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Next IAS Ancient History Short Notes
Next IAS Ancient History Short Notes
Keeping these things in mind, I have tried making these notes exhaustive so that they become your one-stop
solution for Ancient History. The language has been avoided at large, to make them short, crisp and succinct.
The period of ancient history is usually considered spanning from Stone age to Harsha era (7th century), but I
have included dynasties till early mediaeval period (12th century) to ease your preparation.
For the early mediaeval period, I would advise you to focus only on the dynasties, their founders and important
rulers and not delve deep into it, even though I have given you some extra information. Just focussing on the
pointers given above would take you through the requirements of the exams.
For the Art and Culture part, kindly supplement these notes with my Art & Culture notes, as I have avoided the
repetition. You will find the notes to be more helpful if you have attended the lectures too.
Hoping that these may prove to be your one-stop solution for all your exams and see you through the same.
Regards
Rahul Sengar
CONTENTS
PREHISTORIC AGE GUPTA AGE -POST GUPTA DYNASTIES
STONE AGE NORTH
PALAEOLITHIC GUPTA
LOWER PALAEOLITHIC EAST
MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC LATER GUPTA OF MAGADHA
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC GAUDA OF BENGAL
MESOLITHIC KAMARUPA OF ASSAM
NEOLITHIC SOUTH
CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD KALBHRAS
PROTO HISTORY WESTERN GANGA DYNASTY
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION KADAMBAS
HISTORICAL AGE HARSHVARDHANA ERA
IRON AGE EARLY MEDIEVAL DYNASTIES
VEDIC AGE SOUTH INDIA
EARLY VEDIC AGE (RIGVEDIC CHALUKYA
PERIOD) HOYASLA
LATER VEDIC AGE YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI
MAHAJANAPADAS PALLAVA
BUDDHISM AND JAINISM IMPERIAL CHOLA
MAGADHA EMPIRE RASHTRAKUTA
MAURYAN AGE NORTH INDIA
POST MAURYAN PERIOD YAHOVARMANA OF KANNAUJ
NORTH INDIA KASHMIR DYNASTY
SHUNGA DYNASTY EASTERN GANGA DYNASTY
KANAV DYNASTY PALA DYNASTY
NORTH WESTERN REGION SENA DYNASTY
INDO-GREEKS KALCHURI DYNASTY
INDO SCYNTHEINS CHANDELA DYNASTY
INDO –PARTHIENS PARMARA DYNASTY
KUSHANAS SOLANKI DYNASTY
SOUTH INDIA TOMARA OF DELHI
SATVAHANAS GAHADAVALAS OF KANNAUJ
SANGAM AGE HINDU SHAHI DYNASTY
CHOLA DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND
CHERA TECHNOLOGY IN ANCEINT INDIA
SCHOOLS OF HINDU LAW
PANDYAS
SATYAPUTRAS
EASTERN INDIA
HISTORY
History is derived from Greek word – Historia (inquiry) is the study of the past.
DIVISION OF HISTORY
Pre-history Proto-history History
Events that Period between pre-history and invention of writing
occurred before the history.Writing can be there but script and the study of literate
invention of writing is still undeciphered and we get societies based on
Ex: Stone Age ,Early information from other Civilisation written records and
Chalcolithic Period Ex : Indus valley Civilisation archaeological sources
In India, the research on Stone Age Civilisation was started in 1863. Chopper chopping
pebbels pieces of tools were at first obtained from Sohan River valley, Punjab
(Pakistan).At first handaxe pieces of equipments were found in Vadanadurai and
Attirapkkam near Madras. Robert Bruce Foote was a British geologist and
archaeology. Robert Bruce Foote picked up a stone tool on the Parade Ground at
Pallavaram cantonment, near Chennai. It turned out to be an epochal discovery.It was
a hand-axe made of a hard rock called quartzite. Prehistoric man had crafted it to dig
out tubers and roots from the soil, butcher animals he had hunted and take out the
eat, and so on.
Note: In India, Mesolithic can start from 10000 BC and can go upto 6000BC. And
Neolithoic can start from 8000 to 6000 and can go upto 1000BC in south India. In our
notes, we are considering a rough division of time period and majorly a chronology is
important from exam perspective rather than exact time lines as it will vary from area
to area.
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Types Hand Axe Use of hand Bone tools Composite tools, Use of Celts for
of Tools Choppers axe declined Needles spearheads, ground
Cleavers Blades Harpoons arrowheads, and Bone tools i.e.
Pointers Parallel-sided sickles after needles, scrapers,
Scrapers blades hafting them on borers,
Borers Fishing and wooden or bone arrowheads
Burin tools handles
Geometrical and
Non-Geometrical
shapes
Stone used Limestone Quartzite Chert , Jasper Agate Dyke, Basalt,
Quartzite(Qua Dolomite
rtzite Men)
Cloths NO NO NO YES- Animal skin Yes
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Navdatoli (MP) Narmada River,Cultivated almost all food grains ,Round and
Rectangular residential structures
Malwa (MP) Narmada River, Richest chalcolithic ceramics, and spindle whorls
Kayatha (MP) Chambal River, Houses had mud-plastered floors, Pre-Harappan
elements in pottery and copper objects with sharp cutting edges.
Daimabad Southern extension of IVC , largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari
(Maharashtra) valley, Famous for recovery of bronze goods i.e. bronze rhinoceros,
elephant, 2-wheeled chariot with a rider and a buffalo
Songaon, Inamgaon & Large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses
Nasik (Maharashtra) Dead under the floor of houses in North and South direction
Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (MP): Known for Non-Harappan culture.
MEGALITHIC AGE(2000 BC To 200 AD Approx )
Big Stones used above burials or commemorative (non-sepulchral) memorials. Actual Burials are
like dolmenoid cists (box-shaped stone burial chambers), cairn circles (stone circles with defined
peripheries) and capstones (distinctive mushroom-shaped burial chambers found mainly in
Kerala. Non-sepulchral megaliths include memorial sites such as menhirs.
Regions: All over india but mainly penisulatr india like Maharshtra, Karnataka, TN, AP etc.
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FEATURES OF IVC
Town City City Divided into two Parts i.e.
Planning structure Citadel (Upper City ) : Fortified and Vital Private Buildings
Lower Town : Situated on east and separated by ground
Building By Side of Road , Terraced House , Double Stories building ,Inner Court
yard ,Public and Private Wells , Bathroom and Kitchen Locate diagonally
inside house is a symbol of Hygiene (Compare to of Swatch Bharat
Mission ) ; No Temples and No Palace
Material Mostly Burnt(Baked Bricks ) + Unburnt + Stones in Dholavira (Guj)
Drainage Brick Laid Channels , Each house has its own drainage , Covered
system manholes and underground drainage ,
Granary Large Dimension of 45-15 meter ,Brick platforms and wooden Structure
done to be safer from Moisture and Pests
Streets 13-34 feet Wide, Grid plan (cutting each other in North- South and East-
West direction ,Block/sectoral division , Lamp posts and dustbins on
regular interval is a sign of municipality (Comparable-Smart city Mission)
Great Looks like a Central swimming pool along with array of galleries and
Bath rooms and may be used for Ritualistic Cleaning
AGRICUTUR Earliest to produce Cotton and known as Sindon – Mesopotamians ; Hindon - Greece
E Wheat , Barley , Ragi ,Millet + evidences of Rice from Lothal and Rangpur
Animal Rearing(No horse) and OX used for Ploughing
Traces of Canal like Nala in Shortughai ( Afghanistan )
ECONOMY Exploitation of Natural Resources , Animal husbandry ,Barter System ( No Coins)
MANU- Use of Gold , Silver Bronze ; Terracotta ;Beads making workshops in Chanhudaro and
FACTURING Lothal , Ornaments made of gold , bones , steatite and precious stones like lazuli
POTTERY Wheel made , Red and black painted and Burial pottery (detailed discussion in A& C
Notes)
TRADE Mesopotamia (Sumeria) ,Central Asia, Afghanistan, Makan(Oman) ,Dilmun (Bahrain )
Export : Teak( Guj) and Lead ( Kashmir and South India )
Import : Jade (Asia ), Turquoise (Khurson ) Lazuli ,Tin (Afghanistan) , Gold will be
coming from Iran and South India )
SEALS Square , Elephant Rhino Tiger ,deer ,sheep but No Cow and No Horse on seals
Weight & Standardization and Binary System based on ratio of 16
Measurement Material like Chert , Limestone, Steatite and Cubical shape
Religion Nature Worship and both male and female Deity , Sculpture of reproductive human
organs i.e. Phallus ; Pashupati seal , Pipal tree and terracotta of Mother Goddess
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Maharasht
ra
Banawali (1974) R.S. Bisht Evidence of both pre-Harappan and
Harappan culture, Terracotta of
Plough , Only city with Radial streets
Rakhigarhi (1969) Haryana Surajbhan Largest Site of IVC in India ,
Ghaggar Cylindrical seal with alegator
terracotta bricks
Bhagwanpura, JP JOSHI
Saraswati River
Manda (1982) Jammu Procured wood
Chenab
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IVC and CONTEMPORARY CIVILISATIONS
Dimensions IVC Mesopotamian Egypt and Mayans
Extension Larger than combined area of Mesopotamia Mesopotamian : Iraq
and Egypt Egypt : todays Egypt
Mayans: South America
Rivers system Indus and its tributaries Mesopotamia: Tigris and Euphrates Egypt : Nile
Cities Well-structured and planned Complex cities
Drainage More organised and proper Complex , used copper pipes in Egypt
Not Clear ;believed to be Dominated by Mesopotamians, Mayans witnessed the rise of
Political Merchants.Lack of evidence of a kingdoms and Throne or property was inherited
System matriarchal system in the IVC by the daughter in Egypt
King System No Yes
Religion Nature , both male and female Deity Mayans were heavily religious
worshiped but NO TEMPLES Priests in Mesopotamia and Egypt
Bricks Burnt (baked) Egypt: Sun dries Bricks
Mesopotamia : Lesser Burnt bricks+Sundried
Mathematics Mathematics not known to IVC Mesopotamia : Sexagesimal maths system
and No evidence of prediction of celestial Mayans : exceptional at mathematics and
Astronomy movements in Indus Valley predicting celestial movements
History of No remains of timekeeping are found in Egyptians : history of timekeeping i.e. Sundials,
timekeeping data of the IVC the water clocks, and the division of the days
Writing Invented their own typical pictographic Mesopotamia: Cuneiform script and the Egyptian
System script known as Boustrophedon script: Hieroglyphics.
Both scripts have been deciphered
Weapons some weapons in sanauli ; Weapons more in number , Clear evidence of
No clear evidence of war , wars
Chariot 2 wheeled ( better technology ) 4 Wheeled
REASONS OF DECLINE of IVC
Theory Argument in Favour Argument Against
Flood Silt deposit above ground level Decline of settlement outside Indus valley can not be
Earthquake Raised level of flood plain explained as flood /earthquake can not be everywhere
River shifting River can not be dammed by tectonic effects
Drought 2000BC –less rain—increased aridity All river not dried up. for ex ghaggar is still there
Aryan Invasion Human skelton on streets ,Rigveda referes Decline of Harappas aroung 1800-1700 BC. Arival of Aryan
to dasa fortresses , Veda mention a place not early than 1500 BC. So Aryan clash seems difficult to
called hariyappa where Aryans fought battle accept.
Ecological Forest and grass depleted due to over Computation of need of Harappa population on scanty
imbalance urbanisation more flood and drought informationmore calculation needed
Survival of Tradition : Urban setup ended but religios practices ,cult of sacred places, fire worship ,house plans ,potter
wheel,attention to bathing etc survived and planned urban setup , lierary may not survived.
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P Rajana is head of Jana and has 2 duties i.e. Protection of Cows from Panis (one
O who hides cows) and Protection of tribes/Jana. Rajana (Gopa) assisted by :
Purohit(Guru) Sanani(Commander-in Chief of army)
L
Vrajpati (Authority over a large land ) Gramini (Head of Village Army)
I To get cattle back, Indra was invoked and many battles such as Gavisthi (search of
T cows), Gaveshana, Goshu, and Gavyat were fought. Indra will break forts of
I Dasyus hence he has been named a Purandhara.
C Administration through Tribal assemblies like
A Vidhata( Oldest body ), Sabha(assembly of elites,Judicial power) , Samiti
L (larger Body ) , Gana(troops) ---Women attended Sabha and Vidhata
Sabha and Samiti are there to control autocracy of Chief
No Standing Army and military functions were performed by Gana, Vrat , Sardha
S No mention of Justice Officer
Y Descended Monarchy: Rajana’s post seems hereditary but traces of election by
S Samiti is there.
T Rig Vedic charioteers used Varma (coats of mail) and sipra/ sironastra (helmets)
E and equipped with Asi (swords), Hanas (arrows) and Ilhianus (bows).
M 1st is Bharata King Divodasa (winner) and Dasa ruler Shambara
Battle of 10 Kings (Dasarajna Yuddha ) on banks of Purushani(Ravi) fought
between Sudas (bharata tribe and Trutsu family ) and 10 other Tribes ( 5 Aryans
Panchajanya (Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu ,Druhyu) + 5 Non-Aryans Tribes
Primary Occupation : Pastoral ; Secondary Occupation : Agriculture ( Traces of
Barley i.e. YAVA)
E Main Wealth : Cattle Gomat : Wealthy Person having cows
C No officer for tax collection and chief received voluntary offerings called “bali”
O Barter system was prevalent
‘NISHKA Greeva ’ Gold ornamental
N Ayas is the common name used for any metal. Gold was called Hiranya
M Introduced spokes wheels and Horse olayed significant role in thir life In
Y Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-making, metal smelter
Pani term used for Traders
As per Varun Sukta: A father can sell his Child.
Aghanya : Cown not worthy to be killed as its considered diety in Rigvedic sukta
Ochre Coloured Pottery(OCP) and Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
Important Rivers Name
Ancient Modern Ancient Modern Ancient Modern
Kubha Kabul Shutudri Sutlej Gomati Gomal
Vitastata Jhelum Vipasha Beas Marudvridha Maruvarman
Akshini Chenab Sadanira Gandak Sushoma Sohan
Purushani Ravi Drishdvati Ghaghara Ganga mentioned in 10th mandala
Other Important terms in Rigvedic Age
Nivi : cloth wor below Waist Vasas : Cloth above Waist Taksha : Carpenter
Karna : Metal Worker Veknat : Money Lender Aritri : Boatmen
Many hyms of Rigveda was compiled by Women called Brhamavadini i.e. Lopamudra
(wife of Agastya ) , Vishwawara , Sikta, , Nivavari and Ghosha
Boghaz- Koi inscription : Vedic Gods like Indra and Movement of Aryan to India from Iran
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R Status of Indra Agni and Varuna and other other Rig Vedic god degraded
E Prajapati or Adipurush became the Supreme God and as per Atharvaveda
L Sabha and Samiti are his Daughter
I Rudra was merged into Shiva who appeared for the first time.
G Rituals and sacrifices at household level with help of Priest Status of brahmana
I increased and made religious life complex.
O Reference of idol worship are reported but not dominating
N Magic and Omen entered the socio-religious life
Pushan became god of Shudra’s , Brihispati was Devaguru (Priest of Gods)
VEDIC LITERATURE
Vedic literature has transferred from one generation to other through Shurti (product of
divine revelation) and Smiriti (remembered by ordinary human beings). Later, compiled and
written down, and the earliest surviving manuscript is from the 11th century. Each of 4
Veda generally has 4 parts that is divided into two section i.e. Karma Kanda (Vedic
Samhita, Brahmana) and Gyana Kanda ( Aranyaka, Upanishads)
Rigveda Reciter : Hotr/Hotar ; Oldest Veda ; Upveda : Ayurveda Script : Brahmi
Consists of 1028 hymns (Sukta) and 10552 Mantras divided into 10 Mandalas
Mandalas 2 – 7: Oldest part of the Rig Veda Samhita and are called “family books”
compiled by families of seers/rishis.
Mandala 8 – Dedicated to various gods and mostly composed by the Kanva clan.
Mandala 9 – Dedicated entirely to Soma.
Mandala 1 – Dedicated to Indra and Agni. Varuna, Surya, Mitra, Rudra, and
Vishnu have also been mentioned. Compiled in Later Vedic Period
Mandala 10 – Compiled in Later Vedic Period and contains
Nadi Stuti Sukta Praising the rivers(Most Pious SarasvatiNaditama
,Devitama, Mahetama ) ; Purush Sukta : 4-fold Varna system
Only surviving recension of Rig Veda is the Shakala Shakha.
1st mention of Stupa word in RIGVEDA (Tree Stem) raised by King Varuna)
Samveda Shortest Veda ,Contains the famous Dhrupada Raga, later sung by Mian Tansen
Veda of Recensions are Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya (Talavakara).
Chants Upveda : Gandharva Veda ; Reciter : Udgatar
Yajurved Reciter :Adhavaryu ; Yajurveda divided into-
a Shukla (White) Yajur Veda/Vajasaneya –Contains only the mantras. It contains
Worship the Madhyandina and Kanva recensions.
or ritual Krishna (Black) Yajur Veda – Includes mantras +Prose explanations. It contains
knowled Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya and Kapishthala recensions.
ge Upveda : DhanurVeda by Vishwamitra
Atharva Magic spells to ward off evil spirits or dangers
Veda Considered to be a non-Aryan work ; 1st reference of Anga and Magadha
Recensions : Shaunaka and Paippalada ; Upveda : Shilpa Veda
Brahman Explanation of Vedic hymns, its applications and origin stories.
as Rigveda : Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas
Samveda: Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas.
Yajurveda: Taittiriya and Shatpatha Brahmanas
Atharva Veda: Only Gopath Brahmana
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Salvation Through Self-discipline & Help of Buddha & Magical power and help of
meditation Bodhisattvas female bodhisattvas
Buddha’s Rebirth No Yes Yes
Idol Worship No Yes ,1st human statue Yes
Language Pali Sanskrit Sandhya Bhasha /Twilight
Uniqueness Believes in the Paramitas : Bodhisattva 2 Truth Doctrine :
original teaching of strives to perfect in order Conventional : consensus
Buddha to purify karma and reality and common sense
Klesh and develop Ultimate truths : Reality as
Bodhichitta perceived by an enlightened
mind
Flourished in Sri Lanka and South Central Asia, East Asia Developed in Tibet
Asian Countries
Central Concept Arhat Bodhisattvas Tara
Sect of Mahayana Buddhism
Originated in China during the Tang dynasty as Chan school
ZEN BUDDHISM Spread to Japan in 7th century C.E.
Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this Buddhist tradition
NAVAYANA Neo-Buddhism – Reinterpreation by B.R. Ambedkar
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BODHISATTVAS
Maitreya (Ajitaboddhisatva) :Future Buddha & Earliest bodhisattva ; Holds a water phial
laughing Buddha is claimed to be an incarnation of maitreya
Padampani/Avalokiteshwara : Compassion Samantabhadra :Universal Boddhisatva
Vajrapani : Manifest Power Kshitigarbha: Deity of diseased Children
Manjushri : Manifests Wisdom Akshagarbha :Boundless as space
Sadaparibhuta: Never disparaging spirit Amitabha : Buddha of Heaven
Other Important Terms
NIRVANA : Annihilation of Flame of Desire and State of Supreme Bliss
SHEEL : Refers to when a layperson leaves home to live the life of a Buddhist renunciate among
a community of bhikkhus
UPASAMPADA: Refers to the rite and ritual of ascetic vetting (ordination) by which a
candidate, if deemed acceptable, enters the community as Upasampadā (ordained) and
authorised to undertake ascetic life.
VASSA: 3-month annual retreat observed by Theravada practitioners during rainy season
UPOSTHA: Uposatha day is for “cleansing of the defiled mind,” resulting in inner calm and joy.
PAVARANA: Confession by Monks of their offences committed during Rainy Season (Vassa)
Vishwa Shanti Stupa at Rajgir: Nichidatsu Fujii, a Japanese Buddhist monk and founder of the
Nipponzan-Myohoji Buddhist sect, started constructing Peace Pagodas in 1947 in many
locations around the world. Rajgir, also known as panchpahari is famous for both Buddhism
and Jainism. Saptparni Cave is placeof 1st congregation of the Buddhist Council .Gridhakuta
Hill/Vulture's Peak is placewhere Lord Buddha preached many of his teachings. 2 sermons
known as Lotus Sutra and the Prajnaparamita (“Perfection of Wisdom”) over here. At this Hill,
Buddha made Bimbisara convert to Buddhism. Several Jain temples on the hills surrounding
Rajgir.Lord Mahavira spent 14 years of his life at Rajgir.
BUDDHA’s RESIDENCES and Other Related events
-VELAVAN at Rajgriha by Bimbisara and ; Ashokaram Monastery by Ashoka in Patliputra
-Kutagrasala at Lichchhavi (Vaishali) ; Pubbarama vihara: Buily by Kosala King Prasenjit
Amarapali (Royal Courtesans Bacame his decsiple) and provided his Amarvatika for residence
of Buddhist Monks. In 8th year Buddha allowed Women to become Bhikshuni into Buddhist
Sangha at vaishali on advice of his disciple Ananda
- 1st woman to enter Sangha : Buddha’s Aunt Mahaprajapati
- Devadatta (Cousin of Buddha ) : wanted to become leader of Sangha fight with Buddha
- Anathpindak (Wealthy businessman of Kosala ) donated Jetavana Viahra
- Light of Asia (Based on Lalitvistara) by Edwin Arnold dedicated to Buddha
- Death: Buddha Spent his last Rainy season at Vaishali and while preaching his philosophy
Buddha reached Pava (City of Malla) and theory suggests he ate a Sukaramaddava(soft pork) ,
prepared by his generous host, Cunda Kammaraputta and became ill and then he reaches
Kushinara (Capital of Republic of Malla) and gave last sermon to Subhada and died at 483
BC.Buddha Didn’t appoint any successor to lead Sangha
- Mahabodhi Tree: Recent one is 5th generation tree planted by Cunninghum -Balaputradeva
(Ruler of Suvarnabhumi ) founded a monastery at Nalanda and requested Devapala through
his amabassdor to grant 5 villages
- Giant Buddha Statue at Bodhgaya with help of Daijokyo sect of Japan
- Sanchi(Ancient Name : Kaknam, Kakanaya , Kakanadabota, Botasriparwata) Stupa doesn’t
have any relarion with Buddh’s life
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JAINISM
Origin A very ancient religion. Total 24 Tirthankaras, last was Vardhaman Mahavira.
1st Tirthankara: Rishabhadev 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha, born in Varanasi.
All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth and Rishabhdev and
Arishtanemi(Neminath) are mentioned in Rigveda
Vardha Mother : Trishala (sister of Licchavi chief Chetaka) Father : Siddhartha Location :
man Licchhavi (Vajji Sangha)
Mahavi Wife :Yashoda Daughter : Anojja(Priyadarshana) Son-in-Law : Jamali
ra At the age of 42 he attained Kevaljnan under a sal tree on the bank of Rijupalika
540 – River (omniscience) Jrimbhik through Right Knowledge, Right Faith and Right
468 B.C. Conduct ( Triratna of Jainism-KFC) and became a Jina and then Tirthankara
Used Prakrit language(ardha –Maghadhi) so that ordinary people could understand
Death: Pavapuri and became a Siddha (free from cycle of birth and death)
Sudharaman : 1st Chief of jain Sangha after Mahavir
Mahamastaka-Abhishek : Important festival at Shravanbelgola in every 12 years
Philo Word Jain comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror
sophy Non-Violence :Practiced in extreme sense i.e. no agricultural occupation
of Soul : Everything has a soul even rock , pen etc .Karma is bane of Soul
Jainism Concept of God : Perfect being and Creator god not accepted
World is maintained by : Universal Law and there is no starting/end of this world
Rebirth in a Varna: Because of your Karma no criticism to Varna System
Salvation: Only Through renouncing the world, therefore, monastic existence is a
necessary condition and Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from
the cycle of karmaSo, Jain monks and nuns had to take the five vows.
1st Chief disciple : Ganadhar (Gautamswami), a well-known Brahmin scholar
Lord Mahavira had 11 Ganadhars, who compiled 12 scriptures based on his
teachings known as Agamas.
Santhara/Samlekhana/Samadhi Maran : Fast unto Death
Mahavrata-Anuvrata Seven Tattvas Types of
4 added by lord Parshvanath Karmas
and last one by Mahavira (7 elements of Jain Philosophy )
1.Ahimsa (non-violence) 1.Jiva (living substance) Ghati :
2.Satya (truth) 2.Ajiva (matter or non-living substance) Obstruct
3.Asteya (non-stealing) 3.Asrava (influx of Karmic matter in the soul) soul
4.Aparigraha (non-possession) 4.Bandhan (Bondage of soul by Karmic Aghati :
5.Brahmacharya (chastity) matter) affect the
Spread of Jainism 5.Samvara (stopping of Asrava) body
North India and to Gujarat, 6.Nirjara (Gradual removal of Karmic matter)
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka 7. Moksha (Attainment of salvation).
Jain Sangha by Tirthankar Other Related Terms of Jainism
Sadhus (Monks) Arihant : One who has destroyed his inner enemies
Sadhvis (Nuns) Arhat: One to whom nothing can be secret.
Shravaks (Male householders) Arhant: A spiritual acquisition leading a man to the state of
Shravikas (Female an Arihant.
householders) Nirgrantha : One who has gotten rid of all attachments
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JAIN COUNCILS
Nos Year - Place Chairman Development
1st 300 B.C.- Patliputra (Bihar ) Sthulabhadra Compilation of Angas(lost)
2nd 512 A.D. –Vallabhi (Gujrat ) Devardhi Kshmasramna 12 Angas and Upangas
DIVISION IN JAINISM
Reason of Division: Due to famine (12 years) in Magadha group led by Bhadrabahu moved to
South India and stick to the tough practices while other group in Magadha adopted a more liberal
attitude and started wearing white clothes…After end of famine Southern group came back
to Magadha, the changed practices led to the division of Jainism into 2 sects :
DIMANSIONS DIGAMBER SHWETAMBER
Led by Bhadrabahu Sthulabhadra
Meaning Sky Clad White Clad
Cloths Nudity for male , white unstitched White Cloths
saree to female
Women No , Need to take rebirth in man Yes
Salvation body
Vows All 5 4 excluding Brahmacharya
Images Tirthankaras have downcast eyes, Prominent staring eyes and are richly
are plain and always carved as decorated
naked figures (Kayotsarga Pose)
Sects 3 Major 2 Minor Major
1. Bisapantha 1.Gumanapantha 1.Murtipujaka/Derawasi/Mandirmargi
2. Terapantha 2. Totapantha 2.Sthanakvasi (avoided Idol Worship)
3. Mula Sangh 3.Terapanthi (simpler worship pattern
4. Taranapantha/ Samaiyapantha than Digambar Tera panthi)
Note: Yapniya originated from digamber but followed values of Shwetamber too.
OTHER PHILOSOPHIES OF JAINISM
Anekantavada All entities have 3 aspects: substance (dravya), quality (guna), and mode
(Metaphysics) (paryaya). Simply, it means non-absolutism or many-sidedness of reality
Theory of Realty meaning things have infinite aspects that no determination can exhaust.
Syadavada All judgments are conditional i.e. Partially correct.
Epistemology Combinations of these possibilities can be stated in 7 logical naya (judgement)
Theory of called Saptabhangi or Saptabhanginaya.
Knowledge
Ananta- Ananta Gyan(knowledge ) ,Ananta Darshna(Perception)
Chatushtaya Ananta Virya (Power) Ananta Anand (Bliss)
Royal Patron South India: Kadamba dynasty , Ganga dynasty , Amoghavarsha
,Kumarapala (Chalukya)
North India: Bimbisara ,Ajatasatru ,Chandragupta Maurya ,Bindusara,
Kharavela ,Harshavardhana
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16 MAHAJANAPADA
Ancient India had several kingdoms after later Vedic Age. This era saw Religious, political and
socio-economic growth in Indo-Gangetic plain. These settlements led the growth from
Janapadas to Mahajanpadas i.e. SECOND URBANISATION OF INDIA and by 6th BC, the
focus of political activity moved from the western part of Gangetic plain to the eastern part.
16 Mahajanpadas by Anguttar Nikaya , 16 by Jain text Bhagwatisutras , 22 by Ashthadhyayi
Mahajanapada Capital Modern Location Developments
Kamboj Pooncha Kashmir and Several literary sources mention that
Hindukush Kamboja was a republic.
Gandhara Taxila Rawalpindi Gandhara is mentioned in Atharvaveda
Kuru Indraprastha Meerut moved to a republic form of governance
Panchala Ahichchatra Western UP Later the nature of governance shifted
and from monarchy to republic
Kampliya
Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur West of Panchalas and south of Kurus
Saurasena Mathura Western UP Centre of Hinduism +Buddhism
Ashmaka or Pratisthan Bank of Godavari
Assaka
Vajji Vaishali Bihar Republic + Main races were Licchavis,
Vedehans, Jnatrikas and Vajjis.
Malla Kusinara Deoria ,UP Republic and finds a reference in
Buddhist + Jain texts and Mahabharata.
Avanti Ujjaini or Malwa and Avanti was significant in relation to the
Mahismati Madhya Pradesh rise of Buddhism
Chedi Sothivati Jaipur Eastern parts of Bundelkhand and
adjoining areas
Kosala Sravasti Eastern UP
Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad Monarchical+ After the rise of Buddha,
the ruler Udayana made Buddhism a
state religion
Kasi Kasi Banaras cited in the Matsya Purana
Anga Champa Munger and Mentioned in Mahabharata and Atharva
Bhagalpur Veda , Took over by Bimbisara
Magadha Girivraja| Gaya and Patna Close to Anga, divided by river
Rajagriha Champa. Later, Magadha became a
centre of Jainism and 1st Buddhist
Council was held in Rajagriha
Svapnavasavadattam by poet Bhasha : story of vatsa king Udyana and Avanti princess Vasavadatta is realted to Ujjain
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Last Rulers As per some sources : Andhraka, Pulindaka, Vajramitra and Ghosha
Last Sunga king: Devabhuti, killed by his own minister, Vasudeva
Kanva in around 73 BC.
Effects Hinduism revived + Emergence of various mixed castes and
integration of foreigners into Indian society.
Language of Sanskrit gained prominence +Patronised art and
architecture + increase in the usage of human figures and symbols in
art during this period
.
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Yajna Sri Recovered north Kokan and Malwa from the Shaka rulers.
Satakarni (c. 165 Motif of a ship on his coins: Lover of trade and navigation, found in
– 194 CE) Andhra, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Administration Based on the Dharmashastras ; not very clear
Rajan (ruler : upholder of dharma ) Princes or Rajas (names
inscribed on coins)Maharathis (power of granting villages +
marital relations with the ruling family ; Mahasenapati ;
Mahatalavara
Kingdom was divided into districts called ahara. Their officials
were known as amatyas and mahamatras
Military and feudal elements : Senapati provincial governor
kataka and skandhavara : Military camps and settlements
Gaulmika : Village headman + head of a military regiment
1st to started giving free land to Brahmana and Buddhist
3 grades of feudatories – Raja (Right to strike coins), Mahabhoja
and Senapati
ECONOMY Agriculture was the backbone + relied on trade and production
Maritime trade(Ship motifs on coin)
Acquainted with the use of iron and agriculture (produced cotton)
Paddy Transplantation : Mouth of 2 rivers i.e. Krishna and
Godavari (formed a great rice bowl)
Exploited the rich mineral resources of the Deccan such as iron
ores from Karimnagar and Warangal and gold from Kolar fields
Coins : Die-Struck and Cast-coins + Punch-marked coins
Material : Silver, copper, lead and Potin(Silver + Lead+ Copper)
1st native rulers to start Portrait coins
Language : Dravidian and Brahmi script
Shapes – round, square, rectangular
Many symbols : Chaitya ,Chakra ,Lotus,Nandipada,Ship, Swastik
RELIGION Hindu religion and the Brahmanical caste but generous towards other
castes and religions that is evident from donations
LANGUAGE Prakrit with Brahami Script and rare use of Sanskrit
MATERIAL Regular use of fire-baked bricks and flat, perforated roof tiles
Drains were covered and underground
SOCIETY 4- fold varna system
Important Buddhist sites : Nagarjunakonda and Amravati(AP )
Nasik and Junar (Maharashtra) , also under successor Icchavakus
Good Status: Artisans, Merchants and Gandhikas (perfumers) are
mentioned as donors, later used for all kinds of shopkeepers. Title
‘Gandhi’ title is derived from this ancient term Gandhika
Women occupied an important position in the society
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SANGAM RELIGION
Primary deity: Murugan (Tamil God), Magical charms are practiced.
Other Gods: Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and Korravai.
Nadu Kal/Virrukal worship: Erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warriors
Captains of the army were given the title “Enadi” at a formal ceremony
Megalithic practice (started in 1200 BCE after Neolithic Age in south ) of providing for
the dead continued in this age and cremation was also introduced
Chevilittai: Foster mothers and they had a close association with the family members.
Kuti (clan-based descent groups): Most relevant basis of stratification: where there
was no restriction on inter-dining and social interactions among Kuti groups.
CHEDI DYNASTY / MAHAMEGHAVAHANA /CHETAVAMSA (KALINGA - 1ST CBC)
Hathigumpha inscription: Information about King Kharvela (3rd Chedi King),
Mahapadmananda made Canals in Kalinga and captured it Religion: Jainism
FOREIGN DYNASTIES IN NORTH WEST REGION OF INDIA
DYNASTY KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER
PERSIAN 550 BCE : Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus invaded the North-
Western front of India during Rule of Bimbisara od Haryanka Dynasty
Ancient Indian Smaller Empires : Gandhara, Kamboja, and Madra
IRAN Cyrus succeded tribes in Gandhara region
Darius I (Cyrus’s grandson) annexed Punjab and Sindh
Xerxes (Son of Darius) could not move ahead with the further conquest
of India because of war with the Greeks.
IMPACT OF INVASION :
Indo-Iran Trade : Iranian coins ,found in the North-Western frontier
Script: Kharoshti script introduced to northwest India by the Persians. It
is derived from the Aramaic script and is written from right to left.
Achaemenid influenced Mauryna Art i.e. bell-shaped capitals
Arab and Persians are 1st to use name HIND for land across Sindhu
GREEK ALEXANDER ( 356BCE -323 BCE) :
He is Son of Philip of Macedonia, became king in 336 BC and conquered
INVASION Asia Minor, Iran, Iraq.
330 BCE: Annexed the whole of Persia (Babylon) by defeating Persian
King Darius III in the Battle of Arbela.
326BCE: Small rulers like Ambhi of Taxila and Porus of the region of
Jhelum. Ambhi accepted Alexander’s sovereignty but Porus didn’t and
involved in Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum) and got defeated.
326 BCE: Alexander Army refused to cross Beas and forced him to
retreat and Alexander finally died at Babylon in 323 BCE aged 32.
321BCE: Spilt of Greek Empire. In Northwest India, Alexander left four
of his generals in charge of four regions, one of them being Seleucus I
Nicator (established Seleucid Dynasty)
Eudamas was the last General of Alexander in India.
Women of Massaga (Capital of Frontier republic Ashwaka) taken part
in battle against Alexander and all were killed by him.
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IMPACT OF INVASION :
Political unification : Augmented in northern India under the Mauryas
Direct Contact with Greece : Establishment in different fields
Tarde: New land and Sea routes paved the way for Greek merchants
and craftsmen to establish trade with India. As per Historical records
carpentry flourished and used in making Chariots, boats and ships
Indian History : Important to established chronology of Indian Rules
Greek settlements: Under both Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.
Important cities: Alexandria (Kabul), Bonkephala (on Jhelum) and
Alexandria in Sindh.
Art : Gandhara school of art ; Introduced Yavanika(Curtain) in Theatre
1st to Appoint Strategos ( Military Governorship System )
1st to use name India who translated Hind as Indus
INDO INITIAL PRESENCE :
305 BC: Seleucus’s conflict with Chandragupta and ceded large parts
GREEK west of Indus, including Hindu Kush, present-day Afghanistan and
Balochistan to Mauryan king. Mauryas also had departments to take
KINGDOM care of foreigners like Yavanas, Yonas (Greeks) and Persians.
PROPER KINGDOM :
King Demetrius (190 BC) son of Euthydemus I) invaded and conquered
southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab
Civil wars among Bactrian kings after the death of Demetrius facilitated
independent kingdom of Apollodotus I, can be regarded as the first
proper Indo-Greek king (whose rule was not from Bactria).
MENANDER I / MILINDA (IN PALI). (165 BCE- 145 BCE)
Empire: Kabul valley (west) , Ravi River (East ) Swat valley in the north
to Arachosia (Helmand in Afghanistan) + Rajasthan and Pataliputra
Discussion with Buddist Monk Nagsena (compiled in Milnd Panho-Pali)
Succeeded by son Strato I in 130 BCE +His Coins found in Bairat
HERMAIUS
Last ruler in Bactria and defeated by the Parthians around last quarter of
the 2nd century BC end of Greek rule in Bactria
However, Indo-Greek rule continued in north-western India for some
more time and lost to Parthians and Shakas in due course of time.
Remaining part of the territory, i.e, the area to the east of the Jhelum also
ceded to the Kshatrapa ruler Rajuvula.
The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II (issued lead coins). He ruled the Punjab
region until 55 BC, some say until 10 AD
COINS:
North of Hindu Kush: Gold, Silver, Copper and Nickel coins , Greek legends
+Royal portraits (obverse) and Greek deities (Athena) on the reverse
South of Hindu Kush region : Silver and copper coins , bilingual inscriptions –
Greek and Kharoshthi , royal portraits (obverse) Indian Deity (reverse )
INDO A group of Iranian nomadic pastoral tribe ,also known as Shakas
SCYTHIAN Started Satrap System
S 5 Branches : Afghanistan ,Punjab , Mathura , Upper Deccan and Western India
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Part of Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan + Pakistan +almost whole northern India
Journey to Empire: 1st occupied Bactria (north Afghanistan) where they displaced the
Shakas, and gradually moved to the Kabul valley and seized Gandhara by crossing the
Hindu Kush, replacing the rule of the Greeks and the Parthians in these areas.
Finally, they set up their authority over the lower Indus basin and the greater part of
the Gangetic basin
KUJULA KADPHISES 1 (15 CE – 64 CE)
Consolidated 5 clans of the Yue-Chi tribe unified Kushana
adopted the epithet ‘Dharmathida’ and ‘Sachadharmathida’
COPPER COINS: Believed to imitated the Roman ‘aurei (Gold)’ type coins,
found south of the Hindukush and give an idea about his association with
Buddhism.
VIMA KADPHISES 2 (64 CE – 78 CE)
Son of Kadphises-I, conquered Gandhara from the Parthians and extended the
kingdom to the east of the Indus till Mathura region.
Firmdevotee of Shiva proclaimed himself as ‘Mahishvara’ on his coins.
GOLD COINS: Considered as 1st Ruler to issue a large number of gold coins
KANISHKA (78 CE – 105 CE) : MOST FAMOUS KUSHAN RULER
I Extension of Empire: Central Asia -Afghanistan, north-western India to Ganga
M valley + Malwa region +Varanasi, Kaushambi and Shravasti (UP) and Sanchi(MP)
P Centre of Empire: Bactria, evident from Bactrian language in coins- inscriptions.
O Sources of information: Rabatak inscription (Afghanistan)
R Title: ‘Devputra’ and on some coins has been shown wearing a peaked helmet.
T 2 Capitals –Purushapura (Peshawar) - Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge
A stupa to house the Buddha’s relics 2nd Capital is Mathura in India.
N A headless statue of Kanishka depicting him as a warrior
T
Requested to marry Chinese princes Denied and defeated by General Pan Chao
PATRONIZED
R
4th Buddhist council at Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar (Kashmir)
U
Vasumitra : Buddhist scholar who authored Mahavibhasashashtra)
L
Ashvagosha: Buddhacharita (Poetic Discourse about Buddha in Sanskrit)
E
Charaka :The father of Ayurveda , Court Physician
R
Nagarjuna: wrote Book Madhyamakakarika and given theory of
S
Madhyamika Shunyavad (school of Mahayana)
Gandhara and the Mathura schools of sculpture
Coins: Images of Buddha + Greek and Hindu Gods (Secular Ruler).
Successors of Kanishka : Vasishka, Huvishka, Kanishka Ⅱ (title of Kaiser)
VASUDEVA (189/195CE – 225 CE : THE LAST KUSHANA EMPEROR)
He took the title ‘Shaono Shao Vasudevo Koshano’ reflects that by this time
Kushanas were totally indianised.
Vasudeva came under military attack from the Sasanian emperor Ardashir I
Coins : Gold (Dinar) + Copper and Introduction of a Nandipada (hoofprint of the
bull Nandi, in the obverse right field
Possibly Vasudeva was the son (presumably of Huvishka) by a Hindu mother
Te le g ra m - @ u p s c m a te ria lo n lin e 1
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Uparikara : levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to another
Sulka: Commercial tax paid by organization of traders , In case of non-Payment
Cancellation of Right to Trade and fine amounting to 8 times of the original Sulka
Visthi: King had a right to forced labour
Kamandaka in Nitisara suggests that a King should take special care of his treasury
Kalidasa and author of the Narada-Smriti = Revenue is 1/6 of produce
PROVINCES, DISTRICTS AND VILLAGES: Empire was divided into Bhuktis /Desas
Bhuktis : Governed by Uparikas and directly appointed by the King
Vishayas(districts): Headed by Ayuktaka/Vishyayapati, appointment by governor
Prathama-Kulika (head of artisan), Prathama Kayastha (head of Kayastha).
Astakuladhikarana : In north Bengal a post higher than the village
Village’s headman: Gramapati ; Grama-vriddhas : village disputes
S Ideal Varna System not practiced and many Jatis (Caste ,a Portuguese word ,derived
in 14th Century) emerged due to Varna-Samkara (inter-marriage between varnas)
O Vratya Kshatriaya(semi-Kshatriya) : Families of Greek and Scythian origin
Dharmasastras also speak of apadharma or conduct to be followed during periods
C of distress that means take to professions and duties not assigned to them
Brahmadiyas, Agrahara : kings, officials gave land not only to individual and
I groups of Brahmana’s to come and settle in remote areas
Antyajas(Untouchables): Considered impure So outcasted like Chandals
E 1st Epigraphic evidence of Sati Practice in Eran Inscription of Bhanugupta.
Fa-Hien’s observation about Gupta Empire:
T
1. Vegetarianism 2. Non-Violence 3.Prevalence of caste 4. Existence of slavery
5.Presence of untouchability – Chandalas 6.Remarriage of widows was unfavorable
Y
7. Prevalence of Devadasi system 8. Multi-religious : Buddhism, Hinduism , Jainism
L Kalidasa: Classical Sanskrit writer, greatest poet and dramatist of Gupta Period.
1. Abhijnanashakuntala 2.Vikramorvashi 3. Raghuvamsha(Poems)
I 4. Malavikagnimitra 5. Kumarasambhava 6.Meghaduta(Poems)
Vishakhadatta : 1. Mudrarakṣhasa : Foucs on Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
T 2.Devi Chandraguptam : Story of Chandragupta II
Shudraka(king as well as poet)
E 1. Mrichchhakatika [story of Charudutta (merchant) and Vasantsena (Courtesans)]
2. Vinavasavadatta 3. A bhana (short one-act monologue) 4. Padmaprabhritaka
R Bhasa: Wrote 13 plays , famous one is Swapnavasavadattam
Bharavi : Kiratarjuniya, Sanskrit Kavya about the conversation of Shiva and arjun
T
Bhatti : Bhaṭṭikavya which is also known as Rāvaṇavadha
Magha : Sisupala (7th century AD)
U
Dandin: 1. Kavyadarshana 2. Dasakumarcharita (Adventures of 10 princes)
R Bhatrihari (King): 1. Nitishatak (philosophy) 2. Vakyapadiya( Sanskrit Grammar)
Ishwar Krishna : Sankyakarika (observation on Samkhya Philosophy)
E Vyasa :Vyasabhasya(work on Yoga philosophy)
Vatsyayana : 1. Nyaya Sutra Bhashya (1st commentary on Gautama’s Nyaya Sutras)
2. Kamasutra (a Secular text dealing with Eroticism)
Mathem Aryabhatta wrote Aryabhattiya discuses about Sine, Cosine etc.same is discussed in
atics Suryasiddhanta written by Latadeva(as per Albaruni of 11th Century )
Note: Game of chess (Chaturanga) originated in India in this period
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TRAIKUTAKAS (388-456AD)
Derived their name from Trikuta (Nasik hills) ,also mentioned in Raghuvamsha of Kalidasa
Founder : Dhaharsena Important Rulers :Maharaja Indardatta (415 -440) Daharsena(440-465)
Maharaja Vyghrasena ,Madhyamsena
VISHNUKUNDINS(420-624 AD)
Founder: Madhavavarman I Location : Maharshtra , AP, Telengana ,Odisha
Most Powerful: Madhavavarman II describes himself as the lord of Trikuta and Malaya.
Undavalli Caves (A.P.) : A monolithic rock-cut architecture is one of the finest testimonials to
ancient viswakarma sthapathis (Hinduism)+Jainsim +Buddhism
EARLY KALACHURIS (550-625AD)
Founder: Krishnaraja I from Mahishmati, modern Maheshvara
Association : Elephanta and Ellora Cave
Earliest coin found at Ellora, in front of Cave No. 21 (Rameshvara), was issued by Krishnaraja
WESTERN GANGA DYNASTY (350–1000 C.E.) : ANCIENT KARNATAKA
Followed Jainism , erection of monuments in sites Shravanabelagola, Kambadahalli
Founder: Konkanivarman, also known as Dharmamahadhiraja.
Religion: Shaivism, Vedic Brahmanism, and Vaishnavism
Gomateshwara, monolith sculpture, dedicated to Lord Bahubali standing in
Kayotsarga pose (leaving bodily comfort) commissioned by Chamundaraya represents
the pinnacle of Ganga sculptural during Rachamalla IV reign in 981AD.
Administartion
Sarvadhikari (Prime minister), shri bhandari (treasurer), Sandhivirgrahi (Foreign)
Mahapradhan (chief minister) Commander (dandanayaka)
Steward (manevergade), master of robes (mahapasayita), Gajasahani (elephant corps)
Thuragasahani(Cavalry commander) , Niyogis (Palace administration) Padiyara ( In
charge of court ceremonial tasks) Pergades (superintendents of social Starta)
manepergades (Royal house superintendents), Sunk Verdades(Toll Collector)
Nadabovas (Village accountants and tax collectors), also served as scribes.
Nalaga migas (Defecnce officers in village) , Manya (Tax free Land)
Talavritti (donation granted for the maintenance of temples )
Income Tax Terms:
Anthakara (internal taxes), utkota (gifts to the king), Hiranya (cash payments), sulika
(Duties on import) Siddhaya ( local agricultural tax) Pottondi (local feudal ruler's tax)
KADAMBA DYNASTY -BANWASI and TRIPARVATHA BRANCH (345AD - 540AD)
Sources: Alagunda, Gundanur, Chandravalli, Halasi, and Halmidi, family was named
after the Kadamba tree that flourished there.
Talagunda inscription of crown prince Santivarma, one of their earliest inscriptions
Founder : Mayursharma who have beaten the Traikutas, Abhiras, Sendrakas, Pallavas,
Pariyathrakas, Shakasthana, Maukharis, and Punnatas in other wars
Kings : Mayurasharma(345 - 365) Kangavarma(365 - 390) Bagitarha(390 - 415)
Raghu(415 - 435) Kakusthavarma(435 - 455) (most powergul) Santivarma(455 -
460)Mrigeshavarma(460 - 480) Shivamandhativarma(480 – 485) Ravivarma(485 –
519) Harivarma(519 – 525) (Triparvatha Branch) Krishna Varma I(455)
Vishnuvarma Simhavarma Krishna Varma II
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In Post Harsha Period: Hundi will be used as bill of Exchange ,as remittance
instruments (to transfer funds from one place to another),as credit instruments
(to borrow money [IOUs]),
Army: four divisions (chaturanga) of Harsha’s army
Commander : Baladhikrata /Maha-Baladhikrata
Head of cavalry : Vrahadasvatara, Maha-senapathi: armed forces
Justice: Severe and usual punishments were imprisonment for life, loss of limbs,
ordeals by fire and water also existed.
Mimamsakas were appointed to dispense justice
4-fold division + caste system was firmly established.
Position of women declined.
S
No purdah system among high class
O Sati : Yasomatidevi, wife of Prabhakara Vardhana, immolated herself
C Consumption of meat, onion was avoided.
People were given complete freedom of worship and social harmony prevailed
I Religion : He accepted Buddhism but Hinduism, Jainism were also popular
E Slaughter of animals and consumption of meat was restricted.
Religious assembly at Prayaga was constituted once in every 5 year. golden
T statue of Buddha was consecrated in a monastery and a small statue of Buddha
Y (three feet) was brought out in a procession
convened quinquennial assemblies known as Mahamoksha Parishad at Prayag
Empire of prosperity, agriculture, industry and trade both in internal and
external flourished. Cities like Peshwas, Taxila, Pataliputra and Mathura were
destroyed by Hunas. But places of Bannaras, kannuj were prosperous
An individual took to learning between 9 and 30 years of age
L Harsha wrote Ratnavali , Priyadarshika and Nagananda
I Banabhatta wrote Harshcharita and Kadambari
T Language: Sanskrit , Centre of Learning :Nalanda and Vallbhi
Famous scholars in his court : Mayura, Divakara, Jeyasena
E
Hiean Tsang Received education in Nalanda
R
Noted scholars went to China: Kumarajiva, Paramathra, Sndhakara and
A Dharamdeva.
T Noted scholars went to Tibet : Padma Sambhaver,, Kamalashila, Sthirmati,
U Santha Raksita
R Nalanda University: Shilabhadra considered as guru of Hieun Tsang.
E Important Teachers :Dharmapala, Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari,
Jayasena, Devakara and Matanga
Hiuen Tsang wrote Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World)
Tatpadanudhyata/padanudhyata: literally meaning “meditating at his feet”, it is
often used to refer to the son and successor of the king or the favourite samanta
(subordinate)
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Kanchi was the home of Dharmapala, who later became the President of Nalanada
University.
Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer, came to Kanchi to study.
Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived during Simhavishnu's reign.
Another Sanskrit writer, Dandin, graced the court of Narasimhavarman II.
Architecture like : Arjuna/ Bhagiratha Penance , Ratha Temple , Kailashnath temple of
Kanchipuram ,Shore Templw of Mahabalipuram etc
Paintings in the Sittannavasal caves date from the Pallava period
Decline of Pallavas
Attacked by Pandyas, the western Gangas, and the Rashtrakutas.
Dantidurga defeated Nandivarman, but later married his daughter Reva in to
Nandivarman
Other Rulers: Dantivarman (795 – 846 CE), Nandivarman III (846 – 869 CE), and
Nripatunga (869 – 899 CE) Last Pallava king: Aparajitavarman (903 CE).
Aditya I,Chola king, defeated Aparjitavarman and took control of the Kanchi region
IMPERIAL CHOLAS (850 – 1200 CE)
Founder: Vijayalaya Chola, captured Tanjore and built a temple for Durga.
IMPORTANT RULERS
Aditya (871 – 907 CE): ended Pallava Rule
Parantaka Ⅰ (907 – 955 CE): Defeated Pandyas + Ceylon Ruler at Battle of Vellur.
Defeated by Krishna Ⅲ in Battle of TakkolamRashtrakuta army overran
Tondaimandalam.
Provided vimana of the famous Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof.
Uthiramerur inscriptions: Village administration under the Cholas
Parantaka Ⅱ/ Sundara Chola (c. 957 – 973 CE): Invaded Sri Lanka
Uttama Chola (973 – 985 CE): Recovered most of Tondaimandalam
Rajaraja Ⅰ/Arumolivarman (985 – 1014 CE)
Conquests
Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravivarman in the naval battle of Kandalur Salai
Defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga
Annexion of northern Sri Lanka by Rajendra I Sri Lankan king MahindaⅤ fled
A naval expedition against the Maldive Islands.
Satyasraya was defeated and Rajaraja Ⅰ captured Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other
places. Hence, the Chola Empire extended up to the river Tungabhadra.
By his conquests, the extent of the Chola Empire under Rajaraja Ⅰ included the Pandya,
Chera and the Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi,
Notambapadi and the Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan and the northern part of
Ceylon and the Maldive Islands beyond India.
Construction: Rajarajeshwara temple or Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore (1010 CE)
Title: “Ulagalanda Perumal” (the king who measured the earth).
Rajendra Ⅰ (1014 – 1044 CE)
Captured the whole Sri Lanka and converted Bay of Bengal into Chola Lake.
Defeated JaysimhaII Tungabadhra (boundary between Cholas and Chalukyas)
GangaikondaCholapuram: Established city after Winning over GangaHis most famous
military enterprise was his expedition to North India.
Rajendra Ⅰ defeated Mahipala Ⅰ (Pala Empire) of Bengal
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RULERS
Nagabhata Ⅰ (730 – 760 CE): Defeated Arab army during the Caliphate campaigns in India.
Vatsaraja (780 – 800 CE)
Made Kannauj (western Uttar Pradesh) his capital.
Tripartite struggle with Dharmapala (Pala) and Dhruva (Rashtrakuta) for 350 years.
However, Pratiharas exercised their control over Kannauj till the last.
Vatsraja defated Dharmapala and in turn, defeated by Dhruv in tripartite struggle.
Nagabhata Ⅱ (800 – 833 CE):
Defeated Dharmapala (Palas) but was later defeated by Govind Ⅲ (Rashtrakuta).
Succeeded by son Ramabhadra, (short span of time) succeeded by son Mihir Bhoja.
Bhoja Ⅰ/Mihir Bhoja (836 – 885 CE) :
Capital : Kannauj (also called Mahodaya) Religion:Vaishnavism Title: Adivaraha
Earlier: Defeated by the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Kalachuris
Later: Defetaed Rashtrakutas and Palas.with the help Chedis and the Guhilas
Barrah Copper Plate inscription: Military camp(Skandhavara )at Mahodaya
Al-Masudi (Arab Traveller) : Give Title “King Baura”
Mahendrapala (885 – 910 CE)
Extention of Empire – reached west to the border of Sindh, north to the Himalayas,
east to Bengal and south past the Narmada.
Lost some territories to king of Kashmir
Title : Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta
Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet) : Karrpuramanjari (written in Sauraseni Prakrit), Kavya
Mimansa, Balabharata, Bhrinjika, Vidhasalabhanjika, Prapanch Pandav
Mahipala Ⅰ (913 – 944 CE)
Deafted by Indra Ⅲ (Rashtrakuta) who destroyed the city of Kannauj.
Al-Masudi in his accounts – Pratihara empire had no access to the sea’Rashtrakutas
took control over Gujarat
Rajyapala (960 – 1018 CE)
Defeated by Krishna Ⅲ
Mahmud Ghazni raided Kannauj and Rajyapala had to flee from the battlefield.
Killed by Vindhyadhar Chandela.
Yashpala (c. 1024 – 1036 CE): Last ruler of Pratihara dynasty
11th century CE : Ghaznavids removed Pratiharas from political map and were succeeded by
Chauhans(Rajputana), Paramaras(Malwa) and Solankis/Chalukyas (Gujarat)
EASTERN GANGA DYNASTY(11th to 14th Century )
Anantavarman Chodaganga (c. 1076 – 1150 CE)
Founder and Built famous Jagannath temple of Puri in Odisha.
Titled: Trikalingadhipathi (ruler of three Kalingas) in 1076 CE, which consisted of
Utkal (north), Kosal (west) and Kalinga proper (south).
Narsimhadeva (c. 1238 – 1264 CE): Built the Sun Temple at Konark
Declined during king Bhanndeva (1414 – 1434 CE)
PALA DYNASTY(8th -12th Century )
Gopala (750 CE)
Founder and displaced the later Guptas of Magadha and Khadga of eastern Bengal.
Religion: Buddhism and built famous monastery at Odantapuri.
Dharmapala (770 – 810 CE)
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13th century (1203 – 1204 CE): Muhammad Bin Khalji (generals of Mohammad Ghori) attacked
Nabadwip and conquered northwest Bengal while eastern Bengal remained under Sena rule.
However, by mid- 13th century, Deva dynasty overthrew Sena
KALCHURI ( CHEDI) OF TRIPURI 9th – 11th Century (JABALPUR)
Chedi Region(Dahala-mandala): Between Narmada and Godavari rivers
Earlier: Subordinate to Pratiharas Later: Around Mid 10th century declared independence.
Kokkala Ⅰ ( 845 – 885 CE)
Founder and invaded northern Konkan and helped Krishna Ⅱ against eastern Chalukyas
and Pratiharas.
Marriage: Chandella princess.
Yuvraja (915 – 945 CE)
Defeated the Rashtrakuta army.
Famous poet Rajasekara wrote a drama Vidya Salabhanjika dedicated to him
Kalachuri inscription: successful raids against Kashmir and the Himalayan region.
Lakshmanaraja (around 3rd quarter of the 10th century CE)
Defeated Vangala (south Bihar) and Somavamsi king of south Kosala. Defeated king of
Solanki (Mulraja Ⅰ, founder)
Gangeya Deva (1019 – 1040 CE): Great Ruler
Title of Trikalingadhipati (the lord of Trikalinga), Vikramaditya.
Kingdom did not face any raids from the Ghaznavids.
4-armed Lakshmi seated cross-legged on the lotus, holding a lotus in the upper two
hands with inscriptions in the Nagari script “Shrimad -Ga/ngeyade/va” on the reverse
side was introduced.
Coins: gold, silver, silver-gold, copper, and silver-copper.
Lakshmi Karna (1041 – 1073 CE)
Known as Karna defeated the Pallavas, Pandyas (south), kungas and Someshwara Ⅰ.
Yashkarna ( 1073 – 1125 CE)
Defated by Chandellas and Paramaras destroyed Tripuri.
Vijayasimha (1177 – 1211 CE): Last ruler of the dynasty and Trailokyavarman (Chandella)
captured nearly whole of Kalachuri kingdom including Baghelkhand and Dahala-mandala.
Chedi possessions were also lost to the rising dynasties such as the Yadavas of Devagiri, the
Ganpatis of Warangal and the Vaghela Rajputs.
CHANDELA OF JEJAKABHUKTI (BUNDELKHAND)(9th to 13th Century)
Rajput Rulers and Feudatories of the Kanyakubja Gurjara-Pratiharas (Kannauj)
Rajputs of Chandela dynasty are the descendants of the sage Chandratreya, son of the moon.
IMPORTANT RULERS
Nanuka (835 - 845 CE) : Founder , Ruler of Khajuravatika, fuedatory of Gujara-Pratihara
Followed by Vakpat, Jayashakti & Vijayashakti, Rahila, Shri Harshadev Yashovarman (925 -
950 CE): 1st Independent King of Jijakbhukti ,Dhangadeva ,Gandadeva ,Vidyadhara,
Vijaypala,Devavarman, Kirtivarman ,Sallakshanavarman ,Jayavarman , Prithvivarman
,Madanavarman ,Yahsovarman-II 1165 - 1203 CE: Independent king of Mahoba for sometime
and later surrendered to Delhi Sultanate ,Trailokya Varman ,
Bhojavarman ,Hammiravarman ,Viravarman 1315 CE (Reduced to local chief)
Decline of Dyansty: In year 1182-83, Prithviraj Chauhan invaded Chandela kingdom and
sacked Mahoba due to which King Parmardi took shelter in Kalinjar fort but here also Prithviraj
defeated Chandela forces and Parmardi shifted to Gaya. After sometime, he restored Chandela
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rule but in year 1202-03 CE, Delhi Sultanate invaded Chandela kingdom and Parmardi decided
to surrender and pay tribute to them but died before he will pay anything. After that, Chandela
continues to become week and other new dynasties emerged in to picture like Bundela in
Orchha, Baghels in Bandhavgarh region.
Art and Culture :
Hindu and Jain Temples : Kandariya Mahadeva, Chaturbhuja, and Parsvanath
3 other important Chandela strongholds were Jayapura-Durga (modern Ajaigarh),
Kalanjara (modern Kalinjar), and Mahotsava-Nagara (modern Mahoba).
PARAMARAS OF MALWA (9TH AND 14TH CENTURIES)
Vassals of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
IMPORTANT RULERS
Upendra (around 9 century CE): Founder
th
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GAHADAVALAS OF KANNAUJ(1090CE-1194CE)
Capitals: Kannauj and Banaras
Chandradeva (1090 CE): Founder who defeated Pratiharas and rashtrakuta to won Delhi
Govindachandra (1114 – 1154 CE): Grandson of Chandradeva and defeated Ghaznavids
He patronised both Hinduism as well as Buddhism.
Vijayachandra/Vijayapala/Malladeva (1154 – 1170 CE) : Delhi was lost and Tomara
rulers aligned with the Chauhans of Ajmer and stopped acknowledging Gahadavalas
sovereignty
Jaichandra (1170 – 1194 CE): Defeated by king Lakshmansena of Bengal. It is believed
that Jaichandra was defeated in Battle of Chandawar (1194) by Ghori
Decline: As per Popular belief survivors of the Gahadavala dynasty fled Marwar desert
region and founded the Rathore clan and ruled Marwar or Jodhpur.
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DAYABHAGA MITAKSHARA
Differences between the two Schools in Coparcenary
A son is entitled to his ancestral property Right of a son by birth in the ancestral property
only on the death of his father. The father equal to the interest of his father.
is the absolute owner of his property in his
lifetime
A son becomes coparcener by death of his A son becomes coparcener right after his birth.
father. This right is not available within the His right is applicable to the property of his
property of his father, grandfather or grandfather and grand-grandfather
grandgrandfather
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If coparcener dies, his widow will get the In default of close heir, brother and immediate
property in default of a close heir but she survivors inherit, the wife does not inherit.
cannot alienate
The order of heirs is decided by competence The order of heirs is decided by mereness of
to offer Pinda and Sraddho to the deceased blood.
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