07 Science Technology and Society

MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY
CHAPTER I: Intellectual Revolutions That Defined Society
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
- Discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the
spark of scientific revolution; and.
- Identify actual science and technology policies of the government and appraise their
impact on the development of the Filipino nation.
This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart
of the society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is
transformed by science and technology.
Scientific Revolution
Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when
and where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always
interwoven with the society. So, how can science be defined?
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic

explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study

of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation
and experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a

body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and
physical world. This is what we refer to as school science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both
knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the
world around them. It is a means to improve life and to survive in life. It is interwoven
with people's lives.
Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and

understand everything around them. They have persistently observed and studied the
natural and the physical world in order to find meanings and seek answers to many
questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide
alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used religion
to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.
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The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th
century up to the 18th century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the
invention of the printing machine and the blooming intellectual activities done in various
places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of human
interests. This does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea transported from
other areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of science, technology,
medicine, and mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the ancient world had
their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to these disciplines.
Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments

in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed
the views of society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern
science as a result of these developments from the disciplines mentioned. The ideas
generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their
beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited vast human interests to
rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.
Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in
science but it was also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to
their painful death or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve
their faith, religion, and theological views. Some rulers and religious leaders did not
accept many of the early works of scientists. But these did not stop people especially
scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.
SCIENCE IDEAS
SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTION
HUMANS SOCIETY
Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution
Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings,

transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly
improved the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations. The
scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science and
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prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In many ways,
scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.
Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas
To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is

important to examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested
the dominant theories and ideas during this period-the truths of their time. Scientists in
all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore
the physical and natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to
know and to discover.
crcc
CREATIVITY SCIENTIST SCIENCE IDEAS
-Passion to
know
SCIENCE
CURIOSITY
DISCOVERIES
-Passion to
discover
CRITICAL TECHNOLOGY
THINKING
Figure 2. Variables that influence The Development of Science Ideas, Science

Discoveries, and Technology
Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary
people doing extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their
times, some were sentenced to death, while others were condemned by the Church
during their time. In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they
never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas.
In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. For sure, there
were many scientists who worked before and after these individuals. However, it is
important to note that these men, particularly through their ideas, had shaken the world.
Nicolaus Copernicus
One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus

Copernicus. Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially
unchanged since the great days of Ancient Greece, some 1,500 years before
Copernicus came on the scene (Gribbin, 2003), This continued up to the Renaissance
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period. In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or
thinkers--he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting
people to test his ideas. His ideas were an example of what is presently called as a
thought experiment. By the time he finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had been
appointed as canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a canon, he
had plenty of time to sustain his interest in astronomy.
Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in

1496 by a German author, Johannes Mueller. This book contains Mueller's observations
of the heavens and some commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.
Copernicus's idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510.
Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a
manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary). There was no proof that
Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the Church if he published
his ideas formally. Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor
affected his time to formally publish his work and advance his career in astronomy. The
publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of
the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific revolution.
In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved

around a single center at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun to
be the centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or
orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth.
Copernicus's model of the Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the
planets into a logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary
motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer
to the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth's orbit,
thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work on the length of time it will
take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun. The result would for a sequence from
Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the
longest year. He placed the planets order of increasing distance from the Sun. One of
the great problems in the Copernicus model, however, was the position of the stars. The
stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distance sphere,
Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes

sense now, during those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it was an
unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the
Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16th century.
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Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept
of the world's creation and its evolution Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius
who came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed his
interest in natural history during his time as a student at Shrewsbury School. He would
also spend time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting
specimens and he pored over books in his father's library (Gribbin, 2003). According to
Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre student.
He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed to him.
Darwin's life soon changed when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-
year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.
Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is
considered to be one of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin
collected many significant materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming
evidence. His book presented evidence on how species evolved over time and
presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species. Like many other scholars,
Darwin accumulated many pertinent materials and data that he could ever possibly
need to substantiate his theory.
Darwin's observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved

beyond the realms of plants and animals into the realms of humans. His book The
Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial. He introduced the idea of all
organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This
replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places human beings
in a privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin's theory of evolution
scientifically questioned this view.
Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two

fields to which he made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of
science. More than these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to
challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those
days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence- based
science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities. It is a
science marked by observation and experiment.
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Sigmund Freud
Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also

described him as a towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did
his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.
However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution in the
scientific world through the development of an important observational method to gather
reliable data to study human's inner life. This method is popularly known as the method
of psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the essential
fundamental version of this method. For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a
scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that amidst all
questions on his works that led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of
psychoanalysis had great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.
Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of

psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological
conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time. His method was
unorthodox-focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man. This posed
immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they found
his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality.
Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his
contribution to knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene, including
art, literature, philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a
psychologist or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas
and theories are still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human
mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way.
Cradles of Early Science
Development of Science in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from

Southern Mexico up to the border of South America. There is no doubt
that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge prior to the
arrival of its European colonizers.
The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for
approximately 2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They
incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other
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religious structures. This allows them to use their temples for astronomical observation.
For example, the pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun
during the spring and fall equinoxes.
Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was

advanced for their time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using
astrological cycles in planting and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for
measuring time using two complicated calendar systems. These calendars were very
useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing their religious
rituals and cultural celebrations. The Mayans also developed the technology for growing
different crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They
built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different
communities.
Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations

especially in the field of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a
rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called mica. They are also believed to be
one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear
received its patent in 1844. The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically
advanced societies in Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world's first
civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also
skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20.
Moreover, they independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even
before the Romans did. The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas
made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization.
The following were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help
them in everyday life:
1. roads paved with stones;
2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of
land;
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season;
5. the first suspension bridge;
6. guipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic
achievements.
Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial
contributions to science and technology and to the society as a whole.
Some of their contributions are the following:
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1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education, that is why their children
are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an
early form of universal or inclusive education.
2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during
their time. In the Mayan culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao
beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their gods.
3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that

could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural
farming in which the land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting
season.
6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.
Development of Science in Asia
ASIA
Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many
ancient civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political
activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great
civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These
civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of
knowledge during their time,
Indien
India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by

huge mountains in its northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various
ideas and technologies useful in their everyday lives.They are known for manufacturing
iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held
with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire.
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India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of
traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as
a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that
led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts, like the
Susruta Samhita, describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in
Ancient India.
Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed

theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and
the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each. Sama (2008) noted that their
interest in astronomy was also evident in the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta
Shiromani, written in the 12th century. According to Sama (2008), this ancient text
covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets;
the three problems of diumal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes
of the planets; risings and settings, the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets
with each other, conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars, and the paths of the
Sun and Moon.
Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted
that the earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared
in the Indus Valley Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982),
tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed
a ruler, the Mohenjo- daro ruler.
Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out that Indian astronomer and
mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of
trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. In 628
AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction,
and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along
with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world
(Clifford, 2008; Bose, 1998). Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also
considered as the founder of mathematical analysis (Joseph, 1991).
China
China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions

in many areas of life like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts,
philosophy, and music, among others. Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced
many of its neighbor countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand,
Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.
The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of

experiences and discovery of the Chinese people. They discovered various medical
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properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. An example is
the practice of acupuncture.
In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools.

Among the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were
compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools that became known in the West
only by the end of the Middle Ages (Davies,1995). They also invented other tools like
iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among others. They developed a design of
different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983), invented the first
seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971),
In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on

supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and
preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world
(Mayall, 1939). They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and
seasons that may affect their daily activities. They used lunar calendars, too. The
Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more prepared in times of
natural calamities.
China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their

discoveries and inventions is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with
mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors prevented
these Chinese achievements from developing into modem science. According to
Needham (1986), it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of
Chinese intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature.
Middle East Countries
The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims.

With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or
what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century. The common
language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and their
proximity to India were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims and provided
their scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to
the Greeks, Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than
plain-thought experiments. This led to the development of the scientific method in the
Muslim world, and made significant improvements by using experiments to distinguish
between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. A
Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics,
especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.
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In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave
his name to the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr,
the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the Arabic
Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make
several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point
notation.
Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the

foundation of modern chemistry (Durant, 1980). In particular, some scholars considered
Jābir ibn Hayyān to be the “Father of Chemistry" (Derewenda, 2007; Warren, 2005).
In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental

medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008). His two
most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were
used as standard medicina! texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the
17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature
of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology (Craig & Walter,
2000).
There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the
field of science, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social
sciences. The decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11th to 13th century due
to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries, observatories, and other learning
institutions were destroyed.
Development of Science in Africa
Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources Science also emerged in this
part of the planet long before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and
mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in
Africa are knowledge producers, too. The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed
immensely and made significant advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and
medicine. For example, the development of geometry was a product of necessity to
preserve the layout and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile
River. The rules of geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear structures,
the post of lintel architecture of Egypt.
These early science activities in Egypt were developed to improve the quality of
life of the Egyptians especially in building their early homes and cities. The great
structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from the
Nile River are some proofs of their advanced
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civilization.
Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the

medieval forerunner of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and
pharmacology, and applied important components such as examination,
diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These

components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of
studying science.
Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance,

documents show that Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar,
and stellar, or a combination of the three.
Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. North
Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that
enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron
Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their
magnificent architectures.
Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the
African continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and
South Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six- month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest
known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE. Ancient Egyptians are good in the
four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills. They have
knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry. The Islamic regions in Africa
during the medieval period was also benefiting from mathematical leaming, which is
considered advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATION-BUILDING
This lesson will discuss the influence of science and technology in the
development of the Philippine society. It identifies government programs, projects, and
policies geared toward boasting the science and technological capacity of the country.
This lesson will also include discussions on Philippine indigenous science and
technology.
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Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the
Philippines
The history of science and technology in the Philippines started way back before
the country gained its independence from the American colonizers. Before the coming
of the Spanish colonizers, the early inhabitants of the archipelago had their own culture
and traditions. They had their own belief system and indigenous knowledge system that
keeps them organized and sustained their lives and communities for many years.
Science, in pre-Spanish Philippines, is embedded in the way of life crops that

provide them food, in taking care of animals to help them in their daily tasks, and for
food production. Science is observed in the way they interpret the movements of
heavenly bodies to predict seasons and climates, and in-organizing days into months
and years. They use science in preparing the soil for agricultural purposes and like any
other ancient cultures, they discovered the medicinal uses of plants.
Technology is used by people in building houses, imigations, and in developing

tools that they can use in everyday life. They developed tools for planting, hunting,
cooking, and fishing; for fighting their enemies during war or tribal conflicts; and for
transportation, both on land and on waterways. They also developed technologies in
creating musical instruments.
The different archeological artifacts discovered in different parts of the country

also prove that the Metal Age also had a significant influence on the lives of early
Filipinos. The sophisticated designs of gold and silver jewelry, ceramics, and metal tools
proved that their technological ideas helped in the development of different tools. Also,
trading with China, Indonesia, Japan, and other nearby countries have influenced their
lives by providing different opportunities for cultural and technological exchange. All
these ancient practices in science and technology are considered now as indigenous
science or folk science.
When the Spaniards colonized the country, they brought with them their own
culture and practices. They established schools for boys and girls and introduced the
concept of subjects and disciplines. It was the beginning of formal science and
technology in the country, known now as school of science and technology.
Learning of science in school focuses on understanding different concepts related to the
human body, plants, animals, and heavenly bodies. Technology focuses on using and
developing house tools used in everyday life.
Life during the Spanish era slowly became modernized, adapting some Western
technology and their ways of life. The Filipinos developed ways to replicate the
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technology brought by the Spaniards using indigenous materials. Medicine and
advanced science were introduced in formal colleges and universities established by
the Catholic orders.
The galleon - trade has brought additional technology and development in the
Philippines. Although it is only beneficial for the Spaniards, these trades allowed other
ideas, crops, tools, cultural practices, technology, and Western practices to reach the
country. Some Filipino students who were able to study in Europe also contributed to
the advancement of medicine, engineering, arts, music, and literature in the
country.
The Philippines, being one of the centers of global trade in Southeast Asia
during that time, was considered to be one of the most developed places in the region.
Although the country is blessed with these developments, the superstitious beliefs of the
people and the Catholic doctrines and practices during the Spanish era halted the
growth of science in the country.
The Americans have more influence in the development of science and

technology in the Philippines compared to the Spaniards. They established the public
education system, improved the engineering works and the health conditions of the
people. They established a modem research university, the University of the
Philippines, and created more public hospitals than the former colonial master. The
mineral resources of the country were also explored and exploited during the American
times.
Transportation and communication systems were improved; though not
accessible throughout the country.
The Americans did everything to "Americanize" the Philippines. They

reorganized the learning of science and introduced it in public and private schools. In
basic education, science education focuses on nature studies and science and
sanitation, until it became a subject formally known as “Science. The teaching of
science in higher education has also greatly improved and modernized. Researches
were done to control malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis and other tropical diseases.
The desire of the Americans to develop the human resources of the Philippines
to serve their own interests is, somehow, beneficial in the country. These allowed
American scholars to introduce new knowledge and technology in the country. The
Protestant church missions in different places in the country also brought hospitals and
schools to far-flung areas. Little by little, these efforts built a stronger foundation for
science and technology in the country.
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However, World War II has destabilized the development of the country in many
ways. Institutions and public facilities were turned into ashes, houses were burned, and
many lives were destroyed. The country had a difficult time to rebuild itself from the
ruins of the war. The human spirit to survive and to rebuild the country may be strong
but the capacity of the country to bring back what was destroyed was limited. The
reparation funds focused on building some institutions and public facilities like schools,
hospitals, and transportation systems. The reparation money from Japan was also
concentrated on building highways and in providing technological training and human
resource development in the country.
Since the establishment of the new republic, the whole nation has been focusing
on using its limited resources in improving its science and technological capability. It
has explored the use of ODA or Overseas Development Allocations from different
countries to help the country improve its scientific productivity and technological
capability. Human resource development is at the heart of these efforts focusing on
producing more engineers, scientists, technology experts, doctors, and other
professionals in the country.
The development of science and technology in the Philippines, based on its brief
history, is shaped by several factors and influences. Like in the history of science in
other countries, it is always shaped by human and social activities, both internal and
external.
Internal Influences
- Survival
- Culture
- Economic
- Activities Development of Science
and Technology in the
External Influences Philippines
-Foreign Colonizers
-Trades with foreign

countries
-International Economic
Demands
Figure 3. Influences in the Development of Science And Technology in the Philippines
PAGE 15
Science and technology may have significant impact on the lives of the people
and in the development of the Philippine society. However, improving the quality of
science education still remains as a big challenge in the country. School science from
basic education to graduate education is improving slowly, and there are only few
students enrolling in science and technology courses.
Government Policies on Science and Technology

The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs,
projects, and policies to boost the area of science and technology. The goal is to
prepare the whole country and its people to meet the demands of a technologically
driven world and capacitate the people to live in a world driven by science.
Padilla-Concepcion (2015) reported that in 2015, in response to the ASEAN 2015

Agenda, the government, particularly the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST), has sought the expertise of the National Research Council of the Philippines
(NCRP) to consult various sectors in the society to study how the Philippines can
prepare itself in meeting the ASEAN 2015 Goals. As a result of the consultation, the
NCRP is expected to recommend policies and programs that will improve the
competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN Region.
The NCRP clustered these policies into four, namely:
1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance

- Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the
curriculum
- Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue
- Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband
- Local food security
2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and
Mathematics
- Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities
- Outright grants for peer monitoring
- Review of R.A. 9184
- Harnessing science and technology as an independent, mover of development
PAGE 16
3. Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences

- Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with
ASEAN-harmonized standards by full implementation on the Food and Drug
Administration
- Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of pharmaceutical
services and care
- Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence- based research as
pool of information
- Allocating two percent of the GDP to research
- Legislating a law supporting human genome projects
4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry

- Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation of existing laws
- Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
- Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people's conservation
- Formulation of common food and safety standards
There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine

government through the DOST. Some of these projects are the following:
- Providing funds for basic research and patents related to

science and technology. The government funds basic and
applied researches. Funding of these research and projects
are also from the Overseas Development Aid (ODA) from
different countries.
- Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies

of students in the field of science and technology. Saloma
(2015) pointed out that the country needs to produce more
doctoral graduates in the field of science and technology, and
produce more research in these fields, including engineering.
- Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System for
training young Filipinos in the field of science and technology.
- Creating science and technology parks to encourage academe

and industry partnerships.
PAGE 17
- Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come home
and work in the Philippines or conduct research and projects in collaboration with
Philippine-based scientists
- Developing science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage

academe and industry partnerships.
- The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering

Complex within the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman. These aimed
to develop more science and technology and engineering manpower resources
needed by the country. They also aimed to produce more researches in these
fields.
The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering

(PAASE, 2008) identified several capacity-building programs such as:
- Establishment of national centers of excellence
- Manpower and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and

Science Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD graduates in science
and engineering
- .Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries that will lead the
country in different research and development areas
- Establishment of science and technology business centers to assist, advise, and

incubate technopreneurship ventures
- Strengthen science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science
High School system
In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were

created to develop the scientific literacy of the country. Special science classes were
organized and special science elementary schools were established in different regions.
Aside from these, science and mathematics in basic education were continuously
improved. The current K to 12 education program included Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) as one of its major tracks in the senior high
school program to encourage more students to enroll in science-related
fields in college.
PAGE 18
Lately, the Commission on Higher Education launched its Philippine-California
Advanced Research Institutes (PICARI) Project to allow several higher education
institutions in the Philippines and some US- based laboratories, research institutes, and
universities to work on research and projects related to science, agriculture,
engineering, health, and technology. This project is hoped to strengthen the STEM
competitiveness of the country.
There are many other areas and fields that the country is looking forward to
embark various research and projects. The following are some of them:
1. Use of alternative and safe energy

2. Harnessing mineral resources
3. Finding cure for various diseases and illness
4. Climate change and global warming
5. Increasing food production
6. Preservation of natural resources
7. Coping with natural disasters and calamities
8. Infrastructure development
The Philippine Congress has also created various laws related to science and
technology. These laws serve as a legal framework for science and technology in the
country. These laws vary according to different themes such as: conservation, health-
related, technology-building, and supporting basic research, among others. Some laws
and policies are in line with international treaties such as the United Nations (UN),
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other international agencies.
National Goals
International
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Treaty
-Policies
Legal Framework
-Programs
- Projects
Social Needs,
Issues, and
Problems
Figure 4. Development of Science and Technology Policies in the Philippines
PAGE 19
As shown in the diagram, the development of policies in science and technology
is shaped or influenced by several variables: policies needto be aligned to national
goals, consider international commitments based on legal frameworks, and respond to
various social needs, issues, andproblems. Science and technology policies ensure that
the whole country and all people will experience the progress that science can bring.
Policies are guides to direct all efforts to a goal of developing a scientifically advanced
country.
Famous Filipinos in the Field of Science
School science is filled with names of foreign scientists: Einstein, Galileo Galilei,
Newton, Faraday, Darwin, and many other Western scientists. We rarely hear of Filipino
scientists being discussed in science classes. Lee-Chua (2000) identified 10
outstanding Filipino scientists who have made significant contributions in Philippine
science. These scientists are also famous abroad especially in different science
disciplines: agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine, marine science, chemistry,
engineering, and biology.
These Filipino Scientists are:
1. Ramon Cabanos Barba - for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine
mangoes
2. Josefino Cacas Comiso - for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica
by using satellite images
3.Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. known internationally in the field of electrical engineering, was
elected as officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
4. Lourdes Jansuy Cruz - notable for her research on sea snail venom
5. Fabian Millar Dayrit - for his research on herbal medicine
6. Rafael Dineros Guerrero III - for his research on tilapia culture
7. Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. – for inventing the meconium drugs testing
8. Lilian Formalejo Patena - for doing research on plant biotechnology
9. Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz - for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist
10. Gregory Ligot Tangonan - for his research in the field of communications technology
PAGE 20
There are other outstanding Filipino scientists who are recognized here and abroad
for their outstanding contributions in science:
- Caesar A. Saloma - an internationally renowned physicist

- Edgardo Gomez - famous scientist in marine science
- William Padolina chemistry and president of National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST)- Philippines
- Angel Alcala - marine science
There are other scientists in the Philippines who were not identified
in the list. Yet, the Philippines still need more scientists and engineers, and there is a
need to support scientific research in the country. The University of the Philippines-
Los Baños is a science paradise for agriculture, forestry, plant and animal science,
and veterinary science. It has produced numerous scientists and various research in
the fields mentioned. The University of the Philippines-Visayas is also a national
center for marine science, fisheries, and other related sciences. The University of
the Philippines-Manila is a center of excellence and has produced many
researchers, doctors, health professionals, and scientists in the area of medical and
public health.
The University of the Philippines-Diliman also has established a national

science and engineering complex to develop more research and produce more
scientists and engineers in the country. The government must find ways to establish
more research laboratories and research institutes. There is also a need to find ways on
how their researches are disseminated to the public.
Many of these Filipino scientists are products of good school science. It

means they were taught and inspired by great teachers. Their interests in science
started to manifest during their childhood years. Their natural environment ignited their
curiosity to learn more about the natural and physical environment. Schools and the
laboratories where they studied and worked nurtured this.
PAGE 21
Individual Interests
in Science
SCHOOL SCIENCE SCIENCE LABORATORIES
Family
(TEACHERS AND (REAL- LIFE CONTEXT)

LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT)
Natural
Environment
FILIPINO SCIENTISTS
Figure 5. Factors that influence the Development of Filipino Scientists
Many Filipino scientists, whether they are in the country or abroad, always
excel in their job. The Filipino spirit in their souls has never faded. They continue to
bring honor to the country. They make ordinary things in an extraordinary way. They are
always at par with other scientists in spite of the limited facilities we have here in the
country.
SUMMARY
- Scientific revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It marked the birth
of science as a discipline and as a field of inquiry and gave birth to the
development of the scientific method. It was a time in the history of science
where many scientific ideas and discoveries, which were considered innovative
PAGE 22
and useful, were developed. Some of these ideas were also controversial in the
scientific community and in the political arena. The scientific revolution
significantly changed how people study science and do scientific activities. It
inspired human creativity and critical thinking, moving away from thought
experiments to data-driven and experiment-based ideas.
- There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in science

during the period of scientific revolution. Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model
of the universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying
rates. He placed the Sun in the center of the universe and all the planets were
surrounding or orbiting it. Copernicus's model of planets orbiting around the Sun
automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. Charles Darwin
made significant contribution in the field of evolutionary biology and philosophy of
science. His theory of evolution by natural selection is very useful in many fields
until now, Sigmund Freud developed the idea of psychoanalysis that helped in
understanding human behavior especially neurological conditions.
- Science also developed in different parts of the world: in Asia, Europe,

Mesoamerica, and Africa. People in these continents invented tools to help them
in everyday life, discovered medicines to cure diseases, observed heavenly
bodies, built structures, discovered many things, and invented mathematics as a
tool and as a discipline. Science provided different ancient civilizations the
means to survive and understand the natural and physical world. It also enabled
human beings to develop various technologies that helped them in their everyday
tasks.
- This lesson discussed the influence of science and technology in the

development of the Philippines as a country. Even before the time of Spanish
colonization in the Philippines, various people and communities already practiced
science. They invented tools and built structures, studied the medicinal uses of
plants, observed heavenly bodies to predict seasons and weather, and used
indigenous science in agriculture. These are considered indigenous science,
which is one of the foundations of modem science.
- The growth of science and its development as a field in the country is a hybrid of
indigenous and foreign ideas. Spain and the United States, being the former
colonial masters of the country, played an important role in building the
foundation of science in the Philippines. To further strengthen the science
program in the Philippines, the government establishes various science
programs, policies, and projects.
PAGE 23
- Through the years, many Filipinos were able to establish themselves as

scientists and science educators in various scientific areas and fields. Invention
and innovations were done by these Filipino scientists. Finally, the demands of
globalization, especially the ASEAN economic agenda, prompted the Philippines
to invest in science and technology programs and projects.
REFERENCES
Bisht, R. (1982). "Excavations at Banawali: 1974-77." In Posseh,

Gregory L. (Ed.). Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective.
New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
Bose, M. (1998). Late Classical India. A. Mukherjee & Co.
Clifford, P. (2008). Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Grear

Minds Behind Them. New York: Oxford University Press.
Craig, B. & Walter, D. (2000). "Clinical Pharmacology in the

Middle Ages: Principles that Presage the 21st century." Clinical
Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 67 (5): 447-450.
Davies, E. (1995). Inventions. London: Dorling Kindersley.
Derewenda, Z. (2007). "On Wine, Chirality and Crystallography."

Acta Crystallographica Section Section A, Foundations of
Crystallography, 64(0) 246-258.
Durant, W. (1980). The Age of Faith. In The Story of Civilization.

New York: Simon and Schuster.
Gribbin, J. (2003). Science: A History. London, UK: Penguin Books.
Jacquart, D. (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages:

Theories and Substances." European Review Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. 16:219–27.
Joseph, G. (1991). The Crest of the Peacock. London: Penguin.
Mayall, N. (1939). The Crab Nebula, a Probable Supernova, Astronomical
PAGE 24
Society of the Pacific Leaflets, 3, 145.
Needham, J. (1986). "Science and Civilization in China." In

Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. 3. 208.
Needham, J., Wang, L. & Lu, G. (1971). Science and Civilization in

China. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Rosenfels, P. (1980). "Freud and the Scientific Method." Accessed

February 17, 2017. http: www.gender.eserver.org/rosenfels/Freud.htm.
Sarma, K. (2008). "Astronomy in India." Encyclopaedia of the History of

Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd Ed.).
Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media.
Warren, J. (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: A Sadly

Mismanaged Affair." Third World Quarterly. 26 (4-5): 815-830.
Weiner, E. (2016). The Geography of Genius: Lessons from the World's

Most Creative Places. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Zhongguo ke xue yuan. (1983). Ancient China's Technology and Science.

Beijing, Foreign Languages Press.
Concepcion, G.P.(Editor). (2012). Science Philippines: Essays on Science by Filipinos

Volumes 1-3. Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
Concepcion, G.P., Padlan, E.A. & Saloma, C.A. (Editors). (2008). Selected Essays on
Science and Technology for Securing a Better Philippines. Diliman, Quezon City:
University of the Philippines Press.
Lee-Chua, Q. (2000). 10 Outstanding Filipino Scientists. Quezon City: Anvil Publishing.
Padilla-Concepcion, G. (2015). Science Philippines: Essays on Science by Filipinos

Volume III. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
Philippine-American Association for Science and Engineering. (2008). “Science and

Technology in Economic Development. In Selected Essays on Science and Technology
for Securing a Better Philippines. 1. 6-9.
PAGE 25
CHAPTER II : SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
LESSON OBJECTIVES
- Discuss the concept of science education, and
- Identify science schools established to promote science education in the Philippines.
- Classify the contribution of indigenous science in the development of science and

technology in the Philippines
The Concept of Science Education
Science education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science.

Teaching science involves developing ways on how to effectively teach science. This
means exploring pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific
concepts and processes effectively. Learning science, on the other hand, includes both
pedagogy and the most interesting aspect, which is helping students understand and
love science.
Understanding science implies developing and applying science-process skills and

using science literacy in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.
Getting deeper into the discourse of science education, John Dewey (2001)
stressed the importance of utilizing the natural environment to teach students.
Accordingly, nature must indeed furnish its physical stimuli to provide wealth of meaning
through social activities and thinking. It is not surprising therefore that science education
is important. In fact, Marx (1994) opines that science is going to be one of the most
important school subjects in the future.
Science education is justified by the vast amount of scientific knowledge

developed in this area that prepares citizens in a scientifically and fechnologically
driven world. Science education provides skills and knowledge that are necessary for a
person to live in what Knight (1986) describes as the age of science and to develop a
citizenry that will meet the goals of science in the society (Tilghman, 2005). Developing
a science culture is therefore an immense responsibility for schools.
PAGE 1
Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education
In basic education, science education helps students learn important concepts

and facts that are related to everyday life (Carale & Campo, 2003; Meador, 2005; Worth
& Grollman, 2003) including important skills such as process skills, critical thinking
skills, and life skills that are needed in coping up with daily life activities (Chaille &
Britain, 2002). Science education also develops positive attitude such as: the love for
knowledge, passion for innovative things, curiosity to study about nature, and creativity
(Lind, 1997). Science education will develop a strong foundation for studying science
and for considering science-related careers in the future. This is an investment for the
country to develop a scientifically cultured and literate citizenry.
In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students'

understanding and appreciation of science ideas and scientific works. This is done
through offering basic science courses in the General Education curriculum. Science
education in the tertiary level also focuses on the preparation of science teachers,
scientists, engineers, and other professionals in various science-related fields such as
engineering, agriculture, medicine, and health sciences. The state provides
scholarships to encourage more students to pursue science courses.
Science Schools in the Philippines
One outstanding program for science education supported by the goverment is the
establishment of science schools in various parts of the country. There are also several
government programs implemented by the Department of Education and few private
schools for science education,
Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS)
This is a government program for gifted students in the Philippines. It is a service

institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) whose mandate is to
offer free scholarship basis for secondary course with special emphasis on subjects
pertaining to the sciences, with the end-view of preparing its students for a science
career (Republic Act No. 3661). The school maintains a dormitory for all its students.
Since its inception, the PSHSS continues to pursue its vision to develop Filipino science
scholars with scientific minds and passion for excellence. PSHSS students have proven
to be a beacon of excellence, courage, and hope for the country. They have brought
honor to the Philippines through their exemplary achievements in various international
competitions and research circles. When the students graduate from the school, they
are expected to pursue degrees in science and technology at various colleges and
universities locally or abroad.
PAGE 2
Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project
The Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project is in pursuance to

DepEd Order No. 73 s. 2008, and DepEd Order No. 51 s. 2010. This project started in
June 2007 with 57 identified elementary schools that participated or were identified as
science elementary schools in the country. Since its inception, the number have grown
to more than 60 schools nationwide and this is now its sixth year of implementation
The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and
technological knowledge, skills, and values. Its mission is to:
- provide a learning environment to science-inclined children through a special

curriculum that recognizes the multiple intelligences of the learners,
- promote the development of lifelong learning skills; and
- foster the holistic development of the learners.
The subject Science and Health is taught in Grade 1 with a longer time
compared to other subjects: 70 minutes for Grades I to III and 80 minutes for Grades IV
to VI. The curriculum also utilizes different instructional approaches that address the
learning styles and needs of the learners like the use of investigatory projects.
Quezon City Regional Science High School
The school was established on September 17, 1967. Originally, it was

named Quezon City Science High School. It was turned into a regional science high
school for the National Capital Region in 1999. The school was a product of a dream to
establish a special science school for talented students in science and mathematics.
The focus of the curriculum is on science and technology. The school still teaches the
basic education courses prescribed by the Department of Education (DepEd) for
secondary education. However, there are additional subjects in sciences and
technology that students should take. The school envisions to serve as a venue in
providing maximum opportunities for science-gifted students to develop spirit of inquiry
and creativity. The school is well-supported by the local government unit and by the
Parents and Teachers Association (PTA). The school is under the Department of
Education.
Manila Science High School
The school was established on October 1, 1963 as the Manila Science High
School (MSHS). It is the first science high school in the Philippines. The organization
and curriculum of the school puts more emphasis on science and mathematics. MSHS
aims to produce scientists with souls. In order to do this, humanities courses and other
electives are included in their curriculum. Students are also encouraged to participate in
PAGE 3
various extracurricular activities. The school administers an entrance exam, the Manila
Science High School Admission Test (MSAT), for students who wish to enroll. The
MSAT has five parts: aptitude in science, aptitude test in mathematics, problem-solving
test in science, problem-solving test in mathematics, and proficiency in English. The
school prides itself from producing outstanding alumni and for winning various national
competitions.
Central Visayan Institute Foundation
It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as

the Dynamic Learning Program (DLP). The DLP is a synthesis of classical and modern
pedagogical theories adapted to foster the highest level of learning, creativity, and
productivity.
The school takes pride in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP)
established in 1992, which organizes small international workshops to foster the
informal but intense exchange of ideas and perspectives on outstanding problems in
physics and mathematics.
INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES.
This lesson focuses on indigenous science and technology in the Philippines.

Filipinos, especially during the early times, tried to invent tools that will help them in
everyday life. They also developed alternative ideas in explaining various phenomena
and in explaining the world around them. This system knowledge is called indigenous
knowledge, which is the foundation of indigenous science.
Indigenous Knowledge System
Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life experiences of young

children as they grow up. They live and grow in a society where the members of the
community prominently practice indigenous knowledge. Their parents and other older
folks served as their first teachers and their methods of teaching are very effective in
transmitting cultural knowledge in their minds. The lessons they learned are intimately
interwoven with their culture and the environment. These lessons comprised of good
values and life stories of people on their daily life struggles. Their views about nature
and their reflections on their experiences in daily life are evident in their stories, poems,
and songs.
Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by the
indigenous people are:
PAGE 4
- predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing
animals' behavior and celestial bodies;
- using herbal medicine;
- preserving foods;
- classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural
properties,
- preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
- using indigenous technology in daily lives;
- building local imigation systems,
- classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural
properties;producing wines and juices from tropical fruits, and
- keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard.
Indigenous Science
Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by

different groups of people and early civilizations (Gnbbin, 2001; Mkapa, 2004, Sibisi,
2004). It includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, and
representations that guide human societies in their enumerable interactions with the
natural milieu: agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena, and
strategies for coping with changing environments (Pawilen, 2005). Ogawa (1995)
claimed that it is collectively lived in and experienced by the people of a given culture.
According to Cajete (2004), indigenous science includes everything,

from metaphysics to philosophy and various practical technologies
practiced by indigenous peoples both past and present. Iaccarino (2003)
elaborated this idea by explaining that science is a part of culture, and how
science is done largely depends on the cultural practices of the people.
Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or
consistent to scientific attitudes as identified by Johnston (2000), namely:
(1) motivating attitudes; (2) cooperating attitudes; (3) practical attitudes;
and (4) reflective attitudes. These cultural beliefs therefore can be good
foundation for developing positive values toward learning and doing
science and in bringing science in a personal level.
Pawilen (2005) explained that indigenous science knowledge has

developed diverse structures and contents through the interplay between the
society and the environment. According to Kuhn (1962), developmental
stages of most sciences are characterized by continual competition between
a number of distinct views of nature, each partially derived from, and all
roughly compatible with the dictates of scientific observation and method.
PAGE 5
Sibisi (2004) also pointed out that indigenous science provides the basics
of astronomy, pharmacology, food technology, or metallurgy, which were
derived from traditional knowledge and practices.
Pawilen (2006) developed a simple framework for understanding
indigenous science. Accordingly, indigenous science is composed of traditional
knowledge that uses science process skills and guided by community values and
culture.
INDIGENOUS SCIENCE
uses guided by composed of
SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS COMMUNITY CULTURE TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
AND VALUES
Figure 6. The Concept of Indigenous Science
1. Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing,

classifying, measuring, problem solving, inferring, communicating, and predicting.
2. Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as the
following:
- The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator
- The Earth is revered as "Mother Earth." It is the origin of their identity as people.
- All living and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent with each
other.
- Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources.
They have a responsibility to preserve it.
- Nature is a friend to human beings--it needs respect and proper care
3. Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced and valued by

people and communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine, indigenous farming
methods, and folk astronomy.
Indigenous science is important in the development of science and technology in

the Philippines. Like the ancient civilizations, indigenous science gave birth to the
development of science and technology as a field and as a discipline. Indigenous
PAGE 6
science helped the people in understanding the natural environment and in coping with
everyday life. UNESCO's Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific knowledge
(1999) recognized indigenous science as a historical and valuable contribution to
science and technology.
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
Science education deals with the teaching and learning of science and in helping
the public develop science literacy. This is important in the promotion and development
of science and technology in the country. Science education deals with the development
of people in science, which is the heart of science, technology, and society.
This lesson focused on discussing the concept of science education and

introduced science education in the Philippines from basic education to tertiary
education. To promote science education, science schools were established to develop
gifted students in science and mathematics, such as the Philippine Science High School
System (PSHSS), Manila Science High School, Quezon City Regional Science High
School, and the Special Science Elementary Schools Project Science programs and
projects were organized and developed to nurture innovation in science in the country,
and to encourage individuals to pursue careers and research in science and technology.
This lesson discussed the concept of indigenous knowledge and its influence to
the development of indigenous science. The communities in the Philippines have
maintained vast amounts of indigenous knowledge, cultural practices, traditions, and
beliefs. These include beliefs and practices ranging from different areas such as health,
environment, peace and order, agriculture, food production, astronomy, music, and
literature.The indigenous knowledge system of the people served as the foundation for
the development of indigenous science.
Even before the time of the Spanish colonization in the Philippines, various
people and communities already practiced science. They invented tools and built
structures, studied the medicinal uses of plants, observed heavenly bodies to predict
seasons and weather, and used indigenous science in agriculture. These are
considered indigenous science, which is one of the foundations of modern science.
PAGE 7
REFERENCES
Carale, LR, & Campo, P.C. (2003). Concept Development in Filipino Children. The
Circulatory System. Quezon City: University of the
Philippines, National Institute of Science and Mathematics Education**
Central Visayas Institute of Technology. (2013). "Science Curriculum
for K-12. Accessed January 26, 2017. http://cvif awardspace.
com/Department of Education.
Department of Education. (2002). "Primer on 2002 Elementary
Education Curriculum.
Department of Education. (2002). “The 2002 Basic Education
Curriculum
Department of Education Order 57 s. 2011. “Policy Guidelines in
the Implementation of the Special Science Elementary Schools
(SSES) Project."
Knight, D. (1986). The Age of Science: The Scientific World-view in the
Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Inc.
Lind, K.A. (1997). "Science in the Developmentally Appropriate
Integrated Curriculum." In C.H. Hart, D.C. Burts, and R.
Charlesworth, (Eds.), Integrated Curriculum and Developmentally
Appropriate Practice: Birth to Age Eight. (pp. 75-101). New York:
State University of New York Press.
Marx, G. (1994). "Shortcut to the Future." In B. Jennison and J.
Ogbom, (Eds.), Wonder and Delight: Essays in Science Education in
Honor of the Life and Work of Eric Rogers 1902–1990. (pp. 5-18).
London: Institute of Physics Publishing.
PAGE 8
Manila Science High School. Accessed January 26, 2017. http:// manilascience.edu.ph/.
Meador, K.S. (2005). "Thinking Creatively About Sience: Suggestions for Primary
Teachers." In S. Johnson and J. Kendrick, (Eds.),
Science education for Gifted Students (pp. 13-22). Texas: Prufrock Press, Inc.
Quezon City Regional Science High School. Accessed January 26, 2017.
http://quesci.com/
Tilghman, S.T. (2005). Strange Bedfellows: Science, Politics, and Religion.
A George Romanes Lecture presented at Oxford University.
Worth, K. & Grollman, S. (2003). Worms, Shadows, and Whirlpools:Science in the Early
Childhood Classroom. Newton, MA: Educational Development Center Publication
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of Chicago Press.
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In Indigenous Knowledge Local Pathways to Global Development: Making Five Years of
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Contradiction or Concurrence?" In Indigenous Knowledge Local Pathways to Global
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PAGE 10
CHAPTER III: Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition
LESSON OBJECTIVES
• Identify different conceptions of human flourishing;

• Determine the development of the scientific method and validity of science; and
• Critic human flourishing vis-a-vis progress of science and technology to be able
to define for themselves the meaning of a good life.
• Name ways on how technology aided in revealing the truth about the human
being.
INTRODUCTION
Eudaimonia, literally "good spirited, " is a term coined by renowned Greek

philosopher Aristotle (385-323 BC) to describe the pinnacle of happiness that is
attainable by humans. This has often been translated into "human flourishing” in
literature, arguably likening humans to flowers achieving their full bloom. As discussed
in the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle's human flourishing arises as a result of different
components such as phronesis, friendship, wealth, and power. In the Ancient Greek
society, they believe that acquiring these qualities will surely bring the seekers
happiness, which in effect allows them to partake in the greater notion of what we call
the Good.
As times change, elements that comprise human flourishing changed, which are
subject to the dynamic social history as written by humans. People found means to live
more comfortably, explore more places, develop more products, and make more
money, and then repeating the process in full circle. In the beginning, early people relied
on simple machines to make hunting and gathering easier. This development allowed
them to make grander and more sophisticated machines to aid them in their endeavors
that eventually led to space explorations, medicine innovations, and ventures of life after
death. Our concept of human flourishing today proves to be different from what Aristotle
originally perceived then- humans of today are expected to become a "man of the
world." He is supposed to situate himself in a global neighborhood, working side by side
among institutions and the government to be able to reach a common goal. Competition
as a means of survival has become passe; coordination is the new trend.
Interestingly, there exists a discrepancy between eastern and western

conception regarding society and human flourishing. It has been observed that western
civilization tends to be more focused on the individual, while those from the east are
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more community-centric. Human flourishing as an end then is primarily more of a
concern for western civilizations over eastern ones. This is not to discredit our kinsfolk
from the east; perhaps in their view, community takes the highest regard that the
individual should sacrifice himself for the sake of the society. This is apparent in the
Chinese Confucian system or the Japanese Bushido, both of which view the whole as
greater than their components. The Chinese and the Japanese encourage studies of
literature, sciences, and art, not entirely for oneself but in service of a greater cause,
The Greek Aristotelian view, on the other hand, aims for eudaimonia as the ultimate
good; there is no indication whatsoever that Aristotle entailed it instrumental to achieve
some other goals. Perhaps, a person who has achieved such state would want to serve
the community, but that is brought upon through deliberation based on his values rather
than his belief that the state is greater than him, and thus is only appropriate that he
should recognize it as a higher entity worthy of service.
Nevertheless, such stereotypes cannot be said to be true given the current

stance of globalization. Flourishing borders allowed people full access to cultures that
as a result, very few are able to maintain their original philosophies. It is in this regard
that we would tackle human flourishing-in a global perspective and as a man of the
world.
Science, Technology, and Human Flourishing
In the previous chapters, contributions of science and technology have been laid
down thoroughly. Every discovery, innovation, and success contributes to our pool of
human knowledge. Perhaps, one of the most prevalent themes is human's perpetual
need to locate himself in the world by finding proofs to trace evolution. The business of
uncovering the secrets of the universe answers the question of our existence and
provides us something to look forward to. Having a particular role, which is uniquely
ours, elicits our idea of self-importance. It is in this regard that human flourishing is
deeply intertwined with goal setting relevant to science and technology. In this case, the
latter is relevant as a tool in achieving the former or echoing Heidegger's statement,
technology is a human activity that we excel in as a result of achieving science. Suffice
to say that the end goals of both science and technology and human flourishing are
related, in that the good is inherently related to the truth. The following are two concepts
about science which ventures its claim on truth.
Science as Method and Results
For the most part, science's reputation stems from the objectivity brought upon
by an arbitrary, rigid methodology whose very character absolves it from any accusation
of prejudice. Such infamy effectively raised science in a pedestal untouchable by other
PAGE 2
institutions--its sole claim to reason and empiricism-garnering supporters who want to
defend it and its ways.
In school, the scientific method is introduced in the earlier part of discussions. Even
though the number of steps varies, it presents a general idea of how to do science:
1. Observe and determine if there are unexplained occurrences unfolding.
2. Determine the problem and identify factors involved.
3. Through past knowledge of similar instance, formulate hypothesis that could

explain the said phenomenon. Ideally, the goal is to reject the null hypothesis and
accept the alternative hypothesis for the study "to count as significant" (can also be
separated into additional steps such as "to generate prediction" or "to infer from past
experiments").
4. Conduct experiment by setting up dependent and independent variables, and trying

to see how independent ones affect dependent ones.
5. Gather and analyze results throughout and upon culmination of the experiment.
Examine if the data gathered are significant enough to conclude results.
6. Formulate conclusion and provide recommendation in others would want to

broaden the study.
At least in the students' formative years, the above routine is basic methodology
when introducing them to experimentation and empiricism-two distinct features that give
science edge over other schools of thought. Throughout the course of history, however,
there exists heavy objections on the scientific procedure; the line separating science
and the so-called pseudoscience becomes more muddled.
Verification Theory
The earliest criterion that distinguishes philosophy and science is verification theory.
The idea proposes that a discipline is science if it can be confirmed or interpreted in the
event of an alternative hypothesis being accepted. In that regard, said theory gives
premium to empiricism and only takes into account those results which are measurable
and experiments which are repeatable. This was espoused by a movement in the early
twentieth century called the Vienna Circle, a group of scholars who believed that only
those which can be observed should be regarded as meaningful and reject those which
cannot be directly accessed as meaningless. Initially, this proved to be attractive due to
general consensus from people, which happened to see for themselves how the
experiment occurred, solidifying its validity and garnering supporters from esteemed
figures. Its shortcomings, however, proved to be a somewhat too risky- several budding
PAGE 3
theories that lack empirical results might be shot down prematurely, causing slower
innovation and punishing ingenuity of newer, novel thoughts. Celebrated discoveries in
physics, for instance, are initially theorized without proper acknowledgment of their
being. Einstein's theory on the existence of gravitational waves would, following this
thought, be dismissed due to lack of evidence almost a hundred years ago. Quantum
mechanics would not have prospered if the scientific society during the time of Edwin
Schrödinger did not entertain his outrageous thought that the cat in the box is both dead
and alive, which can only be determined once you look in the box yourself.
Aside from above critique, this theory completely fails to weed out bogus
arguments that explain things coincidentally. A classic example is astrology, whose
followers are able to employ the verification method in ascertaining its reliability. The
idea is that since one already has some sort of expectations on what to find, they will
interpret events in line with said expectations. American philosopher Thomas Kuhn
warned us against bridging the gap between evidence and theory by attempting to
interpret the former according to our own biases, that is, whether or not we subscribe to
the theory. Below is a short story illustrating this point:
Suppose, for instance, this girl, Lea has a (not-so- scientific) theory that her
classmate lan likes her. Good, she thought, I like him too. But how do I know that he
likes me?
She began by observing him and his interactions with her. Several gestures she
noted include his always exchanging pleasantries with her whenever they bump into
each other, his big smile when he sees her, and him going out of his way to greet her
even when riding a jeepney. Through these observations, she was then able to
conclude that lan does like her because, she thought, why would anyone do something
like that for a person he does not like?
As it turns out, however, lan is just generally happy to meet people he knew. He
had known Lea since they were in first year and regards her as a generally okay
person. It is no surprise then that upon learning that lan basically does this to everyone,
Lea was crushed. She vowed to herself that she would never assume again.
Based from above story, is it justified for Lea to think that lan does not like her?
Not quite. The next criterion also wars us about the danger of this view current
Falsification Theory
Perhaps the prevalent methodology in science, falsification theory asserts that as

long as an ideology is not proven to be false and can best explain a phenomenon over
alternative theories, we should accept the said ideology. Due to its hospitable character,
the shift to this theory allowed emergence of theories otherwise rejected by verification
PAGE 4
theory. It does not promote ultimate adoption of one theory but instead encourages
research in order to determine which among the theories can stand the test of
falsification. The strongest one is that which is able to remain upheld amidst various
tests, while being able to make particularly risky predictions about the world. Karl
Popper is the known proponent of this view. He was notorious for stating that up-and-
coming theories of the time, such as Marx's Theory of Social History and Sigmund
Freud's Psychoanalysis, are not testable and thus not falsifiable, and subsequently
questioning their status as scientific. Albeit majority of scientists nowadays are more
inclined to be Popperian in their beliefs, this theory, similar to the theory above,
presents certain dangers by interpreting an otherwise independent evidence in light of
their pet theory.
To illustrate, previous story is restated:

lan is generally everybody's friend. He likes to be
around people and generally aspires to become everybody's friend. However,
there is this one girl, Lea, who seemed to not like him when he is around. Every
time he waves at her, she turns away, and when they are in the same room. she
avoids bus glances. Through this, he concluded that Lea does not like him and
does his best to show her that he is not a threat. He began greeting her
whenever they pass by each other at the comdor, even going so far as calling
her attention when he was in the jeepney and saw her walking past. When they
are able to talk to each other, he found out that Lea is just really shy and is not
accustomed to people greeting her. He then was able to conclude that his initial
impression of her not liking him (as a person) is wrong and
thus said proposition is rejected.
Although there is no happy ending yet for Lea and lan, we can thus see how in
this case, falsification method is prone to the same generalizations committed by the
verification method. There is no known rule as to the number of instance that a theory is
rejected or falsified in order for it to be set aside. Similarly, there is no assurance that
observable event or "evidences are indeed manifestations of a certain concept of
"theories ™ Thus, even though, theoretically, falsification method is more accepted,
scientists are still not convinced that it should be regarded as what makes a discipline
scientific.
Science as a Social Endeavor
PAGE 5
Due to inconclusiveness of the methodologies previously cited, a new school of thought
on the proper demarcation criterion of science emerged Several philosophers such as
Paul Thagard, Imre Lakatos, Helen Longino, David Bloor, and Richard Rorty, among
others, presented an alternative demarcation that explores the social dimension of
science and effectively, technology. Sciences cease to belong solely to gown- wearing,
bespectacled scientists at laboratories. The new view perpetuates a dimension which
generally benefits the society. For instance, far-off places in South America where many
of the tribes remain uncontacted, do not regard western science as their science.
Whatever their science is, it can be ascertained that it is in no way inferior to that of
globalized peoples' science. Thus, it presents an alternative notion that goes beyond the
boundaries of cold, hard facts of science and instead projects it in a different light, such
as a manifestation of shared experience forging solidarity over communities,
Science and Results
For the most part, people who do not understand science are won over when the
discipline is able to produce results. Similar to when Jesus performed miracles and
garnered followers, people are sold over the capacity of science to do stuff they cannot
fully comprehend. In this particular argument, however, science is not the only discipline
which is able to produce results-religion, luck, and human randomness are some
of its contemporaries in the field. For some communities without access to science, they
can turn to divination and superstition and still get the same results. Science is not
entirely foolproof, such that it is correct 100% of the time. Weather reports, for one,
illustrate fallibility and limitations of their scope, as well as their inability to predict
disasters. The best that can be done during an upcoming disaster is to reinforce
materials to be more calamity proof and restore the area upon impact. It can be then
concluded that science does not monopolize the claim for definite results.
Science as Education
Aforementioned discussion notes that there is no such thing as a singular

scientific method, offering instead a variety of procedures that scientists can experiment
with to get results and call them science. Discoveries in physics, specifically in quantum
mechanics, appeared to have debunked the idea of objectivity in reality, subscribing
instead to alternative idea called intersubjectivity. With objectivity gone, it has lost its
number one credence. Nevertheless, there still exists a repressing concept that comes
about as a result of unjustified irreverence of science-our preference of science-inclined
students over those which are less adept.
PAGE 6
There are distinct portions in entrance exams in the secondary and tertiary levels that
are dedicated to science and mathematics. In the Faces a large distribution of science
high schools can be found all over the country, forging competition for aspiring students
to secure a sio and undergo rigorous science and mathematics training based on specie
curricula. Although arguable as these schools also take great consideration in providing
holistic education by assuring that other non-science courses are covered, adeptness in
science d mathematics are the per condition to be admitted. This preference is also
reflected on the moon of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering Mathematics)-
offering schools accommodating Grades 11 and 12 Among all the clusters being
offered, STEM trumps the remaining clusters in terms of popularity and distribution, with
Accounting and Business coming in as a close second One might infer that there are
more demand in this field as students are preconditioned that the field would latter land
them high-paying jobs and a lucrative career after graduation.
How is science perceived by those who graduated from this field. A couple of
years ago, a student entered a class all curious and excited. When he was made to
report on Paul Feyerabend's work How to Defend Society Against Science one day,
he looked dissident, staunchly refusing to consider the author's ideas on science and
critiquing him instead. When asked why, he reasoned out that he had come from a
science high school and was trained to regard science in a distinct accord. As isolated a
case as it may seem, it somewhat suggests that the aforementioned kind of academic
environment has made students unwelcoming of objections against science.
Reminiscent of Paul Feyerabend's sentiment above, he muses how the educational
system can hone and preserve students capacity to entertain other options and decide
for themselves the best among all presented. It will thus reinforce their imagination and
allow some level of unorthodoxy, bringing forth novel discoveries that otherwise would
not be considered had they stuck to the default methodology Innovations are brought
forth by the visionaries, not the prude legalists, and several notable figures in
science even consider themselves as outsiders If one is really in pursuit of human
flourishing, it would make sense for them to pursue it holistically. Simply mastering
science and technology would be inadequate if we are to, say, socialize with people
or ruminate on our inner self. Aristotle's eudaimonic person is required to
be knowledgeable about science, among other things of equal importance.
They are supposed to possess intellectual virtues that will enable them to determine
truth from falsehood or good reasoning from poor reasoning. A true eudaimon
recognizes that flourishing requires one to excel in various dimensions, such as
linguistic, kinetic, artistic, and socio-civic. Thus, he understands that he should not focus
on one aspect alone.
How Much Is Too Much?
PAGE 7
In 2000, world leaders signed the Millennium Development Goals
(MDG) that targets eight concerns, one of which states that they should
be able to forge a global partnership for development. Inasmuch as the
institutes imposing them do so in good faith, the primary goal to achieve
growth for all might prove to be fatal in the long run.
Economists believe that growth is the primary indicator of development, as both

go hand in hand, and has put forth their resources in trying to achieve such. Technology
has been a primary instrument in enabling them to pursue said goal, utilizing resources,
machineries, and labor. What is missing in this equation is that growth presents an
illusory notion of sustainability--the world's resources can only provide so much, it
cannot be expected to stretch out for everybody's consumption over a long period of
time. Moreover, growth is not infinite-there is no preordained ceiling once the ball starts
rolling. If the MDG convention's intent was to get everyone in the growth ship, that ship
will surely sink before leaving the port. The same analogy applies to the capacity of
nature to accommodate us, which Joseph Hickel contemplated on, suggesting
that developed countries should not push forth more growth but instead adopt "de
development" policies or else, everybody loses. The rapid pace of technological growth
allows no room for nature to recuperate, resulting in exploitation and irreversible
damages to nature. Right now, we are experiencing repercussions of said exploits in the
hands of man-made climate change, which would snowball and affect majority of flora
and fauna, driving half of the latter extinct in less than a hundred year from
now. If this continues in its currently alarming rate, we might bong about our own
extinction.
TECHNOLOGY AS A WAY OF REVEALING

Comparing the lives of the people before and now will make anyone realize
the changes that happened in society not just in terms of culture, language, or rights but
more importantly, changes in people's way of life due to the existence of science and
technology.
The term "generation gap" is attributed mainly to the changes brought about by
technology. Although the original idea is for technology to help everyone, it cannot be
denied that until today, not everyone is comfortable in using the different kinds of
technologies. Mostly those who belong to the older generation think that these
technologies are too complicated to operate. They have been used to the simple living
in the past and these available technological devices, though very appealing, are a
difficult puzzle to them.
PAGE 8
However, this gap is not something to be worried about. This does not in any way
make technology a villain. Instead, it is a challenge for people in the field of science and
technology to make these technological advancements more accessible and less
confusing for people who are not as young anymore. This is also a challenge for the
younger generation to take the older generation to an exciting journey in science and
technology. In this way, everyone can experience what it is like to live with ease and
comfort because of the availability of modern technology.
Even before, people are already fascinated with science and technology. This
fascination led to numerous magnificent inventions that people in the present are able to
enjoy and benefit from. Through science and technology, people get to experience what
it really means to live because it helps people in more ways than one.
People who lived in the past and people who are living in the present all have
different views of what it means to flourish, primarily due to the kind of environment and
the period one is in. People's ways of life and how the society works also affect how one
construes the concept of human flourishing. The environment need to be assessed in
order to know the possibility of human flourishing and to what extent it is possible. Since
there have been drastic changes in people's way of life, it can be inferred that there
have been drastic changes not only in the conception of human flourishing but to
people's actual human condition. These changes were brought about by the interplay of
different factors but essentially, it was brought about by science and technology.
The Human Condition Before Common Era
Our early ancestors primal need to survive paved way for the invention of several
developments. Gifted with brains more advanced than other creatures, humans are able
to utilize abundant materials for their own ease and comfort. As it is difficult to pinpoint
the particular period where technology is said to have started, one can say that at the
very least, the motivation to make things easier has been around since humans are.
Homo erectus have been using fire to cook, through chipping one flint over the other to
PAGE 9
produce a spark, all the while without realizing the laws of friction and heat. Tools from
stone and flints marked the era of the Stone Age, during the advent of our very own
Homo sapiens, and humans began to sharpen stones as one would a knife; an
example of this is the simple machine called wedge.
This particular period proved to be difficult for our ancestors, but in a remarkably
distinct way. There is little to no written accounts except for several cave drawings and
unearthed artifacts from various parts of the world that narrate how their culture came to
be. It then proves that there is little capacity for our ancestors to contemplate and
perceive things outside themselves in a more reflective manner. For instance, there are
several excavations in different parts of Europe of miniature statues prevalent
during the Paleolithic period, the so-called "Venus" figure. It depicts a rudimentary
carving of a voluptuous woman out of ivory or stone. The reason behind this is still
unknown to archaeologists and anthropologists alike; they can only infer that the
humans of yesterday have a certain fixation on the female anatomy. What did this
fascination translate to? Lack of conclusive evidence hinders us from proceeding any
further.
Soon enough, people discovered minerals, and began forging metalwork. They
realized that these substances are more durable, malleable, and have more luster than
the previous material. On the other hand, there are some indicators that humans in the
past share the same concerns and interests, suggesting that these inclinations persist
through multitudes of generation over several millennia. Fur clothing and animal
skin are primarily used for comfort against harsh winds-our ancestors are able to draw
the connection between their being naked and vulnerable due to some lack of fur or
protective covering which would otherwise allow them to withstand extreme weather
conditions.
They begin to cover themselves up out of necessity, and gradually, added several more
to their garments. Some of those found at excavation sites are reminiscent of early
accessories, suggesting that our ancestors have been deeply engaged in the concept of
beauty. Perhaps, they had taken a liking to a certain shiny stone, or a perfectly shaped
bone, and wanted to wear it as trophy. What does this tell of them and their
philosophies? Were they perhaps proud to show off their hunt and how good of a hunter
they were? Were they concerned with social standing and stratification? How about the
meaning of life? Were they also curious on finding explanations to certain
phenomena?
At least for the last question, it seems that they have found their
answer in the person of religion. Excavations on the latter half of the Stone Age include
several figures thought to be ceremonial, meaning, that perhaps people of the time had
also painstakingly wrought and hewed said figures in honor of some deity. This notion,
PAGE 10
as it was then and as is now is often people's resort to make sense of events happening
outside their control. The initial roster of primitive gods includes objects they encounter
through their day-to-day lives, so it is not surprising that different tribes may have
different gods. Those who might have lived alongside majestic creatures, such as
elephants and mammoths, might have been awed by their size and worshiped them as
the owner of the land, asking for blessings in their hunting ground. On the contrary, they
might have hunted the mammoths for their woolly coat and meat, taking down the
animal for the entire community to eat. In windy places near mountains, they might have
had a mountain god to explain wind currents and ask for provisions.
On the other hand, those who were near coastal areas or bodies of water
might have had water gods they referred to when asking for a good catch. However, it
might be also the case that people of prior civilizations shared several generic gods,
such as the sun
Nevertheless, it can be positively inferred that like the people of today, our
ancestors also found the need to explain things in a way that makes sense to them.
They quickly realized that there are events outside of their control and attempted to
justify things as being a work of a supernatural being. Throughout the course of history,
religion remains to be the strongest contender to science arguably due to its being the
most easily grasped. Admittedly, once people stop connecting the dots between cause
and effect, they turn to something that could possibly explain their inadequacies in
making sense of the world. The people of yesterday appeared to have acknowledged
early on that they could only do and understand as much, that perhaps other powers at
play also existed alongside them. This notion effectively humbled and perhaps
grounded them, with their constant befuddlement serving as an early reminder that
they were way behind several larger, more powerful forces in nature in terms of order of
things.
The Human Condition in the Common Era
For a long time, humans were content with their relationship with nature. Earliest
case of man-made extinction occurred over 12,000 years ago, possibly brought upon by
hunting and territorial disputes. The Holocene extinction, also called the sixth
extinction or more aptly Anthropocene extinction, occurred from as early as between
100,000 to 200,000 years up to the present. It pertains to the ongoing extinction
of several species-both flora and fauna-due to human activity. Driven by their primal
need to survive and gaining the upper hand in terms of development and adaptability,
humans were quick to find ways to drive off other mega faunas threatening a
prospective hunting spot and eventually, settling grounds. Growing population also
necessitated finding additional resources, leading to overhunting and overfishing
PAGE 11
common prey, some of which were endemic to the area. Hunting, coupled with a
changing terrain that the humans began cultivating when agriculture emerged some
9,000 years ago, caused several species to lose competition in territory and food
resources. Formation of communities caused humans to expand more in territory and
more people to feed; large, separate communities hailing from the same ancestors and
residing in the same large community paved way for civilizations. Even as a community,
the people realized that though they were at most self-sufficient, they were in constant
need of resources. Albeit waging wars with other tribes seemed to be the early solution,
they were able to find out some 5,000 years ago that engaging in a peaceful negotiation
was also a possible and less bloody method. They realized that they could get hold of
things not present in their towns by offering something of same value present in theirs. It
is in this process that trade emerged, leading to cross-town and eventually cross-
cultural interaction as more products were exchanged and the initial needs extended to
wants.
People then had a new objective--gather as much products as possible. They

have turned to wealth as one of their goals as humans and ultimately as civilizations, for
they perceived that those who have many, live comfortably and thus are generally
happier than those who do not have sufficient wealth. Thus, they began to hunt, farm,
and produce things with prospect of profit. A nuclear community which is initially self-
sufficient has to accommodate their growing population with depleting resources,
leading them to be reliant to other communities' produce which keeps them surviving. In
return, these communities have to make use of their current resources twice as much to
provide for other communities' needs. Products of every kind were exchanged, ranging
from necessary ones such as crops, cattle, poultry, others of kind, and clothing
materials, up to metals, accessories, weapons, spices, literature, and entertainment.
They were able to find and create niches for interests. When they could not sell
products, they used their skills and got compensated for it-bringing forth a specialized
group of artisans. Humanity became more complex. The primary goal was not merely to
survive, but to live the good life.
Technology has been instrumental in all of these because in searching for the
good life, people were able to come up with creations that would make life easier, more
comfortable, and more enriching, Although the good life envisioned before might be
pale in comparison to the multifariousness of today, it offered us the initial intricacies of
how today came to be. Such intricacies are also evident in the machines created and
causes endeavored by the people of long ago. They perceive death as, at the very
least, unpleasant and concocted potions to ward evil off from their kinsmen, often
appealing to their gods for blessings. Medicine was thus bom, although it would take a
considerably long time before it par tways with potion. They became fixated with gold
PAGE 12
and were adamant in procuring more, trying to use incantations with mixtures of
substances to turn lead into one. This ultimately paved way for the emergence of
chemistry in its primitive form, not quite distinct from alchemy. Due to differing races,
belief, or abundance of resources and/or territory, wars were always being waged,
leading communities to allocate resources to the militia. Initially, the early leaders were
those who portrayed exceptional strength among their group-this condition carried on
for generations. Physical strength was valued at most, although there appeared to be as
many intellectually gifted figures just the same. These innovators were primarily the
ones behind discoveries and triumphs of these civilizations.
Position-wise, the humans of today are much better off compared to humans
several centuries ago. Advancements in medicine, technology, health, and education
ushered in humanity's best yet, and show no sign of stopping. Below are some of the
notable comparisons then and now
1. Mortality Rate. Due to technology, lesser women and children die during birth,
assuring robust population and strong workforce. Medical care for premature
infants allows them to survive and develop normally, while proper maternal care
ensures that mothers can fully recover and remain empowered.
2. Average Lifespan. Aside from the reason that people engage less in combat and are
less likely to die in treatable diseases now as opposed to then, science is able to
prolong lives by enhancing living status and discovering different remedies to
most diseases. Distribution of medicines is also made easier and faster.
3. Literacy Rate. Access to education provided to more individuals generally creates a
more informed public that could determine a more just society.
4. Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Although not an indicator of an average person's
lifestyle in a certain country, it is often used to determine the value of the country's
goods and services produced within the territory given a certain time period.
Higher country income is brought upon by high productivity, often an indicator of
presence of technology.
The Essence of Technology
Humanity has indeed come a long way from our primitive ways,
and as a general rule, it is said that we are more "developed" than we were
before. Above data are few indicators of the route that we have come to
take as species, and there are no signs of stopping. Modern humans are
reliant on technology in their search for the good life. We see ways and
means from nature to utilize and achieve growth-a goal that we believe
would bring forth betterment.
PAGE 13
In retrospect, this view of technology proves to be goal-oriented.
It assumes that it is instrumental in achieving a goal in mind, that it is a purposeful,
deliberate craft humans steer in order to reach some greater good. In the advent of
postmodernism, however, the deterministic view appended to technology crumbled as
people began to question if anything is deterministic at all. Apart from its purpose, what
is technology? Was the history of technology brought purposeful choices for man in his
search for the ultimate good? Some tried to redefine technology away from its purpose.
One philosopher by the name of Martin Heidegger argued that its essence, or purpose,
and being are different from each other. He was able to expound on this point upon
identifying that technology can either be perceived as first, a means to achieve man's
end and second, that which constitutes human activity. The second perspective paints
technology in such a way that each period reveals a particular character regarding
man's being. A characteristic design, or flaw, unfolds based on the repercussions
brought upon by immersing ourselves with a piece of new technology. In effect, through
technology, a myriad of new questions begins to mount. Rather than thinking that
humans have a clear idea of what to expect in a good life, it can be stated that
technology allows humans to confront the unknown and see how they would react.
This is not a good thing altogether though, for technological revelation is but one
of the many ways to perceive the world. However, as long as humans are invested in
growth and development, we cannot distance ourselves from this perspective. In the
name of growth, we view the world as a field of resources, vent on attributing monetary
value on seemingly priceless entities. We begin to categorize nature as renewable and
nonrenewable instead of seeing it as it is. Humans are reduced into the amount of
productivity they are able to render during their lifetime, and our current mindset is
geared toward which would utilize our own skills. A good life is one which is practical in
essence; a life which makes use of our labor and which we get compensated fairly
upon. It is no wonder that the sciences are one of the most sought after courses, for the
opportunities are plenty and the resources are bountiful. Since humans appear not to
really know what they are seeking for the search continues. It is a looming fear,
however, that the path we are treading will not take us to the right direction, leading us
in endless circles instead in our pursuit of the good life.
PAGE 14
This is the danger presented by too much reliance on technology Humans lose
track of things that matter, reducing their surroundings to their economic value. As this
presents strong backing by the sciences whose reverence is also brought upon by our
deluded enchantment with technology, it will prove to be a herculean task to distance
ourselves from this perspective and consider alternatives. After all, it was science and
technology that gave us explanations, which worked for us and benefited us. Rejecting
a working, tried-and-tested process seems foolish, more so knowing that there are no
options of equal value. It will be absurd to venture the dark and the unknown, but it
should be done in order for us to retrace our steps to be able to achieve the Good.
Backtracking the Human Condition
Technology's initial promises proved to be true, regardless of its ramifications. All

in all the human condition improved, only if by improving we measure the level of
comfort, various scientific breakthroughs, and improved lifestyles of those who had the
luxury to afford to do so. Different machineries aid in prolonging lives--assisting those
with disabilities, honing efficiency in industrial workplaces, and even exploring the
universe for places we can thrive once all the Earth's resources are depleted. As to the
initial aims, it appears that things really did not much differ. Some places in the world
are still battling for their daily survival--diseases, tribe wars, lack of habitable territories,
and competitions on resources are several factors contributing to such. People still
wage wars on the basis of races, belief, and abundance of resources and/or territory:
except that now, they are able to inflict such in a global scale. A lot of people still
subscribe to religion in explaining things that they do not know. For those who have
ceased to do so, they have turned their worships to reverence of science. Whether
science or religion, these people are still bent on trying to make sense of the events
happening in the world on the basis of either of these two paradigms. They are still
trying to discover and rediscover things that would give meaning to their lives--whether
it be honor, strength, or merit. People are still trying to make sense of their existence in
the world, and technology does little to aid them in their pursuit of life's meaning.
It seems that the human condition, although more sophisticated,

is nothing but a rehashed version of its former self. Nothing much has changed since
then, and it appears that nothing will change in the times to come if we fail to shift our
view elsewhere. While it is true that technology offered us one compelling notion of the
truth and the good, we should be staunch in our resolve if we want to know the real one.
For starters, we might begin with considering other concepts, which corresponds
to the Good, such as Aristotle's conception of human flourishing. His notion entertains
the idea of holistic enrichment of a person situated in his society. A notable distinction
PAGE 15
on Aristotle's idea is his subscription on evaluative concepts called virtues and their role
in achieving the good life.
Technological advancements are seemingly occurring in a rapid pace that
our morality cannot quite keep up, no such consideration was given in this
approach in achieving the good life. This will further be discussed in the
following chapters.
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
Human Nourishing is defined SUSUMMARY

as being good spirited" in the classical Aristotelian
notion. Humans generally have a notion on what it means to flourish, albeit in the
advent of science and technology, they chose to hinge their ends alongside the latter's
results. While it is true that science equips its knowers some details about the world, its
SUMMARY
main claim to objectivity and systematic methodology is at the very least flawed.
However, that does not stop institutions to favor those who excel in said discipline.
Finally, the economic perception of enrichment, otherwise known as growth, is heavily
fueled by technology and should be impeded. We have to rethink of our perception of a
good life apart from one presented in this regard.
Science and technology has been part of human activity since the beginning of
our species. It has aided us in survival and helped us outsmart our adversaries,
provided us comfortable living, allowed us to explore the world, and assisted us in
discovering more about ourselves and the truth. However, it also leads us to a paradox
in which we are only able to see the world in the lenses of technological innovations. In
our pursuit of growth, we had conveniently forgotten that technology only presents one
approach in viewing the world. This forgetfulness leads us to evaluate objects as
consumable or not--transcending to other human beings, determining their capacity to
be productive. Our valuation of things became one-dimensional, geared toward
production of goods for more consumption, which we believe would lead us to the good
life. This is only one conception of technology, as Heidegger also proposed that
technology is what humans do. Advancements in the field expose us to previously
unknown predicaments, effectively helping us to reveal our own natures and enforcing
one perspective in finding the truth. Now that it is acknowledged, we can try and divert
our search to other approaches.
REFERENCES
PAGE 16
Bloor, D. (1981). "The Strengths of the Strong Programme." Philosophy
of the Social Sciences, 11 (2):199.
Dayrit, F.M. (2011). "Sustainable Development: An Evolving

Paradigm for the 21st Century." Stellar Origins Human Ways. Ed.
Ma. Assunta C. Cuyegkeng. 231-57.
Ferngren, G. (Ed.). (2000). Encyclopedia of the History of Science and

Religion in the Western Tradition. New York: Garland.
Feyerabend, P. (1975). "How to Defend Society Against Science.

Radical Philosophy 11 (1):3-9.
Hempel, C.G. (1966). Philosophy of Natural Science. Englewood Cliffs,

NJ.: Prentice Hall,
Hickel, J. (2015). "Forget 'Developing' Rich Countries, It's Time

to 'De-Develop' Rich Countries." Accessed February 10, 2017
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development professionals
-network/2015/sep/23/developing-poor-countries-de-develop- rich-countries-sdgs.
Kuhn, T. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 3rd Ed. Chicago:

The University of Chicago Press.
Popper, K.R. (1989). Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific

Knowledge. Oxford: Routledge.
Thagard, P. (1978). "Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience." PSA:

Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science
Association 1978: 223-234.
Thomson, J.A. (2003). The Nicomachean Ethics. London: Penguin.
Wilson, E.O. (2005). The Future of Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Blitz, M. (2014), "Understanding Heidegger on Technology." The

New Atlantis, Number 41, Winter, pp. 63-80.
De Vries, MJ. (2005). Teaching About Technology: An Introduction to

the Philosophy of Technology for Non-Philosophers. Switzerland
Springer,
PAGE 17
Derrida, J. (1989). Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question Trans. Geoffrey

Bennington and Rachel Bowlby, Chicago/London: Chicago UP
Grayson, D.K. and DJ. Meltzer. (2012). "Clovis Hunting and Large
Mammal Extinction: A Critical Review of the Evidence." Journal
of World Prehistory, 16 (4): 313-359.
Grayson, DK Human Population Growth and Extinction (n.d.).

Center for Biological Diversity. Accessed August 1, 2016. http://
www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_and_
sustainability/extinction/index.html,
Heidegger, M. (1977). The Question Concerning Technology, and Other

Essays. New York: Harper & Row.
Holloway, A. (2014). "The Venus Figurines of the European

Paleolithic Era." Accessed February 10, 2017. http://www.
ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-europe/venus-figurines-
european-paleolithic-era-001548?nopaging=1.
Kolbert, E. (2014). The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History. London:

Bloomsbury Publishing.
Rudgley, R. (2000). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. New York:
Simon and Schuster.
PAGE 18
CHAPTER IV: THE GOOD LIFE
LESSON-OBJECTIVES
• Examine what is meant by a good life;

• Identify how humans attempt to attain what is deemed to be a good life, and
Discuss the effects of the interplay between technology and humanity through the
dilemma(s) they face.
INTRODUCTION
In Ancient Greece, long before the word "science has been coined, the need to
understand the world and reality was bound with the need to understand the self and
the good life. For Plato, the task of understanding the things in the world runs parallel
with the job of truly getting into what will make the soul flourish. In an attempt to
understand reality and the external world, man must seek to understand himself, too. It
was Aristotle who gave a definitive distinction between the theoretical and practical
sciences. Among the theoretical disciplines, Aristotle included logic, biology, physics,
and metaphysics, among others. Among the practical ones, Aristotle counted ethics and
politics. Whereas "truth" is the aim of the theoretical sciences, the "good" is the end goal
of the practical ones. Every attempt to know is connected in some way in an attempt to
find the "good" or as said in the previous lesson, the attainment of human flourishing.
Rightly so, one must find the truth about what the good is before one can even try to
locate that which is good.
In the previous lesson, we have seen how a misplaced or an

erroneous idea of human flourishing can turn tables for all of us make the
sciences work against us rather than for us, and draw a chasm between the
search for truth and for the good. In this lesson, we endeavor to go back a
little and answer these questions: What does it really mean to live a 3000
life? What qualifies as a good existence? Granting this understanding, we
are assumed to be in a better position to reconcile our deepest existential
needs as human beings and science as tool to maneuver around the world.
PAGE 1
Aristotle and How We All Aspire for a Good Life
It is interesting to note that the first philosopher who approached

the problem of reality from a "scientific lens as we know now, is also the
first thinker who dabbled into the complex problematization of the end goal of life:
happiness. This man is none other than Aristotle.
Compared to his teacher and predecessor, Plato, Aristotle embarked on a

different approach in figuring out reality. In contrast to Plato who thought that things in
this world are not real and are only copies of the real in the world of forms, Aristotle puts
everything back to the ground in claiming that this world is all there is to it and that this
world is the only reality we can all access. For Plato, change is so perplexing that it can
only make sense if there are two realities: the world of forms and the world of matter.
Consider the human person. When you try to see yourself in front of the mirror, you
normally say and think that you are looking at yourself-that is, you are the person who
slept last night and you are the same person looking at yourself now, despite the
occasional changes like a new pimple that grows on your nose. The same is true for a
seed that you threw out of the garden last month. When you peek into the same
patch of land where the seed ingrained itself into, you may be surprised to see a little
plant showing itself to you and to the sun.
Plato recognized change as a process and as a phenomenon that happens in

the world, that in fact, it is constant. However, Plato also claims that despite the reality
of change, things remain and they retain their ultimate "whatness"; that you remain to
be you despite the pimple that now sits atop your nose.
PAGE 2
Plato was convinced that reality is full of these seemingly contrasting
manifestations of change and permanence. For Plato, this can only be explained by
postulating two aspects of reality, two worlds if you wish: the world of forms and the
world of matter. In the world of matter, things are changing and impermanent. In the
world of forms, the entities are only copies of the ideal and the models, and the forms
are the only real entities, Things are red in this world because they participate in what it
means to be red in the world of forms."
Aristotle, for his part, disagreed with his teacher's position and forwarded the idea
that there is no reality over and above what the senses can perceive. As such, it is only
by observation of the external world that one can truly understand what reality is all
about. Change is a process that is inherent in things. We, along with all other entities in
the world, start as potentialities and move toward actualities. The movement, of course,
entails change. Consider a seed that eventually germinates and grows into a plant. The
seed that turned to become the plant underwent change- from the potential plant that is
the seed to its full actuality, the plant.
Aristotle extends this analysis from the external world into the province of the
human person and declares that even human beings are potentialities who aspire for
their actuality. Every human being moves according to some end. Every action that
emanates from a human person is a function of the purpose (telos) that the person has.
When a boy asks for a burger from a Filipino burger joint, the action that he takes is
motivated primarily by the purpose that he has, inferably to get full or to taste the burger
that he only sees on TV. When a girl tries to finish her degree in the university, despite
the initial failures she may have had, she definitely is being propelled by a higher
purpose than to just graduate. She wants something more, maybe to have a license and
land a promising job in the future. Every human person, according to Aristotle, aspires
for an end. This end, we have learned from the previous chapters, is happiness
or human flourishing.
No individual-young or old, fat or skinny, male or female—resists happiness. We

all want to be happy. Aristotle claims that happiness is the be all and end all of
everything that we do. We may not realize it but the end goal of everything that we do is
happiness. If you ask one person why he is doing what he is doing, he may not readily
say that it is happiness that motivates him. Hard-pressed to explain why he is motivated
by what motivates him will reveal that happiness is the grand, motivating force in
everything that he does. When Aristotle claims that we want to be happy, he does not
necessarily mean the everyday happiness that we obtain when we win a competition or
we eat our favorite dish in a restaurant. What Aristotle actually means is human
flourishing, a kind of contentment in knowing that one is getting the best out of life. A
PAGE 3
kind of feeling that one has maxed out his potentials in the world, that he has attained
the crux of his humanity.
Happiness as the Goal of a Good Life
In the eighteenth century, John Stuart Mill declared the Greatest Happiness
Principle by saying that an action is right as far as it maximizes the attainment of
happiness for the greatest number of people. At a time when people were skeptical
about claims on the metaphysical, people could not make sense of the human
flourishing that Aristotle talked about in the days of old. Mill said that individual
happiness of each individual should be prioritized and collectively dictates the kind of
action that should be endorsed. Consider the pronouncements against mining. When an
action benefits the greatest number of people, said action is deemed ethical. Does
mining benefit rather than hurt the majority? Does it offer more benefits rather than
disadvantages? Does mining result in more people getting happy rather than sad? If the
answers to the said questions are in the affirmative, then the said action, mining, is
deemed ethical. The ethical is, of course, meant to lead us to the good and happy
life. Through the ages, as has been expounded in the previous chapters, man has
constantly struggled with the external world in order to reach human flourishing. History
has given birth to different schools of thought, all of which aim for the good and happy
life.
Materialism
The first materialists were the atomists in Ancient Greece.

Democritus and Leucippus led a school whose primary belief is that the world is made
up of and is controlled by the tiny indivisible units in the world called atomos or seeds.
For Democritus and his disciples, the world, including human beings, is made up of
matter. There is no need to posit immaterial entities as sources of purpose. Atomos
simply comes together randomly to form the things in the world. As such, only material
entities matter. In terms of human flourishing, matter is what makes us attain happiness.
We see this at work with most people who are clinging on to material wealth as the
primary source of the meaning of their existence.
Hedonism
The hedonists, for their part, see the end goal of life in acquiring
pleasure. Pleasure has always been the priority of hedonists. For them, life
is about obtaining and indulging in pleasure because life is limited. The
mantra of this school of thought is the famous, "Eat, drink, and be merry
PAGE 4
for tomorrow we die." Led by Epicurus, this school of thought also does
not buy any notion of afterlife just like the materialists.
Stoicism
Another school of thought led by Epicurus, the stoics espoused the

idea that to generate happiness, one must learn to distance oneself and be
apathetic. The original term, apatheia, precisely means to be indifferent. For the stoics,
happiness can only be attained by a careful practice of apathy. We should, in this
worldview, adopt the fact that some things are not within our control. The sooner we
realize this, the happier we can become.
Theism
Most people find the meaning of their lives using God as a fulcrum of their
existence. The Philippines, as a predominantly Catholic country, is witness to how
people base their life goals on beliefs that hinged on some form of super natural reality
called heaven. The ultimate basis of happiness for theists is the communion with God.
The world where we are in is only just a temporary reality where we have to maneuver
around while waiting for the ultimate return to the hands of God.
PAGE 5
Humanism
Humanism as another school of thought espouses the freedom of man to carve

his own destiny and to legislate his own laws, free from the shackles of a God that
monitors and controls. For humanists, man is literally the captain of his own ship.
Inspired by the enlightenment in seventeenth century, humanists see themselves not
merely as stewards of the creation but as individuals who are in control of themselves
and the world outside them. This is the spint of most scientists who thought that the
world is a place and space for freely unearthing the world in seeking for ways on how to
improve the lives of its inhabitants.
As a result of the motivation of the humanist current, scientists eventually turned

to technology in order to ease the difficulty of life as illustrated in the previous lessons.
Scientists of today meanwhile are ready to confront more sophisticated attempts at
altering the world for the benefit of humanity. Some people now are willing to tamper
with time and space in the name of technology, Social media, as an example,
has been so far a very effective way of employing technology in purging time and
space. Not very long ago, communication between two people from two continents in
the planet will involve months of waiting for a mail to arrive. Seeing each other real time
while talking was virtually impossible. Now, communication between two people
wherever they are, is not just possible but easy. The Internet and smart phones made
real- time communication possible not just between two people, but even with multiple
people simultaneously.
Technology allowed us to tinker with our sexuality. Biologically male individuals

can now undergo medical operation if they so wish for sexual reassignment. Breast
implants are now available and can be done with relative convenience if anyone wishes
to have one. Hormones may also be injected in order to alter the sexual chemicals in
the body.
Whether or not we agree with these technological advancements, these are all
undertaken in the hopes of attaining the good life. The balance, however, between the
good life, ethics, and technology has to be attained.
WHEN TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY CROSS
The ever-growing society has made people see technology as some form of
necessity, Tracing back its origins, the word "technology came from the Greek words
PAGE 6
techné and logos which mean art and word, respectively. Taking the two words
together, technology means a discourse on arts (Buchanan, 2010). It first appeared in
the seventeenth century where the concept was only used to talk about the arts,
specifically applied arts. However, as technology progressed, the concept also started
to have a wider range of meaning where an is no longer the only topic included.
Concepts like machine and tools were also attached to the word "technology" which is
the more popular sense of the concept nowadays.
The roles played by technology these days are very crucial not only to a few but
also to everyone. In one way or another, each person in the society is directly or
indirectly affected by technology whether he wills it or not. In fact, most people survive
their everyday lives with great reliance to the different technological advancements
already available to the masses. While there may be some who would claim that their
lives are not greatly affected by technology, the fact cannot be denied that technology is
already an inevitable part of the society.
It is with great effort that people were able to achieve such great inventions. It
makes life so much easier and more convenient than ever before. It can clearly be seen
from the simplest task at home to the most complicated ones inside the office or
laboratory. Technology these days enjoys such fame and glory because of the many
different benefits it brings to mankind. Some would even say that it does not only bring
convenience but also pleasure and happiness to people. This is because of the different
leisure activities that technology can offer to people. For example, it allows people to
listen to good music wherever they are. Another is, it allows them to communicate with
their loved ones anywhere in the world; but most of all, it allows them to surf and play
games anytime, anywhere.
The act of pinpointing a single activity that does not in any way require the use
of technology has become very hard because almost all activities that humans perform
already require the assistance of some kind of technological advancement. But this is
not all, for there are people who would even argue that technology has become a
necessity and no longer a want. At present, people work very hard in order to save
money to buy these "necessities” while in the past, people only used their money for the
things that would help them survive like food, housing, and clothing. In effect, anything
outside these categories was considered a luxury. However, that is no longer the case
at present.
In general, technology keeps on progressing due to not only the changing times
and environment but also to the ever-progressing mind of mankind. It would not be
possible for all these technological advancements to exist if it were not for the brilliance,
creativeness, and power of the mind. However, it is also important to note that anything
too much is bad. The same problem is faced by technology. Although it has been very
PAGE 7
helpful to people, it is still not immune to criticisms and backlash. Various ethical
dilemmas have been identified throughout time involving the use of different
technological devices and its effects to humanity. Usually, different problems arise when
either the technological device available is misused or if in the first place, it was
invented to produce bad results. People who are aware of the possible dangers of the
use or misuse of technology are not keeping still. They lay these dilemmas for the public
to see and realize what they are in for.
In this lesson, several technological devices will be properly introduced, the roles
they play in society and their effects, particularly to the lives of the people will be
identified, and the problems they face will also be examined thoroughly.
Television Sets, Mobile Phones, Computers, and Humanity
A number of technological devices can be easily found inside the home, the most
accessible place to anyone. Having said that, it can also be easily inferred that these
technological devices are some of the most popular and most commonly used types of
devices across all age groups. Almost all households, if not all, own these types of
devices. To be more specific, these "celebrities" in the field of technology are television
sets, mobile phones, and computers. People all over the world use these technologies
every day to accomplish different purposes.
First, according to Kantar Media, one of the most trusted television audience
measurement providers, in the Philippines, 92 percent of urban homes and 70 percent
of rural homes own at least one television set. It is for this reason why television
remains to be the ultimate medium for advertisement placements (The Manila Times,
2014). This survey simply shows that almost all Filipinos use this particular type of
device. In fact, Filipinos are believed to have this big fascination for television. Most of
the time, they watch television during their free time or any time of the day when they
have nothing important to do. In addition to this, Kantar Media also reported that in the
Philippines, the current count of households with television set already reached 15.135
PAGE 8
million (Noda, 2012).This number signifies something, that is, television plays a great
role in the lives of the people or in this case, the Filipinos.
Television was a product of different experiments by various people. Paul

Gottlieb Nipkow, a German student, in the late 1800s was successful in his attempt to
send images through wires with the aid of a rotating metal disk. This invention was then
called the electric telescope" that had 18 lines of resolution. After some time, in 1907,
two inventors, Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton who was an English scientist and Boris
Rosing who was a Russian scientist, created a new system of television by using the
cathode ray tube in addition to the mechanical scanner system. This success story gave
rise to two types of television systems, namely, mechanical and electronic television
(Jezek, n.d.). These experiments inspired other scientists to improve the previous
inventions, which led to the modern television people now have. However, it is important
to remember that several scientists and several experiments were performed first before
finally achieving the modern television at present.
Second, Filipinos love to use their mobile phones anywhere, anytime. They use it
for different purposes other than for communication. More than half of the Filipino
population own at least one mobile phone regardless of type. In 2010, global research
agency Synovate conducted a survey and declared 67 percent product ownership in the
country. In fact, it was also claimed that mobile phones are considered a must-have
among young Filipinos (ABS-CBN News, 2010). To prove that Filipinos really love to
use their mobile phones, the Ipsos Media Atlas Philippines Nationwide Urban 2011-
2012 survey results showed that one in every three Filipinos cannot live without a
mobile phone. In other words, 30 percent of the Philippine urban population nationwide
said that mobile phones are necessities in life (Roa, 2012). Philippine streets are full of
people using their mobile phones. Not only this, there are some Filipinos who even own
more than one mobile phone.
Mobile phones have a very interesting background story. On April 3, 1973, Martin
Cooper, a senior engineer at Motorola, made the world's first mobile phone call. He
called their rival telecommunications company and properly informed them that he was
making the call from a mobile phone. The mobile phone used by Cooper weighed 1.1
kilograms and measured 228.6 x 127 x 44.4 mm. This kind of device was capable of
a 30-minute talk time. However, it took 10 hours to charge. In 1983, Motorola made their
first commercial mobile phone available to the public. It was known as the Motorola
DynaTAC 8000X (Goodwin, 2016).
PAGE 9
Lastly, computers and laptops have also become part of many of

the Filipino households. There are some Filipino families who own more than one
computer or laptop while some own at least one computer or laptop. However, the
number of computers ar laptops sold per year may not be as high as the number of
mobile phones and television sets. This is because of the relatively higher cost of
computers and laptops. While it is true that almost all Filipino families own at least one
television set and a mobile phone, it is not possible for all Filipino families to own at
least one computer or laptop. In fact, most of the profits gained by computer and laptop
manufacturers come from offices, businesses, or schools where such devices have
become part of their necessities.
In 2010, 3.6 trillion was the estimated total value output of all manufacturing
establishments. Semi-conductor devices and other electronic components took more
than half of the total value output of all manufacturing establishments. To be more
specific, 5.4 percent of the total value output came from computers and peripheral
equipment and accessories (PSA, 2013). In line with the growing number of computer
and laptop sales, there has also been a growing number of Internet users in the
Philippines. Although there have been problems regarding the Internet providers, this
never hindered Filipinos from continuously using the Internet.
Just like television sets and mobile phones, computers and laptops also have a
long background history of trial and error. It was Charles Babbage, a nineteenth-
century English Mathematics professor, who designed the Analytical Engine which was
used as the basic framework of the computers even until the present time. In general,
computers can be classified into three generations. Each generation of the computer
was used for a certain period of time and each gave people a new and improved
version of the previous one (Steitz, n.d.).
Laptops have been available to the public for even less time than personal
computers. Before, the first design of computer was so big that it could occupy whole
floors of buildings. It was not long before people started dreaming that they could bring
their devices to any place they wished. They hoped that someday it would be possible
for these devices to be portable. It was believed that the transition from a personal
PAGE 10
computer to a laptop was only a matter of design, an improvement and a little deviation
from the standard design of a personal computer. The first true portable computer was
released in April 1981. It was called the Osborne 1 (Orfano, 2011). From that moment
on, the evolution of laptops continued until the present time where various designs and
models are already available.
A typical household owns at least four of the following devices: a mobile phone
(89%), smartphone (53%), tablet (14%), desktop (39%), laptop or netbooks (37%), and
smart TV (4%) (Philstar, 2013). These data prove the deep-seated fascination of
Filipinos to different technological devices.
Here are some facts about Filipinos and their use of gadgets and the Internet (Rappler,
n.d.):
• Mobile phone subscription is at 119 million.

• Filipinos spend approximately 3.2 hours on mobile and 5.2 hours on desktop
daily.
• Currently, the Philippines has one of the highest digital populations in the world.
• There are now 47 million active Facebook accounts in the Philippines.
• The Philippines is the fastest-growing application market in Southeast Asia.
Roles Played by These Technological Advancements
Television sets, mobile phones, and computers or laptops all have different
functions and roles played in the lives of the people, although some may be a little
similar. These roles have become so essential that people, more specifically Filipinos,
developed a strong inclination toward technology and its products.
For instance, television is mainly used as a platform for advertisements and

information dissemination. In fact, television remains to be the most used avenue by
different advertising companies not only in the Philippines but also all over the world.
Various advertising companies trust that television is still one of the most used
technological devices up until today. However, it is important to note that these are just
some of the roles played by television. Aside from the ories mentioned above, it also
serves as a recreational activity and good stress reliever to most families, specifically to
Filipino families. Television also is a good platform for different propagandas and
advocacies. Lastly, it can also be a good way to bond with one's family members.
Mobile phones, on the other hand, also have their own roles in the lives of the
people. They are primarily used for communication. Mobile phones offer services like
texting and calling. In the past, these were the only functions of the mobile phone but as
technology progressed, there have been many additional features included on mobile
phones. For example, in the present, people use their mobile phones to surf the Internet
PAGE 11
and to take pictures more than to text or to call people. This is the reason why more and
more people all over the world prefer to buy smartphones over the old models where
such features are not available. Other applications include music player, calendar,
radio, television, and photo editor, among others. These are just some of the additional
features of mobiles phones in the present. These make this particular technological
device very appealing to the masses. It is like an all-in-one device. In addition, it is very
portable and convenient because it can fit into any space, may it be inside the pocket or
bag.
Personal computers and laptops also have useful set of functions and roles.
Although most of the functions found in these technological devices are now also
available in mobile phones, they still offer their own unique features that make them
attractive. For example, personal computers and laptops can be used to surf the
Internet and communicate. Just like the mobile phones, these devices also have
features like calendar, calculator, music player, movie player, camera, and many more.
However, for a lot of people, they prefer to do their job using either a personal computer
or a laptop than a mobile phone. One reason is that a personal computer or a laptop
has wide keyboard than using a mobile phone, especially when the mobile phone has a
small screen. Contrary to mobile phones, personal computers and laptops have wide
screens and separate keyboards, although some mobile phones can now be connected
to a keyboard.
Another reason is that the availability of a mouse or a touchpad made these two
technological devices easier to maneuver than mobile phones. Lastly, for the youth and
those who love to play different computer games, personal computers or laptops are
really the better choice because these allow them to play with comfort and convenience.
However, it cannot be denied that some would even prefer laptops over personal
computers for the simple reason that personal computers are not portable and there are
times when they need to bring such devices to different places.
Ethical Dilemma Faced by These Technological Advancements
While it is true that these technological devices are useful and beneficial, the fact
remains that there are several dilemmas faced by these "necessities." First, most
parents would argue that these devices make their children lazy and unhealthy. This is
because of the fact that people who are fixated on these technological advancements
start and end their day by using such devices. They have a great tendency to sit and
chill all day long without doing anything productive in their homes, thus making them
unhealthy because they do not just skip meals sometimes but also lack exercise or any
bodily movements. Here, it can be inferred that these types of people are already overly
dependent on these technological devices. For example, those who love to watch
television shows stay in front of the television for more than six hours a day while those
PAGE 12
who love to surf the Internet or play computer games stay on their laptops, computers,
or mobile phones for more than half a day. These people have the tendency to be
unaware of the time because they are so engrossed with the use of technological
device. In fact, if they get disturbed, there is a great chance that they will get mad or
annoyed. Moreover, these are the same people who are more likely to experience
alienation because they no longer take time to get out of their houses and mingle with
other people.
Another dilemma faced by these technological devices is the moral dilemma.

People, especially the children who are not capable yet of rationally deciding for
themselves what is right or wrong, are freely exposed to different things on television,
mobiles phones, laptops, or computers. Because of the availability and easy access to
the Internet, they can just easily search the web and go to different websites without
restrictions. This allows them to see, read, or hear things which are not suitable for their
very young age. This makes them very vulnerable to character change and can greatly
affect the way they view the world and the things around them.
On the first dilemma, it is really concerning to know that there are people who
develop different kinds of sickness because of too much use of technological devices.
Not only this, it also causes them to become reclusive, alienating themselves from other
people. Although some would argue that technology brings people together, it can also
be argued that this is not always the case in the real world because it may bring them
virtually closer but not physically or personally. In fact, there are people who are friends,
for example, only on social media but not in real life. This just shows that there are
things that technology claims to do but in reality, does not. It is for these reasons why
there are people who call for the establishment of ethics of technology. This
subcategory of ethics will in one way or another guide people on how technology ought
to be used in order to prevent abuse and other unfortunate results.
Digging deeper, it can be said that these reasons make such devices somewhat
unethical because they bring undesirable consequences to people. However, it can also
be argued that it is not the fault of the technological devices but the agents using them
or the ones making them. The classic deontological and teleological approaches to
ethics are already too old to be applied in such cases. This is because technology has
become very complicated and dynamic over time. Having said this, it is true that there
are problems that can no longer be addressed by using these theories only. This is why
the ethics of responsibility is an appropriate theory that can be used in these dilemmas.
The word "responsibility" in the sense of being accountable for and accountable
to is very appropriate to the ethics of technology because it makes each and every
person in the scientific-technological development a proxy with reference to one
another. In other words, each person must indicate the priorities, values, norms, and
PAGE 13
principles that constitute the grounds for one's actions and define one's contribution to
the scientific- technological event. The ethics of responsibility focuses on the positive
rather than the negative. Instead of asking "What ought not to be allowed?" ask "What
ought to be allowed?" To put it in another way, people who are part of the scientific
development ought to let the public know the good in their respective technological
contribution/s. In this way, the people will have an idea how the devices ought to be
used in order to maximize their positive results.
However, it is also important for the people in the scientific world to inform the
masses of the dangers of their contribution/s to the world of technology. In this way, the
people will be sufficiently aware of what to do and what not to do. In addition to this, the
agents using the devices should also be accountable to and accountable for their use of
their gadgets.
Going back to the first dilemma, it can be said that the agents using the devices
are the ones to be blamed for the undesirable consequences, namely, laziness and
unhealthiness. However, it is the assumption that the people in the scientific-
technological world have properly informed the public of the positive tenor of their action
in technology and the possible dangers of the misuse of their technological contribution.
Thus, the undesirable consequences are brought about by the misuse of the agent.
Now, talking about alienation, it can be concluded that the people in the scientific-
technological world are blameworthy because they tell the people something that seems
positive but when examined closely, brings more bad than good.
On the second dilemma, the people in the scientific world nor the children are
blameworthy because first, the children are not yet capable of rationally deciding for
themselves what is good and what is bad. Second, even if creators of these
technologies went out of their way to inform children of the pros and cons of these
technological contributions, it would still be useless because the children have no
capacity to understand them yet. So in this dilemma, the ones to be blamed are the
adults who allowed the children to have access to such devices in the first place without
any supervision. It is the recklessness and overconfidence of the adults that cause the
character change in children.
PAGE 14
Robotics and Humanity
Another great product of the innovative minds of the people is the robot. Robots
are now widely used. For example, there are the so-called service robots. These
particular robots do specific tasks but focus mainly in assisting their masters in their
everyday tasks. The International Federation of Robotics (IFR) and United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) made it their task to formulate a working
definition for service robots. A preliminary extract of the relevant definition is (IFR,
2012):
• A robot is an actuated mechanism programmable in two or more axes with a

degree of autonomy, moving within its environment, to perform intended tasks.
Autonomy in this context means the ability to perform intended tasks based on
current state and sensing without human intervention.
• A service robot is a robot that performs useful tasks for humans or equipment
excluding industrial automation application. Note: A robot may be classified
according to its intended application as an industrial robot or a service robot.
• A personal service robot or a service robot for personal use is a service robot
used for a noncommercial task, usually by laypersons. Examples are domestic
servant robot, automated wheelchair, personal mobility assist robot, and pet
exercising robot.
• A professional service robot or a service robot for professional use is a service
robot used for a commercial task, usually operated by a properly trained
operator. Examples are cleaning robot for public places, delivery robot in offices
or hospitals, fire-fighting robot, rehabilitation robot, and surgery robot in hospitals.
In this context, an operator is a person designated to start, monitor, and stop the
intended operation of a robot or a robot system.
Germany was one of the first countries to develop service robots. As part of
the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research's "Service Robotics Innovation
Lead Initiative," it sponsored a collaborative project called DESIRE (Deutsche
PAGE 15
Servicerobotik Initiative Germany Service Robotics Initiative) which was launched on
October 1, 2005. DESIRE has the following individual objectives (DESIRE, 2009):
• To achieve a technological edge toward attaining key functions and components

that are suited for everyday use
• To create a reference architecture for mobile manipulation
• To promote the convergence of technologies through integration into a common
technology platform
• To conduct pre-competition research and development activities for new
products and technology transfer in start-up enterprises in the field of service
robotics
Some of the expected work to be performed by DESIRE are the following: (1)
“Clear up the kitchen table" - all objects on top of the kitchen table will be moved to
where they belong; (2) “Fill the dishwasher" - the dirty dishes will be sorted correctly into
the dishwasher, and (3) "Clear up this room" - all objects that are not in their proper
places will be moved to where they belong (Mock, n.d.).
The earliest conception of robots can be traced around 3000 B.C. from the
Egyptians. Their water clocks used human figurines to strike the hour bells. This
mechanical device was built to carry out a specific physical task regularly. From that
time on, different machines were already built that displayed the same mechanism and
characteristics as the robots in the present. For example, there was a wooden pigeon
that could fly, a talking doll, steam-powered robots, and hydraulically-operated statues
that could speak and gesture. However, the earliest robots as people know them were
created in the early 1950s by George Devol. "Unimate" was his first invention from the
words "Universal Automation" Unfortunately,his attempt to sell his product to the
industry did not succeed. After Unimate, several robots were also invented which were
better versions of the previous ones (Stanford, n.d.). Ever since, people never stopped
their quest in the field of robotics
Roles Played by Robotics
Robots play different roles not only in the lives of the people but also in the
society as a whole. They are primarily used to ease the workload of mankind. They
were invented to make life more efficient and less stressful On one hand, they perform
complicated activities which human beings are incapable of doing. On the other hand,
they perform the simplest tasks at home so that their masters can perform the complex
ones without stressing themselves over the simple tasks. There are also robots which
are made for pleasure. To be more specific, these types of robots perform activities to
entertain people. They can usually be found in amusement parks or exhibits. In addition,
there are also some robots which were made to serve as toys. They also perform
PAGE 16
different activities but they are usually child- friendly. Other examples of robots are
those which can be seen in movies One of the reasons why robots are very famous is
because of movies. A number of local and national movies were inspired by robots. This
goes to show that people have developed a distinct fascination over robots.
Just like people living in the society, robots also have their own set of rules and
characteristics that define what a good robot is. These laws were formulated by Isaac
Asimov back in the 1940s, when he was thinking of the ethical consequences of robots.
These are the following (Stanford, n.d.):
Law One:
A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm
Law Two:
A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders
would conflict with the First Law.
Law Three: :
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with
the First or Second Law.
Ethical Dilemmals Faced by Robotics
Just like any other technological advancements, robotics also faces different
problems and dilemmas. Although the idea is to help people and make their lives a lot
easier than before, it is still not immune to different ethical dilemmas and possible
undesirable outcomes. One of the dilemmas faced by robots is safety. Who should be
held accountable if someone's safety is compromised by a robot? Who should be
blamed, the robot, the agent using the robot, or the maker/inventor of the robot? It is
important to know who should be blamed and who should be held responsible if such
thing happens.
Another ethical dilemma faced by robots is the emotional

component. This may seem a little absurd as of the moment, but looking at how fast
technology progresses nowadays, it is not completely impossible for robots to develop
emotions (Evans, 2007).
So here, the questions become, "What if robots become sentient?

Should they be granted robot rights? Should they have their own set of rights to be
upheld, respected, and protected by humans?" It is interesting to know how people
PAGE 17
would react if the time comes when robots can already feel pain and pleasure. Would
they act differently or not at all? In the field of robotics, there are the so-called partial
autonomy and full autonomy. Partial autonomy includes active human-robot interaction
while full autonomy excludes active human-robot interaction. In other words, a robot
with full autonomy can perform actions or activities even without a master telling it what
should be done or what should be
performed next (IFR, 2012).
Using Asimov's laws for robots, it can be concluded that robots are ethical but
only if they strictly follow the laws specified. They are ethical mostly because the laws
formulated by Asimov ensure the safety of not only the users of the technology but also
the people around him.
Remember that these service robots are already available to the public, thus, they can
already be found inside the homes. Having said that, the safety of not only the owner of
the technology but also all the people inside the house should be the priority more than
anything else. In other words, the service robots only follow what their masters tell them
to do with great consideration to the laws formulated by Asimov. However, if the agent
using the technology misuses the robot to achieve personal agendas, then without a
doubt, the agent should be held accountable for any consequences it may bring. It is
important to note that this is under the assumption that the robot strictly followed the
laws specified without any form of deviation.
If the problems arise when the robot deviates from the laws specified, then the
maker or the inventor of the machine should be blameworthy. It just means that the
robot was not programmed very well because it violated the laws. Other problems may
arise when the machine develops the ability to think for itself. In this case, the one that
should be blame can both be the maker or inventor and the robot itself. This is because,
in the first place, the maker gave the robot the capacity to think for itself so he should be
very much aware of its possible consequences. To put it in another way, the maker
programmed the robot in such a way that it can already think for itself even without an
active participation from a human being. In addition, since the robot thinks for itself,
whatever decision it makes and whatever consequence it may bring, the robot itself
should be held responsible.
For the second dilemma, it is just right for the robots to be given their own set of
rights should they develop the ability to feel different kinds of emotion. It can be argued
that the same thing happened with animals. Before, animals did not have their own set
of rights because people believed that they were not capable of having emotions.
However, after years of testing and experimenting, it was concluded that animals are
PAGE 18
indeed capable of emotions. It is for this reason that people decided to give them rights
that are due to them. The same should be done to robots without any reservations.
Should that time come, they ought to be treated differently and they ought to have new
laws to follow in order to accommodate the new characteristic they have developed.
SUMMARY
Man is constantly in pursuit of the good life. Every person has his perspective
when it comes to what comprises the good life. Throughout history, man has worked
hard in pointing out what amounts to a good, happy life. Some people like the classical
theorists thought that happiness has to do with the insides of the human person. The
soul, as the seat of our humanity, has been the focus of attention of this end goal. The
soul has to attain a certain balance in order to have a good life, a life of flourishing. It
was only until the seventeenth century that happiness became a centerpiece the lives of
people, even becoming a full-blown ethical foundation in John Stuart Mill's utilitarianism.
At present, we see multitudes of schools of thought that all promise their own key to
finding happiness. Science and technology has been, for the most part, at the forefront
of man's attempts at finding this happiness. The only question at the end of the day is
whether science is taking the right path toward attaining what it really means to live a
good life.
In modern times, there are different technological advancements in all forms and
sizes may it be inside the home, the workplace, the learning place, or simply on the
streets. It is now very accessible to almost anyone in the world. It is not completely
impossible to say that each person in the world owns at least one technological device.
Besides, technology is not enclosed to expensive and high-end devices. Simple types of
machines that can perform simple task regularly can already be considered a form of
technology. However, despite its usefulness and beneficial characteristics, there are still
some problems faced by the different technological advancements. To be more specific,
these problems are ethical in nature that involve not only the machine but also mankind.
It is now impossible for technology and humanity not to cross paths because as some
would argue, technology has become a necessity for people. At the end of the day,
ethics should still be enforced in the field of technology so as to ensure the safety and
morality of these devices to people.
PAGE 19
REFERENCES
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2017. http://www.ifr.org/service-robots.
PAGE 20
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PAGE 21
CHAPTER V: THE INFORMATION AGE
LESSON OBJECTIVES
• Define Information Age;

• Discuss the history of Information Age; and
• Understand the factors that need to be considered in checking website sources.
INTRODUCTION
Highly modernized, automated, data-driven, and technologically advanced-these

best describe our society nowadays, as evidenced by how information could be
transferred or shared quickly. The different areas of society have been influenced
tremendously such as communication, economics, industry, health, and the
environment. Despite our gains due to the growing development of information
technology, the rapid upgrade of information also has disadvantages. This lesson will
discuss the history and impact of technological advancements to society.
Life is accompanied by endless transmission of information that takes place

within and outside the human body. According to Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged
Dictionary, information is "knowledge communicated or obtained concerning a specific
fact or circumstance." Hence, information is a very important tool for survival.
The Information Age is defined as a "period starting in the last quarter of the 20th
century when information became effortlessly accessible through publications and
through the management of information by computers and computer networks"
(Vocabulary.com, n.d.). The means of conveying symbolic information (e.g., writing,
math, other codes) among humans has evolved with increasing speed. The Information
Age is also called the Digital Age and the New Media Age because it was associated
with the development of computers.
According to James R. Messenger who proposed the Theory of Information Age

in 1982, "the Information Age is a true new age based upon the interconnection of
computers via telecommunications, with these information systems operating on both a
real-time and as-needed basis. Furthermore, the primary factors driving this new age
forward are convenience and user-friendliness which, in turn, will create user
dependence."
PAGE 1
History
The table below traces the history and emergence of the Information Age
(United States American History, n.d.).
Table 1. Timeline of the Information Age
Year EVENTS
3000 B.C Sumerian writing system used pictographs to represent words
2900 B.C Beginnings of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing
1300 B.C Tortoise shell and oracle bone writing were used
500 B.C Papyrus roll was used
220 B.C Chinese small seal writing was developed
100 A.D Book (parchment codex)
105 A.D Woodblock printing and paper was invented
1455 Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press using movable
metal type
1755 Samuel Johnsons dictionary standardized English spelling
1802 • The Library of Congress was established

• Invention of carbon arc lamp
1824 Research on persistence of vision published
1830’s • First viable design for a digital computer
• Augusta lady Byron writes the world’s first computer
program
1837 Invention of the telegraph in Great Britain an the United States
1861 Motion pictures were projected onto screen
1876 Dewey Decimal system was introduced
1877 Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated high-speed photography
1899 First magnetic recordings were released
1902 Motion picture special effects were used
1906 Lee Deforest invented the electronic amplifying tube (triode)
1923 Television camera tube was invented by Zvorkyn
1926 First practical sound movie
1939 Regularly scheduled television broadcasting began in the US
1940’s Beginnings of information science as a discipline
1945 Vannevar Bush foresaw the invention of hypertext
1946 ENIAC computer was developed
1948 Birth of field-of-information theory proposed by Claude E.
Shannon
1957 Planar transistor was developed by Jean Hoerni
1958 First integrated circuit
1960’s Library of Congress developed LC MARC (machine- readable
PAGE 2
code)
1969 UNIX operating system was developed, which could handle
multitasking
1971 Intel introduced the first microprocessor chip
1972 Optical laserdisc was developed by Philips and MCA
1974 MCA and Philips agreed on a standard videodisc encoding format
1975 Altair Microcomputer Kit was released: first personal computer for
the public
1977 RadioShack introduced the first complete personal computer
1984 Apple Macintosh computer was introduced
Mid 1980’s Artificial intelligence was separated from information science
1987 Hypercard was developed by bill Atkinson recipe box metaphor
1991 Four hundred fifty complete works of literature on one CD-ROM
was released.
January 1997 RSA (encryption and network security software) Internet security
code cracked for 48-a bit number
Figure 7. Evolution of Man and Information
As man evolved, information and its dissemination has also evolved in many
ways. Eventually, we no longer kept them to ourselves; instead, we share them and
manage them in different means. Information got ahead of us. It started to grow at a
rate we were unprepared to handle. Because of the abundance of information, it was
difficult to collect and manage them starting in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1980s,
real angst set in. Richard Wurman called it "Information Anxiety." In the 1990s,
information became the currency in the business world. Information was the preferred
medium of exchange and the information managers served as information officers. In
the present generation, there is no doubt that information has turned out to be a
commodity, an overdeveloped product, mass-produced, and unspecialized. Soon, we
become overloaded with it.
PAGE 3
Different authors have diverse, contrasting ideas on the evolution of the
Information Age. In spite of this, we can still say that information is a very important tool
that helps improve our way of life. One thing is for sure, the Information Age will
continue to move forward and far greater than our minds could imagine. In his article
“Truths of the Information Age" (n.d.), Robert Harris detailed some facts on the
Information Age.
1. Information must compete. There is a need for information to stand out and be
recognized in the increasing clutter.
2. Newer is equated with truer. We forgot the truth that any fact or value can endure.
3. Selection is a viewpoint. Choose multiple sources for your information if you want to
receive a more balanced view of reality.
4. The media sells what the culture buys. In other words, information is driven by
cultural priorities.
5. The early word gets the perm. The first media channel to expose an issue often
defines the context, terms, and attitudes surrounding it.
6. You are what you eat and so is your brain. Do not draw conclusions unless all ideas
and information are presented to you.
7. Anything in great demand will be counterfeited. The demand for incredible

knowledge, scandals, and secrets is ever-present; hence, many events are fabricated
by tabloids, publicists, or other agents of information fraud.
8. Ideas are seen as controversial. It is almost certainly impossible to make any

assertion that will not find some supporters and some detractors.
9. Undead information walks Ever on rumors, lies, disinformation, and gossips never
truly die down. They persist and continue to circulate.
10. Media presence creates the story. People behave much differently from the way
they would if being filmed when the media are present, especially film news or television
media.
11. The medium selects the message. Television is mainly pictorial, partially aural, and
slightly textual, so visual stories are emphasized: fires, chases, and disasters.
12. The whole truth is a pursuit. The information that reaches us is usually selected,
verbally charged, filtered, slanted, and sometimes, fabricated. What is neglected is often
even more important than what is included.
PAGE 4
Computer
Computers are among the most important contributions of advances in the

Information Age to society. A computer is an electronic device that stores and
processes data (information). It runs on a program that contains the exact, step-by-step
directions to solve a problem (UShistory. org, 2017).
Types of Computer
Computers are associated with numerous terms and descriptions.
Most people suggest the dimensions, intended use, or the computer's power. While the
term "computer" can apply to virtually any device that has a microprocessor in it, most
people think of a computer as a device that receives input from the user through a
mouse (hand-guided directions tool) or keyboard, processes it in some fashion, and
presents the result on a screen.
1. Personal Computer (PC) It is a single-user instrument. PCs were first known as

microcomputers since they were a complete computer but built on a smaller scale than
the enormous systems operated by most businesses.
2. Desktop Computer It is described as a PC that is not designed for portability. The

assumption with a desktop is that it will be set up in a permanent spot. A workstation is
simply a desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional memory, and
enhanced capabilities for performing special group of tasks, such as 3D graphics or
game development. Most desktops offer more storage, power, and versatility than their
portable versions (UShistory.org, 2017).
3. Laptops. These are portable computers that integrate the essentials of a desktop
computer in a battery-powered package, which are somewhat larger than a typical
hardcover book. They are commonly called notebooks.
4. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) These are tightly integrated computers that
usually have no keyboards but rely on a touch screen for user input. PDAs are typically
smaller than a paperback, lightweight, and battery- powered (UShistory.org, 2017).
5. Server It refers to a computer that has been improved to provide network services to
other computers. Servers usually boast powerful processors, tons of memory, and large
hard drives (UShistory.org, 2017).
6. Mainframes. These are huge computer systems that can fill an entire room. They are
used especially by large firms to describe the large, expensive machines that process
millions of transactions every day. The term "mainframe" has been replaced by
enterprise server. Although some supercomputers are single computer systems, most
PAGE 5
comprise multiple, high-performance, parallel computers working as a single system
(UShistory.org, 2017).
7. Wearable Computers They involve materials that are usually integrated into cell
phones, watches, and other small objects or places. They perform common computer
applications such as databases, email, multimedia, and schedulers (UShistory.org,
2017).
The World Wide Web (Internet)
Several historians trace the origin of the Internet to Claude E.Shannon, an

American Mathematician who was considered as the "Father of Information Theory." He
worked at Bell Laboratories and at age 32, he published a paper proposing that
information can be quantitatively encoded as a sequence of ones and zeroes.
The Internet is a worldwide system of interconnected networks that facilitate data

transmission among innumerable computers. It was developed during the 1970s by the
Department of Defense. In case of an attack, military advisers suggested the advantage
of being able to operate on one computer from another terminal. In the early days, the
Internet was used mainly by scientists to communicate with other scientists. The
Intemet remained under government control until 1984 (Rouse, 2014).
One early problem faced by Internet users was speed. Phone lines could only
transmit information at a limited rate. The development of fiber-optic cables allowed for
billions of bits of information to be received every minute. Companies like Intel
developed faster microprocessors so personal computers could process the incoming
signals at a more rapid rate (UShistory.org, 2017).
Sergey Brin and Larry Page, directors of a Stanford research project, built a
search engine that listed results to reflect page popularity when they determined that
the most popular result would frequently be the most usable. After talking with family,
friends, and other investors into contributing $1 million, the researchers launched their
company in 1998. Google is now the world's most popular search engine, accepting,
more than 200 million queries daily.
Back then, new forms of communication were also introduced. Electronic mail, or
email, was a suitable way to send a message to fellow workers, business partners, or
friends. Messages could be sent and received at the convenience of the individual. A
letter that took several days to antive could be read in minutes. Internet service
PAGE 6
providers like America Online and CompuServe set up electronic chat rooms. These
were open areas of cyberspace where interested parties could join in a conversation
with perfect strangers. "Surfing the net" became a pastime in and of itself
UShistory.org. 2017).
Consequently, companies whose businesses are built on digitized information

have become valuable and powerful in a relatively short period of time, the current
Information Age has spawned its own breed of wealthy influential brokers, from
Microsoft's Bill Gates to Apple's Steve Jobs to Facebook's Mark Zuckerberg.
Critics charged that the Internet created a technological divide that increased the
gap between the members of the higher class and lower class of society. Those who
could not afford a computer or a monthly access fee were denied these possibilities.
Many decried the impersonal nature of electronic communication compared to a
telephone call or a handwritten letter.
On one hand, the unregulated and loose nature of the Internet allowed
pornography to be broadcast to millions of homes. Protecting children from these
influences or even from meeting violent predators would prove to be difficult. Nowadays,
crimes in various forms are rampant because of the use of social media. Cyberbullying
is an issue that poses alarm worldwide. Consequently, we need to be aware of the
possible harm and damage due to abuse of these advances in the Information Age.
Applications of Computers in Science and Research
One of the significant applications of computers for science and research is

evident in the field of bioinformatics. Bioinformatics is the application of information
technology to store, organize, and analyze vast amount of biological data which is
available in the form of sequences and structures of proteins-the building blocks of
organisms and nucleic acids--the information carrier (Madan, n.d.).
Early interest in bioinformatics was established because of a need to create

databases of biological sequences. The human brain cannot store all the genetic
sequences of organisms and this huge amount of data can only be stored, analyzed,
and be used efficiently with the use of computers.
While the initial databases of protein sequences were maintained at individual

laboratories, the development of a consolidated formal database, known as SWISS-
PROT protein sequence database, was initiated in 1986. It now has about 70,000
protein sequences from more than 5,000 model organisms, a small fraction of all known
PAGE 7
organisms. The enormous variety of divergent data resources is now available for study
and research by both academic institutions and industries. These are made available as
public domain information in the larger interest of research community through the
Internet (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) and CD-ROMs (on request from www.rcsb.org). These
databases are constantly updated with additional entries (Madan, n.d.).
Computers and software tools are widely used for generating these databases
and to identify the function of proteins, model the structure of proteins, determine the
coding (useful) regions of nucleic acid sequences, find suitable drug compounds from a
large pool, and optimize the drug development process by predicting possible targets.
Some of the software tools which are handy in the analysis include: BLAST (used for
comparing sequences); Annotator (an interactive genome analysis tool); and Gene
Finder (tool to identify coding regions and splice sites) (Madan,n.d.).
The sequence information generated by the human genome research, initiated in

1988, has now been stored as a primary information source for future applications in
medicine. The available data is so huge that if compiled in books, the data would run
into 200 volumes of 1,000 pages each and reading alone (ignoring understanding
factor) would require 26 years working around the clock. For a population of about five
billion human beings with two individuals differing in three million bases, the genomic
sequence difference database would have about 15,000,000 billion entries. The present
challenge to handle such huge volume of data is to improve database design, develop
software for database access, and manipulation and device data-entry procedures to
compensate for the varied computer procedures and systems used in different
laboratories.
The much-celebrated complete human genome sequence which was

formally announced on the 26th of June 2000 involved more than 500 x
1018 (500 million trillion) calculations during the process of assembling
the sequences alone. This can be considered as the biggest exercise in the
history of computational biology (Madan, n.d.).
Moreover, from the pharmaceutical industry's point of view,boisdormatics is the

key to rational drug discovery. It reduces the number of trials in the screening of drug
compounds and in identifying potential drug targets for a particular disease using high-
power computing workstations and software like Insight. This profound application of
bonsommatics in genome sequence has led to a new area in pharmacology
Pharmacogenomics, where potential targets for drug development are hypothesized
from the genome sequences. Molecular modeling, which guires a lot of calculations, has
become faster due to the advances in computer processors and its architecture
(Madan, n.d.).
PAGE 8
In plant biotechnology, bioinformatics is found to be useful in the areas of

identifying diseases resistance genes and designing plants with high nutrition value
(Madan, ...)
How to Check the Reliability of Web Sources
The Intemet contains a vast collection of highly valuable information but it may
also contain unreliable, biased information that mislead people. The following guidelines
can help us check the reliability of web sources that we gather. It is noteworthy to
consider and apply the following guidelines to avoid misinformation. (Lee College
Library, n.d.)
1. Who is the author of the article/site?
• How to find out?
Look for an "About" or "More About the Author" link at the top, bottom, or
sidebar of the webpage. Some pages will have a corporate author rather
than a single person as an author. If no information about the author(s) of
the page is provided, be suspicious.
✓ Does the author provide his or her credentials?
✓ What type of expertise does he or she have on the subject he or
she is writing about? Does he or she indicate what his or her
education is?
✓ What type of experience does he or she have?
Should you trust his or her knowledge of the subject?
Try searching on the Internet for information about the author.
✓ What kinds of websites are associated with the author's name? Is

he or she affiliated with any educational institution?
✓ Do commercial sites come up? Do the websites associated with the
author give you any clues to particular biases the author might
have?
2. Who published the site?
• How to find out?
✓ Look at the domain name of the website that will tell you who is
hosting the site. For instance, the Lee College Library website is:
http://www.lee.edu/ library. The domain name is "lee.edu." This
tells you that the library website is hosted by Lee College.
✓ Search the domain name at http://www.whois.sc/. The site
provides information about the owners of registered domain
PAGE 9
names. What is the organization's main purpose? Check the
organization's main website, if it has one. Is it educational?
Commercial? Is it a reputable organization?
✓ Do not ignore the suffix on the domain name (the three-letter part
that comes after the "."). The suffix is usually (but not always)
descriptive of what type of entity hosts the website. Keep in mind
that it is possible for sites to obtain suffixes that are misleading.
Here are some examples:
.edu = educational
.com = commercial
.mil = military
.gov = government
.org = nonprofit
3. What is the main purpose of the site? Why did the author write it and why did the
publisher post it?
• To sell a product?
• As a personal hobby?
• As public service?
• To further scholarship on a topic?
• To provide general information on a topic?
• To persuade you of a particular point of view?
4. Who is the intended audience?
• Scholars or the general public?
• Which age group is it written for?
• Is it aimed at people from a particular geographic area?
• Is it aimed at members of a particular profession or with specific training?
5. What is the quality of information provided on the website?
• Timeliness: When was the website first published? Is it regularly updated?

Check for dates at the bottom of each page on the site.
• Does the author cite sources? Just as in print sources, web sources that
cite their sources are considered more reliable.
• What type of other sites does the website link to? Are they reputable
sites?
• What types of sites link to the website you are evaluating? Is the website
being cited by others?
Examples of Useful and Reliable Web Sources
1. AFA e-Newsletter (Alzheimer's Foundation of America newsletter)
PAGE 10
2. American Memory - the Library of Congress historical digital collection.
3. Bartleby.com Great Books Online – a collection of free e-books including fictions,

nonfictions, references, and verses.
4. Chronicling America - search and view pages from American newspapers from
1880-1922.
5. Cyber Bullying - a free collection of e-books from ebrary plus additional reports and
documents to help better understand, prevent and take action against this growing
concern.
6. Drug information websites:
• National Library of Medicine's Medline Plus

• Drugs.com
• PD Rhealth
7. Global Gateway: World Culture & Resources (from the Library of Congress)
8. Google Books
9. Googlescholar.com
10. History sites with primary documents:
• AMDOCS: Documents for the study of American history

• Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and
• Diplomacy (Yale Law School)
• Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Colonial Latin America
• Teacher Oz's Kingdom of History
11. Illinois Digital Archives - the Illinois State Library working with libraries, museums,
and historical societies in Illinois provides this collection of materials related to Illinois
history.
12. Internet Archive - a digital library of Internet sites and other cultural artifacts in digital
form.
13. Internet Archive for CARLI digitized resources
14. Internet Public Library
15. ipl2 – a merger of Librarians' Internet Index and Internet Public Library. Special
interest may include the "Literary Criticisms" page which can be found after clicking on
the "Special Collections" link.
PAGE 11
16. Librarians' Internet Index
17. Making of America - a digital library of primary sources in American social history.
18. Maps – from the University of Texas at Austin collection Includes historical and
thematic maps.
19. Nation Master - a massive central data source and a handy way to graphically
compare nations. It is a vast compilation of data from such sources as the CIA World
Factbook, UN, and OECD
20. Nursing sites:
• AHRQ (www.ahrg.gov)
• National Guidelines Clearinghouse (www.guideline.gov)
• PubMed (www.nlm.nih.gov)
21. Project Gutenberg - the first and largest single collection of free electronic books
with currently over 20,000 e-books available.
22. Shmoop - literature, US history, and poetry information written primarily by PhD and
masters students from top universities like Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard, and Yale.
23. State Master - a unique statistical database which allows you to research and
compare a multitude of different data on US states using various primary sources such
as the US Census Bureau, the FBI, and the National Center for Educational Statistics. It
uses visualization technology like pie charts, maps, graphs, and scatter plots to provide
data.
24. Virtual Reference - selected web resources compiled by the Library of Congress.
One can also visit the university library and seek help from librarians as they are
knowledgeable and the library has a rich collection of online library resources that are
very useful for academic and research purposes.
SUMMARY
Nowadays, information could be shared or transferred quickly. People are

becoming more interested in sharing information about themselves. Various aspects of
our society are also being influenced by the Information Age especially communication,
PAGE 12
economics, industry, health, and the environment. The rapid upgrade of information
poses both positive and negative impacts to our society. Therefore, we need to carefully
check our motives before disseminating information and we also need to verify
information before believing them and using and sharing them. We should share
information that could help improve our lives and others.
REFERENCES:
Harris, R. (n.d.). "Truths of the Information Age." Accessed February 26, 2017.
http://www.virtualsalt.com/infotrue.htm.
Illinois Valley Community College. (n.d.). "List of useful and reliable web sources."
Accessed August 2, 2017. https://www.ivcc.edu/library.aspx?id=4038.
Lee College Library. (n.d.). "How Can I Tell if a Website is Reliable?” Accessed August
2, 2017. https://www.edb.utexas.edu/petrosino/ Legacy.
Cycle/mf_jm/Challenge%201/website%20reliable.pdf.
Madan, M. (n.d.). "Bioinformatics-an aid for biological research. Accessed August 2,

2017. http://www.mrc-Imb.cam.ac.uk/genomes madanm/articles/bioinfo.htm.
Messenger, J. R. (1982). "The Theory of the Information Age." Accessed

February 26, 2017. http://www.informationage.org/briefhistory, html.
Rouse, M. (2014). "Information Age." Accessed February 27, 2017

http://searchcio.techtarget.com/definition Information-Age.
United States American History. (n.d.). "The Information Age timeline." Accessed
February 26, 2017. http://u-s-history.com/ pages/h3974.htm.
USHistory.org. (n.d.). "Living in the Information Age." Accessed February 26, 2017.
http://www.ushistory.org/us/60d.asp.
Vocabulary.com. (n.d.). "Information Age." Accessed February 26,

2017. https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/information%20age.
PAGE 13
PAGE 14
CHAPTER VI: BIODIVERSITY AND THE HEALTHY SOCIETY
Lesson Objectives:
• determine the interrelatedness of society, environment, and health;

• create a diagram that would show the relatedness of species in forming up a
diverse and healthy society without compromising one another, and
• identify everyday tasks and evaluate whether they contribute to the wellness and
health of biodiversity and society or not.
INTRODUCTION
Decrease in biodiversity is eminent worldwide. Vertebrates fell to 60% from the

1970s due to human causes. It is projected that by 2020, wildlife decline will be 67% of
the present number. The World Wide Fund for Nature and Zoological Society of London
reported an annual decrease in wildlife by 2%. A major cause is human population
which has doubled in number since 1960 to 7.4 billion. Humans have industrialized the
natural habitat of wildlife as well as marine life. Leaving these creatures with no place to
live would eventually cause their deaths. Marco Lambertini, the General Director of
WWF International, described that the disappearance of wildlife is at an unprecedented
rate. Earth might enter the sixth mass extinction event according to experts. Mass
extinction is described as the disappearance of species at a rate of 1,000 faster than
usual. Moreover, the disappearance of species in a certain environment causes an
imbalance in the ecosystem, producing more chaotic changes that harm the entire
ecosystem (Inquirer.net, 2016).
This is but a pressing statement for people to know more about the importance of
our diverse environment, and how human activities can either contribute to its growth or
destruction. There is a growing importance of studying how society, environment, and
health is interrelated to each other, that if human beings fail to recognize the needs of
one of those components, the other remaining components can be affected and
compromised. Thus, it is timely to know about the pressing effects of species being
extinct and that of our ecosystem being imbalanced.
PAGE 1
Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Biodiversity is defined as the vast variety of life forms in the entire Earth. It
encompasses all kinds of life forms, from the single-celled organisms to the largest
multi-celled organisms. Its definition is in the structural and functional perspective and
not as individual species.
Another definition of biodiversity is "the variability among living organisms from all
sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between
species, and of ecosystems. Biodiversity is the source of the essential goods and
ecological services that constitute the source of life for all and it has direct consumptive
value in food, agriculture, medicine, and in industry." (Villaggio Globale, 2009)
Understanding biodiversity within the concept of ecosystem needs a thorough

study on the relationship of the biotic, the living organisms and the abiotic, nonliving
organisms. Interdisciplinary approach is needed to study the ecosystem. Biodiversity
plays a major role in this natural dynamics. For example, a large number of golden
snails in a certain area of a rice field can help predict a low production of rice harvest,
since eggs of the golden snails are considered pest for rice plant. On a positive view,
the larger number of different species in a certain area can be a predictor of sustainable
life in that area. Sustainability of the ecosystem ensures a better survival rate against
any natural disaster. Therefore, we, as human inhabitants of the ecosystem, must
preserve and conserve the biodiversity of all creatures.
In simpler terms, it is true that people will always depend on biodiversity on the
wholeness of our being and in our everyday lives. More so, our health will ultimately
depend upon the products and services that we acquire from the ecosystem. Somehow,
there are ways and processes in the ecosystem that are not apparent nor appreciated
by us, human beings. Think about the need to drink clean and fresh water, the need to
eat healthy vegetables and food, or the need of man to transport which makes him rely
on fuel. All of these are human needs that are answered and provided by our
ecosystem. Thus, if we fail to keep the process of taking care of the ecosystem, it is us
who are actually putting our lives at risk. Significant decline in biodiversity has direct
human impact when ecosystem in its insufficiency can no longer provide the physical as
well as social needs of human beings. Indirectly, changes in the ecosystem affect
livelihood, income, and on occasion, may even cause political conflict (WHO, n.d.).
PAGE 2
Changes in Biodiversity
Alteration in any system could bring varied effects. A change in biodiversity could
have erratic effects not only in wildlife or marine life but also in human beings. For
example, humans inhabiting the forest would disturb the natural order of life. Trees and
plants would be affected in the land - clearing operations where the houses would be
built. The animals, insects, and all types of life forms in the cleared area would either be
displaced or most likely be killed. The loss of these life forms could affect the entire
ecosystem governing that environment. The food chain might be damaged. From this,
we can clearly infer that when our ecosystem is not well taken care of, biodiversity
encounters changes that may impact human health on such different levels.
Threats to Biodiversity
There are major threats to biodiversity that were identified by the United Nations
Environment Programme (WHO, n.d.). These are the following:
1. Habitat loss and destruction. Major contributing factor is the inhabitation of

human beings and the use of land for economic gains.
2. Alterations in ecosystem composition. Alterations and sudden changes, either
within species groups or within the environment, could begin to change entire
ecosystems. Alterations in ecosystems are a critical factor contributing to species
and habitat loss.
3. Over-exploitation Over-hunting, overfishing, or over-collecting of species can
quickly lead to its decline. Changing consumption patterns of humans is often
cited as the key reason for this unsustainable exploitation of natural resources.
4. Pollution and contamination Biological systems respond slowly to changes in
their surrounding environment Pollution and contamination cause irreversible
damage to species and varieties.
5. Global climate change. Both climate variability and climate change cause
biodiversity loss. Species and populations may be lost permanently if they are
not provided with enough time to adapt to changing climatic conditions.
6.
Consequences of Biodiversity Loss
Even with the improvement of technology and science at present, we still have a
lot to learn about biodiversity, more so about the consequences of biodiversity loss.
However, the basic concept about biodiversity loss was from Charles Darwin and Alfred
Russel Wallace.
PAGE 3
Intact ecosystems function best since the organisms composing them are
specialized to function in that ecosystem to capture, transfer, utilize and, ultimately, lose
both energy and nutrients. The particular species making up an ecosystem determine
its productivity, affect nutrient cycles and soil contents, and influence environmental
conditions such as water cycles, weather patterns, climate, and other nonbiotic
aspects. The loss of biodiversity has many consequences that we understand, and
many that we do not. It is apparent that humankind is willing to sustain a great deal of
biodiversity loss if there are concomitant benefits to society; we hope they are net
benefits. In many cases, the benefits seem to accrue to a few individuals only, with net
societal loss. However, it is extremely difficult to estimate the future costs of losses in
biodiversity or of environmental damage (Rainforest Conservation Fund, 2017).
As stated by Tilman, "The Earth will retain its most striking feature, its
biodiversity, only if humans have the prescience to do so. This will occur, it seems, only
if we realize the extent to which we use biodiversity (Rainforest Consevation Fund,
2017)."
Nutritional Impact of Biodiversity
According to the World Health Organization, biodiversity is a vital element of a

human being's nutrition because of its influence to food production. Biodiversity is a
major factor that contributes to sustainable food production for human beings. A society
or a population must have access to a sufficient variety of nutritious food as it is a
determinant of their health as human beings.
Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food
production as an ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem; and the genetic
diversity within species. Nutritional composition between foods and among
varieties/cultivars/breeds of the same food can differ dramatically, affecting
micronutrient availability in the diet. Healthy local diets, with adequate average levels of
nutrients intake, necessitates maintenance of high biodiversity levels. Intensified
and enhanced food production through irrigation, use of fertilizer, plant protection
(pesticides), or the introduction of crop varieties and cropping patterns affect biodiversity
and thus impact global nutritional status and human health. Habitat simplification,
species loss, and species succession often enhance communities, vulnerabilities as a
function of environmental receptivity to ill health (WHO, 2007).
Health, Biology, and Biodiversity
Almost all living organisms are dependent to their environment to live and
reproduce. Basic needs of living organisms such as air, water, food, and habitat are
PAGE 4
provided by its environment. The evolution of human beings was due to the improved
access to these basic needs. Advances in agriculture, sanitation, water treatment, and
hygiene have had a far greater impact on human health than medical technology.
Although the environment sustains human life, it can also cause diseases. Lack
of basic necessities is a significant cause of human mortality. Environmental hazards
increase the risk of cancer, heart disease, asthma, and many other illnesses. These
hazards can be physical, such as pollution, toxic chemicals, and food contaminants, or
they can be social, such as dangerous work, poor housing conditions, urban sprawl,
and poverty. Unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation and hygiene are responsible for
a variety of infectious diseases, such as schistosomiasis, diarrhea, cholera, meningitis,
and gastritis. In 2015, approximately 350,000 children under the age of five (mostly in
the developing world) died from diarrheal diseases related to unsafe drinking water, and
approximately 1.8 billion people used drinking water contaminated with feces. More
than two billion people lacked access to basic sanitation.
The interrelation between human health and biological diversity is considerable

and complex. With the current biodiversity loss at unprecedented rates, the delicate
balance between human health and biological diversity is at risk.
Environment-Related Illnesses
Some human illnesses that are found to be related with its environment include
Parkinson's disease, heart disease, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
asthma, diabetes, obesity, occupational injuries, dysentery, arthritis, malaria, and
depression.
By contrast, activities that promote health and extend human life could have
adverse environmental effects. For example, food production causes environmental
damage from pesticides and fertilizers, soil salinization, waste produced by livestock,
carbon emissions from food manufacturing and transportation, deforestation, and
overfishing. Health care facilities also have adverse environmental impacts. Hospitals
use large quantities of electricity and fossil fuels and produce medical wastes. To
prevent some diseases, it may be necessary to alter the environment. For example,
malaria was eradicated in the United States and other developed nations in the 1940s
and 50s as a result of draining wetlands and spraying DDT to kill mosquitoes. A
reduction in mortality from starvation or disease can lead to overpopulation, which
stresses the environment in many different ways-increasing use of fossil fuels, clearing
of land, generating pollution and waste, and so on (Rensik & Portier, 2017).
PAGE 5
Interestingly, according to experts, climate change could also have a serious
impact on human health and could deteriorate farming systems and reduce nutrients in
some foods. In this case, biodiversity increases resilience, thus helping adjust to new
environmental conditions. Safeguarding of coral reefs, for instance, is essential to
reduce the risk of floods, as this extraordinary ecosystem can reduce wave energy by
97%, thus protecting over 100 million people all over the world.
Relationships between human health and the environment raise many ethical,
social, and legal dilemmas by forcing people to choose among competing values. Many
of the issues at the intersection of health and the environment have to do with managing
benefits and risks. For example, pesticides play an important role in increasing crop
yields, but they can also pose hazards to human health and the environment.
Alternatives to pesticide use create trade-offs in health. The extreme action of stopping
all pesticide uses could significantly reduce agricultural productivity, leading to food
shortages and increased food prices which would, in tum, increase starvation in some
parts of the world. Public health authorities have opted to regulate the use of pesticides
to enhance food production while minimizing damage to the environment and human
health. Energy production and use help sustain human life, but it can also pose hazards
to human health and the environment, such as air and water pollution, oil spills, and
destruction of habitats (Rensik & Portier, 2017).
No issue demands greater care in balancing benefits and risks than global
warming. A significant percentage of global climate change is due to the human
production of greenhouse gases. Climate change is likely to cause tremendous harm to
the environment and human health, but taking steps to drastically reduce greenhouse
gases could have adverse consequences for global, national, and local economies. For
example, greatly increasing taxes on fossil fuels would encourage greater fuel
efficiency and lower carbon dioxide emissions, but it would also increase the price of
transportation, which would lead to widespread inflation and reduced consumer
spending power. Managing benefits and risks also raises social justice concerns. In
general, people with lower socio-economic status have greater exposure to certain
harmful environmental conditions in their homes or at work, such as lead, mercury,
pesticides, toxic chemicals, or air and water pollution. Communities and nations should
wisely choose a site for a factory, a power plant, or waste dump, or regulating safety in
the workplace to minimize impact to the society. The decision-making process should
be fair, open, and democratic, so that people who will be affected by environmental
risks have a voice in these deliberations and can make their concerns known (Rensik &
Portier, 2017).
PAGE 6
When drafting and implementing environmental health regulations, it is important
to consider vulnerable subpopulations. A vulnerable subpopulation is a group with an
increased susceptibility to the adverse effects of an environmental risk factor, due to
their age, genetics, health status, or some other condition. If an environmental
regulation is designed to protect average members of the population, it may fail to
adequately protect vulnerable subpopulations. Justice demands that we take care of
people who are vulnerable. However, almost everyone in the population has an above-
average susceptibility to at least one environmental risk factor. Since providing
additional protection to everyone would be costly and impractical, protections must be
meted out carefully and the populations who are vulnerable to a particular
environmental risk factor must be defined clearly (Rensik & Portier, 2017).
In addition to this, various public health strategies pit the rights of individuals
against the good of society, such as mandatory treatment, vaccination, or diagnostic
testing; isolation and quarantine; and disease surveillance. The owner of a coal-burning
power plant must deal with many laws concerning the operation of the plant, workplace
safety, and carbon emissions. A developer who plans to build 150 new homes
with land he has purchased may also have to deal with laws concerning storm drainage,
water and sewage lines, gas lines, sidewalks, and so on.
Restrictions on property rights are justified to protect human health and the
environment. However, opponents of these restrictions argue that they are often
excessive or not adequately supported by scientific evidence (Rensik & Portier, 2017).
Human rights issues also come up with research on environmental health that
involves human subjects. For such research to be ethical, human subjects must give
consent, and great care must be taken to ensure that they understand that they can opt
out of the research project. Since the late 1990s, some pesticide companies have
tested their products on human subjects to gather data to submit to the government for
regulatory purposes. Some commentators charge that these experiments are unethical
because they place people at unacceptably high risk without a clear benefit to society.
Others have argued that the experiments, if properly designed and implemented, could
produce important benefits to society by providing useful knowledge about the effects of
pesticides that lead to stronger regulations (Rensik & Portier, 2017).
With these in mind, a mitigating plan and a workable plan of action should be
studied in order to not compromise biodiversity, while at the same time, promote good
health among the society.
PAGE 7
SUMMARY
Most of the time, it may seem impossible to really value species singly or in a
detailed manner. But we have to consider the entire Earth as a single unit. A loss of
single-celled species or a family of wild grass can have adverse effects in the entire
biosphere. Biodiversity seen in macro level seems to be still vast and rich, yet if we look
at it in micro- level, per species, we have lost too much. Eventually, in the near future,
this biodiversity loss will have a great negative effect especially to us humans. "The
value of biodiversity is the value of everything” (Rainforest Conservation Fund, n.d.).
We must recognize the value of the organisms with which we share the planet.
As Costanza et al. (1997) put it, “We must begin to give the natural capital stock that
produces these services adequate weight in the decision-making process, otherwise,
current and continued future human welfare may drastically suffer... many ecosystem
services are literally irreplaceable." We do not, and probably cannot, ever evaluate such
services adequately, but we can value the ecosystems of the world appropriately
(Rainforest Conservation Fund, n.d.).
REFERENCES
Convention on Biological Diversity (n.d.). "United Nations Decade on Biodiversity."
Accessed July 31, 2017. https://www.cbd. int/2011-2020/
Convention on Biological Diversity. (2010). "United Nations COHAB

Initiative: Biodiversity and Global Health" Accessed July 31, 2017.
https://www.cbd.int/doc/health/cohab-policy-briefl-en.pdf.
Inquirer.net. (2006). "Living Planet report: WWF paints dire picture for survival of the
species." Accessed July 31, 2017. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/841255/living-planet-
report-wwf-paints-dire-picture-for-survival-of-the-species.
Rainforest Conservation Fund. (2017). "Consequences of biodiversity loss." Accessed

July 31, 2017. http://www.rainforestconservation. org/rainforest-primer/2-biodiversity/8-
recent-losses-in-biodiversity/4-consequences-of-biodiversity-loss/.
Rainforest Conservation Fund. (2017). "Value of biodiversity." Accessed July 31, 2017.
http://www.rainforestconservation.org/rainforest-primer/2-biodiversity/g-recent-losses-in-
biodiversity/4-consequences-of-biodiversity-loss/.
PAGE 8
Rensik, D. B. & Portier, C. J. (2017). "Environment, Ethics, and Human Health." In The
Hasting Center. Accessed July 31, 2017
http://www.thehastingscenter.org/briefingbook/environmental- health/
Villaggio Globale. (2009). (n.d.). "Biodiversity is the Life Insurance of Life Itself."
Accessed July 2017. http://vglobale.it/complementari /8913-biodiversity-is-the-life-
insurance-of-life- itself.html.
World Health Organization. (n.d.). "Biodiversity." Accessed July

31, 2017 http://www.who.int/globalchange/ecosystems/ biodiversity/en/.
World Health Organization. (2007). "Safer Future: Global and Public

Health Security in the 21st Century." In World Health Report. Accessed July 31, 2017.
http://www.who.int/whr/2007/en/.
WWF Global. (n.d.). "How does Biodiversity loss affect me and everyone." Accessed
July 31, 2017.
https://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/biodiversity/biodiversity_and_you/.
PAGE 9
CHAPTER VII: GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: SCIENCE, HEALTH,
AND POLITICS
LESSON OBJECTIVES
• identify issues on genetically modified organisms (GMOs);
• discuss different implications and impact of GMOs; and
• create a research paper on the impact of GMOs in the Philippine context.
INTRODUCTION
In 2001, Rosalie Ellasus, a former overseas Filipino worker in Singapore tumed

farmer, attended the Integrated Pest Management - Farmers Field School and was
introduced to Bt Corn, a genetically modified corn that is resistant to the destructive
Asian com borer. Ms. Ellasus volunteered for demo-testing in her field. Bt Com yielded
7.2 tons per acre as compared to a regular yield of 4.2 tons per hectare. No insecticide
spraying was needed. This is one of the success stories of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) (Ongkiko, 2016).
Genetic engineering has been with the human society since selective breeding
was introduced to humankind and when animals were domesticated. Yet, the process of
genetic alterations is all but natural.
It was in 1951 that the term genetic engineering was coined by Jack Williamson,
author of the science fiction novel Dragon's Island (Stableford 2004). This was years
before actual research findings on the DNA's role in heredity and its structure, the
double-helix of Watson and Crick, were published. Through continuous search for
development, genetic engineering no longer stayed in science fiction novel. It became a
reality in science laboratories. The general process of genetic engineering is the
deliberate manipulation of the organism's genes, where it may involve transfer of genes
from other organism.
An antibiotic-resistant E. coli bacteria was created in 1973. To

date, there are ongoing researches on GMOs such as using genetically
modified male mosquitoes as pest control over female mosquito carriers of Zika virus
However, despite the many possibilities of creating solutions for problems and opening
doors for innovations, genetic engineering faces much opposition. Opponents raise,
ethical, social, and environmental issues related to genetic engineering and its GMOs.
PAGE 1
This lesson will present the existence of genetic engineering, specifically
GMOs in the different areas of life, the impact to humankind, and the controversies that
surround them.
Genetically Modified Organism
Genetically modified organism (GMO) is the term used for an organism created
through genetic engineering. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) defines
GMO as an organism, either plant, animal, or microorganism, in which the genetic
material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating or
natural recombination." Below is a diagram of how bacterial gene is introduced
through genetic engineering to plant cells and tissues to develop and breed a
genetically modified plant.
Figure 8. The Genetic Engineering Process on Plants
The development of GMOs was perceived to help in the advancement of

technology for the benefit of humans in different industries like agriculture and medicine.
GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries
The Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health (CEEH, 2013) identified
the following roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries:
1. Pest resistance - genetically modified plants to resist certain pests.
An example is Bt Com The DNA (genome) of the Bt Com has been modified with
the gene of Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil bacterium that produces proteins which is toxic
to corn borers (worms).
PAGE 2
2. Virus resistance - genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses
An example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya. The papaya ringspot virus (PRSV)

is known to be detrimental to papaya plants. The protein of PRSV was introduced to the
papaya plant through plant tissue which turned out to be resistant to the virus itself. The
effect was like the vaccines humans have against measles or influenza virus.
3. Herbicide tolerance genetically modified plants to tolerate herbicide.
An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds,

was introduced to soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then can
spray the herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybeans.
4. Fortification - genetically modified plants fortified with certain minerals.
An example is Golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was

introduced through biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified with
vitamin A.
5. Cosmetic preservation - genetically modified plants resist natural discoloration. An

example is Arctic Apple. The apple variety was genetically modified to suppress the
browning of apple due to superficial damage.
PAGE 3
6.Increase growth rate - a genetically modified organism that has higher yield in growth
than normal species.
An example is AquAdvantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an eel-like

fish was introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow faster than its
normal rate.
GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in non-food crops and some microorganisms
involve the following:
1. Flower production - GMOs in flower production are seen in modified color and
extended vase life of flowers.
Examples are Blue Roses. The so-called "blue" roses, which are, in reality, lilac
or purple, contained cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, together with large amounts of flavonols.
The introduction of the flavonoid 31, 51-hydroxylase gene into pelargonidin- or cyanidin-
producing rose cultivars diverts the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway toward the
production of delphinidin glucosides and the flower color to blue (Elomaa & Holton,
1994).
2. Paper production - modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of paper

production.
Examples are poplar trees. Lignin is a complex polymer in trees that is removed
from wood to make paper through kraft process, through inserting genes that code for
ferulic acid in young poplar trees, the lignin structure is modified, making lignin easier to
breakdown (Veniza, 2014).
3. Pharmaceutical productions modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products.
Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were added to the periwinkle
plant to enhance the production of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually added to drugs for
cancer treatments like Hodgkin's lymphoma (Runguphan, 2010).
1. Bioremediation - use of modified plants that can assist in the bioremediation of

polluted sites.
An example is shrub tobacco. Nicotiana glauca, or shrub tobacco genetically
modified with phytochelatin TaPCSII, is used for bioremediation. It shows high level
accumulation of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and boron and produces high biomass.
PAGE 4
Figure 9. Nicotiana glauca
2. Enzyme and drug production - use of modified microorganisms that can produce
enzymes for food processing and medicines.
One example of this is CGTase. Cyclomaltodextrin glycosyltransferase
(CGTase), an enzyme used for food flavor enhancer, is produced in higher quantity by
bacterium Bacillus which was genetically modified with the gene of a thermophilic
anaerobe, Thermoanaerobacter, carrying CGTase (Pedersen & Jorgensen, 1995).
Figure 10. Thermoanaerobacter
3. Another example is artemesin. Artemesinic acid is a compound used for anti-

malarial drug extracted from sweet wordwood plant. Through genetic engineering, it
can be synthetically produced by yeast and bacteria with sweet word wood plant
gene (Zimmer, 2006). GMOs in the medical field - genetic engineering is playing a
significant role from diagnosis to treatment of human-dreaded diseases. It helps in
the production of drugs, gene therapy, and laboratory researches.
One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used by Type
1 diabetes patients who are insulin- dependent. In the past, insulin is extracted
from the pancreases of pigs and cows that have caused allergic reactions to
some diabetics using it. In 1978, researchers from the City of Hope
National Medical Center and Genentech Biotechnology
Company were able to produce human insulin. The gene for
insulin was inserted to bacterial DNA that was able to produce
PAGE 5
almost exactly the same human insulin. This was a breakthrough
in the mass production of human insulin. In 1996, modified
human insulin was approved, called the Humalog.
Figure 11. Humulin, a sample of genetically,engineered insulin.
Benefits of GMOs
Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs:
• Higher efficiency in farming - with the use of pesticide- resistant/herbicide-

tolerant GMO crops, there will be less use for herbicides/pesticides, and lower
cost for labor and cultivation
• Increase in harvest GMO crops resistant to pests and diseases means increase
in potential growth and harvest.
• Control in fertility - controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds)
ensures higher yields.
• Increase in food processing - altered characteristics of GMO crops help ease
food processing.
• Improvement of desirable characteristics - GMOs offer longer shelf life, enhanced
color and taste, enhanced production or reduction of enzymes, and other
modified characteristics of plants, animals, and microorganisms,
• Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement - GMO crops like maize fortified
with lysine and Golden Rice fortified with vitamin A and iron. There are now
edible vaccines for viral and diarrheal diseases.
• Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides
PAGE 6
There are over 400 million acres of GMO farmlands all over the world. The top five
countries that operate GMO farmlands are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India,
and Canada. Some of the GMO agricultural crops that have been approved for public
consumption and are already in the market include: alfalfa, com, papaya, soya bean,
sugar beets, and squash. Most of these GMO crops were made to be resistant to pests.
Some examples of common food with GMOs are Kellogg's Com Flakes, Quaker Chewy
Granola Bars, Ultra Slim Fast, Quaker Yellow Corn Meal, and Alpo Dry Pet Food.
In the animal industries, there are ongoing researches like studies on Pacific salmon
that grows twice faster than the native salmon and chicken resistant to H5N1 bird flu
viruses. However, these GMO animals are all in research laboratory and not yet
approved for public consumption.
Potential Risks of GMOs
Despite the promising claims of GMOs, the opponents of GMOs claim otherwise.
For example, there are studies that show a link in the adaption of pesticide-resistant
GMO crops to the significant growth of super weeds that became pesticide-resistant,
too. This caused additional problem to more than 12 million acres of farms in the United
States.
Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:
1. Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are

inadequate studies on the effects of GMOs to humans and the environment.
2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long term effect
is still unknown.
3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
• More allergic reactions GMO food may trigger more allergic reactions,
more so create new ones, as side effect of the gene alteration.
• Gene mutation GMO food may develop abnormalities and mutation, more
than the desired product of the gene alteration.
• Antibiotic resistance GMO food contains antibiotic- resistant genes; this
may cause disease-causing bacteria likely to be more antibiotic-resistant
too, increasing the possibility of widespread of the disease.
• Nutritional value - GMO food may have change in their nutritional value.
PAGE 7
Potential Environmental Risks Caused By GMOs
Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks caused by

GMOs. The identified major risks are the following:
1. Risk in gene flow there is a potential risk of the modified gene to be transferred
from the GMO crop to its wild relative or organism in the soil and human intestine
(when ingested). For example, a decaying GMO plant could possibly transfer the
modified genes to the bacteria and fungi in the soil. Bacteria and fungi are
capable of using a genetic material from their surroundings. There are no studies
yet on the effects of the absorbed modified gene to the other organisms.
2. Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed problems
- GMO crops resistant to certain pesticides may trigger new form of pest
resistance while GMO herbicide- tolerant crops may lead to the over use of the
herbicides which may trigger new form of weed resistance.
3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens - the modified
gene can be transferred and integrated in the viral or bacterial genes which may
lead to viral or bacterial gene modification or mutation. This living modified virus
and bacteria may then cause new disease that may affect other organisms
including human beings.
Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs (Molfino & Zucco,
2008):
1. Direct environmental risks are:

• introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause disruption
of the natural communities through competition or interference;
• the possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the environment if it
escapes its intended use and may post threats or become pest;
• may cause harmful effects to ecosystem processes if GMOs interfere with
the natural biochemical cycles; and
• the persistence of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause negative
impacts to the consumer of GMO products
2. Indirect environmental risks are:
• alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of
GMOs to the environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and weeds
that became resistant to GMO crops; ;
• may have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural
practices; and
• may have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs
PAGE 8
interaction and release in the natural environment.
Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs
A major concern in the use and consumption of GMOs is its effect on human
beings, primarily on human health. Some potential human health risks are identified
(Akhter, 2001), such as:
• consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since it is not naturally or
organically produced;
• consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing microorganisms in
the human digestive system;
• production of toxins may be detrimental to human health; and
• production of allergens may have adverse effects on humans.
Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO food
consumption. They encourage people to boycott GMO products and to be
vigilant in checking if the food they buy has GMO ingredients. In the
Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against the use of Bt eggplant,
another genetically modified crop (Ongkiko, 2016).
Other potential risks that raise major concern are:
• Human Genome Project (HGP) - Mapping of human genes to provide framework

for research and studies in the field of medicine. It was feared that the ability to
produce human genetic information would create biases and give much power to
people holding the information and to the disadvantage of those who do not have
the genetic information.
• Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms Genetically modified bacteria
and viruses may mutate to become more resistant or virulent that may cause
more dreadful diseases for human beings.
• Cloning The asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell through
genetic engineering. In February 24, 1997, the first mammal, Dolly, a sheep from
Scotland, was born through cloning. With its celebrated success came the fear of
human cloning. It emerged the ethical issue of man "playing God."
Scientists and medical practitioners would definitely continue to search for ways
to preserve lives. Genetic engineering is perceived to be one of the keys to this venture.
Gene therapy and gene alteration are
PAGE 9
promising ways to improve human health conditions.
On the other hand, great fears loom in the process of this quest. There are many
things to be considered before a certain medical process using genetic engineering be
accepted.
These concerns were affirmed by the reports, of the World HealthOrganization.

WHO reported three major issues on GMOs that are in international public debates.
These are the potential risks of allergic reactions, gene transfer/flow, and outcrossing
(WHO, 2014).
The primary issue on GMOs presented in public debate is its unnatural

production or what is termed be a violation of nature. The creation of new organisms,
like GMOs, posts moral issues on defiance to natural laws. Another concern is the
potential risks to the environment and human health, to which so much is unknown yet.
Biosafety on GMOs
There are initiatives for the protection of the general human population regarding
the issues and concerns about GMOs. International organizations developed. principles
and treaties that somehow ensure biosafety on GMOs. Some of these initiatives are as
follows:
• The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). The Food andAgricultural
Organization (FAO) together with the World Health Organization (WHO)
created The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). Codex is an
intergovernmental body that develops the Codex Alimentarius, know us
the International Food Code. Codex is responsible for the development of
standards, codes of practices, guidelines, and recommendations on food
safety. With the pressing issues and concerns on GMOs, in 2003, Codex
has developed principles for the human health risk analysis of genetically
modified (GM) food products. The principles include pre-market
assessments of GM food products and its evaluation of direct and indirect
effects. However, the Codex principles has no binding effect on national
legislation but through the sanitary and phytosanitary measures of the
World Trade Organization, national legislators are encouraged to
complement their national standards with the Codex Principles (WHO,
2014).
• Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Established in 2003, Cartagena
Protocol is an international environmental treaty that regulates the
transboundary movements of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs). The
PAGE 10
Cartagena Protocol requires exporters to seek consent from the importers
before its first shipment of LMOs (WHO, 2014).
• International Trade Agreement on labeling of GM food and food products.
The agreement requires exporters of GM food and food products to label
their products and give rights to importing parties to reject or accept the
GM products. The premise of this policy is that consumers have the right
to know and the freedom to choose GM or non-GM products (Whitman,
2000).
The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) claims that all GM products that are
available in the international market have passed safety assessment by national
authorities. The safety assessments basically look at the environmental and health risk
factors and food safety usually follows the Codex Food Code.
GMOs in Philippine Context
Introduction of GMOs in our country created issues and controversies similar to

other countries with GMOs. There are, of course, proponents and opponents of these
issues.
The GMO concem started in the 1990s with the creation of the National
Committee on Biosafety of the Philippines (NCBP) through Executive Order No. 430 of
1990. The NCBP developed the guidelines on the planned release of genetically
manipulated organisms (GMOs) and potentially harmful exotic species in 1998. In 2002,
the Department of Agriculture released Administrative Order No. 8, the guideline for the
importation and release into the environment of GM plants and plant products. On that
same year, the entry of GMO importation started (Baumuller, 2003). The Philippines
was marked to be the first country in Asia to approved commercial cultivation of GMOs
when GM com planting was approved in 2002 (Serapio & Dela Cruz, 2016).
From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO applications approved by

the Department of Agriculture for the release to the environment, 62 GMOs of which are
approved for food feed and processing and the remaining 8 were approved for
propagation (Aruelo, 2016).
In 2004, the Philippines was classified by International Service for acquisition of

agri-biotech applications as one of the fourteen biotech- mega countries which grow
50,000 hectares or more of GMO crops annually (James, 2004). In that same year,
Senator Juan Flavier authored a bill on the mandatory labeling of food and food
products with GMOs. The Senate did not pass the bill.
PAGE 11
In 2006, the Philippines became part of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In

the same year, Executive Order No. 514 was issued to address the biosafety
requirements of the Cartagena Protocol and the establishment of the National Biosafety
Framework (NBF).
In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic agriculture
than GMO-related agriculture. Prior to this act, there are several provinces like Negros
Occidental and Negros Oriental which agreed to support organic agriculture. There was
the establishment of the Negros Organic Island through a memorandum of agreement
(MOA) between the two provinces in 2005. With this MOA, the two provinces
were able to ban the entry of GMOs and living GMOs to their provinces through
provincial ordinance. Similar to this case, Davao City passed the Organic Agriculture
Ordinance in 2010. This city ordinance helps the prevention of field testing of GM Bt
eggplant in the UP Mindanao Campus (Aruelo, 2016).
In 2012, Representative Teddy Casiño, together with other congressmen, filed a

bill pushing for the mandatory labeling of GM food and food products. To date, there is
no Philippine biosafety law, only biosafety regulations formed under NBF.
A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded that the existing
regulation is weak, which can be fixed through legislation such as a republic act
(Richmond, 2006).
In December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field testing
of GMO Bt eggplant and declared Administrative Order No. 8, series of 2002 of the
Department of Agriculture as null and void. This means that any actions or procedures
related to GMO importations and propagation is temporarily put to stop until a new
administrative order is issued in accordance with the law.
In March 7, 2016, five government agencies namely, the Department of Science

and Technology, Department of Agriculture, Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, Department of Health, and Department of the Interior and Local
Government, passed a Joint Department Circular No. 1, series of 2016 on rules and
regulations for the search and development, handling and use, transboundary
movement, release in the environment, and management of the genetically modified
plant and plant products derived from the use of modern biotechnology. This joint
department circular paves way to issuance of new permits for planting and importing
GM crops in the country.
PAGE 12
SUMMARY
Genetic engineering is an emerging field of science. Its quests are to preserve

and prolong life. In more than four decades since the first genetically modified bacteria
was produced, thousands of genetically modified organisms have been created and
propagated. Some are approved by experts and government authorities for human use
and consumption while others are kept in institutional research laboratories subject for
more experiments.
There are advantages and disadvantages in using genetic engineering in both

fields of medicine and food and agriculture, there are controversies that are still
debatable up to the present. The major concern of the opponents is the long-term effect
of GMOs to humans while the proponents' flagship is the success stories of the GMO
recipients. There is still a long way to go for GMOs to prove itself, as humans seek
answers to life's predicaments or as humans play like God.
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Molfino, F. & Zucco, F. (Eds.). (2008). "Women in Biotechnology: Creating

Interferences." Springer Science and Business Media. Accessed October 25, 2017.
http://www.springer.com/ book/9781402086106/
Ongkiko, R. M. (2016). "Rise of the BT Superwoman." RDE Digest. Vol. 8. No.1. UPLB.
Pedersen, S., Jensen, B. F., & Jorgensen, S. T. (1995). "Genetically Modified Foods." In
American Chemical Society Symposium Series. Vol. 605. doi: 10.1021/bk-1995-
0605.ch017 Accessed August 1, 2017. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/bk-1995-
0605.ch017.
Philippine Senate. (2004). "GMO." Accessed August 1, 2017.

http://www.senate.gov.ph/lisdata/1181634!.pdf.
Richmond, C. (2006). "Genetically Modified Crops In The Philippines: Can Existing

Biosafety Regulations Adequately Protect The Environment?" In Pacific Rim Law &
Policy Journal Association. Vol. 15. No. 2. Accessed August 1,
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2017.https://digital.lib.washington.edu/dspacelaw/bitstream/handle/1773.1/631/15Pac
Rim LPolyJ569.pdf?sequence=1).
Runguphan, W., Qu, X., & O'Connor, S. (2010). "Integrating Carbon-Halogen Bond
Formation into Medicinal Plan Metabolism."In Nature. doi: 10.1038/nature09524.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101103141533.htm.
Science Daily. (n.d.). "Plants engineered to produce new drugs."Accessed July 26,
2017. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101103141533.htm.
Science Daily. (2016). "Residents concemed about use ofgenetically modified

mosquitoes to curb insect population."2017. https://www.sciencedaily.com/Accessed
August 1,releases/2016/06/160606100844.htm.
Serapio, M., Jr. & Dela Cruz, A. (2016). "Philippines Signs NewGMO Rules, Food
Industry Relieved. Accessed Augus 1.2017. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-
philippines-gmo-idUSKCNOW90MK.
Stableford, B. M. (n.d.). "Historical dictionary of science fictionliterature. p. 133. ISBN

9780810849389. Accessed August 1, 2017http://dictionnaire
sensagent.leparisien.fr/genetic engineering/en-en/
Terrascope. "Genetically Modified Crops." (n.d.). Accessed August1, 2017.

http://12.000.scripts.mit.edu/mission 2017/genetically-modified-crops/
Veniza, K. (2014). Greener paper through genetically-engineeredtrees.

https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2014/04/09/greener-paper-through-genetically-
engineered-trees/.
Whitman, D. (2000). "Genetically Modified Food: Helpful or Harmful?"CSA Discovery

Guide. Accessed October 25, 2017.
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on Genetically Modified Foods." Accessed October 25,

2017.http://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-genetically-
modefied-food/en.
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2017.https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-genetic-
engineering.http://www.sustainabletable.org/264/genetic-engineering.
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Zimmer, Carl. (n.d.). "Scientist of the Year: Jay Keasling." DiscovererMagazine
December 2006 Issue. Accessed August 1, 2017
http://discovermagazine.com/2006/dec/cover,
PAGE 16
CHAPTER VIII: THE NANO WORLD
LESSON OBJECTIVES
• define nanotechnology,
• characterize nanoscale;
• describe the various uses of nanotechnology,
• discuss concerns on the use of nanotechnology, and
• explain the status of the use of nanotechnology in the Philippines.
INTRODUCTION
Scientific researchers have developed new technological tools that greatly

improve different aspects of our lives. The use of nanoscale is one important
interdisciplinary area generated by advancement in science and technology. Scientists
and engineers were able to build materials with innovative properties as they manipulate
nanomaterials. Indeed, research and application of knowledge on nanomaterials will
continue to bring widespread implications in various areas of the society, especially
health care, environment, energy, food, water, and agriculture.
Nanotechnology refers to the science, engineering, and technology

conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers (NNI, 2017).
Nanoscience and nanotechnology employs the study and application of exceptionally
small things in other areas of science including materials science, engineering, physics,
biology, and chemistry (NNI, 2017).
The concepts of nanotechnology and nanoscience started in December 29,

1959 when Physicist Richard Feynman discussed a method in which scientists can
direct and control individual atoms and molecules in his talk “There's Plenty of Room at
the Bottom” during the American Physical Society meeting at the California Institute of
Technology. The term "nanotechnology" was coined by Professor Norio Taniguchi a
decade after the dawn of the use of ultraprecision machining (NNI, 2017).
How Small is a Nanoscale?

A nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10-9 of a meter. The illustration
below shows how small nanoscale is compared to other particles or materials.
Manipulation of nanomaterials needs an adept understanding of their types and
dimensions. The various types of nanomaterials are classified according to their
PAGE 1
individual shapes and sizes. They may be particles, tubes, wires, films, flakes, or shells
that have one or more nanometer-sized dimensions. One should be able to view and
manipulate them so that we can take advantage of their exceptional characteristics.
How to View Nanomaterials

Scientists use special types of microscopes to view minute nanomaterials.
During the early 1930s, scientists used electron microscopes and field microscopes to
look at the nanoscale. The scanning tunneling microscope and atomic force microscope
are just among the modern and remarkable advancements in microscopy.
1. Electron microscope
German engineers Emst Ruska and Max Knoll built the first electron
microscope during the 1930s. This type of microscope utilizes a particle beam of
electrons to light up a specimen and develop a well-magnified image. Electron
microscopes produce higher and better resolution than older light microscopes because
they can magnify objects up to million times while conventional light microscopes can
magnify objects up to 1,500 times only. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and
transmission electron microscope (TEM) are the two general types of electron
microscope.
2. Atomic force microscope (AFM)
It was first developed by Gerd Binig, Calvin Quate, and Christoph Gerber in
1986. It makes use of a mechanical probe that gathers information from the surface of a
material.
3. Scanning tunneling microscope
This special type of microscope enables scientists to view and manipulate

nanoscale particles, atoms, and small molecules. In 1986, Gerd Binig and Heinrich
Rohrer won the Nobel Prize in Physics because of this invention.
Nanomanufacturing
It refers to scaled-up, reliable, and cost-effective manufacturing of
nanoscale materials, structures, devices, and systems. It also involves research,
improvement, and incorporation of processes for the construction of materials.
Therefore, nanomanufacturing leads to the development of new products and improved
materials. There are two fundamental approaches to nanomanufacturing, either bottom-
up or top-down (NNI, 2017):
1. Bottom-up fabrication
PAGE 2
It manufactures products by building them up from atomic- and molecular-
scale components. However, this method can be time-consuming. Scientists and
engineers are still in search for effective ways of putting up together molecular
components that self-assemble and from the bottom-up to organized structures.
2. Top-down fabrication
It trims down large pieces of materials into nanoscale. This process needs
larger amounts of materials and discards excess raw materials. There are new
approaches to the assembly of nanomaterials based from the application of principles in
top-down and bottom-up fabrication.
These include:
• Dip pen lithography
It is a method in which the tip of an atomic force microscope is "dipped"

into a chemical ſuid and then utilized to "write" on a surface, like an old-fashioned ink
pen onto paper.
• Self-assembly
It depicts an approach wherein a set of components join together to mold

an organized structure in the absence of an outside direction.
• Chemical vapor deposition
It is a procedure wherein chemicals act in response to form very pure,

high-performance films.
• Nanoimprint lithography
It is a method of generating nanoscale attributes by stamping" or

"printing" them onto a surface.
• Molecular beam epitaxy
It is one manner for depositing extremely controlled thin films.
• Roll-to-roll processing
It is a high-volume practice for constructing nanoscale devices on a roll

of ultrathin plastic or metal.
• Atomic layer epitaxy
PAGE 3
It is a means for laying down one-atom-thick layers on a surface.
With the use of these techniques, nanomaterials are made more durable,
stronger, lighter, water-repellent, ultraviolet- or infrared- resistant, scratch-resistant,
electrically conductive, antireflective, antifog, antimicrobial, self-cleaning, among others.
The abovementioned characteristics lead to the manufacture of the present variety of
nanotechnology-enabled products such as tennis rackets and baseball bats to catalysts
for purifying crude oil and ultrasensitive recognition and classification of biological and
chemical toxins.
It is not impossible that in the near future, computers that are better, more
efficient, with larger storage of memory, faster, and energy- saving will be developed.
Soon, the entire memory of a computer will be saved in a single tiny chip. Moreover,
nanotechnology has the potential to construct high-efficiency, low-cost batteries and
solar cells.
Figure 12. A product of nanomanufacturing: A 16 gauge wire, approximately 1.3

millimeters in diameter, made from carbon nanotubes that were spun into thread
and the same wire on a 150 ply spool. (Source: Nanocomp).
Distinct Features of Nanoscale

Nanotechnology involves operating at a very small dimension and it allows
scientists to make use of the exceptional optical, chemical, physical, mechanical, and
biological qualities of materials of that small scale (NNI, 2017). The following are distinct
features of nanoscale:
1. Scale at which much biology occurs.
Various activities of the cells take place at the nanoscale. The

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) serves as the genetic material of the cell and is only about
2 nanometers in diameter. Furthermore, the hemoglobin that transports oxygen to the
tissues throughout the body is 5.5 nanometers in diameter.
PAGE 4
A good number of modern researches focus on advancing procedures,
therapies, tools, and treatments that are more accurate and custom-made than
traditional methods and cause no adverse effects on the body. An example of this is the
bio-barcode assay, which is a fairly inexpensive approach for identification of specific
disease markers in the blood despite their small number in a particular specimen.
2. Scale at which quantum effects dominate properties of materials:
Particles with dimensions of 1-100 nanometers have properties that are

significantly discrete from particles of bigger dimensions. Quantum effects direct the
behavior and properties of particles in this size scale. The properties of materials are
highly dependent on their size. Among the essential properties of nanoscale that
change as a function of size include chemical reactivity, fluorescence, magnetic
permeability, melting point, and electrical conductivity.
One example is the nanoscale gold, which is not only the yellow-colored
element we are used to seeing but it can also appear 'red or purple. Gold's electrons
display restricted motion in the nanoscale. Practically, nanoscale gold particles
selectively build up in tumors, where they permit both precise imaging and targeted
laser destruction of the tumor while avoiding damage on healthy cells.
3.Nanoscale materials have far larger surface areas than similar masses of larger-scale
materials.
As we increase the surface area per mass of a particular material, a greater

amount of the material comes in contact with another material and can affect its
reactivity,
If 1 cubic centimeter is filled with micrometer-sized cubes-a trillion (1012)

of them, each with a surface area of 6 square micrometers--the total surface area
amounts to 6 square meters, or about the area of the main bathroom in an average
house. When that single cubic centimeter of volume is filled with 1-nanometer-sized
cubes-1021 of them, each with an area of 6 square nanometers-their total surface area
comes to 6,000 square meters.
PAGE 5
Figure 13. The Effect of the Increased Surface Area Provided by Nanostructured
Materials
Government Funding for Nanotechnology i n Different countries (Dayrit,

2005)
1. U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative
• The best-known and most-funded program is the National Nanotechnology

Initiative of the United States. The NNI was established in 2001 to coordinate
U.S. federal nanotechnology R&D. The NNI budget in 2008 and 2009 were $1.4
billion and $1.5 billion, respectively.
2. European Commission
• In February 2008, the EC officially launched the European Nanoelectronics

Initiative Advisory Council (ENIAC).
3. Japan (Nanotechnology Research Institute, under the National Institute for Advanced
Industrial Science and Technology, AIST)
4. Taiwan (Taiwan National Science and Technology Program for Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology)
5. India (Nanotechnology Research and Education Foundation)
6. China (National Center for Nanoscience and Technology)
7. Israel (Israel National Nanotechnology Initiative)
8. Australia (Australian Office of Nanotechnology)
9. Canada (National Institute for Nanotechnology or NINT)
10. South Korea (Korea National Nanotechnology Initiative)
11. Thailand (National Nanotechnology Center or NANOTEC)
12. Malaysia (National (Malaysia) Nanotechnology Initiatives or NNI)
Possible Applications of Nanotechnology in the Philippines (Dayrit, 2005)
1. ICT and semiconductors
2. Health and medicine
PAGE 6
3. Energy
4. Food and agriculture
5. Environment
Nanotech Roadmap for the Philippines (funded by PCAS- TRD-DOST)
1. ICT and semiconductors
2. Health and biomedical
3. Energy
4. Environment
5. Agriculture and food
6. Health and environmental risk
7. Nano-metrology
8.Education and public awareness
Benefits and Concerns of Using Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology has various applications in different sectors of the society
and environment. Salamanca-Buentello et al. (2005) proposed an initiative called
"Addressing Global Challenges Using Nanotechnology" to accelerate the use of
nanotechnology to address critical sustainable development challenges. They
suggested a model that could help figure out the possible contributions of the
community in overcoming global challenges that pose risk on health and other aspects
of peoples' lives. However, there are concerns that need to be addressed before using
and promoting materials derived from nanotechnology (Dayrit, 2005).
1. Nanotechnology is not a single technology; it may become pervasive.
2. Nanotechnology seeks to develop new materials with specific properties.
3. Nanotechnology may introduce new efficiencies and paradigms which may make
some natural resources and current practices uncompetitive or obsolete.
PAGE 7
4. It may be complicated to detect its presence unless one has the specialist tools of
nanotechnology.
Table 2. Benefits and Concerns of the Application of Nanotechnology in Different

Areas
EXAMPLE OF POSSIBLE BENEFITS CONCERNS

AREAS AFFECTED
BY
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Environment • Improvef detection and • High reactivity and
removal of toxicity
contaminants • Pervasive distribution
• Development of benign in the environment
industrial processes and • No nano-specific EPA
materials regulation
Health • Improved medicine • Ability to cross cell
membranes and
translocate in the body
• No FDA for cosmetics
or supplements
Economy • Better products • Redistribution of wealth
• New jobs • Potential cost of
cleanups and health
care
• Accessibility to all
income levels
Social and Ethical Considerations in Conducting Research on

Nanotechnology
1. Who will benefit from it? On the other hand, who won't?
2. For whom and what are your objectives for developing your product?
3. How will it affect social, economic, and political relationships?
4. What problem is your "product" trying to solve?
5. Who will have access to it? Who will be excluded?
6. Are there dangers involved with its development (e.g., safety, health, pollution)? How
can you minimize them?
PAGE 8
7. Who will own it? How can you assure access to it?
(Source: University of Washington, n.d.)
SUMMARY
Nanotechnology is an advanced interdisciplinary field that encompasses
science and technology that manufactures materials of great help to the improvement of
various areas of society especially health care, environment, energy, food, water, and
agriculture. It is a field that needs to be explored, not only by known experts but also
neophytes, in order to advance our knowledge of science and technology, and more
importantly, to help improve our quality of life. But, before we engage in
nanotechnology, we need to take into account the social, ethical, and environmental
concerns of using such nanomaterials.
REFERENCES
Dayrit, F.M. (2005). "Nanotechnology: Business and Practical Applications: Where the
Philippines Is and Where It Should Be." Ateneo de Manila University.
National Nanotechnology Initiative. (2017). "Manufacturing at the Nanoscale." Accessed

February 25, 2017. https://www.nano.gov/nanotech-101/what/manufacturing,
National Nanotechnology Initiative. (2017). "Nanotechnology 101." Accessed February

25, 2017. https://www.nano.gov/ nanotech-101/
National Nanotechnology Initiative. (2017). "What is Nanotechnology?” Accessed

February 25, 2017. https://www.nano.gov/nanotech-101/what/definition :
National Nanotechnology Initiative. (2017). "What's so special aboutthe Nanoscale?”

Accessed February 25, 2017. https://www.nano.gov/nanotech-101/special.
Roco, M. "National Nanotechnology Initiative: The Long-Term View."In Proceedings

Nanotechnology and the Environment: Applications and Implications. Progres Review
Workshop !11,EPA, Oct 26-28, 2005, Arlington, VA.
Salamanca-Buentello et al. (2005). “Nanotechnology and the Developing World," PLoS

Medicine. Accessed February 25,2017. http://www.plosmedicine.org.
University of Washington. “Societal and Ethical Implications of Nanotechnology."

Accessed February 25, 2017. Kttp://depts.washington.edu/ntethics/.
PAGE 9
PAGE 10
CHAPTER IX: THE ASPECTS OF GENE THERAPY
LESSON OBJECTIVES
• describe gene therapy and its various forms; and

• assess the issue's potential benefits and detriments to global health.
INTRODUCTION
Medical science has detected many human diseases related to defective
genes. These types of diseases are not curable by traditional methods like taking
readily available medicines. Gene therapy is a potential method to either treat or cure
genetic-related human illnesses.
In 2015, a team of researchers at the Harvard Medical School and the Boston
Children's Hospital stated that they were able to restore basic hearing in genetically
deaf mice using gene therapy. The Boston Children's Hospital research team also
reported that they have restored a higher level of hearing--down to 25 decibels which is
actually equivalent to a whisper. They used an improved gene therapy vector developed
at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear that was identified as "Anc80" which enables the
transfer of genes to the inaccessible outer hair cells when introduced into the cochlea
(Fliesler, 2017).
Human gene therapy was actually first realized in 1971 when the first
recombinant DNA experiments were planned. It can be simply viewed as insertion
foreign DNA into a patient's tissue that hope to successfully eradicate the targeted
disease. It was actually inspired by the success of recombinant DNA technology which
occurred over the last 20 years. Without a doubt, gene therapy is the most promising
yet possibly unfavorable medical field being studied.
PAGE 1
The Basic Process
There are several approaches to gene therapy. These are the following (Fliesler, 2017):
• Replacement of mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the
gene
• Inactivation of a mutated gene that is functioning improperly
• Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease
In general, a gene cannot be directly inserted into a human gene or cell. A

gene is inserted into another gene using a carrier or vector. At present, the most
common type of vectors are viruses that have been genetically changed to carry normal
human DNA. Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and transporting their genes
to human cells in a pathogenic manner (Science Daily, 2017).
Two Types of Gene Therapy

The idea of gene therapy is based on correcting a disease at its root; fixing
the abnormal genes that appear to lead to certain diseases.
There are essentially two forms of gene therapy. One of which is called
somatic gene therapy. Somatic gene therapy involves the manipulation of genes in
cells that will be helpful to the patient but not inherited to the next generation
(Nimserger, 1988).
The other form of gene therapy is called germ-line gene therapy which
involves the genetic modification of germ cells or the origin cells that will pass the
change on to the next generation (Your Genome, 2017).
Stem Cell Gene Therapy

Stem cells are mother cells that have the potential to become any type of
cell in the body. One of the main characteristics of stem cells is their ability to self-renew
or multiply while maintaining the potential to develop into other types of cells.
Stem cells can become cells of the blood, heart, bones, skin, muscles, brain, among
others. There are differentsources of stem cells but all types of stem cells have the
same capacity to develop into multiple types of cells.
PAGE 2
Stem cells are derived from different sources. Two of which are embryonic and
somatic stem cells.
The embryonic stem cells are derived from a four- or five-day-old human
embryo that is in the blastocyst phase of development. The embryos are usually extras
that have been created in IVF (in vitro fertilization) clinics where several eggs are
fertilized in a test tube then implanted into a woman (Crosta, 2013).
The somatic stem cells are cells that exist throughout the body after embryonic
development and are found inside of different types of tissue. These stem cells have
been found in tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal
muscles, skin, and the liver. They remain in a non-dividing state for years until activated
by disease or tissue injury. These stem cells can divide or self-renew indefinitely,
enabling them to generate a range of cell types from the originating organ or even
regenerate the entire original organ. It is generally thought that adult or somatic stem
cells are limited in their ability to differentiate based on their tissue of origin, but there is
some evidence to suggest that they can differentiate to become other cell types (Crosta,
2013),
The Bioethics of Gene Therapy

There are ethical issues involved in gene therapy. Some of the inquiries cited are
(Genetics Home Reference, 2017):
1. How can "good" and "bad" uses of gene therapy be distinguished?
2. Who decides which traits are normal and which constitute a disability or disorder?
3. Will the high costs of gene therapy make it available only to the wealthy?
4. Could the widespread use of gene therapy make society less accepting of people
who are different?
5. Should people be allowed to use gene therapy to enhance basic human traits such
as height, intelligence, or athletic ability?
Another controversy involves the germline therapy. As discussed, germline

therapy is genetic modification of germ cells that will pass the change on to the next
generation. There are a lot of questions on the effects of the gene alteration to the
unbom child and the next generation, since the alteration can be passed on. In the
United States, the government does not fund researches on human germline gene
therapy.
PAGE 3
SUMMARY
Gene therapy is a method that may treat or cure genetic-related human
illnesses. There are two forms of gene therapy. One is somatic gene therapy which
involves the manipulation of genes in cells that will be helpful to the patient but not
inherited to the next generation. The other is germline gene therapy which involves the
genetic modification of germ cells or the origin cells that will pass the change to the next
generation.
There are many ethical issues on gene therapy. Some of these issues
are about questions on whose authority or power to decide which human traits should
be altered; other concerns are on the discriminatory effects of those who may not or
cannot avail gene therapy.
REFERENCES
Crosta, P. (n.d.). "What Are Stem Cells?" Accessed August 1, 2017.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/info/stem_cell.
Fliesler, N. (2017). "Now Hear This." Accessed August 1, 2017.

https://hms.harvard.edu/news/now-hear.
Genetics Home Reference. (2017). "What are the ethical issues surrounding gene
therapy?" Accessed August 1, 2017. https:// ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/therapy/ethics.
Medicine Net. (n.d.). "Stem Cell." Accessed August 1, 2017. http://

www.medicinenet.com/stem_cells/article.htm#.
Nimserger, M. (1988). "Gene Therapy." Accessed August 1, 2017

https://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/mcclean/plsc431/students98/nimsgren.htm
Science Daily. (n.d.). "Gene Therapy." Accessed August 1, 2017.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/gene_therapy.htm.
Your Genome. (n.d.). "Is Germline Gene Therapy Ethical?" Accessed August 1, 2017.
https://www.yourgenome.org/debates/ is-germline-gene-therapy-ethical.
PAGE 4
CHAPTER X: CLIMATE CHANGE
LESSON OBJECTIVES
• identify the causes of climate change;

• understand the effects of climate change on the society, and
• illustrate how the community helps in mitigating the hazards caused by climate
change.
INTRODUCTION
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a United Nations

body that evaluates climate change science, released its report on global climate
change. The report's important conclusions were the following: world's climate has
changed significantly over the past century; the significant change has human influence;
using climate models and if the trend continues, the global mean surface temperature
will increase between I'C and 3.5°C by 2100.
Why should a few degrees of warming be a cause for a concern? According

to experts, global climate change could have a greater potential to change life in our
planet than anything else except a nuclear war. These changes will also lead to a
number of potentially serious consequences.
But first, what is climate change? Climate change refers to the statistically
significant changes in climate for continuous period of time. Factors that contribute to
climate change can be natural internal process, external forces, and persistent
anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. It can also
be due to natural occurrences or contributed by acts of human beings.
This lesson will present the causes of climate change and its effects on the
society.
Causes of Climate Change

The causes of climate change could be natural or by human activities.
PAGE 1
Natural Causes
Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions are one of the natural causes of climate change, When
volcanoes erupt, it emits different natural aerosols like carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxides,
salt crystals, volcanic ashes or dust, and even microorganisms like bacteria and viruses.
The volcanic eruption can cause a cooling effect to the lithosphere because its emitted
aerosol can block a certain percentage of solar radiation. This cooling effect can last for
one to two years.
What happens in violent volcanic eruptions is the release of ash particles in

the stratosphere. The volcanic ashes which have sulfur dioxide combine with water
vapor. It then forms to sulfuric acid and sulfurous aerosols. The sulfurous aerosols then
are transported by easterly or westerly winds. Volcanoes located near the equator are
more likely to cause global cooling because of the wind pattern. Volcanoes located near
to north or south poles are less likely to cause cooling because of pole wind pattern, the
sulfurous aerosols are confined in pole area. There are several recorded major volcanic
eruptions that cause climate change. Mount Tambora of Indonesia erupted in 1816. It
was considered as the largest known eruption in human history. The eruption caused
snowfall in the northeastern United States and Canada. It affected their agricultural
lands, losing crops that caused food shortage and increased human mortality. The
eruptions of Mount Krakatau of Indonesia in 1883 and Mount Pinatubo of the Philippines
in 1991 contributed, too, to the cold years of planet Earth.
Orbital Changes
Earth's orbit can also cause climate change. This was proposed by the
Milankovitch theory. The Milankovitch theory states "that as the Earth travels through
space around the Sun, cyclical variations in three elements of Earth-Sun geometry
combine to produce variations in the amount of solar energy that reaches Earth
(Academic Emporia, 2017).
The three elements that have cyclic variations are eccentricity, obliquity, and
precession.
Eccentricity is a term used to describe the shape of Earth's orbit around

the Sun. The impact of the variation is a change in the amount of solar energy from
perihelion (around January 3) to aphelion (around July 4). The time frame for the cycle
is approximately 98,000 years (Academic Emporia, 2017). Currently Earth's eccentricity
is 0.016 and there is about a 6.4% increase in insolation from July to January
PAGE 2
(Academic Emporia, 2017). Academic Emporia (2017) states, "The eccentricity
influences seasonal differences: when Earth is closest to the Sun, it gets more solar
radiation. If the perihelion occurs during the winter, the winter is less severe. If a
hemisphere has its summer while closest to the Sun, summers are relatively warm."
Obliquity is the variation of the tilt of Earth's axis away from the orbital
plane. As this tilt changes, the seasons become more exaggerated. The obliquity
changes on a cycle taking approximately 40,000 years. Academic Emporia (2017)
states "the more tilt means more severe seasons-warmer summers and colder winters;
less tilt means less severe seasons-cooler summers and milder winters.
Precession is the change in orientation of Earth's rotational axis. The

precession cycle takes about 19,000 to 23,000 years. Precession is caused by two
factors: a wobble of Earth's axis and a turning around of the elliptical orbit of Earth itself
(Academic Emporia, 2017). Obliquity affected the tilt of Earth's axis, precession affects
the direction of Earth's axis. The change in the axis location changes the dates of
perihelion (closest distance from Sun) and aphelion (farthest distance from Sun), and
this increases the seasonal contrast in one hemisphere while decreasing it in the other
hemisphere (Academic Emporia, 2017). Currently, Earth is closest to the Sun in the
Northern Hemisphere winter, which makes the winters there less severe (Academic
Emporia, 2017). Another consequence of precession is a shift in the celestial poles.
Five thousand years ago, the North Star was Thuban in the constellation Draco.
Currently, the North Star is Polaris in the constellation Ursa Minor.
During the 1940s and 1950s, the theory fell into disrepute due to
radiocarbon dating, indicating a lag in cooling versus insolation and to a scale problem
with high frequency glacial advances (Academic Emporia, 2017). The theory was
revived several times throughout the late 1960s to the present (Academic Emporia,
2017).
The Carbon Dioxide Theory
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is added when power and heat are produced by
burning coal, oil, and other fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is transparent to sunshine but
not invisible to infrared (heat) radiation leaving the ground. Carbon dioxide absorbs part
of the infrared radiation in the air and retums it to the ground keeping the air near the
surface warmer than it would be if the carbon dioxide did not act like a blanket. Doubling
the carbon dioxide raises the temperature to 2°C to 3'C.
Human Activities
Human activities contribute to climate change. The largest known

contribution comes from the burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to
PAGE 3
the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases and aerosols affect climate by altering incoming
solar radiation and outgoing infrared (thermal) radiation that are part of Earth's energy
balance. Changing the atmospheric abundance or properties of these gases and
particles can lead to a warming or cooling of the climate system. Since the start of the
industrial era (about 1750), the overall effect of human activities on climate has been a
warming influence. The human impact on climate during this era greatly exceeds that
due to known changes in natural processes, such as solar changes and volcanic
eruptions. Human activities result in emissions of four principal greenhouse gases:
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH), nitrous oxide (N2O) and the halocarbons (a group
of gases containing fluorine, chlorine, and bromine). These gases accumulate in the
atmosphere, causing concentrations to increase with time (www. c02now.org).
The greenhouse gases mentioned are natural gases. However, the high
level of these gases in the atmosphere contributes to the greenhouse effect. The
increasing amount of these gases is due to human activities. High level of carbon
dioxide comes from fossil fuel use in transportation; and the building, heating, cooling,
and manufacture of cement and other goods. Deforestation releases carbon dioxide and
reduces its uptake by plants. High methane emission is related to agriculture, natural
gas distribution, and landfills. High nitrous oxide is also emitted by human activities such
as fertilizer use and fossil fuel burning. Halocarbon gas concentrations have increased
primarily due to human activities. Principal halocarbons include the chlorofluorocarbons
(e.g., CFC-11 and CFC-12) which were used extensively as refrigeration agents and in
other industrial processes before their presence in the atmosphere was found to cause
stratospheric ozone depletion. The abundance of chlorofluorocarbon gases is
decreasing as a result of international regulations designed to protect the ozone layer
(The Encyclopedia of Earth, 2016).
Ozone another greenhouse gas that is continually produced and destroyed

in the atmosphere by chemical reactions. In the troposphere, human activities have
increased ozone through the release of gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons
and nitrogen oxide, which chemically react to produce ozone.
Halocarbons released by human activities destroy ozone in the

stratosphere and have caused the ozone hole over Antarctica. While water vapor is the
most abundant and important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, human activities have
only a small direct influence on the amount of atmospheric water vapor. Indirectly,
humans have the potential to affect water vapor substantially by changing climate. For
example, a warmer atmosphere contains more water vapor Human activities also
influence water vapor through CH, emissions, because CH, undergoes chemical
destruction in the stratosphere, producing a small amount of water vapor, and aerosols,
the small particles present in the atmosphere with widely varying size, concentration,
and chemical composition. Some aerosols are emitted directly into the atmosphere
PAGE 4
while others are formed from emitted compounds. Aerosols contain both naturally
occurring compounds and those emitted as a result of human activities. Fossil fuel and
biomass burning have increased aerosols containing sulphur compounds, organic
compounds, and black carbon (soot). Human activities such as surface mining and
industrial processes have increased dust in the atmosphere (IPCC, 2007). On
September 16, 1986, an international treaty was adapted. It is called the Montreal
Protocol. The treaty aimed to regulate the production and use of chemicals that
contribute to Ozone layer depletion (Britannica, 2017).
Effects of Climate Change on Society

Climate change could cause severe affects to all life forms around our planet.
It direct affects the basic elements of people's lives like water, food, health, use of land,
and the environment. .
With the average global temperature which is predicted to rise by 2 to 3°C

within the next fifty years, glaciers will continue to melt faster. Melting glaciers will
increase flood risks during the wet season and strongly reduce dry-season water
supplies to one-sixth of the world's population, predominantly in the Indian subcontinent,
parts of China, and the Andes in South America. Declining crop yields due to drought,
especially in Africa, are likely to leave hundreds of millions without the ability to produce
or purchase sufficient food. At mid to high latitudes, crop yields may increase for
moderate temperature rises (2 to 3°C), but then decline with greater amounts of
warming. Ocean edification, a direct result of rising carbon dioxide levels, will have
major effects on marine ecosystems, with possible adverse consequences on fish
stocks (Stern, 2007).
Climate change will increase worldwide deaths from malnutrition and heat
stress. Vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever could become more
widespread if effective control measures are not in place. Rising sea levels may result in
more flooded areas each year with a warming of 3 or 4°C. There will be serious risks
and increasing pressures for coastal protection (Stern, 2007).
Ecosystems will be particularly vulnerable to climate change, with one study

estimating that around 15 40% of species face extinction with 2°C of warming. The
consequences of climate change will become disproportionately more damaging with
increased warming. Higher temperatures will increase the chance of triggering abrupt
and large-scale changes that lead to regional disruption, migration, and conflict.
Warming may induce sudden shifts in regional weather patterns like the monsoons or
the El Niño. Such changes would have severe consequences for water availability and
flooding in tropical regions and threaten the livelihood of billions. Melting or collapse of
PAGE 5
ice sheets would raise sea levels and eventually threaten at least 4 million km? of land,
which today is home to 5% of the world's population (Stem, 2007).
SUMMARY
Climate change is a worldwide issue that we have to face. Climate change is
referred as statistically significant climate variation persisting for an extended period of
time. The continuous climate change could bring drastic effects to living and nonliving
forms on Earth.
Climate change is brought by several factors like natural processes and

persistent human activities, Global warming is one of the major effects of climate
change. Global warming threatens all life forms on Earth. It has drastic effects on water
availability, food source, health issues, land use, and ecosystem.
REFERENCES
Academic Emporia. (n.d.). "Milankovitch Thcory." Accessed August 1, 2017.

http://academic.cmporia.edu/aberjame/student/howard2/theory.htm.
Britannica. (n.d.). "Montreal Protocol." Accessed August 1, 2017.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Montreal-Protocol.
Esribano, R. & Tanarro, I. (2010). Spectroscopy of the Atmosphere. Madrid: 2010.

Accessed October 10, 2017. https://books.google.com.ph/books.
Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change. (2007). "Climate Change." Accessed

August 1, 2017. https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wgl/en/faq-2-1.html.
Pavico, J.M.F. (2015). Exploring Life Through Science. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House.
Real Climate. (2010). "The Carbon Dioxide Theory of Gilbert Plass." Accessed August
1, 2017. http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/ archives/2010/01/the-carbon-dioxide-
theory-of-gilbert-plass/.
Stem, N. (2007). "How Climate Change Affects People Around the World." In The
Economics of Climate Change. p. 56-65. https:// books.google.com.ph/books.
The Encyclopedia of Earth. (2016). "Climate Change." Accessed October 25, 2017.
http://www.editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/ climate change_main.
PAGE 6

07 Science Technology and Society

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07 Science Technology and Society

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MODULE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY

CHAPTER I: Intellectual Revolutions That Defined Society

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic

2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study

3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a

Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and

Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments

Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution

Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings,

Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is

Figure 2. Variables that influence The Development of Science Ideas, Science

One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus

Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in

In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved

Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes

Darwin's observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved

Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two

Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also

Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of

Cradles of Early Science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was

Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations

3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that

Development of Science in Asia

India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by

Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed

China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions

The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of

In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools.

In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on

China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their

Middle East Countries

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims.

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the

In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental

Development of Science in Africa

Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the

diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These

Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance,

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATION-BUILDING

Science, in pre-Spanish Philippines, is embedded in the way of life crops that

Technology is used by people in building houses, imigations, and in developing

The different archeological artifacts discovered in different parts of the country

The Americans have more influence in the development of science and

The Americans did everything to "Americanize" the Philippines. They

-Trades with foreign

Figure 3. Influences in the Development of Science And Technology in the Philippines

Government Policies on Science and Technology

Padilla-Concepcion (2015) reported that in 2015, in response to the ASEAN 2015

The NCRP clustered these policies into four, namely:

1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance

- Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue

- Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband

- Local food security

3. Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences

4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry

There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine

- Providing funds for basic research and patents related to

- Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies

- Creating science and technology parks to encourage academe