc.
• Water harvesting at household, farm, and landscape levels is essential.
• Diversification is critical; genetic diversity and associated knowledge, conservation of
traditional varieties, etc.
In summary, the literature suggests that agro-ecosystems will be more resilient when
inserted in a complex landscape matrix, featuring genetically heterogeneous and
diversified cropping systems managed with organic-matter-rich soils and water
conservation techniques (Figure 11). Such systems also have to be managed by well-
organized social networks (see Box 7).
38
Box 7: Socio-ecological characteristics of resilient farming systems and
communities
• High levels of biodiversity and species redundancy

• High connectivity and complementarity between farm components
• High spatial and temporal heterogeneity at the farm and landscape levels
• High levels of autonomy and independence from exogenous controls
• Socially self-organized conforming configurations based on needs and aspirations
• Reflective people that anticipate and plan for change
• High levels of cooperation and exchange
• Community honours legacy and uses traditional knowledge and practices as well as local germplasm
• Human capital developed and capable of mobilizing resources through social networks
Figure 11. Landscape, on-farm diversity, and soil and water features that enhance ecological
resilience to extreme climatic events
Polycultures
It is also very important to enhance farmers’ capacity for response. How do a farmer
and an agro-ecosystem respond to climate change? For example, if there is a drought and the
farmer plants many varieties, some crops will die while others survive, so there is good
capacity of response. In building reactive capacity, we need to work with farmers’
knowledge, their management skills, access to resources and diversity of enterprises. On its
own, agro-ecology is not enough to confront climate change. Farmers need to organize and
there is a need to create bridges among farmers, consumers and researchers. Farmer-to-
farmer networks to share knowledge and expertise are also important. The capacity of
farmers to adapt is based on the individual or collective reserves of human and social capital
that include attributes such as traditional knowledge and skills, levels of social organization,
and safety networks, etc. A community with a high level of response capacity will feature
highly cohesive social networks capable of taking collective action to mobilize local skills
and agro-ecological knowledge to enhance the overall resilience of affected farms.
39
USEFUL RESOURCES
ActionAid (2010) Farmer-led sustainable agriculture.

http://www.actionaid.org/publications/ smallholder-led-sustainable-agriculture-
actionaid-international-briefing
Parrott N, Marsden T (2002) The Real Green Revolution: Organic and Agroecological Farm- ing in the
Fouth. Greenpeace Environmental Trust, London. http://www.greenpeace.org.
uk/MultimediaFiles/ Live/FullReport/4526.pdf
UK Food Group (2010) Securing future food: towards ecological food provision. http://
www.ukfg.org.uk/pdfs/Securing_future_food.pdf
UNCTAD/UNEP (2008) Organic Agriculture and Food Fecurity in Africa. United Nations,
New York. http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ditcted200715_en.pdf
http://www.groundswellinternational.org/how-we-work/agroecological-farming/
http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/14629IIED.pdf
http://www.coventry.ac.uk/Global/05%20Research%20section%20assets/Research/CAFS
/
Publication,%20Journal%20Articles/MainstreamingAgroecology_WEB.pdf
http://www.actionaid.org/publications/fed-nows-time-invest-agroecology
http://www10.iadb.org/intal/intalcdi/PE/2013/10704.pdf
http://plenty.150m.com/New_Visual_Pages/Agro-Ecology/
http://ag-transition.org/contributor/ecumenical-advocacy-alliance/
http://www.iatp.org/files/2013_11_07_ScalingUpAgroecology_SV.pdf
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/scpi/Agroecology/Agroecology_Scalin
g-
up_agroecology_what_why_and_how_-OxfamSol-FINAL.pdf
http://usc-canada.org/UserFiles/File/scaling-up-agroecology.pdf
https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/ib-building-new-agricultural-future-
agroecology-280414-en.pdf
http://www.globalagriculture.org/report-topics/agroecology.html
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/publications/Campaign-
reports/Agriculture/
Food-and-Farming-Vision/
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/publications/reports/Ecological -
farming-
Drought-resistant-agriculture/
http://www.agroeco.org
40

Activity No. 6
Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

1. What is the difference between conventional and traditional agriculture?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. Why is agricultural resiliency?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_________
3. What is the most resilient crop?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
41
CHAPTER EIGHT
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS MODELS OR APPROACHES TO
ECOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE
A. Organic Farming
Defining "Organic"
Organic farming is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more
than choosing not to use pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms,
antibiotics and growth hormones.
Organic production is a holistic system designed to optimize the productivity and fitness
of diverse communities within the agro-ecosystem, including soil organisms, plants,
livestock and people. The principal goal of organic production is to develop enterprises
that are sustainable and harmonious with the environment.
The general principles of organic production, from the Canadian Organic Standards
(2006), include the following:
 protect the environment, minimize soil degradation and erosion, decrease

pollution, optimize biological productivity and promote a sound state of health
 maintain long-term soil fertility by optimizing conditions for biological activity
within the soil
 maintain biological diversity within the system
 recycle materials and resources to the greatest extent possible within the
enterprise
 provide attentive care that promotes the health and meets the behavioural
needs of livestock
 prepare organic products, emphasizing careful processing, and handling
methods in order to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of the
products at all stages of production
 rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems
Organic farming promotes the use of crop rotations and cover crops, and encourages
balanced host/predator relationships. Organic residues and nutrients produced on the
farm are recycled back to the soil. Cover crops and composted manure are used to
maintain soil organic matter and fertility. Preventative insect and disease control
methods are practiced, including crop rotation, improved genetics and resistant
varieties. Integrated pest and weed management, and soil conservation systems are
valuable tools on an organic farm. Organically approved pesticides include "natural" or
other pest management products included in the Permitted Substances List (PSL) of the
organic standards. The Permitted Substances List identifies substances permitted for
use as pesticides in organic agriculture. All grains, forages and protein supplements fed
to livestock must be organically grown.
The organic standards generally prohibit products of genetic engineering and

animal cloning, synthetic pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, synthetic
drugs, synthetic food processing aids and ingredients, and ionizing radiation.
Prohibited products and practices must not be used on certified organic farms for at
least three years prior to harvest of the certified organic products. Livestock must be
raised organically and fed 100 per cent organic feed ingredients.
42
Organic farming presents many challenges. Some crops are more challenging
than others to grow organically; however, nearly every commodity can be produced
organically.
Growth of Organic Agriculture
The world market for organic food has grown for over 15 years. Growth of retail
sales in North America is predicted to be 10 per cent to 20 per cent per year during the
next few years. The retail organic food market in Canada is estimated at over $1.5
billion in 2008 and $22.9 billion in the U.S.A. in 2008. It is estimated that imported
products make up over 70 per cent of the organic food consumed in Canada. Canada
also exports many organic products, particularly soybeans and grains.
The Canadian Organic Farmers reported 669 certified organic farms in Ontario in
2007 with over 100,000 certified organic acres of crops and pasture land. This is an
annual increase of approximately 10 per cent per year in recent years. About 48 per
cent of the organic cropland is seeded to grains, 40 per cent produces hay and pasture
and about five per cent for certified organic fruits and vegetables. Livestock production
(meat, dairy and eggs) has also been steadily increasing in recent years.
Successful Organic Farming

In organic production, farmers choose not to use some of the convenient chemical
tools available to other farmers. Design and management of the production system are
critical to the success of the farm. Select enterprises that complement each other and
choose crop rotation and tillage practices to avoid or reduce crop problems.
Yields of each organic crop vary, depending on the success of the manager.
During the transition from conventional to organic, production yields are lower than
conventional levels, but after a three to five year transition period the organic yields
typically increase.
Cereal and forage crops can be grown organically relatively easily to due to
relatively low pest pressures and nutrient requirements. Soybeans also perform well but
weeds can be a challenge. Corn is being grown more frequently on organic farms but
careful management of weed control and fertility is needed. Meeting nitrogen
requirements is particularly challenging. Corn can be successfully grown after forage
legumes or if manure has been applied. Markets for organic feed grains have been
strong in recent years.
The adoption of genetically engineered (GMO) corn and canola varieties on

conventional farms has created the issue of buffer zones or isolation distance for organic
corn and canola crops. Farmers producing corn and canola organically are required to
manage the risks of GMO contamination in order to produce a "GMO-free" product. The
main strategy to manage this risk is through appropriate buffer distances between
organic and genetically engineered crops. Cross-pollinated crops such as corn and
canola require much greater isolation distance than self-pollinated crops such as
soybeans or cereals.
Fruit and vegetable crops present greater challenges depending on the crop.
Some managers have been very successful, while other farms with the same crop have
had significant problems. Certain insect or disease pests are more serious in some
regions than in others. Some pest problems are difficult to manage with organic
methods. This is less of an issue as more organically approved biopesticides become
available. Marketable yields of organic horticultural crops are usually below non-
organic crop yields. The yield reduction varies by crop and farm. Some organic
producers have added value to their products with on-farm processing. An example is
to make jams, jellies, juice, etc. using products that do not meet fresh market standards.
43
Livestock products can also be produced organically. In recent years, organic
dairy products have become popular. There is an expanding market for organic meat
products. Animals must be fed only organic feeds (except under exceptional
circumstances). Feed must not contain mammalian, avian or fish by-products. All
genetically engineered organisms and substances are prohibited. Antibiotics, growth
hormones and insecticides are generally prohibited. If an animal becomes ill and
antibiotics are necessary for recovery, they should be administered. The animal must
then be segregated from the organic livestock herd and cannot be sold for organic meat
products. Vaccinations are permitted when diseases cannot be controlled by other
means. Artificial insemination is permitted. Always check with your certification body to
determine if a product or technique is allowed in the Permitted Substances List and the
organic standards. Organic production must also respect all other federal, provincial
and municipal regulations.
Organic produce can usually qualify for higher prices than non-organic products.
These premiums vary with the crop and may depend on whether you are dealing with a
processor, wholesaler, retailer or directly with the consumer. Prices and premiums are
negotiated between buyer and seller and will fluctuate with local and global supply and
demand.
Higher prices offset the higher production costs (per unit of production) of
management, labour, and for lower farm yields. These differences vary with commodity.
Some experienced field crop producers, particularly of cereals and forages, report very
little change in yield while in some horticultural crops such as tree fruits, significant
differences in marketable yield have been observed. There may also be higher
marketing costs to develop markets where there are fewer infrastructures than for
conventional commodities. Currently, demand is greater than the supply for most
organic products.
Biological Farming
Biological farming has become synonymous with farmers using the Reams fertility
system as the basis for crop production. Eco-agriculture is the term used to describe this
system by the monthly Acres, U.S.A. The Reams system is based on the LaMotte-Morgan
soil test and the use or rock phosphate, calcium carbonate, and compost to achieve
nutrient ratios of 7:1 calcium to magnesium, 2:1 phosphorus to potassium, and so on.
Biological farming allows the use of selected chemical fertilizers (avoiding disruptive
materials such as anhydrous ammonia and potassium chloride) and adopts low-inputs
approaches to use of herbicides and insecticides.
Diagnostic instruments to monitor plant and soil conditions are frequently used in
biological farming. These include refract meters to monitor sugar content (Brix) in plant
tissue sap; electrical conductivity meters to monitor ERGS (or energy released per gram
of soil); ORPS meters (or oxygen reduction potential of soil); and radionics. Based on data
gathered, foliar sprays containing bio-stimulants and soluble nutrients are applied. The
Pandol Brothers, a large commercial fruit and vegetable operation in California, reduced
their annual pesticide bill from US $500,000 to US $50,000 per year after adopting a
Biological Fertility Program.
Nature Farming
Nature farming was developed in Japan in the 1930s by Mokichi Okada, who later
formed the Mokichi Okada Association (MOA). Nature farming parallels organic farming
in many ways but includes special emphasis on soil health through composts rather than
organic fertilizer, when possible. Kyusei Nature farming, a branch group, emphasizes use
44
of microbial preparations in addition to traditional nature farming is most active in the
Pacific rim, California and Hawaii.
In addition to these methods-based approaches to sustainable farming,

regenerative agriculture and permaculture are widely recognized, these latter systems,
like sustainable agriculture, are more conceptually oriented than methods-based.
Regenerative Agriculture
In regenerative agriculture bunds on nature’s own capacity to cope with pests,

enhance soil fertility, and increase productivity. It implies a continuing ability to re-
create the resources that the system requires. In practice, regenerative agriculture uses
low-input and organic farming systems as a framework to achieve these goals.
A. Bio-dynamic Farming
Bio-dynamics is a holistic, ecological, and ethical approach to farming, gardening, food,
and nutrition. Biodynamic is rooted in the work of philosopher and scientist Dr. Rudolf
Steiner, whose 1924 lectures to farmers opened a new way to integrate scientific
understanding with recognition of spirit in nature.1 Biodynamic has continued to develop
and evolve since the 1920s through the collaboration of many farmers and researchers.
Around the world, biodynamic is alive in thousands of thriving gardens, farms, vineyards,
ranches, and orchards. The principles and practices of biodynamic can be applied
anywhere food is grown, with thoughtful adaptation to scale, landscape, climate, and
culture.
A Biodynamic Farm Is a Living Organism

Each biodynamic farm or garden is an integrated, whole, living organism. This organism is
made up of many interdependent elements: fields, forests, plants, animals, soils, compost,
people, and the spirit of the place. Biodynamic farmers and gardeners work to nurture and
harmonize these elements, managing them in a holistic and dynamic way to support the
health and vitality of the whole. Biodynamic practitioners also endeavour to listen to the
land, to sense what may want to emerge through it, and to develop and evolve their farm as
a unique individuality.
45
Biodynamic Brings Plants and Animals Together
Natural ecosystems include both plants and animals, which work together to fill
complementary roles in the web of life. Many conventional and organic farms only grow
crops or only raise livestock, which may be more efficient by some measures, but creates
imbalances such as nutrient deficiency (if only growing plants) or pollution from excess
manure (if only raising animals). Biodynamic farms and gardens work to bring plants,
animals, and soil together through living, conscious relationships, so that they each support
and balance the whole.
Biodynamic Generates On-Farm Fertility
Biodynamic plants are grown in the ground in living soil, which provides a quality of health
and nutrition not possible with chemical fertilizers or hydroponic growing. Biodynamic
farms aspire to generate their own fertility through composting, integrating animals, cover
cropping, and crop rotation. Composting brings animal manures, plant material, and soil
into healthy relationship and transforms them into a potent source of strength and fertility for
the farm organism. Integrating a diversity of animals helps cycle nutrients and provides
manures that nurture the soil. Cover crops also contribute to on-farm fertility, adding plant
diversity and bringing life and sensitivity to the soil through oxygen and nitrogen. Crop
rotation helps balance the needs of each crop and enables a diversity of creative expression
in the soil. Together, these practices reduce or eliminate the need for imported fertilizers
and enable the farm to move toward equilibrium and resilience.
Biodynamic Farmers Cultivate Awareness
Biodynamic agriculture invites us to develop a conscious and creative conversation with
nature. By observing, sensing, and listening to the land, we develop intimate relationships
with our unique farm organisms and expand our capacities for perception, reflection, and
imagination. Biodynamic is not a fixed recipe or prescription. Cultivating awareness
strengthens our ability to work creatively with the dynamics of the land and wider bioregion
to bring the vibrancy of the farm organism to full expression.
Biodynamic Supports Integrity and Diversity in Seeds and Breeds
Biodynamic farmers and gardeners favour open-pollinated, heirloom, and non-GMO seeds
and heritage breeds of animals. Biodynamic farms work toward generating seed and animal
stocks from within the farm, incorporating selection and breeding into farm activities when
46
possible in order to develop unique, locally-adapted, and sensitized plants and animals with
excellent nutrition and flavour, and resistance to pests and diseases. As in other aspects of
biodynamic, earthly and cosmic influences are considered in developing plants and animals
that can thrive in current conditions and contribute to the health of the farm and community.
Biodynamic Treats Animals with Respect

Biodynamic farmers care for domestic animals in ways that support their inherent health and
the full expression of their nature. Animals are given feed that is appropriate for their
digestive systems and are never fed animal by-products. Calves, lambs, and kids are raised
on the milk of the herd, not milk replacer. Chickens keep their beaks and cows keep their
horns, as each part of the animal serves an important natural function. All animals have
access to the outdoors and free range forage, along with plenty of space to move around
freely.
Biodynamic Certification Upholds Agricultural Integrity
The Demeter Biodynamic® Standard for certification was established in 1928 and is
managed worldwide by Demeter International. Over 5,000 farms encompassing more than
400,000 acres are certified in 60 countries around the globe. Biodynamic certification in the
United States is managed by Demeter USA (www.demeter-usa.org) and uses the USDA
organic standard as a foundation with additional requirements. Beyond organic certification,
the Demeter Biodynamic Farm Standard requires that the whole farm, and not just a specific
crop, is certified; crops and livestock are integrated and animals are treated humanely;
imported fertility is kept to a minimum; the biodynamic preparations are regularly applied;
at least 50% of livestock feed is grown on farm; at least 10% of the total farm acreage is set
aside for biodiversity; and the farm upholds standards of social responsibility.
Biodynamic Offers Regenerative Solutions for the Future

Biodynamic is a conscious, participatory, and responsible way of farming and being in the
world, which brings healing to soil, plants, animals, people, and planet. Each unique and
self-sustaining farm organism contributes generously to the ecological, economic, social,
and spiritual vitality of its surrounding community, and the whole living Earth. Through
biodynamic, we can access new capacities in human creativity to sense and respond to the
needs of the Earth, and unfold new solutions in a living and dynamic way.
47
Biodynamic Cultivates Biodiversity
Biodynamic farms and gardens are inspired by the biodiversity of natural ecosystems and
the uniqueness of each landscape. Annual and perennial vegetables, herbs, flowers,
berries, fruits, nuts, grains, pasture, forage, native plants, and pollinator hedgerows can all
contribute to plant diversity, amplifying the health and resilience of the farm organism.
Diversity in domestic animals is also beneficial, as each animal species brings a different
relationship to the land and unique quality of manure. The diversity of plant and animal life
can be developed over time, starting with a few primary crops and one or two species of
animals (even as small as earthworms or honeybees), and adding more species as the farm
organism matures.
Compost Is Enlivened with Biodynamic Preparations

Biodynamic compost is enhanced and enlivened through the use of six preparations made
from yarrow, chamomile, stinging nettle, oak bark, dandelion, and valerian. 2 Each of these
medicinal herbs is transformed through a unique process that brings it into relationship with
the animal kingdom, the earth, and the cycle of the year. Bringing these elements together
magnifies their healing qualities, fosters the growth of beneficial bacteria and fungi, and
creates powerfully concentrated substances to guide the development of the compost. A
small quantity of each preparation is added to the compost pile just after it is built, and again
after it is turned. Biodynamic preparations strengthen the quality of the compost by
stabilizing nitrogen3 and other nutrients, multiplying microbial diversity,4 and bringing
more sensitivity to the composting process. Biodynamic compost helps attune the soil to the
whole farm organism and wider influences while increasing soil life5 and stable organic
matter. Biodynamic compost also brings more carbon into the living realm, helping to
restore balance to the climate.
48
Biodynamic Sprays Enhance Soil and Plant Health
In addition to the compost preparations, several biodynamic preparations are applied as
potentialized liquid sprays to bring healing, vitality, and sensitivity to the farm and
garden.7 Horn manure enhances the life of the soil and the relationship between soil and
plants,8,9,10 and is made from cow manure buried inside a cow horn during the winter
months. Horn silica increases plant immunity,11 strengthens photosynthesis, enhances
ripening, and is prepared from ground quartz crystals buried in a cow horn over the
summer months. Horsetail tea helps prevent fungal diseases and balances the watery
element in plants and soil. Together, the biodynamic spray and compost preparations bring
plants into a dynamic relationship with soil, water, air, warmth, and cosmos to help them
develop in a healthy and balanced way, access the full spectrum of nutrients they need, and
become more resilient to pests, diseases, and extreme climate conditions. 12
Biodynamic Works in Rhythm with Earth and Cosmos

Biodynamic farmers and gardeners observe the rhythms and cycles of the earth, sun, moon,
stars, and planets and seek to understand the subtle ways that the environment and wider
cosmos influence the growth and development of plants and animals. Biodynamic calendars
support this awareness and understanding by providing detailed astronomical
information and indications of optimal times for sowing, transplanting, cultivating,
harvesting, and using the biodynamic preparations.
Biodynamic Approaches Pests and Diseases Holistically
Biodynamic focuses on creating the conditions for optimal soil, plant, and animal health,
providing balanced nutrition and supporting healthy immunity. When farms and gardens
incorporate a robust diversity of plants and animals and create habitat for natural predators,
pests and diseases have few places to thrive. When a disease or pest presents itself, it is
often pointing to an imbalance in the farm organism, and can be seen as nature’s way of
trying to correct the imbalance. In the case of an outbreak, biological controls can be used,
but a biodynamic farmer also tries to discern the underlying imbalance and find ways to
adjust management practices to bring the farm organism to greater health.
Biodynamic Contributes to Social and Economic Health

Biodynamic farmers are motivated by a desire to meet the real needs of people and the
Earth, which often extends beyond growing food. Most biodynamic initiatives seek to
embody triple bottom line approaches (ecological, social, and economic sustainability),
49
taking inspiration from Steiner’s insights into social, economic, and spiritual life, as well as
agriculture. Community supported agriculture (CSA), was pioneered by biodynamic
farmers, and many biodynamic practitioners work in creative partnerships with other farms
and with schools, medical and wellness facilities, restaurants, hotels, homes for social
therapy, and other organizations. Biodynamic is both a radical concept of regenerative
agriculture and a potent movement for new thinking and practices in all aspects of life
connected to food and land.
B. Permaculture
Permaculture (permanent agriculture or permanent culture) is the conscious design &

maintenance of agriculturally productive systems. Sustainable human settlement design is
its prime focus, where the concept strings the disciplines into a web of appropriate &
productive development. Originally developed as a methodology in the early 1970’s it is
now practiced and applied in nearly every country, and works to sustainably promote low
energy and solid state food and resource security. Darren J. Doherty.
BRIEF HISTORY
Bill Mollison was a biogeography professor at the University of Tasmania in the early
1970s when he, along with David Holmgren, one of his graduate research students,
developed the concept of permaculture. Its roots lay in the rural landscapes of Australia
where Mollison observed natural ecosystems and the interconnectedness of their ecological
processes.3 These observations led in turn to the idea that productive landscapes designed
by humans should mimic nature in order to minimize waste, maximize efficiencies, and
produce abundant yields. These two individuals provided the origins of permaculture
theory, and their writings are a primary source of introductory material on the topic and its
practice. Permaculture practices were initially adopted by individuals intent on achieving
greater self-reliance and seeking more holistic landscaping approaches for their remote
parcels of land. Since the 1970s, a larger world population, increased numbers of urban
dwellers, and the growth of emerging markets have resulted in increased needs for energy
resources and tangible goods. As a result, permaculture practices have become more
widely adopted over the past 40 years in a wide range of urban and suburban settings. Over
time, permaculture has also evolved to become more inclusive of social and cultural issues.
According to Holmgren, permaculture has transformed from a vision focused on permanent
agriculture to one inclusive of permanent culture. Thus, permaculture has evolved to
embody both ecological processes and human cultures (Sidebar 2). Economic and social
structures have been taken into consideration in order to build and repair humanto-human,
and human to natural environment, relationships. This transformation has expanded
permaculture’s reach socially and geographically – from individual to collective, and from
rural to urban. The scope of 21st century permaculture focuses on the cultivation of
permanent, thriving, ecologically minded communities.
“REGENERATIVE” VERSES “SUSTAINABLE”
Currently, 40 plus years after initial development, permaculture is oftentimes

referred to as “regenerative” design. It is important to understand what the word
regenerative means and stands for within the permaculture context. A clear understanding
of terms is especially important during a time in which the word sustainable has become a
commonly used buzzword among environmentalists, politicians, academics, mainstream
media outlets and private businesses, though not always for the same reasons or end goals.
By looking at the root words, regenerate and sustain, the difference between the two can be
seen. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines regenerate as, “restoring to a better, higher,
or more worthy state.”4 Thus, in the permaculture context, to regenerate is to ensure
replenishment, rejuvenation, and reestablishment of natural resources and social capital
while ensuring the future security of natural resources, ecological processes and social
structures. Sustain is defined as, “to bear up or keep in existence,”5 or in the permaculture
context, to maintain a systems’ ability to provide resources at current production and
consumption levels. To a certain extent “to sustain” is to create stability at current conditions
and consumption levels while “to regenerate” is to produce resources for future resource
50
security and stability using alternative methods of production. Permaculture seeks to
produce and provide an expansion of natural goods by using abundant natural resources
(air, water, sunlight, precipitation, healthy soil, etc.) as the system’s main drivers of growth.
Permaculture utilizes “waste” (or naturally generated excess) as an input to foster growth.
Efficiency and self-sufficiency are important practices incorporated within permaculture
designs in order to optimize production and consumption. In this way, permaculture is about
regeneration and not dedicated to sustaining current lifestyle and consumption choices by
simply applying alternative methods, materials and resources.
PERMACULTURE ETHICS
Permaculture is still largely based on Mollison and Holmgren’s three guiding ethics
and twelve design principles. An ethic can be defined as “a set of moral principles,
especially ones relating to or affirming a specified group, field or form of conduct.”6 As an
ethics-based design approach, permaculture utilizes three guiding ethical principles or
“permaculture ethics”7 that form the foundation for all design decisions. These ethics are
largely based on practices and beliefs held in Australian aboriginal and other indigenous
societies. By applying these ethics, permaculture seeks to respectfully utilize natural
resources while benefiting all living species. The ethics can be seen as defining an inter-
related system – one in which no single one is superior to another in either importance or
functionality, but wherein both the second and third ethical principles arise from the first.8
The permaculture ethics serve as the basis for all permaculture design decision-
making when developing a given system. The three guiding permaculture ethics are:
1. Care of the Earth
2. Care of People
3. Care of Returns/Fair Share These ethics are each briefly described in more detail
below. Care of the Earth The care of the Earth ethic provides the underlying framework for
permaculture. In practice, this ethic includes the following considerations9:
• Living Soil – Rebuilding of natural capital and care for living (microbial) soil as the
source and provider of life
. • Environmental Stewardship – Collectively caring for the Earth’s well being
through protection and enhancement of all living things and natural resources.
• Biodiversity – Caring for, ensuring, and promoting the continuation of diverse life
forms and the ecosystems (i.e., forests, rivers, and oceans) that support them.
• Living Things – Accepting all life forms or species as intrinsically valuable. Care of
People Permaculture recognizes humans as part of natural systems, and thus seeks to
improve both human and environmental health. This ethic can be broken down into two core
considerations:
• Care for Self – Caring for ourselves in order to contribute to the greater well being
of our families, friends, and communities in order to exert the most influence on others for
the greater good.
• Non-Material Well Being – Promoting self- reliance and taking responsibility for
more than one’s own future. This involves collaboration and sharing of knowledge, skills,
resources and experiences among one another. Care of Returns/Fair Share The third ethic
recognizes the importance of resource productivity and distribution, and the interaction of
consumption practices. This ethic can be broken into two core considerations:
• Setting Limits to Consumption – Realizing the natural cycles in which resources are
created and not overindulging in any one system or cycle.
• Redistribution of Surplus – Ensuring and sharing surplus resources between
systems and across cycles to assist everyone.
PERMACUTURE DESIGN PRINICPLES
The three permaculture ethics are core to the permaculture design philosophy, while
the twelve design principles act as the framework for implementation and systems
management. 10 The twelve design principles shown in Figure 3 and described in Appendix
1 have been informed by observation of human consumption patterns, energy use and
urban settlement. The circular shape depicted in Figure 3 is intended to reflect the
inclusiveness and nonlinearity of design. The design process can begin with any one of the
principles, and all principles may be used multiple times over the life span of a system.
51
Conversely, not every system designed using permaculture is required to use all of the
design principles. Even though these design principles are fundamental to permaculture
activities, a given design will vary based on respective location, situation, climate and
culture.
PERMACULTURE APPLICATIONS
Permaculture incorporates knowledge from many fields of study in its designs and
practices, and it can be utilized by and positively impact these fields. These areas of impact
can be seen in Holmgren’s Permaculture Flower depicted in Figure 4. In this model, the
permaculture ethics and principles are centrally located and are depicted as core to the
practice, while petals depict areas in which permaculture designs and techniques may be
implemented. This particular diagram helps depict permaculture as a natural and social
science that is about more than agricultural practices. Fields in which permaculture design
can be utilized and incorporated include the building, technology, education, health and
spiritual wellbeing, finance and economics, land tenure and community governance, and
land and nature stewardship sectors. In many instances, permaculture design may be
implemented in these sectors through the use of cooperative models of teaching, ownership
and governance. Existing models include credit unions, grocery cooperatives and Waldorf
school education (a non-sectarian and non-denominational pedagogical method based on
self-governance that recognizes all world cultures and religions as equal and important).
The following three case studies illustrate the use of permaculture across the country and
application of the ethics and design principles as well as impacts and benefits from each
project.
Holmgrenian Permaculture Principles, The following principles of design where developed

by David Holmgren and outlined in his book: Permaculture – Principles & Pathways Beyond
Sustainability.
Observe.
Use protracted and thoughtful observation rather than prolonged and thoughtless action.
Observe the site and its elements in all seasons. Design for specific sites, clients, and
climates. Bill Mollison
Connect.
Use relative location: Place elements in ways that create useful relationships and time-
saving connections among all parts. The number of connections among elements creates a
healthy, diverse ecosystem, not the number of elements. Toby Hemenway
RELATIVE LOCATION....
Efficient function is achieved by careful placement of elements in relation to each

other. Observe. Use protracted and thoughtful observation rather than prolonged and
thoughtless action. Observe the site and its elements in all seasons. Design for specific sites,
clients, and climates. Bill Mollison Connect. Use relative location: Place elements in ways
that create useful relationships and time-saving connections among all parts. The number of
connections among elements creates a healthy, diverse ecosystem, not the number of
elements. Toby Hemenway
EACH ELEMENT PERFORMS MANY FUNCTIONS... Elements are chosen and placed
to perform as many functions as possible. Each element performs multiple functions. Choose
and place each element in a system to perform as many functions as possible. Increasing
beneficial connections between diverse components creates a stable whole. Stack elements
in both space and time.
Each function is supported by multiple elements. Use multiple methods to achieve important
functions and to create synergies. Redundancy protects when one or more elements fail.
Toby Hemenway
EACH IMPORTANT FUNCTION IS SUPPORTED BY MANY ELEMENTS...
Important basic functions (such as water supply, fire protection and energy) are
provided in more than one way Each function is supported by multiple elements. Use
52
multiple methods to achieve important functions and to create synergies. Redundancy
protects when one or more elements fail. Toby Hemenway
ENERGY EFFICIENT PLANNING...
Energy efficiency is achieved through zoning (to conserve human energy), sector
planning (to manage wild energies), slope planning (to utilise gravity) and by making the
least change for the greatest possible effect. Make the least change for the greatest effect.
Find the “leverage points” in the system and intervene there, where the least work
accomplishes the most change.
USING BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES...

Use biological resources (5 Kingdoms of Nature) wherever possible to save energy
and do the work of the site.
ENERGY CYCLING...
Nutrients and energies are stored, used close to their source and used repeatedly to
avoid wastage before flowing off-site or to sinks. Catch and store energy and materials.
Identify, collect, and hold the useful flows moving through the site. By saving and re-
investing resources, we maintain the system and capture still more resources. Recycle
energy. Supply local and on-site needs with energy from the system, and reuse this energy
as many times as possible. Every cycle is an opportunity for yield. Use small scale, intensive
systems. Start at your doorstep with the smallest systems that will do the job, and build on
your successes, with variations. Grow by chunking.
SMALL SCALE INTENSIVE SYSTEMS...

Good design makes maximum use of minimal land; using productive human labour,
hand tools and animals, rather than large machines and fossil fuels; and is multi-dimensional
- utilising vertical space (plant stacking & trellising) and overlapping successional crops
(time stacking). Accelerate succession. Mature ecosystems are more diverse and productive
than young ones, so use design to jump-start succession.
ACCELERATING SUCCESSION & EVOLUTION

Mature ecosystems are more diverse and productive than young ones, so use design
to jump-start succession.
DIVERSITY...
Diversity increases productivity and stability, with polycultures, not monocultures;
orderliness rather than tidiness; and guilds of elements that work harmoniously together.
Use biological and renewable resources. Renewable resources (usually plants and animals)
reproduce and build up over time, store energy, assist yield, and interact with other
elements. Use the edge effect. The edge—the intersection of two environments—is the most
diverse place in a system, and is where energies and materials accumulate. Optimize the
amount of edge.
EDGE EFFECTS...
Extending and exaggerating the boundaries between adjoining systems provides
additional contributions from the resources of both systems, increasing productivity. Use the
edge effect. The edge—the intersection of two environments—is the most diverse place in a
system, and is where energies and materials accumulate. Optimize the amount of edge.
ATTITUDE… Positivism is what drives Permaculture and the relationships that we develop as
people working together toward our collective future. Mistakes are tools for learning.
Evaluate your trials. Making mistakes is a sign you’re trying to do things better. Turn
problems into solutions. Constraints can inspire creative design. “We are surrounded by
insurmountable opportunities.”— Bill Mollison
EVERYTHING WORKS BOTH WAYS...

Good design turns disadvantages into advantages; sees solutions not problems. Turn
problems into solutions. Constraints can inspire creative design. “We are surrounded by
insurmountable opportunities.”— Bill Mollison
53
YIELDS ARE LIMITED ONLY BY INFORMATION AND IMAGINATION...
Permaculture uses creative design, rather than energy or capital, to increase
productivity. Get a yield. Design for both immediate and long-term returns from your
efforts: “You can’t work on an empty stomach.” Set up positive feedback loops to build the
system and repay your investment. Abundance is unlimited. The designer’s imagination and
skill is a bigger limit to yield than any physical limit.
The Permaculture Process

• Pattern Observation
• Site Analysis
• Design
• Implementation
• Feedback
Some Types of Yields and Services:
Food
• Fiber
• Medicine
• Fuel
• Nitrogen Fixation
• Beneficial Insect and Bird Attraction
• Nutrient Accumulation
• Pest Repellence and Soil Fumigation
• Soil Building/Mulch Accumulation/Weed
Suppression
Permaculture Model
• Holds water on the landscape

• Sequestering Carbon (CO2)
• Builds topsoil, fertility and humus
• No herbicides, pesticides or artificial fertilizers
• Yields increase for 30 years then continue to produce for generations.
What services do trees provide?
1. Pull carbon (C02) and nitrogen out of the air
2. Build fertility and soil
3. Hold moisture
4. Provide habitat for wildlife
5. Produce useful & needed items for a bountiful, human existence?
54
55
56
C. Low External Input Supply Agriculture (LEISA)
Low-Input Agriculture
The term low-input agriculture has been defined as a production activity that uses
synthetic fertilizers or pesticides below rates commonly recommended by the Extension
Service. It does not mean elimination of these materials. Yields are maintained through
greater emphasis on cultural practices, IPM, and utilization of on-farm resources and
management.
The LEISA concept seeks to optimize the use of locally available resources by
maximizing the complementary and synergistic effects of different components of the
farming systems. External inputs are used in a complementary way.
Although, the term low-input fanning often been used to describe any system of
alternative agriculture, if can be seen that it is distinctly different from organic farming etc.
Nevertheless, any system that reduces purchased chemical inputs can be called low-input
farming, some examples are:
1. Poultry litter can replace nitrogen fertilizers in the production of watermelons.

2. Legume cover crops can supply the total nitrogen requirements of pecan trees.
3. Compost amended potting mixes produce superior vegetable transplants than traditional
soilless mixes.
4. No-till vegetable systems lire feasible using reduced herbicide rates to kill cover crops.
5. Subterranean clover living mulches supply nitrogen and weed control in peach orchards.
Integrated pest management is probably the oldest and most widely recognized
Extension Service program devoted to low-input agriculture. However, only recently have
the non-chemical approaches-such as cultural, mechanical, and biological-within the IPM
framework been emphasized over the chemical component. Some programs, in fact, are
now termed biologically- intensive IPM.
The intentions of the LEISA concept are obvious, but in practice the way it differs from
integrated agriculture (understood to be a gradual minimization of external inputs) is not too
clear. Defining what constitutes low inputs will always be difficult; therefore, LEISA remains
an ambiguous concept.
Important characteristics of LEISA systems are that they are based on a preventive
approach whereby the problem is tackled at its roots, as opposed to the more symptom-
curing nature of modern agriculture. Ecological and biological principles are the basis of
the farm system. Nature works for the farmer, the farmer does not have to work against it.
They are often based on local knowledge and production systems adapted to modern
requirements and much less on external expertise. They are generally more labor-intensive
compared to the mechanization-and petrochemical-intensive character of the agriculture
envisioned by the Green Revolution and what it has become.
Criteria for LEISA
Ecological Criteria
1. Balanced use of nutrients and organic matter

2. Efficient use of water resources
3. Diversity of genetic resources
4. Efficient of genetic resources
5. Efficient use of energy sources
57
6. Minimal negative environmental effects
7. Minimal use of external inputs
Economic Criteria
1. Sustained farmer livelihood systems

2. Competitiveness
3. Efficient use of production factors
4. Low relative value of external inputs
Social Criteria
1. Wide-spread and equitable adoption potential, especially among small fanners

2. Reduced dependency on external institutions
3. Enhanced food security at the family and national level
4. Respecting and building on indigenous knowledge, beliefs and value systems
5. Contribution to employment generation
HIGH EXTERNAL IPUT SUSTAINABLE AGICULTURE (HEISA) AND LOW

EXTERNAL IPUT SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (LEISA)
One of the most promising paradigms that has emerged for the benefit of small
scale resource- poor farmers is Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA), which
can enable such farmers to achieve higher income and attain sustainability by:
1. Optimizing the use of locally available resources, thereby achieving a

synergetic effect among the various components of the farming system (soil,
water, animals, plants, etc.) so that they complement each other in the production
of output.
2. Minimizing the use of external inputs, except where there is a serious deficiency
and where the effect on the system will be to increase recycling of nutrients.
The aim is not to maximize short-term production, but to attain an adequate and
sustainable level over the longer term.
Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) is receiving increased attention,

both as a sustainable alternative to Green Revolution-like strategies making intensive use
of external inputs, and as a strategy of sustainable agriculture in resource-poor
environments where no or very few external inputs are used.
To achieve these goals, LEISA must tap the most viable indigenous knowledge and
practices and ecologically friendly technologies in a given ecological and socio cultural
setting, since the experience in one agro-ecological setting may not be appropriate in
other areas. There are many cases of farmers using LEISA under different agro-ecological
zones in different countries. These experiences should be documented to learn more of
the principles, constraints, and potentials in order to provide policy-makers, development
workers and farmers [with] alternative and viable strategies to develop sustainable
farming systems.
Low-External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) is a series of practices which serve to

reinforce ecological principles that are in line with local ecosystems.
58
Practices such as recycling of plant nutrients (nitrogen and others), minimizing crop
losses due to insects and pests, and securing favourable soil conditions for plant growth
are just the tip of the hat. An integral component of LEISA is in ensuring that this
environmental awareness remains connected to the daily lives, needs and concerns of
farmers who rely on these ecosystems for their livelihoods. With regards to LEISA
practices, CPAR’s work in farming communities focuses on:
 Maximizing the use of locally available plants and tree species

 Reducing the use of non-renewable fuels and energy sources.
 Acknowledging the right of local communities to control, manage and benefit from
natural resources
 Ensuring that agricultural practices help to shape positive landscapes and sustained
life support systems for small-scale who rely on favorable environmental conditions
for their survival.
The continuous use of chemicals to obtain high yields had its adverse impacts on
both the natural environment as well as the economy of the farmer in the medium term. The
shift from Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) to High External Input
Agriculture (HEISA) was proved to be neither sustainable nor high income yielding in the
longer term. It is in this context that attention was focused on the need for LEISA generating
higher yields. Towards this, Integrated pest Management (IPM) practices and use of organic
manure replacing or minimizing the use of chemical fertilizer came to be experimented with
from around mid 1980s.
Low-External Inputs and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA).
It is included the technical, social and economic options open to farmers who seeks
to improve productivity and income in a ecologically friendly way. Low-External Inputs and
Sustainable Agricultural principals teach us the optimal use of local resources and natural
processes and if necessary the safe and efficient use of external inputs such as chemical
fertilizer and artificial pesticides.
Appropriate and desired plans to achieve sustainability while maintaining

productivity at optimum level based on personal preferences are essential for farmers to get
self-satisfaction and socio-economic benefits. The role of extentionist, researchers and
trainers is to facilitate the farmers to improve productivity and farm income, through
reducing dependency on external inputs and increasing use of local available resources.
LEISA is based on the following ecological principles

To create a favourable condition of the growth and sustainance of plant-by
stimulating of soil micro organisms, as far as possible and adding organic matter
sufficiently.
• To maintained nutrient content at optimum level was assuring the balance of

nutrients in the soil by Nitrogen fixation, utilization of nutrients available in the
deep soil layers, promotion of recycling process and addition of external
fertilizer as and when necessary to complement deficient nutrients.
• Controlling the micro climatic conditions to minimize loss of resources, due

to sunlight, air and water. Use of biological and mechanical methods to
prevent soil erosion.
• Minimizing loss of resources caused by pests and diseases. Integration of

pest control methods giving priority to natural biological control of pests by
natural enemies on the principle that prevention is better than eradication.
59

Activity No. 7
Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

1. How is organic farming different?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___
2. What is organic farming pros and cons?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Why biodynamic farming is important?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___
4. What is the difference between organic and biodynamic farming?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____
5. What is the purpose of permaculture?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
60
6. What is the difference between natural farming and organic farming?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Summarize the advantages between LEISA and HEISA.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
61
CHAPTER NINE
Concept of Sustainable Agriculture
 Agriculture is a broad term encompassing all aspects of crop production (food and
fibre), livestock farming, fisheries, forestry etc.
 Food and fibre productivity have increased by using new technologies, mechanization,
increased use of fertilizers and pesticides and expansion of irrigation facilities.
62
 These changes reduced the labour demand to produce the majority of the food and
fibre.
 Although these changes have had the positive effect, they also caused some serious
environmental and social problems such as erosion of topsoil, depletion and pollution of
groundwater and other water resources, unemployment of farm laborers due to their
replacement by farm machinery.
 In view of the growing negative consequences of modern agriculture there is growing
demand to promote “sustainable agriculture”.
 Sustainable agriculture is the production of food, fibre, plant or animal products
using farming techniques that protect the environment, public health, human and
animal welfare.
 Sustainable agriculture incorporates many environmentally safe agricultural practices
and offers innovative and economically viable opportunities for farmers, laborers,
consumers, policymakers and many others in the entire food system.
 Sustainable farming systems are those that are least toxic and least energy intensive
and yet maintain productivity and profitability. E.g. Organic farming.
 Thus, sustainable agriculture is one that,
 supports profitable production;
 protects environmental quality;
 uses natural resources efficiently;
 provides consumers with affordable, high-quality products;
 decreases dependency on non-renewable resources;
 enhances the quality of life for farmers and rural communities; and
 it will last for generations to come.
Methods of Sustainable Agriculture
 At the planning level one must take into account the local geography (topography), soil
condition and nature, local climate, pests, local inputs and the farmer’s goals.
 The grower (farmer) must then select appropriate practices.
 Several methods adopted in sustainable agriculture are:
 cultivation practices to increase biological and economic stability.
 selection of improved varieties to suit the need.
 soil management by proper method of tillage.
Mixed cropping or diverse cropping
 In mixed cropping or diverse cropping two or more crops are grown all at the same
time in a field.
 If by chance one crop fails, the other crops cover the risk of total crop failure.
 Usually a long duration crop is grown with a short duration one so that both get
sufficient nutrition at the time of maturity.
 Generally, a leguminous crop is grown along with the main crop.
 Legumes helps to increase soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
 The various plans followed in diverse or mixed cropping practices are:
 polyvarietal cultivation where several genetic varieties of the same crop are planted.
63
 intercropping where two or more different crops are grown at the same time, like
carbohydrate rich cereal that uses soil nitrogen and nitrogen fixing legume that puts
back the nitrogen in the soil.
 polyculture, in which different plants maturing at various times are planted together.
Advantages of Mixed cropping
 This practice has many advantages because fertilizer and water requirement of plants
are different so there is less need of these inputs.
 Pests are controlled naturally because their natural predators find multiple habitats to
survive.
 It has been found that this practice produces much higher yield per hectare compared
to monoculture.
Monoculture
 Large scale mechanization lead to the spread of monoculture i.e. only one crop
variety is sown in the entire area when only one cultivator is planted in a large area.
 This system (monoculture) uses lot of fertilizer, pesticide, water. T
 his practice may be productive for some time but causes environmental and economic
problems.
 E.g. Paddy and wheat cultivation.
Strip Farming
 This involves planting the main crops in widely spaced rows and filling in the spaces
with another crop to ensure complete ground cover.
 The ground is completely covered so it retards water flow which thus soaks down into
the soil, consequently reducing erosion problems.
Crop rotation
 It is practice of growing different crops in regular succession in the same field.

 This practice controls insects and diseases, increases soil fertility and decreases soil
erosion.
 Generally, soil cannot sustain continuous cropping with high yielding single crop
because certain nutrients required by the crop get exhausted totally while others
remain unutilized leading to serious nutrients imbalance in soil and encouraging certain
diseases and pests.
64
 Sowing a leguminous crop (e.g. green gram) as a rotational crop is very useful
because legumes enhance nitrogen level in the soil, reduces the need for chemical
nitrogen fertilizer.
 It is possible to grow two or sometimes three different crops in succession on the same
land within a year is known as multiple cropping.
 This practice can go on for some time, but the land cannot maintain high yield in the
long run.
Crop rotation takes into amount the following factors:
 Leguminous crop should be grown after non-leguminous crop.

 Crops require less water (irrigation) should be grown after one that requires more
water.
 Crops requiring less manure should be sown after one that requires more manure.
Mixed Farming
 Optimum diversity may be obtained by integrating both crops and livestock in the
same farming operation.
 Mixed crop along with livestock operations have several advantages.
 Growing crops only on more level land and pastures or forages on steeper slopes will
reduce soil erosion.
 Pasture and leguminous forage crops in rotation enhance soil quality and reduce
erosion; livestock manure, in turn, contributes to soil fertility.
 Livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crop
residue which in “plant only” systems would have been considered crop failure.
 Feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems. This can help cushion
farmers against price fluctuations and, make more efficient use of farm labour.
Soil and Nutrient Management
 A healthy soil is a key component of sustainable agriculture. That is healthy soil along
with water and nutrients produces healthy crops that are less susceptible to pests and
diseases.
 Accordingly, soil must be protected and nurtured to ensure long term productivity and
stability.
 Methods of protection include using cover crops, compost, reducing tillage, conserving
soil moisture by dead mulches, this increases water hold capacity of the soil.
Nutrient Management:
 There are sixteen nutrients which are essential for plants.

 Air supplies carbon and oxygen, hydrogen comes from water, and soil supplies the
other thirteen nutrients to plants.
 Amongst these thirteen nutrients, six are required in large quantities and are therefore
called macronutrients.
65
 The other seven nutrients are used by plants in small quantities and are therefore
called micronutrients.
 Deficiency of these nutrients affects physiological processes in plants including
reproduction, growth and susceptibility to diseases.
Source Nutrient
Air carbon, oxygen
Water hydrogen, oxygen
 Macronutrients: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium,

Magnesium, Sulphur
Soil  Micronutrients: Iron, Manganese, Boron, Zinc, Copper,
Molybdenum, Chlorine
Nitrogen (N)
 N is an essential constituent of proteins and is present in many other compounds of

great physiological importance in plant metabolism.
 N is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is primary observer of light energy needed
for photosynthesis.
 N also imparts vigorous vegetative growth and dark green colour to plants.
Phosphorus (P)
 Phosphorus (P) is an essential part of the enzymes which help the crop to fix light
energy.
 It forms an integral part of nucleic acids, the carriers of genetic information, and is
important in stimulating root growth.
Potassium (K)
 Potassium (K) is involved in processes which ensure carbon assimilation and the
transportation throughout the plant for growth and the storage of sugars and proteins.
 The potassium ion is also important for water regulation and uptake.
 Furthermore, the presence of potassium in sufficient amounts ensures resistance to
frost, drought and certain diseases
66
Others
 Magnesium occurs in chlorophyll and is also an activator of enzymes.

 Sulphur forms part of two essential amino acids which are among the many building
blocks of protein. It is also found in vitamin B1 and in several important enzymes.
 Calcium is required for plant growth, cell division and enlargement.
 The growth of root and shoot tips and storage organs is also affected by calcium as it is a
component of cell membranes. Calcium is also vital for pollen growth and to prevent
leaf fall.
Modern Agricultural Practices
 Modern agriculture includes animal husbandry, poultry farming, apiculture, fisheries

and mushroom culture etc. to provide additional food supplements like milk, meat, fish,
egg, mushroom etc.
 In addition to provide nutritional food for the masses, they also reduce load on the
consumption of cereals and pulses.
Name Agricultural Activity
Silviculture  cultivating forest trees
Sericulture  rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk
 maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by

Apiculture humans
 science of vegetable growing, non-woody (herbaceous)

Olericulture plants for food
Viticulture  science, production and study of grapes
Floriculture  flowering and ornamental plants for gardens
 cultivation and study of individual trees, shrubs, and other

Arboriculture woody plants
Pomology  focuses on the cultivation, production, harvest, and storage of
67
fruit, etc.
 growing plants in mist environment without the use of soil

Aeroponics medium
 growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in water,

Hydroponics without soil.
Geoponic  refers to growing plants in normal soil
Aquaponics  symbiotic environment of aquaculture and hydroponics
Barriers to Adoption of Sustainable Agriculture Practices
Most researches on the adoption of sustainable agriculture practices have found

several barriers that impede its widespread adoption. Cary et al., (2001) point out that there
is a range of constraints that discourage adoption of natural resources management
programs. They also explain that these constraints can have four different backgrounds:
“perspective of individual landholders, the characteristics of desirable management
practices, the socioeconomic structure of adopters’ communities and the broader
institutional settings”. One of the reported reasons for non-adoption by Norman et al., (1997)
is that sustainable agriculture practices are management intensive and require a huge
commitment to constant learning. Sovedi et al., (2010) state that one reason for farmers
being unable to adopt is their inadequate managerial skills.
Lack of farmers’ information
The lack of information about sustainable agriculture practices is often regarded as a

barrier to adoption (Bell et al., 2001; Edson et al., 2014). Nowak (1991) explains that one of
the reasons for farmers being unable to adopt residue management techniques is the lack or
scarce information regarding economic or technical issues of these technologies. Lack of
knowledge about the implementation and viability of these practices is an important barrier
to adoption (Bell et al., 2001; Norman et al., 1997; Presley, 2014).
Economic Factors
Even for sustainable agriculture practices, economic factors are the important
determinants of adoption (Pannell, 1998). Economic factors are frequently mentioned as
barriers to adoption of sustainable agriculture practices by farmers and also by change
agents. Some of the commonly mentioned economic factors holding farmer from adoption
68
are the cost of adopting, the uncertainty of profitability, loss of productivity, labor demand,
short term economic necessity, and the economic policies (Presley, 2014).
When environmental problems are not being overcome, current and future
productions are at risk, as well as financial and time investments. Thus, farmers need to be
sure that the new technology will provide the expected environmental benefits and effect
(Vanclay and Lawrence, 1994).
Another factor closely related to risk is the farmers’ economic ability. When the
farmers’ economic situation is not economically solved, they may tend to overexploit natural
resources in order to maintain their operation. In such a case, the negative interactions
among the components of sustainability, especially environmental and economic, can also
be a barrier to adoption. This has been identified mainly in low income countries where
poverty and ecological degradation are found to be closely related (Norman et al., 1997;
Antle and Diagana, 2003).
Although it has been demonstrated that sustainable practices are as economically

viable as conventional practices, profitability of sustainable practices is a concern among
farmers and even change agents (Horrigan et al., 2002; Roling and Jiggins, 1994). Paulson
(1995) found that many agricultural professionals consider sustainable practices as not
economically viable. Some of the factors that are frequently considered to affect the
profitability of sustainable practices include the crop yield reduction and an increase in
costs of inputs or quantity of inputs. Although many agricultural practices have been
demonstrated to even increase yields, proof of such, results may not be available to farmers,
thus generating uncertainty about their outcomes.
Labor demand is another economic factor that negatively affects profitability and the
farmers' decision to adopt. Nowak (1991) cites that increase on labor requirement is one
reason that farmer do not adopt residue management systems. Northwest Area Foundation
(2004) found that increased labor demands represent a substantial barrier to adoption for
many conventional farmers (Horticulture). Conversely, for farmers who have already
adopted sustainable practices, labor concerns ceased. Reed (2004) explains that for organic
farmers, labor demand represents a constraint to the economic rationality of transition to
such production systems.
Policies
In addition to the specific reasons that prevent adoption at the farm level, external
factors such as policies may negatively influence farmers’ adoption decisions. Adoption of
sustainable agriculture practices is commonly affected by influences from higher levels
(e.g. National, regional, and watershed). National policies influence the economic
environment upon which farmers decide if whether adopting new agricultural practices is
feasible or not (Norman et al., 1997). Moreover, Pannell (1998) explains that farming
systems are the result of “farmers’ reaction to government policies and institutions in
place”.
69
Farmers’ Personal Characteristics
Some personal characteristics are barriers to adoption of sustainable agriculture. The

frequently mentioned personal and demographic farmers’ characteristics that act as
barriers are: reluctant to change, age, and other attitudes.
Farmers’ perceptions of environmental problems and media promotion are other

barriers to adoption. Farmers are likely to adopt environmental innovations when they
perceive a risk of environmental degradation by using traditional practices. However, the
extensive literature that gives images of dramatic environmental degradation may have
contrary effects. Farmers may feel incapable of solving these problems. In some cases,
farmers may not perceive they have such dramatic damage and thus take no action to solve
the problem (Hailemariam et al., 2012; Vanclay and Lawrence, 1994).
Incompatibility
Compatibility of sustainable practices with the current agricultural systems in terms

of management style, farm size, physical setting, and production goals is often identified as
a barrier to adoption. Also, incompatibility with farm and personal objectives is a barrier to
adoption. When practices are complex and non-divisible, they tend to require substantial
changes in farm management (Vanclay and Lawrence, 1994). As Roling and Jiggins (1994)
explain “sustainable management requires profound changes in the activities which
constitute farm practices,” thus tend to be incompatible with current management
strategies.
Land Tenure
Land tenure issues are often found to be an important barrier to adoption of

sustainable practices in developing countries, and in developed countries such as the
United States. Antle and Diagana (2003) explain how insecure property rights would make
very unclear and thus difficult to establish contracts for carbon sequestration with farmers
from developing countries. Moreover, farmers with insecure property rights may degrade
soil unintentionally. Insecure property rights have existed in Honduras for a long period of
time, causing a conflict that affects many resource poor farmers. This has been
demonstrated to have a deterrent effect on the adoption of sustainable practices. Plots that
were owned by farmers were four times more likely to employ minimum tillage and
conservation tillage (Arellanes and Lee, 2003). Physical and social infrastructures may
present other barriers to adoption. Physical infrastructure such as marketing infrastructures
may constrain the adoption of an innovation. Social infrastructure is very important because
farmers often refer their peers for information. Therefore, most farmers wait until there is
sufficient interest in the innovation by their peers before adoption occurs.
Social Infrastructure
One dimension of social infrastructure is the farming subculture or farming style.

Meeting the expectations of subcultural norms is a fundamental part of social behavior. In
farming subcultures there are norms about acceptable agricultural practices. The subculture
70
concept leads us to understand that “ideas that are different to the currently held in the
subculture are likely to be rejected… [thus] subcultures are a powerful force in resisting
change” (Shaian et al., 2012). For example, new environmental practices are often not part
of the subculture. Therefore, adoption of new environmental practices is less likely to occur.
Vanclay and Lawrence (1993) recognized that adoption decisions regarding

sustainable agriculture are based on precise factors such as risk, cost, and benefits. These
types of decision are often based on more imprecise factors such as “what is considered to
be socially and culturally acceptable by members of [potential adopters’] social group”
(Vanclay and Lawrence, 1993). According to a change agent “two drivers determine
whether a farmer will adopt a new technology: if he thinks it’s profitable and if his peers
accept it” (Bearenklau, 2005).
Physical Infrastructure
It is well known that infrastructure issues play an important role in farming decisions
(Ogunnowo and Oderinde, 2012). Khanna et al. (1999) find that drip irrigation did not reach
widespread adoption until a support infrastructure was established. Extension specialists,
dealers, support staff, and farmers understood its implementation and functioning.
Infrastructural problems have been identified in developing countries as a barrier to
adoption. After analyzing a large sample from 52 countries in Latin America, Africa, and
Asia, Pretty and Hine (2001) suggested that for a more widespread adoption of sustainable
practices, countries must invest in the options markets, transportation, and communications.
Papzan and Shiri (2012) study have shown that a deficiency or lack of infrastructure (such as
restrictions on access to the relevant market, the lack of adequate stocks, and lack of
appropriate inputs for organic products, etc.) on the adoption of sustainable agricultural
practices affects.
The main purpose of this research was to identify the barriers of sustainable
agriculture adoption by wheat farmers in Takestan. The objectives were as follows:
1. To prioritize to the barriers of sustainable agriculture from the farmers'

perspectives.
2. To correlate between the barriers of sustainable agriculture and research

Variables.
3. To identify the barriers to sustainable agriculture from the farmers' perspectives.
71

Activity No. 8
Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

1. What are the challenges of sustainable agriculture?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___
2. Why is sustainable agriculture so important?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___
3. Why it is adoption of sustainable agriculture has barriers?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___
4. Make three objectives of sustainable agriculture.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________
5. Is there any disadvantage in sustainable agriculture?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
72
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__
6. How does sustainable agriculture aid in soil conservation?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
73
CHAPTER TEN
SALT
DEVELOPMENT OF A SUSTAINABLE UPLAND FARMING SYSTEM As the population of the

Philippines surged, deforestation became a problem. Statistics show that in 1969, out of the country’s
total land area of 30 million ha, 16 million ha was covered in forests. By 1988, the forested area had
dwindled to only 6.4 million ha or 20% of the country’s total land area (Tacio 1989b). Each year between
1970 and 1980, about 300,000 ha of forests were converted into other uses, particularly agriculture. It is
said that if the present rate of population growth in the uplands is maintained, an additional five to six
million people will be opening up new land for cultivation each year. This expansion of upland
cultivation will contribute to even more degradation of watersheds, and increased soil erosion, flooding,
sedimentation and siltation. Five years ago, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR) reported that 22 provinces in the Philippines had an “alarming” rate of soil erosion. Batangas in
Luzon and Cebu in the Visayas, for instance, are both reported to have lost 80-85% of their topsoil to
erosion (Tacio 1992). Lester P. Brown, president of the Washington-based Worldwatch Institute, points
out that while the immediate effects of soil erosion are economic, in the long run its ultimate effects are
social. “When soils are depleted and crops are poorly nourished, people are often undernourished as well.
Failure to respond to the erosion threat will lead not only to the degradation of land, but to the degradation
of life itself.”
The Mindanao SALT Development Site The Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center (MBRLC) is a small,
Church-related non-government organization with a 19-hectare demonstration farm located in the rolling
foothills of Mt. Apo, the highest mountain in the Philippines. It has emphasized upland development
since it began in 1971. Determining the felt needs of local people, the MBRLC had found, involves a
series of dialogues, and informal meetings with the uplanders themselves and the various organizations,
both government and private, that are concerned with them. In these meetings, the participants should be
allowed to freely enjoy “playing volleyball with development ideas”, and even “dreaming development
dreams together.”
Traditionally dependent on a one-crop farming system, upland farmers consistently expressed in the
meetings their need for better distribution of food and income throughout the year. They experienced
abundance after the harvest, but there were times during the year when they had neither money nor food.
The farmers also complained of low and declining farm incomes. In one area, corn production had
dropped from 3.5 mt/ha to about 0.5 mt/ha in just ten years. Yields of other crops had also diminished to
unprofitable levels in the same period. Some innovative farmers started planting permanent crops such as
banana, coffee, coconut, and fruit trees to augment their incomes, but yields of these permanent crops
were very low.
The main reason for these low yields, it was learned, was the depletion of topsoil and nutrients through
soil erosion. An equally common complaint was lack of capital for fertilizer, insecticides, and seeds of
improved varieties of corn and other crops. New techniques of improving crop yields called for expensive
inputs. Farmers borrowed capital for these inputs, but each year the soil needed higher levels of fertilizer
because the farmers continued to farm in the same old way – plowing up and down the hill. The
continuous loss of topsoil reduced yields to below the break-even point between costs and returns, so that
farmers incurred debts they could not pay (Watson and Laquihon 1985).
It became obvious to the MBRLC that the main problem of upland farmers was not so much improved
technology for growing corn and other crops, but soil erosion. They needed a way of farming slopeland in
74
such a way as to conserve the topsoil and, if possible, improve fertility and productivity. MBRLC realized
that the approach of modern agriculture had ‘put the cart before the horse’ in the Mindanao slopelands.
An improved technology had been developed for growing corn, but technology to prevent soil erosion and
maintain soil fertility had been overlooked. Thus, MBRLC set out to develop an integrated-diversified
farming system suitable for the Mindanao slopelands (Watson and Laquihon 1985). The result was the
Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT)
DISSEMINATION OF THE SALT SYSTEM MBRLC
is basically a training center for small-scale upland farmers. Three-quarters of any training
session is “hands-on-experience”, because MBRLC believes in the principle of “what I do, I know.” In
1980, SALT became one of the 27 training courses available at the MBRLC. The usual duration of a
SALT training course is 3-5 days. The general number of persons in a SALT training group is 20-35.
Between 1980 and 1992, there has been a steady flow of training groups and graduates of SALT (Table
1). To further enrich the Center’s training, teaching aids such as leaflets, manuals, bulletins, flip charts,
transparencies and slides were developed. These materials were also broadcast over the Center’s radio
program, which has been transmitted by 19 radio stations. Radio listeners requesting copies were supplied
free of charge. Newspapers and magazines with a good circulation also received copies. In 1981, 30
farmers near the vicinity of MBRLC were invited to undergo a SALT training course at the Center. This
75
was one of the first training sessions of its kind. Only twelve farmers adopted the technology, and these
were supported by the Center with seeds and materials worth US$20.00. The Center’s extension workers
visited them and facilitated the adoption of the scheme. In 1982, SALT began to be disseminated
throughout Mindanao, mainly through church groups. By 1992, more than 13,000 farmers had graduated
from the SALT training course. Had the adoption and adaptation of SALT and its modifications been
more rapid and farmers more responsive, the upland farmers of the Philippines might have avoided their
current sad situation. As the information about SALT technology began to spread through the Philippines,
it was picked up by the Southern Mindanao Agricultural Program of the Philippine government and the
European Economic Community (EEC) as one of the recommended projects in the rehabilitation of the
Mount Apo rainforest. There is now very healthy collaboration between government and non-government
organizations in the area of agriculture and natural resources management in the Philippines, and
promoting SALT nationwide is a good example of that collaboration (Table 1). Another way of
disseminating SALT throughout the world is through conferences and seminars.
Community Development Current extension program for SALT is based on the “impact area”
strategy. Four impact areas in three provinces in Mindanao (Davao del Sur, South Cotabato and Agusan
del Sur) have been selected. Two extension workers are assigned to a village in each impact area. One
impact area located at the foothills of Mount Apo in Davao del Sur has already acquired 300 SALT
farmer-cooperators in only three years. Out-of-School Youth Program To respond to the needs of young
people who leave school early, mainly for financial reasons, a special training program is provided which
helps these out-of-school youths become responsible citizens in their respective communities. The
training they receive includes agriculture, with an emphasis on SALT and human nutrition. One strength
of this training is that students are taught skills using appropriate materials and technology. The program
does not create dependence on expensive technology such as tractors. After a typical three-month session,
trainees can generally implement many improvements when they return home.
Advantages of SALT:
The advantages of SALT are that it is a simple, applicable, low-cost and timely method of upland
farming. It is a technology developed for Asian farmers with few tools, little capital, and little formal
education in agriculture. Contour lines are determined by using an A-frame transit that any farmer can
learn to make and use. A farmer can grow varieties of crops he is familiar with and old farming patterns
can be utilized in the SALT system.
If farmers leave the SALT farm, like some tribal groups do, the nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs (NFTS)
will continue to grow and overshadow the crop area. By the time the land is reverted to cultivation, the
soil has been enriched already by the large amount of NFTS leaves and there is no erosion to contend
with. In addition, the trees may be harvested for firewood or charcoal.
Various Forms of SALT:

There are several forms of SALT and a farmer may wish to use the SALT system in several variations.
Simple Agro-Livestock Technology (SALT 2), Sustainable Agroforestry Land Technology (SALT 3),
and Small Agrofruit Livelihood Technology (SALT 4) are three variations of SALT that have been
developed at the MBRLC based on the original SALT ideas.
SALT 2 (Simple Agro-Livestock Land Technology) is a small, livestock-based agroforestry system

(preferably with dairy goats) and has a land use of 40% for agriculture, 20% for forestry and 40% for
livestock. As in a conventional SALT project, hedgerows of different nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs are
76
established on the contour lines. The manure from the animals is utilized as fertilizer both for food and
forage crops.
SALT 3 (Sustainable Agroforest Land Technology) is a cropping system in which a farmer can
incorporate food production, fruit production and forest trees that can be marketed. The farmer first
develops a conventional SALT project to produce food for his family and possibly for livestock. On
another portion of land, he can plant fruit trees such as rambutan, durian, and lanzones between the
contour lines. The plants in the hedgerows should be cut and piled around the fruit trees for fertilizer and
soil conservation purposes. A small forest of about 1 ha will be developed in which trees of different
species are grown for short-range production of firewood and charcoal. Other species that would produce
wood and building materials may be grown for medium and long-range production. In some areas where
the soil is too steep for row crops, contour lines may be established two or three meters apart and planted
with Flemingia or some other suitable hedgerow species. In between the hedgerows, coffee, cacao,
calamansi or other permanent crops could be planted.
SALT 4 (Small Agrofruit Livelihood Technology) is based on a half-hectare piece of sloping land with
two-thirds of it developed in fruit trees and one-third intended for food crops. Hedgerows of different
nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs are planted along the contours of the farm. For more information on these
SALT farming systems, see the individual manuals on SALT 2, SALT 3 and SALT 4 produced by the
MBRLC and ARLDF.
The ten steps of SALT
Step 1: Make an A-frame
The first step is to make an instrument to locate the contour lines of your field. The ARLDF recommends
using an A-frame (Fig 2.12). This is a simple yet effective tool that looks like the letter A, hence its name.
The A-frame is so simple that you can make your own using materials generally found on farms. To make
it, you will need three sturdy wooden or bamboo poles, a saw or bolo, an ordinary carpenter’s level, and
string or rope. Cut two wooden poles at least 1 m to serve as the legs of the A-frame. Cut the third piece
at least 0.5 m long to be used as the cross bar of the frame.
Tie together the upper ends of the longer poles. Let the lower ends of the legs stand on the level ground.
Spread the legs about 1 m apart to form a perfect angle. Brace horizontally the shorter pole to become a
crossbar between the two legs. Tie carpenter’s level on the top of the crossbar.
Use the A-frame to find the contour lines of the land. Plowing and planting following the contour lines
can prevent soil erosion. The contour line is a level line from one end of the field to the other and is found
around the hill or mountain
Other instruments for finding contour lines: Many other instruments can be used to find the contour lines
of your field. One is the variation of the A-frame mentioned earlier which uses a string and rock as a
77
plumb bob instead of the carpenters level (diagram on right hand side of Fig 1). When done right, this
possibly the most simple, economic and accurate method of locating contour lines.
Other farmers have chosen to use “O-rings”, water levels, homemade transits and even professional
transits to locate the contour lines. Your method of locating contour lines should be one that is acceptable
to your local area.
78
Figure 2: Laying out a contour line.
79
The next step is to use your instrument of choice to locate contour lines in the field. Cut tall grasses or
remove any obstruction so that you can move easily and mark lines. When using the A-frame, the task is
much easier and faster with two people working together. One operates the A-frame while the other
marks the located contour lines with stakes (Fig 2).
Make a study of the area for which contour lines are to be determined. Begin marking contour lines near
the highest point. Let the A-frame stand on the ground. Without moving the rear leg, then put the front leg
down on the ground that is on the same level with the rear leg.
The two legs of the A-frame are on the same level when the air space in the carpenter’s level stops in the
middle. When this happens, it means that you have found the contour line which is a level line between
the two legs of the A-frame. Mark with a stick the spot where the rear leg stands.
Figure 3: Plowing contour lines on a hillside
Move the A-frame forward by placing the rear leg on the spot where the front leg stood before. Adjust the
front leg again until it levels with the rear leg. For every 2-3 m of contour line you find, mark it with a
stake. Follow this procedure until you reach the entire length of the contour line, which is the other side of
the mountain or hill.
80
Try to locate as many contour lines as possible. Remember, the farther the contour lines are from each
other, the more potential erosion occurs. Also, closer contour lines mean more nutrient-rich biomass
produced and made available to the crops growing in the alley.
There are two criteria for determining the distance between contour lines: vertical drop and surface
distance. Generally, no more than a 1 m vertical drop is desirable for effective erosion control (Figs 3 and
4). Therefore, the steeper the slope, the closer the contour hedgerows should be; conversely, the flatter the
slope, the wider the spacing of hedges. However, on the flatter slopes, it is recommended that contour
hedgerows be spaced no farther apart than 5 m in order to maximize the benefits of the NFTS on soil
fertility management.
In determining a 1 m vertical drop, the “eye-hand” method is a simple procedure to use. If using a transit
or home-made transit, the 1 m vertical drop can be obtained very quickly.
Figure 4: Determining distance between contours.
After you have found and marked the contour lines, prepare them by plowing and harrowing until ready
for planting (Fig 4). The width of each area to be prepared should be 1 m. The stakes will serve as your
guide during plowing.
Step 4: Plant seeds of nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs (NFTS)
81
On each prepared contour line make two furrows at a distance of 0.5 m apart. Sow the seeds in each
furrow to allow for a good, thick stand of seed lings. Cover seeds lightly and firmly with soil.
The ability of NFTS to grow on poor soils and in areas with long dry seasons makes them good plants for
restoring forest cover to watersheds, slopes and other lands that have been denuded of trees. Through
natural leaf drop they enrich and fertilize the soil. In addition, they compete vigorously with coarse
grasses, a common feature of many degraded areas that have been deforested or depleted by excessive
agriculture.
Flemingia macrophylla, Desmodium resonii, Gliricidia sepium, and Indigofera anil are good examples of
NFTS for hedge rows on the SALT farm. Others include Calliandra spp, Luecaena luecocephala,
and Luecaena diversofilia. Members of the Cassia genus such as spectabilis and siamea are not
mentioned here because of their doubtful fixing of nitrogen. Remember, you must select the species that
grows best in your climate and particular soils.
Step 5: Cultivate alternate strips

The spaces between the thick rows of NFTS where the crops are planted is called a strip (Fig 5). Other
names for the strips are alleyways or avenues.
If you wish to prepare the soil for planting before the NFTS are fully grown, do it alternately on strips 2,
4, 6, 8, (those plowed) and so on. Alternate cultivation will prevent erosion because the unplowed strips
will hold the soil in place. When the NFTS are fully grown, you can proceed with cultivation on every
strip.
Figure 5: Alternating plowed and unplowed strips.
82
Figure 6: Permanent crops planted in every third strip
Step 6: Plant permanent crops

Plant permanent crops in every third strip (Fig 6). They may be planted at the same time the seeds of
NFTS are sown. Only the planting holes are cleared and dug; later, ring weeding is employed until the
NFTS are large enough to hold the soil.
Examples of permanent crops include durian, lanzones, rambutan, coffee, banana, citrus, cacao, and
others of the same height. Tall crops are planted at the bottom of the hill while the short ones are planted
at the top. Shade-tolerant permanent crops can be intercropped with the tall crops.
Step 7: Plant short and medium-term crops
83
Step 7: Plant short and medium-term crops
Figure 7: Strips of short- and medium-term plants, in between strips of long-term crops in SALT.
You can plant short and medium-term crops between and among strips of permanent crops (Fig 7). They
are your source of food and regular income while waiting for the permanent crops to bear fruit. Suggested
short and medium-term crops are pineapple, ginger, gabi, castor bean, camote, peanut, mung bean, melon,
sorghum, corn, upland rice, etc. To avoid shading, plant shorter plants away from tall ones.
Step 8: Regularly trim the NFTS
84
About once a month, the continuously growing NFTS are cut back to a height of 0.5-1 m from the
ground. Pruned leaves and twigs should always be piled at the base of the crops. They serve as soil cover
to minimize the impact of raindrops on the bare soil. They also act as excellent organic fertilizer for both
the permanent and short-term crops. In this way, only a minimal amount of commercial fertilizer (about
one-fourth of the total requirement) is necessary.
Step 9: Practice crop rotation

A good way of rotating non-permanent crops is to plant grains (corn, upland rice, sorghum, etc.), tubers
(camote, cassava, gabi, etc) and other crops (pineapple, castor bean, etc) on strips where legumes (mung
bean, bush sitao, peanut, etc) were planted previously, and vice versa. This practice will help maintain the
fertility and good condition of your soil. Other management practices in crop growing, like weeding and
pest control, should be done regularly.
Step 10: Build and maintain green terraces

Apart from providing you with adequate food and sufficient income, another important benefit of using
SALT is the control of soil erosion. This is done by the double-thick rows of nitrogen-fixing trees and the
natural terraces being formed along the contour lines of the hill. As you go on farming the sloping land,
keep gathering and piling up straw, stalks, twigs, branches, leaves, rocks, and stones at the base of the
rows of nitrogen fixing trees. By doing this regularly, and as the years go by, you can build strong,
sustainable, and beautiful green terraces which will reliably anchor precious soil in place (Fig 8).
85

Module of Ag Eco 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module of Ag Eco 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT COLLEGE

POBLACION, AURORA, ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR

AG ECO 1: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE

The ZSPGC, College of Agriculture shall wield to produce business-oriented

The ZSPGC, College of Agriculture aims to provide quality instructions to produce a

THE CRISIS OF INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE

Golden Rice, genetically engineered to be nutritionally enhanced with Vitamin A, is

Figure 1. Agroecology combines elements of traditional farmers’ knowledge with elements of

Ag. Eco 1: Introduction to Ecological Agriculture

Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

Directions: Please answer the following essay questions.

1. How does agriculture affect ecosystem?

2. What are the impact of agriculture on land-use and environment?

3. What is the importance of ecology?

CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF AGROECOLOGY

AGROECOLOGY is a science that draws on social, biological and agricultural sciences

• Enhance recycling of biomass, optimizing nutrient availability and balancing nutrient

Agro-ecological principles take technological forms or practices in order to be

2.2 Agro-ecological practices and systems

The tendency of nature is to move towards complexity; however, with industrial

Crop rotations: Temporal diversity in the form of cereal-legume sequences. Nutrients

Agro-ecology can be carried out at different scales/levels: plot, field, and

2.3 Agro-ecology and traditional farmers’ knowledge

The evolution of agro-ecosystems is a result of interactions between social and

2.4 Agro-ecology and rural social movements

Agro-ecology is not a neutral science; it is tied to the concept of food sovereignty

Ag Eco 1: Introduction to Ecological Agriculture

Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

Directions: Please answer the following essay questions.

1. What are the principles of agro-ecology?

THE ROLE OF BIODIVERSITY IN ECOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE

The types of diversity that can be present in an agro-ecosystem are:

 species diversity (number of different species in the agro-ecosystem);

Box 3: The maize-bean-squash system

Box 4: Land equivalent ratio

Land equivalent ratio = Yield of corn in polyculture + Yield of bean in polyculture

Ag Eco 1: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE

Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

Directions: Please answer the following essay questions.

1. What is the ecological role of biodiversity?

2. Why is biodiversity important in agriculture?

3. How do humans influence biodiversity?

ENHANCING PLANT BIODIVERSITY FOR ECOLOGICAL PEST

INTENSIVE agriculture has displaced many ecosystem services provided by natural

Figure 4. The two fundamental pillars of the agroecological conversion process

AGROECOLOGICAL BASIS FOR THE CONVERSION TO ORGANIC

HOW does one convert from a high-input conventional to a sustainable low-external-

(1) Increased efficiency of input use as emphasized by traditional integrated pest

5.1 Crop rotations

Figure 7. An optimal crop rotation with sequences of distinct functional groups or

5.1 Enhancing soil health

5.2 Crop diversity

Increasing plant diversity in agro-ecosystems provides checks and balances, nutrient

5.3 Indicators of sustainability

Conventional agriculture is not sustainable. How can we evaluate an agricultural sys-

• Landscape diversity (amount and type of vegetation surrounding farm)

Figure 9. Yield comparison of a three-crop strip intercropping with monoculture cropping

Ag Eco 1: Introduction to Ecological Agriculture

Name: ____________________________________________ Date: _________________

Directions: Please answer the following essay questions.

1. How do I make my land organic?

2. How does conventional agriculture affect the environment?

3. Why conventional agriculture is not sustainable?

Name: ____________________________ Date: _

Name: ____________________________ Date: _

Name: ____________________________ Date: _

Name: ____________________________ Date: _

Name: ____________________________ Date: _

Name: ____________________________ Date: _