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SUBJECT : - BIOLOGY [NOTES]

Topic

Reproduction in Lower and higher Animals

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 Topic : - Reproduction in Lower and higher Animals

 Reproduction : Defn : “Bilogical process of formation of new life forms from pre-existing
slimilar life ”.
 Asexual reproduction :
i) It is a common method among lower animals.
ii) It doesn’t involve meiosis.
iii) No gamete formation and no gamete fusion.
iv) Unit parental process, doesn’t involve both the sexes.
v) The progeny - genetically identical to the single parent. (clones).
vi) Asexual reproduction - (a) Gemmule formation (b) budding

 Gemmule formation : -

i) Gemmule is an internal bud formed only in sponges.

ii) It is produced due to asexual reproduction.
iii) It is an aggregation of dormant cells, called archeocytes.
iv) Archeocytes are capable of developing into a new organism.
v) The archeocytes get coated by a thick resistant layer of secretion by amoebocytes.
vi) The gemmule is formed to overcome unfavourable conditions.
vii) On returen of favaurable conditions of water and temperature, the gemmules hatch and
develop into a new individual e.g. spongilla.

b) Buddhing : - e.g. Hydra.

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i) It is a simple method of asexual reproduction.
ii) It normally occurs in favaurable conditions.
iii) It is seen in animals like coelenterates (Hydra & corals) and in colonial Ascidians.
iv) In Hydra, a small outgrawth is produced towards the basal end of the body.
v) It develops as a bud which graws and forms tentacles and develops into a new indi
vidual.
vi) This process is called as budding.
vii) The Young Hydra gets detached from the parent and becomes an independant new or
ganism.

 Regeneration :
Defn : - It is the process boy which the organisms can. fundamentally repair or regraw
or restore its lostordamaged part” :
i) This process is obsered in all livingorganisms from the unicellular bacteria upto the most
compre multicallular from.
ii) Thaugh it involves asexual processes, it differers from reproduction
iii) A damaged Hydra can regenerate it’s lost part.
iv) Similarly, Planaria if wounded, its cells become active and regenerate lost part.
v) Planana can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation
vi) In planaria, anterior end exerts a rull on the posterior end which produces two pieces.
Which can graw into anew planaria.

 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS : -

i) It is also called as Amphimixis :
ii) Sexual reproduction involves the production of offspring by the formation and furion of
gametes.
iii) In Animals, gamete formation involves Meiosis.
iv) Juvenile Phase : - This earlier phase represents physical grauth phase starting from birth.
Animals cannot reproduce sexually in this phase.
v) Reproductive maturity phase : - This phase is attained after physical grouth is almost
over. It involves growth and activity of the sex organs during sexual reproduction
vi) Affer attaining sexual maturity, the animal exhibits various events such as -
(a) Pre fertilization : (Gametogenesis and gamete transfer).
(b) Fertilization : (Fusion of male and female gametes).
(c) Post-fertilization : (Formation of zygote and embryogenesis.)
Animals show variases breding patterns.
(a) Seasonal breeders : Some animals can breed in Perticular season called breeding
season e.g. Goat, sheep and donkey.
(b) Continuous breeders : They can breed throughout the year. eg. Humans and apes.

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HUMAN REPRODUCTION :
 Sexual reproduction process involves various steps such as -
(a) Gametogenesis
(b) Insemination
(c) Internal fertilization
(d) Zygote formation
(e) Embryogenesis.
(f) Gestation
(g) Parturition.

* Primary sex organs : Sex organs which are there in human body since birth. Testes are
primary sex organs in male and ovaries are primary sexorgans (gonads) in female.
Male gametes are sperms and female gametes are eggs.

 Secondary sexual characters / sexual dimorphic characters.

Organs that appear after attaining sexual matarity, are called as secondary sexual organns
and characters associated with these organs are - secondary sexual characters.

 Sexual dimorphic characters :

As male and female can be externally differentiated by certain specific features called
sexual dimorphic characters.

 In males : (a) Presence of beard, moustache, hairon chest.

(b) Massular body.
(c) Enlarged larynx (Adam’s apple)
 In females : (a) Developed breast
(b) Broader pelvis
(c) High pitched voice.

 Male Reproductive system :

It consists of Testes (Male gonads), accessory ducts and associated glands.
(a) TESTES : i) A pair of testes are presentin lower abdomen.
ii) They are mesodermal in origin.
iii) They are located in a pauch called. scrotum
iv) During easly foetal life, testes are in abdominal cavity.
But later, theydescend into the scrotal sac thraugh a passage
called inguinal canal
v) Each teste is oval in shape, 4 to 5 cm long, 2 to 3 cm wide and
3 cm thick.

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 Histolggy of testis -
i) The testis is externally covered by a collagenous connective tissue layer called tunica
albuginea.
ii) Quter to it, is an incomplete peritoneal covering called tunica vaginalis.
iii) Inner to it, (tunica albuginea) is tunica vasculosa, a thin, vascular and membranous layer.
iv) Fibres from tunica albuginea divides each testis into about 200 to 300 testicular lobules,
each with 1 to 4 highly coiled - seminiferaus tubules.
v) Each seminiferous tubule is intgernally lined by -
Cuboidal germinal epithelial cells (Spermatogonia)
vi) A few large pyramidal cells are present in the tubule called as sertoli cells or sustentacu
lar cells.
vii) The germinal epithelial cells undergo gametogenesis to form the spermatozoa.
viii) Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the developing sperms.
ix) Various stages of spermatogenesis can beseen in tubule
(a) Innermost spermatogonial cell (2n)
(b) Primary spermatocyte (2n)
(c) Secondary spermatocyte (n)
(d) Spermatids (n)
(e) Spermatozoa (sperms) (n)
x) The cells that lie in between the seminiferous tubules, are called as interstitial cells or
Leydig’s cells.
They secrete the male hormone androgen or testosterone.

 Presence of peritoneal covering around the testis is an indication of it’s abdominal orgin.
 The testis are suspended in scrotum by the spermatic cord.
 Testossterone hormone stimulates the descent of testis and the fibro-mascular band called
guber naculum in the scrotum.
 Testosterone hormone stimulatges the descent of testis and the fibro-mascular band called
guber naculum in the scrotum.
 In some males, a loop of intestine may pass through the inguinal canal into the scrotum
and cause a condition called inguinal hernia.

b) Accessory duct :
Accessory ducts include -
(i) Rete testis
(ii) Vasa efferentia
(iii) Epididymis
(iv) Vas deferens
(v) Ejaculatory duct
(vi) Urethra.

(i) All the seminiferous tubules of the testis at the posterior surface fom a network of tu
bules called rete testis.
(ii) 12-20 fine tubules arising from rete testis are vasa efferentia. They carry the sperms from
the testis and open into the epididymis.
(iii) Fpididymis is a long and highly coiled tube which is differentiated into -
an upper - caput
middle - corpus
lower - cauda
sperms undergo maturation in epididymis.

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(iv) posteriorly epididymis leads to the vas deferens which finally opens in urethra.
(v) Before doing so, it joins the duct of seminal veside to form the ejaculatory duct which
passes through the prostate gland and opens into the urethra.
(vi) The urethra provides a common passage for the urine and semen, hence is also called as
urinogeni tal duct.
(vii) In males, urethra is long and extends through penis. It opens to the outside by an
opening called the urethral meatus or urethral orifice.
All the accessory ducts except urethra are present in pairs.

C. GLANDS

The mall accesory glands are as follows -

 Seminal vesicles :
i) It is a pair of gland lying on the posterior side of urinary blader.
ii) It secretes an alkaline seminal fluid which contains fructose, fibrinogen and prostaglan
dins.
iii) It contributes about 60% of the total volume of semen
 Fructose - Provides energy for sperm movement.
 Fibrinogen - Coagulates the semen into a bolus for quick propulsion in the vagina.
 Prostaglandins - Stimulates reverse peristalsis in vagina and uterus aiding faster
movement of sperms Egg

 Prostate Gland :
i) It is a large and single gland.
ii) It is made up of 20-30 lobes
iii) It is located underneath the urinary bladder.
iv) It surraunds the urethra and releases a milkywhite and slightly acidic prostatic fluid into
the verthra. and slightly acidic prostatic fluid into the urethra.
v) It forms about 30% of volume of semen.
vi) It contains citric acid, acid phosphatase and other enzymes.
vii) The acid phosphatase protects the sperms from acidic environment of vagina.

 Prostatge cancer : Men who are over 50 years of age and have a daily high consumption
of fat, have an increased risk of prostate cancer.
 Cowper’s gland / Bulbourethral gland :
i) It is a small, pea sized and pairred gland situated on either side of urethra.
ii) These glands secretes an alkaline, viscous, mucous like fluid which acts as a lubricant
during copulation.

 Semen :
i) It is the viscous, alkaline, and milky fluid (PH 7.2 to 7.7) ejaculated by the male
reproductive system.
ii) Normally 2.5 to 4.0 ml of semen is given out duringa single ejaculation.
iii) It contains about 400 million sperms.
iv) It contains secretion of the epididymis andthe accessory glands for mourishing
(fructose), neutroalizing acidity (Ca++, bicarbonates) activates for movement.
(Prostaglandins).

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d) External genitalia :
It includes the penis and the scrotum.
1) Penis :
i) It is the male copulatory organ.
ii) It is cylindrical and mascular with three bundles of erectile fissue - A pair of posterio -
lateral tissue called - corpora cavernosa
and median - corpus spongiosum.
iii) The swollen tip of the penis is called glans penis.
iv) It is covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin or Prepuce.

2) Scrotum :
i) It is a loose pauch of pigmented skin lying behind the penis.
ii) Scrotum is divided into right and left scrotal sac by a septum of tunica dartos made up of
smooth muscle fibres
iii) The foetal testis are retained in the scrotum by a short fibro-mascular band callled guber
naculum.
iv) The testis remains suspended in the scrotum by a spermatic cord.
v) Failure of testis to descend into scrotum is called. cry ptorchidism which results in
sterility.
vi) The cremaster and dartos muscles of scrotum help in drawing testes close or away from
the body.
vii) This helps in maintaining the temperature of the testis 2-3o C. lowerthan the normal body
temperature which is necessory for spermatogenesis.

B) Female reproductive system :

The female reproductive system consist of following parts -
1) A pair of ovaries
2) A pair of oviducts
3) Uterus
4) Vagina
5) External genitalia (valva)
6) A pair of vestibular glands
7) A pair of mammary glands.

1. Ovary :
i) It is the primary female sex organ. (female gonad)
ii) It’s main function is production of egg or ovum and female reproductive hormones.
iii) It is solid, oval or almond shaped.
iv) It is 3.0 cm inlength
1.5 cm in breadth
1.0 cm in thickness.
v) It is located in the upper lateral part of the pelvis near the kidneys.
vi) Each ovary is held in position by ligaments by attaching it to the uterus and the
abdominal wall.
vii) The largest of these is the broad ligament formed by the fold of peritoneum.
viii) It holds the ovary, oviduct and the uterus to the dorsal body wall.
xi) The ovarian ligaments attaches ovary to the uterus.
x) The ovary produces 5 hormones viz,
* Estrogen
* Progesterone / progesterone
* Relaxin
* Activin
* Inhibin.
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 Structure and development of the ovary :

i) Each ovary is a compact structure differentiated into

A central part - Medulla
The outer part - cortex
ii) The cortex is covered by germinal epithelium.
iii) The medulla has stroma, blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerve fibres.

 Development of ovary :
i) The endoderm cells of yolk sac undergo mitosis and cells after the mitosis are now calledas
oogonia.
This process occurs in embryo before 12th week.
ii) As oogonia continuee to grow in size and get surraunded by a layer of granulosa cells
and form the ovarian follicles.
iii) This process starts (oogenesis) much before the birth of the female body and by the end
of twelve weeks of the ovary is fully formed. It has more than two million primordial
follicles in it.
iv) The cells of germinal epithelium give rise to group of oogonia projecting into the cortex
in the form of cords called egg tubes of pfluger.
v) Each cord at it’s end has a round mas of oogonial cells called egg nests, from which the
primordial follicles develop
vi) Each primordial follicle has, at it’s center a large primary oocyte (2n) surrounded by a
single layer of flat folliwcular cells.
vii) The primary oocyte starts with its meiotic division but gets arrested it at meiosis-I.
viii) Of the two million primordial follicles embeded in the foetal ovary only about one
million remain at birth and only about 40,000 remain at the time of puberty.
ix) The large scale destruction of the primordial follicles during growth is called atresia.
x) During each menstrual cycle only one of the primordial follicle starts growing to form
the Graffian follicle.
xi) This process starts with the onset of puberty.
xii) In each cycle, alternately one of the two ovaries produces the Graafian follicle.

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 Menarch : Onset or starting of first menstrual cycle normally at the age of 13.
 Menopavse : stopping of the menstrual cycle at the ag eof 45 - 55 female.
 Reproductive age : The period between menarch and menopavse is called, reproductive
age. It is about 32 years approximately In this time, female will produce maximum
32 x 13 = 416 eggs.

 Ovarian histology of mature female :

 It shows the cyclic changes in ovary during each menstrual cycle.
 It shows development of-primordial follicle to -
 Primary follicle
 Secondary follicle
 Graafian follicle.

i) Primordial follicle : It contains primary oocyte (2n) with single layered follicular cells.
It then develops into primary follicle.
ii) Primary follicle : It contains primary oocyte (2n) with multilayered follicular cells, theca
is present over the follicle. It then develops into secondary follicle.
iii) Secondary follicle : It contains primary oocyte (2n) with multlayered follicular cells
(no. increase than I.ry) follicular cells start producing the hormone - estrogen. secondary
follicle grows into Graafian follicle) (n).
iv) Graafian follicle : (Mature follicle)
It contains secondary oocyte (n) with more follicular cells, more estrogen is produced.
It moves towards the surface of the ovary.
v) Corpus luteum : After ovulation, the remaining part of the follicle changes into a tempo
rary endocrine gland corpus luteum.
vi) Corpus albicans : It fertilization does not take place, thne corpus luteum degenerates into
a white scar called - corpus albicans.

 Structure of Graafian follicle :

i) Graafian follicle is a mature ovarian follicle.
ii) An eccentric secondary oocyte is surrounded by a non-cellular layer of zona pellucida.
sereted by the vitelline membrane of oocyte.
iii) The outermost protective and fibrous covering is theca extema inner to it is theca interna.
iv) It produces the hormone estrogen.
v) Inner to theca interna, the follicular cells form the layer membrana granulosa
vi) From the membrana granulosa, the cell differentiates into
(a) Discus proligerus and (b) corona radiata.
vii) Cumulus oophorus is the term used for the oocyte & surrounding granulosa cells.
viii) A fluid filled cavity antrum lies between the oocyte and the membrana granulosa.
ix) It is filled with a fulid - liquor folliculi.

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(2) Oviduct / fallopian tube / uterine tube : -
i) A pair of mascular ducts to carry ovum from ovary to uterus.
ii) Each tube is 10-12 cm length, one end lies nearto the ovary, other end ope ns to the uterus.
iii) Oviduct is internally lined by -ciliated epithelium.
 oviduct can be divided into three regions.
Oviduct can be divided into three regions.
(a) Infundibulum : The proximal funnel like part with an opening called ostium surranded
by many finger like processes called fimbrae.
function : - The cilia and the movement of ovary help in driving the ovulated eqq to the
ostium
(b) Ampulla : It is the middle, long and straight part of the oviduct.
Function : fertilization of the ovum takes place in this region.
(c) Isthmus / cornua : The distal narrow part of the duct opening into the uterus.

(3) Uterus : womb :

i) It is also called as womb.
ii) (7.5 cm x 5 cm x 2.5) L x B x T of uterus.
iii) It is hollow, mascular and pear shaped organ located behind the urinary bladder.
iv) Uterus is divided into three regions.
(a) Fundus : - It is the broad part of uterus which gradually tapers downwards
(c) Cervix : - It is the narrow neck about 2.5 cm. in length. It extends into the vagina
It’s passage has 2openings an internal os towards the body, an external ostowards vagina
 Internally the uterine wall can be distinguished into 3 layers.
(a) perimetrium : - outermost layer.
(b) myometrium : Middle thick mascular layer. These smooth muscles undergo contractions
that cause labour pain.
(c) Endometrium : - The innermost layer also called as mucosal membrane is made up of
stratified epithelium this layer is richly supplied with blood vessels and uterine glands.
Endometrium undergo regular changes in thickness during menstrual cycle. Uterine
glands provide nourishment to the developing foetus.
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4) Vagina : -
i) It is the female copulatory organ about 7-9 cm in length.
ii) It lies between cervix and vestibule.
iii) The wall of vagina has three layers.
 inner - mucosal
 middle - mascular
 outer - Adventitia layer.
iv) mocosal layer stores glycogen it is stratified and ohonkeratinised
v) Vaginal orifice – The opening of the vagina into the vestibule is called vaginal orifice.
vi) Hymen : - A fold of mucous membrane covering partally vaginal orifice.

 Function : Vagina acts as a passsage for menstrual flow as well as birth conal,
during partitwrition flow as well as birth canal, during partiturition

(5) External genitalia :

 Female genital organs external to vagina is called vulva or pudendvm-
 In includes.
(a) Vestibule : Enclose the urethral and vaginal opening.
(b) Labia minora : A pair of thin fold covers around clitoris.
(c) clitoris : Homologovs to penis. has a pair of erective tissue It is small conical projection
lying at the ant. end of labia minora.

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(d) Labia majora : Fleshy fold of skin around the vulva. Homologous to scrotum.
protects external genitalia.
(e) Mons pubis : Fleshy elevation above the labia majora, show pubic hair.
(6) Accessory glands / vestibular glands / Bartholin’s gland :

 It is a pair of glands homologus to the cowper’s gland / Bulbourethral glands of the

mal.. They open into the vestibule and release a lubricating fuild.

(7) Mammary gland : -

(i) It is the accessory organ for production and release of milk after parturition.
(ii) Mammary glands are developed under the influence of estrogen and progesteroneat
puberty.
(iii) Lactotropic hormone (LTH) or pralactin helps in developement of lactiferous tubules
during pregnancy.
(iv) Mammary glands are a pair of raunded structures present in the subcutaneous tissue of
the anterior thorax in the pectoral region (from 2nd and 6th rib.)
(v) These are modified sweat glands.
(vi) Each gland contains. fatty connective tissue and humerous lacticiferous ducts.
(vii) Alveolar alands secrete milk which is stored in the lumen of alveoli.
(viii) Alveoli opens into mammary tubules, which joins with other tubules to form mammary
duct.
(ix) Many mammary ducts form mammary ampulia, which are connected to lactiferous duct,
which opens at the tip of the nipple, tip of the breact.
(x) Areola is the dark circular area around nipple.
 The flow of milk in the breast -
Alveoli glands - Lumen of alveoli - Mammary tubule - Mammary duct - mamma.
ampulla - lactiferous duct - outside the breast.

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 Puberty / sexual maturity in males : -

i) It is the age at which sex organs become functional, begin producting gametes and sex
hormones.
ii) In males, puberty sets in at the age of 12-15 years. secondary sexual characters appear by
the influence of estosterone in male and remains functional through out life.

 Puberty / sexual maturity in females : -

i) It is the age at which sex organs become functional begin produccing gametes and sex
hormones
ii) In females it is indicated by on set of menstrual cycle, also called menarche.
iii) Usually occurs at age of 10-14 yhears.
iv) Mature females show cyclic changes in reproductive system, upto menopause.
v) Affer meno pouse, the female is unable to bear a children by natural method.
vi) Menarch, menopause and menstrual cycle are controlled by hormones.

 Menstrual cycle convarian cycle

i) It is found in primates, like human -
ii) It involves series of cyclic changes in the ovary and uterus.
iii) These changes takes place under the infulence / effect of gonadotropins and ovarian hor
mones respectively.
iv) It repeats mostly after 28 days & has 4 phases.
v) The eqq in every cycle comes alternately from one of the two ovaries. 4 phases are as
follows : -
(a) Menstrual phase
(b) proliferative phase/follicular phase/post menstrual p.
(c) Ovulated phase.
(d) Secretady phase / luteal phase. secretory.

(a) MENSTRUAL PHASE :

i) It is the begining of the cycle indicated by the loss of blood (45-100 ml)
ii) If lasts for about approximately 5 days. (aver. 3-7 days.)
iii) In uterus : Endometrium breaks down b undr the effect of prostaglandins due to de
creased level of progesteroune and estrogen.
iv) Due to this, blood, tissue fluid, mucus, endometrial lining and the unfertilized oocyte is
discharged through vagina.
v) The endometrial lining b ecomes very thin. i.e. about 1 mm. The menstrual discharge
does not clot due to presence of fibrinolysin.
vi) Menstrual phase occurs when an ovulated egg does not get fertilized and it is thereby
shed out along with the menstrum. It is thus called funeral of unfertilized egg’
vii) During these five days, many primordial follicles develop into primary and few of them
into secondary follicles under the effect of FSH.
(b) Proliferative phase / follicular phase / post-menstrual phase

 It extends from 5th day to 13th day of the cycle.

 In ovary :
i) A few (6 to 12) secondary follicles proceed. to develop but usually one of them develops
into a mature follicle (Graafian follicle)
ii) The other secondary follicles degenerate.
iii) This process of degenerateon is called Atresia.
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iv) Developing secondary follicles secrete the hormone - Estrogen.
v) Development of follicles in influenced by GnRH. (Gonado-tropin releasing hormone.)
Which stimulates release of FSH.

 In uterus :
i) Endometrium begins to regenerate under the effect of gradually increasing quantity of
estrogen s.
ii) Regeneration also involves formation of endothelial cells, endometrial or uterine glands
and network of blood vessels Thickness of endometrium reaches 3-5 mm.

(c) Ovulatory phase : -

i) It is the shortest phase of menstrual cycle.
ii) It involves rupturing of the mature Graafian follicle. and release of ovum
(Secondary oocyte) into the pelvic cavity ; usually on 14th day of Menstrual cycle.
iii) Rapid secretion of LH by positive feed back mechanism cause the Graafian follicle to
rupture. (ovulation).
iv) Ovulation many be accompanied by mild or severe pain in lewer abdomen.

(d) Secretory phase / luteal phase : (longest phase)

i) It last for 14 days ; from 15th to 28th day of the cycle.
ii) Duration of this phase is between the ovulation and begining of the next menses.
 In ovary :
During this phase, ruptured Grafian follicle converts into corpus luteum under the
effect of L.H. corpus luteum begins to secrete progesteron & estrogens.
If ovulated egg doesnot get fertilized withing 24 hours, i.e. in absence of fertilization,
corpus leuteum can survive for onlys two weaks and then degenerate into a white scar
called corpus albicans.

 In uterus : The corpus luteum releases progesteron, small amount of estrogen and inhibin.
Under the infulence of these hormones, the endometrial glands grow, become coiled and
start uterine secretions.
Endometrium becomes more vascularised and thicknes upto 8-10 mm. Inhibin stops
secretion of FSH. These changes are necessary for fertilization and implanation.
 It the ovum is fertilized and the embryo is implanted, there is secretion of human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) hormone which extends the life of corpus luteum.
 Presence of hCG in maternal blood and urine is an indicator of pregnancy.
 In absence of fertilization, next menstrual cycle begins.

GAMETOGENESIS : -
Defn : - The gametogenesis is the process of gametes
 SPERMATOGENESIS : Defination - ‘The process of formation of formation of the sperms
(male gametes) from the germinal epithelium’ of testis is called spermatogenesis”.
 At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus begins secretion of gonadotropin releasing
hormone. (GnRH)
 GnRH - stimulates the secretion of FSH.
(FSH - follicle stimulating hormone).
 FSH then induces spermatogenesis.
 Each seminiferous tubule is lined by germinal epithelium (single layer of cuboidal
epithelium)
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 The cells of germinal epithelium undergo sperm atogenesis to produce sperms.
Sper matogenesis process involves 3 stages

I. Multiplication phase :
The primordial germ cells (2n) of seminiferous tubules, undergo repeated mitotic
divisions to produce large number of spermatogonia (2n).
Each spermatogonium isdiploid and with 44 chromosomes.
II Growth Phase :
Some of the spermatogonia stop dividing and grow in size to develop into primary
spermato cytes (2n) dule to accumulation of food.

III) Maturation Phase :

i) It involves meiotic or reduction division.
ii) The spermatocyte undergoes the first phase of meiosis i,e. meiosis - I leading to the
formation of two haploid cells called secondary spermaiocyte (n) -23.
iii) The secondary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis -II to produce four haploid
spermatids cn)
iv) The spermatid is non-motile and non-motile and non-functional. It gets transformed into
a functional spermatozoa by the process called spermiogenesis.

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 Spermeiogenesis -
(a) spermatids remain held to each other and to the sertoli cells by cytoplasmic bridges.
(b) The sperm heads remain attachned to the sertoli cells and their tails hanging in the
lumen of seminiferous tabule.
(c) The length of spermatid increases.
(d) Centrioles are rearranged as primary and distal centrioles .
(e) Mitochondria become spirally coiled and acrosome is formed from golgi complex.

 Structure of sperms :
sperm is the male gamete. It is a motile, microseopic elongated cell. It is divisible into
threa parts -
Head, middle piece and tail.

HEAD -
i) The sperm is is oval in shape and contains haploid nucleus.
ii) Above the nucleus, there is a cap like structure called acrosome. It is formed of rom
Golgi body.
iii) Acrosome contains hydrolytic enzymes - Hyaluronidase and proteolytic enzymes like
zona lysins and corona penetrating enzymes.

NECK -
i) It is a very short region having two centrioles i.e., proximal centriole and distal centriole.
ii) Axial filament is attached to the distal centriole from one side.

Middle piece :
i) It has an axial filament surrounded by 10-14 spiral turns of mitochondria (nebenkern).
ii) It produces energy necessary for, the movement of sperm.
Tail -
i) It is a long, slender and tapering part containing cytoplasm and fine thread-axial fila
ment
ii) The axial filament arises from the distral centriole and travels through out the length of
tail-
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 iii) It is partly surrounded by plasma membrane - main piece.
The part without plasma membrane - end piece
Oosenesis : - It takes place in ovaries.

 Defn : “It is the process of the fromation of the haploid (n) female gamete i.e. egg or
ovum from the diploid germinal epithelium”. OOgenesis process can be divided into
3 stages.
i) Multi Plication phase : - In this stage, the primary germinal cells (2n) of ovary undergo
repeated mitotic division to form millions of oogonial cells (2n)
ii) Growth Phase : - some of the oogonia stop division and begins to increase in size and
form the primary oocytes (2n). cellular organelles like ER, golgi apparatus, and
mitochndria increase in number.
iii) Maturation Phase : - (a) Iry oocytes (2n) enter the maturation phase i.e., they undergo
meiosis-I (Reduction to form 2 daucghter cells (n). (23-chromosomes.)
(b) Due to unequal division of cytoplasm, of the two daughter cells produced, one is a large
cell called secondary oocyte (n) and another is a small cell called 1st polar body (n)
(c) Normally the 1st polar body does not enter meiosis-II.

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(d)` The secondary oocyte (n) proceeds meiosis-II, only upto metaphase-II. It’s division is
further stopped or arrested at this stage. The secondary oocyte is shed from the
Graafian follicle and ovary.
(e) The restart and completion of meiosis-II will happen only with entry of the sperm in
ampulla, during fertilization
(f) In this division also, two unequal daughter cells r formed. the large cell is ovum (n) and
small cell is 2nd polar body (n).
(g) The ovum (n) so formed functions as the female gamete and is ready for fertilization. It
the secondary oocyte does not recieve the sperm, it is shed off with the menstrum.

 Structure of secondary oocyte : Unfertilized egg or ovum.

i) The egg of ovum released after ovulation is actually the secondary oocyte i.e. untertilized
egg.
ii) Human egg or ovum is non-cleldoic (withaut shall) and microlecithal (Yolk is presentin
very small quantity)
(iii) It is approximately 0.1mm (100 uicrons) in size.
(iv) It is rounded, non-motile, and haploid male gamete.
(v) The nucleus of the egg is large and is called germinal vesicle.
(vi) It is called as pronucleus at the time of fertilization.
(vii) The cytoplasm of egg is called as ooplasm.
(viii) It is devoid of centrioles.
The egg is surrounded by various coverings.
(a) The egg membrane is called vitelline membrane.
(b) vitelline membrane secretes a non-cellular, glycoprotein membrane, zona pellucida on
it’s out side.
(c) Outer to the zona pellucida, corona radiata layer is present which is made up of radially
elon gated cells. Which are derived from granulosa cells.
(d) Thse granulosa cells are firmly held to the zona pellucida and to each other by
hyaluronic acid (mucopolysaccharides)
(e) Between the vitelline membrane and the zona pellucida is fluid filled perivitelline
space. The first polar body lies in this space.
(f) The egg shows polarity. The side having germinal vesicle and first polar body is called
Animal pole.
While the side opposite to it is called vegetal pole.

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 FERTILIZATION / SYNGAMY : -
 sexual reproduction involves formation and fusion of gometes.
Defn, “ Fertilization is the process which involves fusion of the haploid male and
female gametes resulting in the formation of a diploid zygote (2n)”.
 In mammals including humans, the process of fertilization is intenal and takes place in
falloplan tube/uterine tube.
 The fertilized egg or zygote will develop into an embryo and this process occurs within
the uterus.

 Mechanism of fertilization : -
semen released during ejaculation has sperms and some other secretions.
 The coagulated semen now undergoes liquification and sperms become active.
The mechanism of fertilization is as follows : -

(a) Movement of sperm towards egg : -

i) It involves capacitation of sperms reaching vagina. Here as many as 50% are demotilised
/ broken / destroyed remaining sperms undergo capacitation and requires 5-6 hours.
ii) Acrosome membrane becomes thin, ca++ enters the sperm and their tails begin to show
rapid whiplash movements.
iii) As a result of capacitation, sperms become extractive and begin to start moving upwards
from vagina to uterus and to the oviducts.
iv) The prostaglandins activate the sperms.
v) The vestibular secretions of the female also enhance sperms motility.
vi) The sperms swim at an average speed of 1.5 to 3.0 mm/min.
vii) sperms reach up upto the ampulla as a result of their own swimming and partly by
contraction of uterus and fallopian tubes stimulated by orytocin of female.
viii) After capacitation the sperms may reach ampulla within 5 minutes,
ix) sperms can remain viable for 24-48 hours.
x) ovum for 24 hours.

b) Entry of sperm into the egg : -

i) Out of 200 to 400 million sperms, only few hundered manage to reach the ampulla.
ii) Though many sperms reach the ampulla but only a single sperm fertilizes the ovum.
iii) Sperm acrosome releases lysins : hyaluronidase and corona penetrating enzymes. They
separate and dissolve the cells of corona radiata, so the sperm head passes through the
zona pellucida of egg.
iv) The zona pellucida has fertilizin receptor proteins (Zp3, Zp2). The fertilizin binds to
specific acid protein antifertilizin of sperm.
v) It brings about attraction of sperms to the eqq to enhance fertilization. fertilizin-
antifertilizin interaction is species specific and called as compatibility reaction.

 Acrosome reaction :
i) As the sperm head touches the zona pellucida in the animal pole region, its acrosome
covering ruptures to release lytic enzymes, acrosin or zona lysin.
ii) They act on zona pellucida at the point of contact. This causes egg reaction - A small
fertilization cone/cone of reception is formed on the egg membrane. The sperm head
comes in contact with this cone. It results in production of a weak wave of depolarisation.
iii) Plasma membrane of both the cells dissolve at the point of contact.
iv) The sperm nucleus andthe centrioles enter the egg, while other parts remain outside.

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v) As soon as the sperm head touches the vitelline membrane, a cortical reaction gets
activated chaning the vitelline membrane into a fertilization membrane. by
deactivating the sperm receptors of zona pellucida.
vi) A distinct perivitelline space is created around the fertilization membrane. This prevents
any further entry of other sperms in to egg. i.e, polyspermy is avoided.

C. Activation of avum : -
i) The ovum before fertilization was at metaphase - II stage.
ii) With a contact of sperm head to the vitelline membrane of egg, it gets activated to
resume and complete it’s meiosis II. With this it gives out the second polar body.
iii) The germinal vesicle organises into female pronucleus at this stage, it is the true ovum or
egg.

 Fusion of egg or ovum and sperm : -

i) The converings of male and female pronuclei degenerate allowing the chromosomal
pairing.
ii) This results in the formation of synuaryon by the process called syngamy or karyogamy.
iii) The zyqote is thus formed.
iv) The proximal centriole recieved from sperm helps in the formation of the synkary
on spindle and cleavage of cell into two blastomeres.

 Significance of fertilization :
i) Secondary oocyte completes the process of oogenesis and it transformed into a mature
ovum.
ii) The diploid chromosome number is restored in the zygote by the process of syngamy.
iii) The ovum lacks the centrioles necessory for further divisions, are recieved from the sperm
during fertilization.
iv) Fertilization involves fusion of male and female gametes from the two parents.
It resultsin variations which are significant in Evolution.
v) Sex of the offspring is determined.
 Embryonic development * zyqote is activated to divide. cleavage :
Defn : - It is the process of early mitotic division of the zygote into a hollow
multicellular blastula”.
(i) It does not involve the growth of the daughter cells. The cells formed by cleavage are
called Blastomeres
(ii) The size of blastomeres will be reduced with every successive cleavages as there is no
growth phase between the cleavages.
(iii) As size reduces, the matabolic rate increases, subsequent cleavages are thus faster than
earlier one.
(iv) This requires rapid replication of DNA and high consumption of orygen.

 Process of deavage : -
In human, cleavage is holoblastic i.e. the whole zygote gets divided. The cleavage planes
may be longitadinal or meridonial and equatorial ro horizontal. It is radial and
indeternminate i.e, fate of each blastomere is not predetermined.

 1st cleavage : -
i) First cleavage plane is meridianal and occurs at about 30 hours after fertilization.
It divides longitudinaly into two blastomeres, one slightly larger than the other.
ii) 2nd cleavage : - It is also longitudinal but at the right angle to the first one and occurs after
30 hours of 1st cleavage.
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iii) 3rd cleavage : It is horizontal. After 3rd cleavage the embryo is in 8-cell stage.
iv) As the cleavages are goinignon, the young embro is gradually being pushed towards
uterus.
v) By the end of 4th day after fertilization, embryo is a solid ball of 16-32 cells and externally
looking a like mulberry. This stage is called as Morua.
vi) Morula shows cells of two types -
(a) Smaller, cleaver cells towards the auter side.
(b) inner cell mass of larger cells. cells are compactly arranged.
vii) Till the formation of morula, the zona pellucida is retained around the embryo and thus,
there is no change in the overall size from zygote to morula.
viii) Morula reaches the is thmus and gains entry into the uterus by the end of day 4.

BLASTULATION -

Defn : ‘‘ Blastulation is the process of formation of the hollow and multicellular blastocyst”. (embryo)
i) The embryo (blastocyst) that enters the uterus remains floating in uterine cavity for 2-4 days after
it’s entry, till the end of 7th day after fertilization.
ii) The outer layer of cells seen in the Morula now forma the layer called trophoblast.
iii) Cells from the trophoblast begin to absorb the glycogen rich uterine milk.
iv) The blastocyst doubles in size from 0,15 mm to 0.30 mm.
v) A blastocyst cavity is formed due to the entry of more uterine fluid
vi) The outer cells become flat and are called trophoblast cells.
vii) The inner cells form inner cell mass or embryoblast.
viii) The cells of inner mass remain attached to trophoblasts on only one side.
ix) The trophoblast cells in contact with the embryonal knob are called cells of Rauber.
x) At this stage, the blastocyst shows polarity. The side with inner mass is called the embryonal end
and the side opposite to it is the abembryonal end.
xi) By the end of the 7th day, the blastocyst is fully formed and ready for implantation and
gastrulation.
xii) The function of zona pellucija is to prevent the implantation of the embryo at an abnormal sitc.
xiii) It does not expose the sticky and phagocytic trophoblast cells till it reaches the implantation site ie
within uterus, hence zona pellucida now reptures.

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IMPLANTATION :

i) The blastocyst after it’s formation, gets implanted into the endometrium of the uterus.
ii) This process usually begins on day 7 after fertilization. and by end of 10th day, the
embryo is completely burried inside the endometrium.
iii) The embryo usually implants in the region of the fundus of uterus.
iv) The trophoblast cells of the animal pole have the power to stick to the uterine wall.
v) Rapid division of the trophoblast cells lying against the embryonal knob takes place.
vi) It results in the formation of two distinct layers -
(a) Syncytiotrophoblast (b) Cytotrophoblast.
vii) The outer layer, syncytiotrophoblast is syncytium i.e. a layer of protoplasm with many nuclei.
vii) It gives out processes which extensively invade the endometrium,
ix) The lytic enzymes secreted by the trophoblasts, rupture the endometrial cell there by making
a burraw, into which the embryo begins to gel implanted.
x) By the end of the 10th day the whole embryo is jeeply embeded into the endometrium,
complating the process of implnatation.
xi) The inner layer of cells is called cytotrophoblast (cells with defined membrane)
since the cells retain their cell boundries.

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GASTRULATION :

Defn : - ‘‘ It is the formation of ‘Gastrula’ from the blastocyst’’. In the gastrula stage, there is slowing of
the rate of cleavage or division. Two important processes takes place actively.

(a) Differentiation of blastomeres :

This process results in the formation of 3 germinal layers. ie. ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm
from the cells of embryoblast.
(b) Morphogenic movements : -
These are different types of movements of cells to reach their definite place in the embryo.
 Gastrulation starts on about 8th day after fertilization.
* Formation of an endoderm :
* Hypoblast forms endoderm :
i) Cells of the free end of inner cell mass called hypoblast, become flattened, start dividing and
grows downward towards the blastocoel, this layer is called endoderm.
ii) Yolk sac : Endoderm grows within blastocoel and forms a sac called yolk sac. Endoderm - first
layer to differentiate

* Epiblast forms ectoderm :

i) The remaining cells of the inner mass, in contact with cells of Rauber are called epiblasts
(pri ectoderm) Both layers form a flat, bilaminar embryonal disc.

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ii) After formation of endoderm the second layer to be differentiated is the ectoderm. cells of epiblast
divide and redivide and move in such a way that they enclose the amniotic cavity. The floor of thes
cavity has the embryonal disc.

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iii) The pyramidal cells of the disc towards the amniotic cavity form the embryonal ectoderm.
iv) The roof of the amnioric cavity is lined by amniogenic cells. Later, these cells divide and redivide
to form the amnion. Amnion is the extraembryonic membrane that surrounds and protects the
embryo.
v) As a result of all these changes, the bilaminar embryonic disc is positioned in between the
amniotic cavity and yolk. sac.
vi) Actual gastrulation occurs about 15 days after fertilization, in which the bilaminar embryonic
disc is transformed into trilaminar embryonic disc.
vii) This transformation occurs by division, rearrangement and migration of cells of epiblast.
viii) It begins with formation of primitive streak and a shallow grouve on the surface is called primitive
groove
ix) This streak progresses from posterior to anterior end of embryo. From site of primitive streak
a third loayer of cells called mesoderm extends between ectoderm and endoderm.
x) Anterrior end of primitive groove communicates with yolk sac by an aperture called blastopore
(futureanus)
xi) The embryonal disc now has differentiated into three layers - ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
xii) The further process after gastrulation is called Organogenesi
Stem cells - These are undifferentiated somatic cells of a multicellular organism. They are capable
of giving rise to many more cells of the same type or they can also differentiate into other type of
cells. e.g. -- Bone marrow cells, blood stem cells cord cells (umbilical cord) They can be used in
the treatment of parkinson’s disease, alzheimer disease, Diabetes, leukemia, Arthritis ect.

PREGNANCY :

Defn : ‘‘The condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus, is called gestation or pregnancy’’.
 The avarge period of pregnancy in human lasts for 266 days from fertilization or 280 days from
L.M.C. (last menstrual cycle.)
 This pregnancy period of about nine months is divided into three months each.

(a) First Trimester : (12 weeks from fertilization)

(i) It is the period of total 12 weeks from fertilization.
(ii) Most radical changes takes place in mother and embryo.
(iii) Embryo recieves nutrients from endometrium directly
(iv) By the end of eight weeks, it is about 3 cm long called foetus, has arms, hands, fingers, feet, toes
are formed.
(v) CNS is fully formed and excretory and circulatory system begins, foetus grows upto 7-10 cm long.

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(vi) Heart beat can be heard from 6th week.
(vii) Progestorone level becomes high and menstrual cycle is suspended till the end of pregnancy.
(viii) The mother’s body undergo rapid changes.
(ix) Maternal part of palcenta grows, the uterus becomes larger. High levels of progesterone.
(x) The mother experiences ‘Morning Sickness’.
(Nausea, Vomiting, Mood swings etc.)
(xi) Movement of foetos begins but mother can not feel it.

(b) Second Timester : (From 13th to 26th week.)

(i) Foetus undergoes rapid growth and grows upto 30 cm.
(ii) Uterus becomes largerenough for the pregnancy to become obvious.
(iii) Placenta becomes completely active and produces progesterone whihc maintains the pregnancy.
(iv) Development of brain begins.
(v) hCG declines and cropus deteriorates.
(vi) Ultrasound (sonography) at 18 : 20 weeks shows baby’s growth and position. From this estimated
due date of delivery can be established.
(vii) Baby’s movement can be easily fell by the mother.
(viii) Head has hair, eyebrows, and eyelashes appear, pinnae are distinct.
(ix) Baby reaches half the size of a newborn.
(x) Second semister : - (from 13th to 26th weeks)

(c) Third Trimester / Find trimester : - (c From 27th week till the parturition)
(i) The foetus gows to about 3 - 4 kg in weight and 50 cms in length.
(ii) Eyes are open.
(iii) There is gain in body weight.
(iv) As the foetus grows, the uterus expands around it, the mother’s abdominal organs become com
pressed and displace, leading to frequent urination, digestive blockages and strain in the back
muscles.
(v) At the end of third trimester, the foetus becomes fully developed and ready for parturition.

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PLACENTA :

i) It is a flattened, discoidal organ in the uterus of a pregnant woman.

ii) The placenta is a temporary structural and functional connection between foctal and maternal
circulation.
iii) The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrition and also for removal of carbon dioxide
and excretory wastes produced by the foetus.
iv) The placenta is attached to the wall of the uterus and to the baby’s umbelical cord.
v) Placenta is the only organ, which is formed of tissues from two different individuals the mother
and the foetus.
vi) Part of the placenta contributed by the foetus is called the foctgal placenta and it is the
chorionic villi.
vii) The other part which is rich is blood supply shared by the mother. This uterine part is called as
maternal placenta
viii) So human placenta is called haemochorial.
ix) The umbilical cord is formed of three blood vessels. of these three blood do vessels, two are small
arteries which carry blood towards the placenta and one isalarge vein which returns blood to the
foetus.
x) The placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces hormones like hCG, progesterone,
estrogen while relaxin is secreted by the ovary in the later phase of pregnancy.
xi) Level of hCG increases upto the end of first trimester and then it dedines.
xii) By the end of first trimester, progesterone is produced by placenta. These hormones are required
for foetal growth and maintenance of pregnancy.

 hCG, HPL (human placental lactogen.) Relaxin are produced in women only during pregnancy.

 Cord blood bank, Kolkata :

i) India’s first Government-run cord blood bank at kolkata was established in 2001 and is accredited
by AABB (American Association of Blood Bank.)
ii) The cord blood bank functions according to the central and state government policies, rules and
regulations. (Guldelines)
iii) Cord blood (umbilical cord blood)
is the blood that remains in the umbilical cord and placenta, post dilivery.
iv) Cord blood banking is the process of collecting the cord blood, extraction and cryogenically pres
erving for its stem cells and other cells of the immune system, for future potential medical use.
v) Cord blood is rich in stem cells that can transform into all sorts of blood cells.
vi) They can be used to treat diseases that harm the blood and immune system.

e.g. Leukemia
cancers
Sickle cell anemia and
metabolic disorders.

 PARTURITION :

 Humans are viviparous, as they give birth to their young ones.

 Parturition is the process of giving birth to a body.
 Labour : - The physical activities involved in parturition like uterine and abdominal contractions,
dilation of cervix. and passage of body are collectively called labour.

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 Labour pains : - Localised sensation of discomfort is called labour pains.
 Parturition is controlled by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism.
 Signals arise from the fully formed foetus and placenta cavse mild uterine contractions.
Rise in estrogen - Progesteron ratio
&
Increase in oxytocin receptors in uterine muscles.

Vigorous contractions of myometrium of uterus

Foetus gives signals for the uterine contractions.
by secreting ACTH (Adreno corticotropic hormon)
from pituitary and corticosteroidads from Adrenal gland.

Release of Dxytocin from mother’s pituitory.

Vigouraus contractions of uterine muscles.

Expulsion of baby from the uterus.

 Parturition process involves following three steps : -

1) Dilation stage : -
i) Uterine contractions begin from top, forcing the baby towards the cervix.
ii) Pain after contractions is due to compression of blood vessels :
iii) Due to oxytocin contractions become stronger and stronger.
iv) As the baby is pushed down in the uterus, it’s head comes to lie against cervix. Cervix gets dilated.
v) The vagina also shows similar dilation.
vi) This stage of labour can last upto 4 hours.
vii) It ends in rupturin of ammniotic membrane of foetus.

2.) Expulsion stage :

i) The uterine and abdominal contractions become stronger.
ii) The foetus passes through cervix and vagina in normal dilivery with head in forward direction.
iii) It takes 20 to 60 minutes.
iv) The umbilical cord is tied and cut off close to the baby’s navel.

3) After birth :
i) After the dilivery of the baby, the placenta separates from the uterusand is expelled out as
‘‘after birth’’, due to severe contractions of uterus.
ii) This process happens within 10 to 45 minutes of dilivery.

LACTATION :

i) The mammary glands of the female start producing milk at the end of pregnancy by the process of
lactation
ii) Prolactin is the hormone which is responsible for the production of milk.
iii) Lactation helps the in feeding the new born baby.
iv) The fluid secreted by the mammary glands soon after the child birth is called as ‘colostrum’

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v) It is the yellow fluid, sticky in nature
vi) It contains proteins, lactose and mother’s antibodies IgA.
vii) The fat content is colostrum is low
viii) The antibodies present in it helps in developing resistance for the new born baby at a time when
it’s oun immune responce is not fully developed.

Reproductive health :

According to WHO, veproductive health means total wellbeing in all aspects of reproduction - it’s
emotional, behavioural and social aspects along with the physical ones.

 Reproductive and child health care. (RCH) programmes

 Goals of RCH programmes :

1) To create awareness among people about various aspects of reproduction.
2) To provide the facilities to people to understand and build up reproductive health.
3) To provide support for bullding up a reproductively healthy society.
4) To bring about a change mainly in three critical health indicators i.e. reducing total infertility
rate and infant as well as maternal mortality rate.

 The goals of RCH can be achieved by the following steps

1) By introduction of sex education in schools. Proper information about safe and hygenic sexual
Practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STD, AIDS), problems related to adolescence and
proper information about reproductive organs.

2) With the help of Audio - visual and the print media government and Non-government organisations
should take various steps to create awareness about various aspects related to reproduction.
3) By educating the younger generation about birth control measures, pre natal care of pregnant
woman and post-natal care of the mother and child importance of breast feeding.
4) By developing awareness about problems arising due to uncontrolled population growth, social
evils like sex abuse, and sex related crimes.
5) By creating awareness about statutory ban on amniocentesis for sex determination.
6) By creating awareness about child immunization programmes.
7) By educating couples to reduce mortality rate of new borns and maternal mortality rate.

Population of India - at the time of independence - 350 millions

by 2000 - a billion mark
May 2011 - 1.2 billion
In 2020 - crossed 1.35 billions.

 2 . 12. Brith control :

The birth control methods are reffered to as contraceptives A ideal contraceptive should be -
easily available
User friendly
effective
With noor least side effects.
Contraceptive methods help to prevent pregnancies and are of two main types - temporary
and permanent.
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(a) Temporary methods : -
I) Natural method / safe method / Rhythm method :
i) A week before and a week after menstrual bleeding is considered as safe period for sexual
intercourse.
ii) This is because ovulation occurs on the 14th day of menstrual cycle.
iii) Drawback - High rate of failure
vi) Principle - Avolding chances of fertilization.

2) Coitus intgerruptus or withdrawal : -

i) In this method, the male partner withdraws his penis from the vagina just before ejaculation, 50 as
to avoid insemination.
ii) Drawback - High rate of failware, as the pre-ejaculation fluid may contain sperms and this can
cause fertilization

3) Lactational amenorrhea : - (Absence of menstruation)

i) This method is based on the fact that - During the period of intense lactation, ovulation doesnot
occur.
ii) There fore as long as mother breastfeeds the child fully, chances of conception are almost
negligible.
iii) Drawback - High chances of failure

4) Chemical means : (Spermicides)

i) In this method, chemicals like foam, tablets, jellies and creams are used by female partner.
ii) It these chemicals are introduced into the vagina before sexual intercourse, they adhere to
the mucous membrane, immobilize and kill the sperms.
iii) Drawbacks : - (a) It may cause allergic reaction.
(b) This method also has chances of failure.

5) Mechanical means / Barrier method :

In this method, with the help of barriers the ovum and sperm are prevented from physically
meeting. These barriers are of three types :
(a) Condom
(b) Diaphraqm
(c) Intra - uterine devices (IUDS)

(a) Condom : -
(i) It is a thin rubber sheath that is used to cover the penis of male during copulation.
(ii) It prevents the entry of ejaculated sperms (semen) into female reproductive tract. This can prevent
conception.
(iii) It is a simple and effective method and has no side effects.
(iv) Nirodh is the most widely used contraceptive by males.
(v) It i easily available and is given free by the government.
(vi) It should be properly discarded after every use.
(vii) It is also a safeguard against STDs and AIDS.

(b) Diaphragms, Cervical Caps and vaults : -

(i) These devices used by the females are made up of nubber.
(ii) They prevent conception by blocking the entry of sperms through the cervix.
(iii) The device is inserted into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during copulation.

(c) Intra-uterine devices (IUDS) :

(i) These clinical devices are plastic or metal objects.

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(ii) A doctor or trained nurse places the IUDs into the uterus
(iii) These devices include Lippes loop, copper releasing IUDs (Cu – T, C U7, multiload 375.) and
Hormone releasing IUDs (LNG – 20, progestasert.)
(iv) Lippes loop is a plastic double ‘‘S’’ loop.
(v) It attracts the macrophages stimulating them to accumulate in the uterine cavity.
(vi) Macrophages increase phogocytosis of sperms within the uterus and acts as a contraceptive.
(vii) Cureleaseng IUDs malle the uterus unsuitable for implantation and cervix hostile to the sperms.

(viii) It delays pregnancy for longer period.

(ix) The spontaneous expulsion, occasional haemorrhage and chances of infection are the drawbacks
of IUDs.

(6) Physiological Devices / Oral devices :

(i) These are used in the form of tablets called as pills,
(ii) It is anoral contracepti ve, used by the female
(iii) The pills contain progesteron and estrogen.
(iv) They inhibit ovulation, hence no eggs are released from the ovary of the female using this pill and
thus conception cannot occur.

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(v) They also ater the quality of cervical mucus to prevent the entry of sperms.
(vi) The pills have side effects such as hausea, weight gain, tenderness of breast and slight blood loss
between menstrual periods.
(vii) ‘‘Saneli” is an oral contraceptive for females which is non-steroidal. It is to be tauen once in a
week and sponsored by government.

(7) Other contraceptives : -

(i) The birth control implant is a contraceptive used by female
(ii) It is a tiny, thinrod about the size of a match stick.
(iii) It is implanted under the suin of the upper arm.
(iv) They contain progesterone and estrogen.
(v) They prevent pregnancy for 3-4 years.
(vi) Their mode of action is similar to that of pills.

(b) Permanant Method : -

(i) The permanent birth control method in men is called vaspctomy and in female is called as
tubectomy.
(ii) These are surgical methods, also called sterilization.
(iii) In vasectomy a small part of the vas deferens is tied and cut where as in tubectomy, a small part of
the fallopian tube is tied and cut.
(iv) This blocks, gamete transport and prevent pregnancy.

 Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) :

(i) An intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy (MTP) or induced abortion is done before
full term.
(ii) MTP is essential in cases of unwanted pregnancies or in defective development of foetus.
(iii) It is done safely during the first trimester of pregnancy.
(iv) The detective development of foetus is examined by amniocentesis.
(v) Amniountesis is a process in which amniotic fluid containing foetal cells is collected using
a hollow needle inserted into the uterus under ultrasound gaidance.
(vi) The chromosomes are studied to see the abhormalities in the developing foetus.
(vii) But the dangerous trend is the misuse of amniocentesis to determine the sex of unborn child.

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 Amniocentesis
 used to extract foetal cells for genetic analysis.
(1) Utrasound used to determine

the position of the foetus in the uterus
(2) Needle inserted through the

abdominal and uterine wall.
(3) Amniotic fluid containing

foetal cells extracted
(4) Centrituge of extracted fluid

and foetal cells.
(5) Cells used in Karyotype.

(6) Karyotype.

Risus associated with amniocentesis.

(1) Misscarriage
(2) Needle injury to foetus
(3) Leaking amniotic fluid.
(4) Infection.

(viii) It the foetus is found to be female, it is aborted, which is totally illegal.

(ix) Government of India has legalised MTP act in 1971, with strict conditions to avoid it’s misuse.
(x) MTP act 2017 under section 3 of the MTP act 1971 was inacted by Gove of India. Acc to this act
MTP shouldbe done

(1) Within first 12 weeks.

(ii) More than 12 weeks but lesse than 20 weeks.
(iii) The registered medical practitioner’s opinion is mandatory.

(ix) MTP is done to get rid of unwanted pregnancies either due to casual unprotected intercourse.
(xii) MTP is done to prevent child birth due to failure of the contraceptive used during coitus or rapes
(xiii) MTP are also essential in certain cases where continuation of the pregnancy could be harmful or
even fatal either to the mother or to the foetus or both,

 Sexually transmitted Diseases (STDs) :

Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse are collectively called as
STDs. or venereal diseases (VDs) or Reproductive tract infections. The major venereal diseases
are.
(a) Syphilis
(b) Gonorrhoea.

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 Infertility : “ The inability to conceive naturally after regular unprotected intercourse”.
The causes of infertility could be physical, congenital, diseases, immunological or even psychlogical.
The common physical causes in females are polycystic overy syndrome (PCoS),
Hormonal imbalance
Endometriosis.
While in male, it is less sperm count and small size of penis prior to 1978, infertile couple had two
options, adopt or be childless. But today infertile couples have many options to have a child
through certain special techniques commonly known as -
Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART).

 IVF (In Vitro fertilization)

(i) Union of sperm and egg i.e. fertilization process where an egg is combined with sperm outside the
body in a test tube or glass plate to form a zygote under simulated conditions in the laboratory.
(ii) The mature gametes of such women are taken out from ovary and are fertilized in test tube with
their hasband’s sperms or the sperms borrowed from sperm bank and allowed to fertilize and form
zygote.
(iii) The zygote or early embryos with upto 8 blastomeres. could be then transferred into the fallopian
tube or uterus for further development.
(iv) This technique is developed for those women who are unable to have normal conception.

 ZIFT (Zygote Intrafallopian transfer)

(i) ZIFT is an infertility treatment used when there is a blockage in the fallopian tubes which prevents
the fertilization of egg by the sperm.
(ii) In this method, egg is removed from woman’s ovary fertilization of the egg with sperms is brought
about outside the body under sterile conditions to form zygote by the process called in vitro
ferttilization (IVF).
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(iii) The zygote is then transferred to fallopian tube for further development.
 GIFT : (Gamete intrafallopian transfer.)
(i) It is a modified form of IVF.
(ii) Transfer of an ovum collected from a donar into the fallopian tube of another female who can
provide suitable environment for it’s fertilization and development.
(iii) This technique has been developed for the cases in which only the entrance to the4 oviducts or the
upeer segment of the oviduct is blocked.
(iv) In this procedure ova and sperms are directly injected into regions of the oviduct, where
fertilization produces a blastocyst, which enters the uterus via the normal route. GIFT has
a sucess rate of about 30 percent.

 ICSI : (Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection)

(i) ICSI is an in vitro fertilization procedure in which a single sperm cell is injected directly into
cytoplasm of an ovum in the laboratory. here. The sperm has to naturally penetrate theegg.
(ii) This technique is used primarily for the treatment of severe cases of male factor infertity.

 Artificially Insemination (A.I) : -

(i) In this techniqe, the sperms are collected from the male and artificially introduced in to the carvix
of female for the purpose of achieving a pregnancy through in vivo fertilization cinside the body.
(ii) In some fertility cases, the male partner is unable to inseminate the female due to a very low sperm
count.
(iii) This problem can be solved by artificial insemination.

 IUI (Intra uterine Insemination)

(i) In this technique, the sperms are introduced into the uterine cavity instead of cervix.
(ii) This is somewhat like that of artificial insemination.

 Sperm bank / smen bank : -

(i) The sperms are stored in sperm bank by cryopreservation method (at low tempo  196 oC)
(ii) The semen is provided by thealthy males called sperm donars
(iii) A sperm or semen bank is a place which collects, stores and provides human sperms / semen.

 Surrogate mother : -
(i) Some women have problem in implantation of embryo in uterus.
(ii) Such woman can take help of modern remedial technique called surrogacy.
(iii) In this, embryo is implanted in surrogate mother, who is not the biological mother.

 Adoption : -
(i) It is legal process by which a couple or a single parent gets legal rights, privileges and
responsibilities that are associated to a biological child for the upbringing of the adopted child.
(ii) An adoptive parent should be medically fit and financially able to take care of the adopted child.
(iii) A person wishing to adopt a child must be at least 21 years old but there is no legal upper age limit
for adoption.

 Tobacco, marijuana and other drugs smoking may cause infertility in both men and women.
 Nicotine blocks the production of sperms and decreases the size of testicles.
 Alcoholism by men interferes with the synthesis of testosterone and has an impact on
sperm count.
 Use of cocaine or marijuana may temporarily reduce the number and quality of sperm.
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