TOPOLOGY SHORT NOTICES

(86) Closed Mapping Def: A map is called a closed map iff the image of
each closed subset of X is closed in Y. ( 87) Projection Mapping Projection mapping is an
example of mapping that is not closed in general. But let us see first "What is projection

map?" Projection Map: Let (X, ) and (Y, ) be two topological spaces. The maps

are called projection maps, where is product topology on X x Y., is first projection and

is second projection. Fact: The projection map may or may not be closed. Justification:

Consider the first projection .) The set A = {(x, y)| y =tanx ,

} is closed in R x R but not closed

(88) Continuity and Open Mapping: We have studied 1- Continuous Mapping 2-Open Mapping 3-
Closed Mapping Questions: 1. Is a continuous map an open map? 2. Is an open map a continuous

map? Example 1: Let X = {a, b, c, d} with ={ , {b, c}, {a, b, c}, X} and Y = {1, 2, 3} with ={ ,
{1}, {1, 2}, Y}. Consider the following map (continuous) ( [f({b, c})]={2} not open )
defined as f(x) = 2 for all x X. Example 2: Let X = R with usual topology and Y = R with lower limit
topology. Consider the identity map f is not continuous Answers: 1.
Continuous map may or may not be open map. 2. Open map may or may not be continuous map
(89) Openness and Restriction Mapping Recall the restriction mapping and the fact about the
continuity of restriction mapping. Now the question is "Can we prove the same kind of result for
restriction of an open mapping?". Example: Let X = {a, b, c, d} with T x = { , {a}, {a, b}, {a, b,c}, X}
and Y = {1,2,3} with Ty = { ,{1}, {1,2}, Y}. Consider the map defined as f(a) =1, f(b) = 2,
f(c) = 3, F(d) =2 "4> Let A = {b,c,d} C X with relative topology Ta ={ , {b}, {b, c}, A}. Now the

restriction map is defined as Now f is an open map

but fA is not an open map. Because {b} is an open subset of A but f Al{b})= {2} Y Remark:
Restriction of an open map may or may not be an open map.(90) Homeomorphism and
Homeomorphic Spaces Homeomorphism: A map is called a homeomorphism

between two topological spaces (X , ) and (Y, ) iff 1. f is bijective(f is one-one and onto)

2. f is continuous.3- is continuous Homeomorphic Spaces: Two topological

spaces (X , ) and (Y, ) are called homeomorphic iff there exists a homeomorphism
. We also say such spaces are topologically equivalent spaces. (91)

Examples: Homeomorphism Example 1: Consider X = {a, b, c, d} with ={ , {a, b}, {c, d}, X}
Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} with ={ , {2, 3}, {1, 4}, Y } and the map defined as f(a) = 2, f(b)

=3, f(c) =4, F(d) =1 , ,

Now f-1: now

ic continuous (bijective, continuous, f-1 continuous) Example 2: Consider X = [0,1] ,Y = [0,2] as

subspaces of (R , ) and the map defined as f(x)= 2x f is bijective, f is

continuous, so f-1 is continuous X = [0,1] Y = [0,2] Example 3: Consider X= ( )

as subspace of (R, ) and Y = R with usual topology and the map defined as x Y f(x)

=tanx f is bijective, f is continuous, f-1 is continuous X= ( ) Y=R (92) Bicontinuity

and Open Mapping Recall homeomorphism. A bijective map such that f and f-1
both continuous or in other words f is bicontinuous A map is a

homeomorphism between two topological spaces (X, ) and (Y, ) iff 1. f is bijective. 2. f
is continuous. 3. f is an open map (93) Bicontinuity and Bijection Question: Is there any
relation between bicontinuity and bijection? More specifically. 1- Does bijection imply bicontinuity?
2- Does bicontinuity imply bijection? Example 1: Consider X = {a, b, c, d} with Tx = { , {a}, {c, d}. {,a,
c, d},X} Y = {1,2,3,4} with Ty = { ,{1}, {2},{{1, 2}, Y} and the map defined as f(a) =1, f(b)

= 2, f(c) = 3, f(d) =4 f is bijectice but f is not continuous bijection

bicontinuous Example 2: Consider X = {a, b, c, d} with TX = { , X} Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} with Ty = { , {1}}.
and the map defined as f(a) =1, f(b) = 1, f(e) =1, f(d) =1 , f is continuous f is open
bijectice (94) Homeomorphism as Equivalence Relation Equivalence Relation: A binary relation
on a set X is said to be an equivalence relation iff satisfies the following three properties for all a,
b, c X 1. Reflexive: a a 2. Symmetric: a b iff b a 3. Transitive: If a b and b c
then a c Proposition: Homeomorphism of topological spaces is an equivalence relation ( )
(95) Topological Properties : A property "P" of a topological space (X, ) is called "Topological
Property" if every space homeomorphic to X has property . i.e. A property that is unchanged
under homeomorphism. Topological property is also called topological invariant. Some Topological
Properties: 1- Cardinality of set X. 2-Cardinality of T. 3- Connectedness of space x. 4-Being Discrete.
Some Non Topological Properties: 1-LengthLy 2- Area 3- Boundedness (96) Metric on a Set A metric
is a distance function ice. A function that defines a distance between each pair of elements of a set
Metric: A metric on a non empty set X is a real valued function d defines on X x X , i.e
such that for all x, y, z X, the following conditions are satisfied: 1. d(x, y) 0,
equality holds iff x = y 2. d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetry) 3. d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) (Triangle Inequality):
Metric Space: A set X with a metric d defined on it is called a metric space. (97) Examples of
MetricExample 1: Let X = R andd is defined as d(x, y) = |x — y| where .Example 2: Let X =
C[0 , 1] the set of all real valued continuous functions on [0, 1]) and d is defined as

where f, g C[0, 1]. (98) More Examples of Metric: Example 3: Let X

be any nonempty set and d is defined as where x, y R. Example 4: Let X =
C[0, 1] (the set of all real valued continuous functions on [0,1]) and d’ is defined as d'(f, g) = sup{|f(x)
— g(x)| : x [0,1)} — where f, g C(0.1]. (99) Usual Metric on Rn Recall the metric defined on R in
"Example 1." d(x, y) =|x-y| where x, y R. This is the usual metric in R.We can also write it in the

following way d(x, y) = Consider R2 and d is defined as d (x, y)=

2
- ii wher . Consider Rn and d is defined as

d (x, y)= ) where

. (100) Unusual Metrics on Rn . Let us see some unusual

metrics defined on Rn. These definitions can be generalized for R n with n > 2. Example 1: Consider Rn

and d; is defined as where

Example 2: Consider R2 and d, is defined as d2(x.y) = where

. (101) Open Ball Def: Consider X with a metric d. For any x X and
any real number r > 0, the set of all points y X whose distance from x is less than r is called the
open ball of radius r centered at x. i.e. B(x, r)={y X| d(x, y) < r} Example: Recall R with usual metric
d(x, y)= |x — y|. Consider x = 2 and r=1. Let us see what is B (2,1)? Solution B (2,1)={y R|

d(x, y)= |x — y|<1}=(1,3) (102) Examples: Open Ball:

Example 1: Recall R2 with usual metric d (x, y)=

2
B(x, 1)={y R2|d(x, y)<1} , B(x, r)={y R2|d(x, y)<r} Example 2:

Recall trivial metric on a set X. i.e. where x, y R , (r 1)

B(x, r)={y X|d(x, y)<r}={x} (r>1) B(x, r)={y X|d(x, y)<r}=X Example 3: Recall R2 with

x=(0,0) , B(x, r)Example 4:

Recall where f, g C[0, 1].(r=3, B(f, r)) (103) Open Ball as Open Set:
Lemma: Let d be a metric defined on a nonempty set X. For x X and a positive real number r,
consider open ball B(x, r). Then for every point y B(x, r) there exists an open ball B’(y, r’) such that
(y, r') B(x. r). (104) Open Balls Centered at One Point Fact: Let B1(x, r1) and B2(x, r2) be two
open balls centered at x with radius r1and r2 respectively. Then either B1(x, r1) B2(x, r2) or
B2(x.r2) B1(x, r1). (105) Properties of Collection of Open Balls Theorem: Consider X with a
metric d. Let  be the collection of all open balls in X. Then  satisfies the following
properties. 1. For all x X there exists B(x, r)  2. For all z B1(x, r1)M B2(y, r2). there
exists B(z, r) such that z B(z, r) B1(x, r1) B2(y,r2). (106) Metric Topology For a non
empty set X we defined a metric d. ; With respect to this metric we defined open balls. And
considered  "Collection of all open balls in X." This collection satisfies the properties of
"Basis." Metric Topology: Let X be a nonempty set with metric d. The topology on X
generated by the set of all open balls in X with respect to d is called the "Metric Topology."
We also say that a topology on X induced by the metric d. Metric Space: Consider X with a
metric d, this d induces a topology the "metric topology." (X, d) is called a metric space.
(107) Examples: Metric Topology Let us see some examples of metric topologies. In these
examples we will generate the topologies induced by already defined metrics. Example 1:
Recall R with usual metric d(x, y) = |x — y| where x yeR. Her  = {B(x, r)|x X r > 0} is the
set of all open intervals. And we know that the topology generated by the set of all open
intervals is usual topology. So the metric topology induced by d(x, y) = |x — y| on R is usual

topology on R. Example 2 Recall R2 with usual metric d(x, y) = where

. Her  = {B(x, r)|x

X r > 0} is the set of all open disks. And we
know that the topology generated by the set of all open disks is usual topology on R 2. So the

metric topology induced by d(x, y)= on R2 is the usual topology on R2.

Example 3: Recall trivial metric on a set X. i.e. where x, y X.

Here = {B(x, r)|x X r>0}= {{x}.X I x X}. And we know that the topology generated by the
set of alll single tons is discrete topology. So the metric topology induced by the above
metric is the discrete topology on X.(108) Metrizable Spaces Consider a nonempty set X
with a metric d defined on X. Now this metric induces a topology on X. Let's reverse this
process, i.e. We have a set X with a topology , now the question Is "Dose there exist a
metric d such that d on X induces the topology ?" The answer depends on the selection
of . Metrizable Space: A topological space (X, ) is called metrizable space if there
exists a metric d on X that induces the topology . Remark: Not all spaces are metrizable.
(109)Examples: Metrizable Spaces Example 1: Consider R with the usual topology. Recall
usual metric d(x ,y) = |x —y| on R. Now the topology induced by d (x, y) = |x — y| on R is
the usual topology on R. So (R , U) is metrizable space. Example 2: Consider R2 with usual

topology. Recall usual metric on R2 Now the topology

induced by d on R2 is the usual topology on R?. So (R2 , u) is metrizable space. Example 3:

Consider X with discrete topology. Recall trivial metri where x, y X.

The topology induced by the above metric is the discrete topology on X. So discrete space is
metrizab le space. (110) Examples: Non-Metrizable Spaces Let us see some examples of non-
metrizable spaces, i.e. the topological space (X, )such that there exists no metric which induces
.Example 1: Consider X {x} with indiscrete topology i.e. ind = { ,X}. Then it is not
metrizable space. Reason: It is because of the fact that in a metric space all the finite set are closed.
But here only closed sects are and X. So Ting Can not be induced by any metric. Caution: It does
not mean that if in some topological space all finite sets are closed then that space is metrizable.
Example 2: Let X be an infinite set. Consider cofinite topology on X. Then it is not metrizable space.
Reason: There is a topological property called "Hausdorffness" which should exist in a metric space.
So if there exists some metric corresponds to (X , cof) then (X ,T cof)Should be Hausdorff but it is not

true. So (X ,T cof) is not metrizable space. Caution: It does not mean that if some topological space is
Hausdorff then that space is metrizable. Example 3: IR with lower limit topology is not metrizable
space. Reason: There are topological spaces called "Second Countable Spaces" and separable metric
spaces are second countable. So if there exists some metric corresponds to (IR , 1)then (IR ,
)should be second countable but it is not true. So (IR. (IR ,
1 )) is not metrizable space. (111) First
1

Countable Spaces Def: A topological space (X, ) is called a "First Countable Space" if for each p
X there exists a countable class B, of open subsets of X containing p such that for every UP
(open set containing p) there exists BP BP,such that p BP UP. Def: A topological space
(X, ) is called a "First Countable Space" if for each p X there exists a countable local base at p.
Remark: Every subspace of a first countable space is first countable. (112) Examples: First
Countable Spaces Example 1: Discrete space is first countable. Remember a local base at a
point p in discrete space, i.e. BP = {{p}} and it is finite Remarks: every finite set with any
topology is first countable. Example 3: R with usual topology is first countable. For any real
number x one may consider the following countable local base at x.

Bx is countable and (R,T) is first countable . Example 4: Every metric

space is first countable (113) Second Countable Space Def: A topological space (X, ) is called a
"Second Countable Space" if there exists a countable class B of open subsets of X such that for every
U and for all x U there exists Be B such that x B U. Def: A topological space (X, ) is
called a "Second Countable Space" if there exists a countable basis for .Remark: Every subspace
of a second countable space is second countable.
(114) Examples: Second Countable Example 1: Let X be a countable set with discrete topology.
Then (X,TDis) is second countable. Recall basis for discrete space, i.e. B= {{x}|x X}Example 2:
Let X = {a.b.c,d} and T = { ,{a}, {b}. {a,b},{c,d}. {a,c,d}, {b.c,d},x} be a topology defined on X. A basis
for is B(basis)= {{a}.{b}{c,d}}{finite } (X,T)is second countable. Remarks: Any finite set with any
topology is second countable. Example 3: R with usual topology is second countable.
Consider the following basis for usual topology on R. B(countable base)= {(a,b)|a,b Q}

Example 4: (R,TDis) is not second countable Example 5: R2 with usual topology is

second countable. Consider a basis B for usual topology on R 2 consists of collection of open disks
with rational radii and centers with rational coordinates. Such collection is countable.(115) Second
Countability implies First Countability First Countability Axiom (local)>Second Countability Axiom
(global)Theorem: Let a topological space (X,T) is second countable space. Then it also first countable
space.(116) First Countability Second Countability Example 1: Let X be an infinite set with
discrete topology. Then it is first countable space. Since for any point p X. Bp = {{p}} is a local base
at p. And it is finite so it is first countable. But it is not second countable. B= {{x}|x X} is the
smallest basis of discrete space. Since X is infinite so B is infinite. Example 2: Consider R with usual
topology. It is both first countable and second countable. Example 3: Consider R with lower limit
topology. It is first countable but not second countable. Remark: A first countable space may or may

not be second countable.(117) Open Cover A cover of a set X is a collection of sets :

where / is index set, such that Cover:(In Topology) Let (X, ) be topological space. A

cover of a X is a collection of subsets of X, i.e. where/ is index set, such that

Open Cover: Let (X, ) be topological space. An open cover of a X is a collection of open

subsets of X. i.e. where / is index set, such that Open Cover of

Subset: Let (X, ) be topological space and Y € X. An open cover of a Y is a collection of open

subsets of X. i.e. where/ is index set, such that

(118) Examples: Open Cover Example 1: Let X = {a. b,c, d} with topology T= { , {a}, {a,b}. {a,c,d},X}

open cover of X. Example 2: Let X = R with usual topology and consider the
following collections of subset of R u = {(-n,n)|n N} open cover v= {(n,n+2)|n Z} open cover
W = {(n,n+1)|n Z} not a cover of R Y={[n,.n + 1]|n Z} is a cover Example 3: Let X = R with
usual topology and consider (0.1) R and (0,1) R. The following collections of subset of R. U =
{(1/n,1)\n N*} Is an open cover of (0,1) it is not an open cover of [0,1) V=
{(n,n+2)|n Z} Is an open cover of (0,1) and open cover of [0,1) (119) Open Subcover Sub cover: Let

(X, ) be topological space. Consider C covers X, i.e. C = {C i| Ci X} such that

subclass D of C that also covers X is called an open sub cover of C. Open Sub cover: Let (X, ) be

topological space. Consider C be an open cover of X. i.e. C = {C i| Ci } such that .A

subclass D of C that also covers X is called an open sub cover of C. Example 1: Let X = {a. b,c. d} with

topology T={ , {a}. {a, b}, {c,d}. {a.c,d},X} is an open cover of X

It is an cover of X so D is sub cover of C

Example 2: Let X = R with usual topology and consider u = {(-n, n)|n N} (120) Lindelof Space A
topological space (X, ) is called a Lindelof space if and only if every open cover of X Example 1: Let
X be a finite set with any topology then it is Lindelof. Example 2: A set X with indiscrete topology
then it is Lindelof. Example 3: X = R with usual topology is Lindelof. Remark: A subspace of a Lindelof
space needs not be Lindelof.(121) Second Countable and Lindelof Spaces Theorem: Every second
countable space is Lindelof space.(122 ) Separable Spaces Def: A topological space (X, ) is said to
be "Separable" if there exists a countable dense subset A of X. i.e.there exist A X such that 1. A is
countable. 2, =X. Def: A topological space (X,T) is said to be "Separable" if there exists a sequence

of points in X such that every nonempty subset of X contains at least one point of the
sequence. Remark: Every second countable space is separable. The converse of this is not true in
general. Counter Example: R with lower limit topology is separable but not second countable.
(123) Subspace Separable Spaces Example 1: Let X be a finite set. Then X with any topology is
separable. Example 2: Consider a set X with indiscrete topology. Then separable Example 3: R with

usual topology is separable. Reason: Since there exists Q in R that is countable and =R. Example 4:
R with discrete topology is not separable. Reason: Since there exists no countable subset in R that is
dense in R.(124) Proposition 1: A discrete space is separable if and only if it is countable Proposition
2: (X,Tcof)is separable.(125) Subspace of Separable Space As we proved that the subspace ofa first
countable space is first countable and the subspace of a second countable space is second
countable. Now what about the subspace of a separable space? i.e. Is subspace of a separable is
separable? Not in general. Example: Consider R 2 with topology generated by

Now it is separable. Consider A= {(x.y)|x = -y} C R2

with relative topology on A relative to the said topology on R 2.(126) Metric Spaces and Separability
We have seen that every metric space is first countable space but we did not discuss about the
second countability and separability of metric spaces. In fact a metric space is not second countable
and not separable in general. Example: An infinite set X with trivial metric is not second countable
and not separable. Theorem: A separable metric space is second countable.(127) Separation Axioms
(1)To Spaces (2)T1Spaces(3) T2 (Hausdorff) Spaces (4) Regular Spaces (5)T3 Spaces(6) Normal Spaces
(7)T4 Spaces(128) To SpaceDef: A topological space (X, ) is said to be "T0 Space" iff for each x, y X
such that x y there exists an open set Ux X containing x such that y Ux OR there exists an
open set Vy X containing y such that x Vy. Remark: To property is a topological property. (129)
Examples:To Space Example 1: Every discrete space is To Example 2:Let X {a} consider

then is not T0. Example 3: Consider X = {a. b ,c ,d} with

T= { . {a }. {a, b}. {a, c},{a,b,c}, X} then is T0. Example 4: Consider X = {a. 6, c,d} with
T={ . {a , c}. {b . d}.X} is not T0.(130) T1 Spacea Def: A topological space (X, ) is said to be
" T1 Space" iff for each x,y X such that x y there exist open subsets Ux , Uy of X containing x,
y respectively such that y Uxand x Uy. Remark: T1 property is a topological property(131)
Examples: T1 Space Example 1: Every discrete space is T1. Example 2 Every metric space isT1.
Example 3: Every cofinite space is T1. Example 4: Consider X = {a.b.c.d} with T = {o. {a}. {b}. {a,b}. X}
is not T1.(132) T0 T1 T1 property is much stronger property than T0 property.1.e. Every T1
space is T0 but not every T0 space is T1. Let us prove first part of the claim and give an example for the
second part. Example: A To space that is not T1. Consider R with generated by a {(a, )|a R} is a
To space but not T1.(133) Criteria for T1 Space Theorem: A topological space (X, ) is T1 iff every
singleton subset {x} X is closed.(134) Subspace of T1 Space Theorem: Every subspace of a T1space
is also a T1 space(135) Properties of T1 Spaces I: Property 1 : Every finite subset of T1space is closed.
Property II: Let X be a finite set. Then is a T1 space if and only if is discrete space.
(136) Properties of T1 Spaces: II Property III: Let A be a finite subset of a T1 space X then A’ is empty.
(137) T2/Hausdorff Spaces Def: A topological space is said to be "T2 Space" iff for every
distinct pair of elements x,y X there exist open subsets Ux ,Uy of X containing x, y respectively such
that Ux Uy = . T2spaces are also called Hausdorff Spaces. Felix Hausdorff (1868 - 1942)
Remark: T2 property is topological property.(138) Examples: Hausdorff Spaces Example 1: Every
discrete space is Hausdorff. Example 2: A nonempty set X {x} with indiscrete topology is not
Hausdorff. Example 3: R with lower limit topology is Hausdorff. Example 4: R with topology

generated is not Hausdorff. : An infinite set with cofinite topology is not Hausdorff

space.(139) Theorem: Let is a Hausdorff space and A X then (A , ) is Hausdorff.(140)

Metric Spaces are Hausdorff: Recall the topic where we discussed some examples of "Non
Metrizable Spaces". We discussed there that an infinite set X with cofinite topology is not
metrizable. It is because of non-Hausdorffness of X with respect to cofinite topology. In this topic we
will discuss an important property of metric spaces called "Hausdorffness". Theorem: Every metric

space is Hausdorff.(141) : T2 property is a stronger property than T 1, property. 1.e. Every T2

space is T1 but not every T1 space is T2 . Example: An infinite set X with cofinite topology is T1 space
but not T2 space.(142) Unique Limit Point: Recall the definition of "Convergent Sequence". Let

be a topological space. A sequence of points in X is said to be converges to a point x

X if for every open subset Ux containing x. in X there exists N N such that for all n Nx Ux. Now if
we consider convergent sequences in R” with usual topology then our experience for such
sequences is uniqueness of the limit points. But if we critically analyze the definition of convergent
sequences, we find no such condition on the uniqueness of the limit point. Example: Consider
X = {a.b.c} with T = { ,{b}, {a,b}, {b,c}, X} The constant sequence (b) converges to a, to b, and to c.
Topological spaces in which sequences converge to unique limit points are of more importance than
the topological spaces in which limit are not unique. And the reason is, very limited results can be
stated/proved in spaces with multiple limit points. So one should impose some extra
condition/property on the space to avoid such multiplicity. And this condition/property brings the
class of spaces under consideration closer to which one's geometric intuition applies. The property
that ensure the uniqueness of limit point is the Hausdorff property.(143) Theorem: Unique Limit
Point Theorem: Let X be a Hausdorff space then every convergent sequence of points has a unique
limit point. i.e. for (xi) in X if a,b x are the limit points of (xi) then a= b. (144) Regular Space Def: A
topological space is said to be "regular" iff for every closed subset F of X and for every x

Fc there exist open subsets Us and Ux containing F and x respectively such that .
T3 Space: A topological space is said to be " T3 space" iff it is either Regular+T o or
Regular+ T1 or Regular+ T2 Remarks: 1. Property of being regular is a topological property. 2. Every
subspace of a regular space is a regular space. 3. T3 property is a topological property. 4. Every
subspace of a T3 space is a T3 space.(145) Examples: Regular Spacesa Example 1: Discrete space is a
regular space. Example 2: Indiscrete space is a regular space. Example 3: Consider X = {a.b.c} with =
{ , {a}, {b,c},X}. is a regular space. Example 4: R with usual topology is regular. Moreover
this space is also T3 space. Example 5: An infinite set with cofinite topology is not regular. So it is not
T3. Example 6: Recall the K-Topology on real line. Topology k generated by Bk = {(a,b)| a,b R}U
{(a,b)\Kl a,b R} wher K = {1,1/2,1/3.---} R (R, k) is not a regular space.(146) Normal SpaceDef:
A topological space is said to be "normal" iff for every pair of disjoint closed subsets, F 1,F2
X there exist open subsets U F1, and U F2 containing F1 and F2 respectively such that

T4 Space: A topological space is said to be " T4, space" iff it is either

Normal+ T1, or Normal+ T2 Remarks: 1. Property of being normal is a topological property. 2.
Subspace of a normal space needs not be a normal space. 3. T4 property is a topological property.
Completely Normal Space: A topological space is said to be completely normal space iff
every subspace of X with subspace topology is normal.(147) Examples: Normal Spaces Example 1:
Consider X = {a,b,¢,d} with T={ ,{d}, {b,d}, {c,d}, {b,c,d},X}. Claim: is a normal space.
Explanation: The closed collection is Cr = { , {a}, {a,b}, {ac}, {a,b,c},X} Example 2: Consider X = {a,b,
¢,d} with T={ ,{d}, {b,d}, {c,d}, X}. Claim: is not T4 space. Example 3: Consider Y = {b,c,d}
with Ty ={ ,{d}, {b,d}, {c,d}, {b,c,d},Y}. Claim: (Y,Ty) is not a normal space. Example 4: Consider
X = {a,b,¢,d} with T={ ,{d}, {b,d}, {c,d}, {b,c,d},X}. Claim: (Y,T y) is not a completely normal space.
Explanation: Consider Y = {b,c,d}. So the subspace topology on Y with respect to X is T y ={ ,{d},
{b,d},{c,d}.Y}.Example 5: R with usual topology is a T4 space.(148) Metric Spaces are Normal
Theorem: Every metric space is normal Definition: Let (X,d) be a metric space and A be a nonempty
subset of X. Then a continuous function dA:X —R defined as dA(x) = inf{d (x,a)|a A}, provides the
distance between x and A. We denote it as dist(x, A) = d A(x) (149) Ti Properties: An Overview An
overview of Ti properties is given in this topic through a diagram. This diagram illustrates the
relationship between the Ti spaces we studied in previous topics (150) Urysohn's Lemma Let X be a
normal space; A and B be two disjoint closed subsets of X. Let [a, b] be a closed interval in IR. Then
there exists a continuous map f :X —> [a,b] such that f(x) =a x A and f(x)=b x B. Urysohn’s
Lemma: (Strong Form) X is a normal space if and only if for every two disjoint closed subsets A and B
of X. There exists a continuous map f(x) =a , x A and f(x)=b , x One important application of
Urysohn’s Lemma is the partial solution of metrization problem. Here we have this solution in the
form of "Urysohn’s Metrization Theorem". Urysohn's Metrization Theorem: Every normal Ti space
with countable basis is metrizable. Another version of Urysohn’s Metrization Theorem is Urysohn's
Metrization Theorem: Every regular Ti space with countable basis is metrizable. (151) Compact
Spaces Cover: Let be a topological space. Let C = {Ci} bea class of subsets of X. such that

then C is called a cover of X. Subcover: A subclass S of a cover C of X which is also a cover

is called a subcover. Open cover: A cover C of X is said to be an open cover if and only if C
.Compact Space: A topological space is said to be compact if every open cover C of X
contains a finite subcover S of X. (152) Examples: Compact Spaces Example 1: A set X with
indiscrete topology is compact. Reason: Since there is only one open cover of X with respect to
indiscrete topology and that is {X} which is it self finite. Example 2: A set X with topology
containing finite number subsets of X is compact. Reason: Since every open cover C of X is a subclass
of and itself finite so C is finite too and any subcover S of C is also finite. Example 3: A finite set
X with any topology is compact. Reason: Since every topology of a finite set X is finite and from
"Example 2" X is compact. Example 4: An infinite set X with discrete topology is not compact.
(153) Open Intervals in R In this topic we will discuss the compactness of open intervals in IR with
respect to the usual topology. Fact: An open interval in R with respect to usual topology is not

compact. An immediate consequence of this fact is (R , ) is not compact.(154) Cofinite Topology

and Compactness In this topic we will study the compactness of cofinite space, a set X with cofinite

topology Fact: A set X with cofinite topology is compact (155) Compactness and Open
CollectionThe aim of this topic is to show that compactness of some space depends on the collection

of open subsets of the space. Consider R. now1 (R. ) is not compact.2 (R , ) is compact. 3 (R ,

) is not compact. 4 (R , ) is compact.(156) Theorem Every closed subspace of a compact space

is compact.(157) Compact Subspace of Hausdorff... Theorem: Let (A, 74) be compact subspace of a
Hausdorff space . Then A is closed in X. i.e. A Every compact subspace of a Hausdorff space is
closed (158) Compact Space under Continuous Map Theorem: Let be a compact Space and

f:(X , ) (Y , ) be a continuous map. Then f(X) is compact. i.e. Image of compact space under
a continuous map is compact. (159) Compactness and Homeomorphism Corollary I Let be a

compact space and (Y, ) bea Hausdorff space. Then a continuous map f:(X , ) (Y , ) is a

closed map. Corollary II: Let be a compact space and (Y, ) be a Hausdorff space. Then a

bijective continuous map f:(X , ) (Y , ) is a homeomorphism.(160) Application:

Compactness and Homeomorphism Exercise I: Consider (R, ) Show that there exists no
homeomorphism between an open interval of R and a closed interval of R. Exercise II: Prove or
disprove. (0; 1) (161) Finite Union of Compact Spaces: Theorem: Let be a topological

space. And be a finite family of compact subspaces of X. Then is compact.

(162) Compact Hausdorff Space is Normalae Theorem: Let be a compact Hausdorff space.
Then is normal. i.e. For every pair of disjoint closed subsets F 1 , F2 of a compact Hausdorff

space X there exists a pair of disjoint open subsets of X containing F1 , F2 respectively.(163)

Separated Sets Def I: Let A and B be two subsets of a topological space Then A and B are
said to be separated sets if and only if Def II: Let A
and B be two subsets of a topological space .Then A and B are said to be separated sets if

and only if Def III: Let A and B be two subsets of a topological space
. Then A and B are said to be separated sets if and only if there exist open subsets U A and UB

of X containing A and B respectively such that (164) Examples:

Separated Sets Example 1: Consider (R , ) Then A = (0,1) and B = (4, 9] are separated sets.

Reason: (By Definition I) Since (0,1) (4,9] = and (0,1)' (4,9] = and (0,1) =
Let discuss "Example 1" with "Definition III" of separated sets. There exist U A = (—0.5,2) and UB=
(3.10) two open subsets of R containing A = (0.1) and B = (4, 9] respectively such that

So A and B are separated sets of (R , ) Example 2: Consider (IR,

) . Then A = (—1,3] and B = [3,5) are not separated sets. Reason: By "Definition |" both sets
should be disjoint but this is not the case here, i.e. (—1 ,3] [3,5) = {3} Example 3: Consider

(R , ). Then A = (—1.3) and B = [3,5) are not separated sets. Reason: (By Definition 1) Both sets
are disjoint, i.e. (-1,3) [3,5) = But at the same time both sets should not contain each others
limit points. But here (—1,3)' [3,5) = {3} (165) Connected Spaces: Connected Set: A subset
A of a topological space is said to be connected iff there exists no pair of nonempty open
subsets U and V of X such that are nonempty disjoint sets y and

Disconnected Set: A subset A of a topological space is said to be

disconnected if it is not connected, i.e. if there exists a pair of nonempty open subsets U and V of X

such that are nonempty disjoint sets and .Connected

Space: A topological space is said to be connected if it can not be written as union of two
nonempty open disjoint subsets U and V of X. Disconnected Space: A topological space is
said to be disconnected if it can be written as union of two nonempty open disjoint subsets U and V

of X. Connected Space: (Def. Il) A topological space is said to be connected if

such that D1, D2 both open and implies that either or (166) Examples:

Connected Spaces Example 1: Consider (IR, ). Then A = (0,1) U (3, 5] is J disconnected subset of
R. Reason: Since there exists a pair of nonempty open subsets U=(0,1) and V = (3,6) of R such that

are nonempty disjoint sets and .Example 2: Consider X

= {a,b,c,d,e} with T = { , {a}, {a, b},{a, b, c}, {a, d, e}, {a, b, d, e}.X}. Then A = {c. e} is disconnected
subset of X. Reason: Since there exists a pair of nonempty open subsets U = {a, b, d , e} and V = {a, b,

c} of X such that and are nonempty disjoint sets and

.Example 3: Consider X = {a, b, ¢,d, e} with T = { ,{a,

b}, {a, b,¢},X}. Then X is a connected space. Reason: Since there exists no pair of nonempty open
disjoint subsets U and V of X such that X = U V. Example 4: Consider X = {a, b, ¢,d, e} with T
={ , {a, b}, {d, e},{a, b, c}, {a, b, d, e},X}. Then X is a disconnected space. x Reason: Since there exist
nonempty open disjoint subsets U = {a, b, c} and V = {d, e} of X such that .(167)
Connected Spaces and Open Closed Sets A topological space is said to be connected if

such that D1, D2 both open and implies that either or

Disconnected Space: A topological space is said to be disconnected iff , such

that D1, D2 both open and disjoint implies that neither D 1 is empty nor D2 is empty. Consider X = {a, b,
c, d, e} and with T = { , {a, b}, {d, e},{a, b, c}, {a, b, d, e},X}. and with

X w.r.t T is disconnected.(168) Connected Set and its Closure

Theorem: Let A be connected subset of a topological space ) and . Then B is
connected. In particular, Closure of a connected subset is also connected.(169) Image of Connected
Space Theorem: Let f be a continuous function from to and A bea connected subset of
). Then f (A) is connected. i.e. Image of a connected space under a continuous map is

connected.(170) Application: Image of Connected Set Exercise I: Consider (IR, ) and show that
there exists no homeomorphism between (0, 2) and (0, 1] U (3, 4). Exercise II: Prove or disprove

(0, 1) (0, 1]. ( 171) Connected Subsets of Real Line Theorem: A subset A of (R. ) is connected if
and only if A is an interval. (172) Connectedness and Fixed Point Theorem Fixed Point: A point
x X is said to be a fixed point of a map iff f(x) = x. Example: 1. f : R—>R. defined as
2
f(x) = x . Here 0 is a fixed point of f . 1 is also a fixed point of f. 2. g :R—-R. defined as g(x)=x+1 g has
no fixed point. Theorem: Consider R with usual topology and I = [0, 1] be closed interval in R. Then
every continuous map f: l l has at least one fixed point. (173) Union of Connected
Subsets Theorem: Let A and B be two connected subsets of a topological spaces such that
than C=AUB is a connected subset of X Theorem: The union of a collection of
connected subspaces of . that having a point common, is connected..
(174) Connected Component Def: Consider a topological space . Let a X and C be a

connected subset of X containing a .Then is called the connected S\ component of X

containing a. Remarks: 1. The connected component Ca is the J largest connected subset of X
containing a. 2. If b Ca then Ca = Cb. 3. X can be written as disjoint union of its connected

components. i.e (175) Examples: Connected Component Example 1: Consider

X = {a, b, c, d, e} with T = { , {a, b}, {d, e},{a, b, c}, {a, b, d, e},X}. Example 2: Consider X = {a, b, c,
d} with T = { , {a, b}, {a, b, c},,X}.(176) Connected Component is Closed Theorem: Let C be a

connected component of X then i.e. A Connected component is a closed subset of X.(177)

Connected Component is not Open We have discussed about the closed nature of connected
component of a topological space . Now one may ask the following question. Question: ls a
connected component C of X open? Answer: No, not in general. (178) Locally Connected Spaces
Def: Let be a topological space. X is said to be locally connected at a point x X iff for every Ux
open subset of X containing x, there exists V x an open subset of X containing x, such that
» Vx U,x » Vx is connected.(179) Examples: Locally Connected Spaces }. Example1: Consider
X = {a, b, c, d} with T = { , {a, b}, {a, b, c},,X} Example 2: A discrete space is locally connected.
(180) Questions: 1. Does locally connectedness imply connectedness? 2. Does connectedness imply
locally connectedness? Locally Connectedness Connectedness Example: X = B(-2;1) U B(2;1)
2
R Connectedness locally Connectedness Example:

Y = {(x, 0)|x [0, 1]}U (181) Path Connected Spaces Path: Let
be a topological space and x, y X. A path from x toy in X is a continuous map

such that and .Path Connected Space: A topological space

is said to be path connected iff for every x. y X there exists a path p from x to y in X.

Examples: 1 -(R, ) 2- (R2, ) (182) Facts: Path Connected Spaces: 1 Theorem: Let be a
path connected topological space then is connected. i,e Path connectedness implies
connectedness. (183) Facts: Path Connected Spaces:2 Proposition: Let be a path connected

topological space and be a continuous map. Then f(X) is path connected.