Learning Materials in Practices of Crop Production and Management 2
Learning Materials in Practices of Crop Production and Management 2
Learning Materials in Practices of Crop Production and Management 2
LEARNING GUIDE IN
Practices of Crop Production and Management
I. Introduction
The agriculture sector mainly dominates the economy of the Philippines.
Agricultural operations provide 40 to 45 percent of the total national income and
about 75 to 80 percent of the country's exports. Food crops account for about two-
thirds of the total production (tonnage) and about three-fourths of the cultivated
acreage. The main crops usually cultivated for local consumption are rice, corn,
and sweet potatoes. In keeping with the national emphasis on increased food
production, there has been a consistent but not rapid increase in acreage devoted
to these and other food crops. The increase in fruit and vegetable production has
been quite significant. Double cropping of rice, corn, and some vegetables is
practiced in many areas but is not general. Agricultural production, therefore,
furnishes employment to about 3 million persons or about 60 percent of the
gainfully employed workers where it provides 40 to 45 percent of the total national
income and about 75 to 80 percent of the country's export (Cutshall, 1958)
Crop production mainly belongs to the farming sector. As of the second quarter
of 2020, the agricultural production status in the Philippines managed to grow 0.5
percent. 5.0 percent growth in production. It shared 53.7 percent of the total
agricultural output, where palay went up by 7.1 percent and corn by 15.4 percent.
At current prices, the value of agricultural production amounted to Php. 439.8
billion. This was 4.6 percent higher than the previous year’s level (PSA, 2020).
Currently, the Philippines faces many problems in the agricultural sector, which
employs around 37 percent of people in the country, being a major source of
income for many households. Yet, this sector’s share in the country’s GDP has
gone down over the years, showing a decline. The Philippines government is also
decreasing funding for agriculture. Starting in 2011, agriculture only makes up
about 4 percent of the national budget. This makes agricultural development in the
Philippines questionable. Worse, the Philippines is notoriously vulnerable to
natural disasters, facing around 20 typhoons each year. For farmers, one typhoon
or tropical storm could be enough to wipe out the entire crop. Starting over with the
work can be expensive and time-consuming. For example, coconut farmers need
up to 10 years for their crops to grow. The lack of financial support coupled with
frequent natural disasters leaves farmers in a compromising state. As a result, 57
percent of agricultural households are impoverished. In comparison, non-
agricultural households are three times less impoverished. This rate is even worse
in agricultural- dependent areas and reaches up to 74 percent in Central Visayas
(Massarath, 2018).
II. Crop Production, Agriculture and Trade (Food Chain, food utilization,
nutrition, research, education, distribution, marketing and etc.)
1. Food crops - are subsistence crops that are meant for human consumption. They
include fruits, vegetables, grains, and tubers, like potatoes. Grains, which include
crops like wheat, rice, and corn, are the most popular crops in the world, with
wheat as the most widely grown crop overall
2. Feed crops - are harvested for livestock consumption. These crops contain
nutrients that animals need to develop. They are grown in agricultural fields but
can also be found in natural meadows and pastures. Forage crops are important
for livestock farming. (e.g. yellow corn, Napier grass, soybean, cassava, sorghum,
flemingia, rensonii, Indigofera, calliandra)
3. Fiber crops - Fiber crops are field crops grown for their fibers, which are
traditionally used to make paper, cloth, or rope. Fiber crops are characterized by
having a large concentration of cellulose, which is what gives them their strength.
(Cotton, jute, kenaf, industrial hemp, sun hemp, and flax are among the well-
known fiber crops.)
4. Oil crops – This are food and feed crops such as rapeseed, palm, soybeans and
sunflower, that are not starch rich crops and sugar crops that are commonly used
as feedstock for the production of biofuels, bioliquids and biomass fuels.
Location vs Site
Location–general area
refers to the geographical position or place where the crops are located in relation to a
city, town or highway or other point of designation.
Site– specific area-refers to the immediate place where any given crop is produced.
Seasonal Effects
If there is one disadvantage to sunlight, it is the fact that it is not constant all through
the year. The duration and intensity of sunlight received fluctuate with the changing
seasons. So, plants have adapted to these changing seasons as well. In the
summer and spring, with light being plentiful, most plants focus on growth, blooming
of flowers, and bearing of fruit. When the light intensity and duration reduces as
winters approach, the plants put more emphasis on conserving energy and
reducing growth.
Photosynthesis is reduced in the fall, and leaves start losing chlorophyll. This is why
leaves tend to turn brown, yellow, or red in autumn.
Light is a form of energy that moves as an electromagnetic wave. What we see as
visible light is made up of electromagnetic radiation in a specific range of
wavelengths. Visible light falls between the wavelengths of 390-700 nanometers.
Light in different wavelengths appears as a particular color to the human eye.
When you use a prism to scatter the light, you can see these individual colors, as
VIBGYOR or ROYGBIV.
Red light has the longest wavelength and the lowest energy, while blue and violet
lights at the other end have short wavelengths and more energy. (This is one
reason why energy-rich UV light is considered dangerous). Like the cells in the
human eye, the leaves in a plant also respond to the light energy falling on it within
these 390-700nm wavelengths. To be more precise, the chlorophyll in the leaves
absorb most of this light to create food. We said “most of the light,” not all of it. Ever
wonder why plants appear green? It is because chlorophyll reflects the green part of
the spectrum (495-570nm). Out of the remaining wavelengths, red and blue color
light seems to have the most impact on the health of a plant. These wavelengths
have different impacts:
Blue Light
With a wavelength between 400-500nm, this light has high energy and affects the
leaf growth (also called vegetative or “veg” growth) of plants. Blue light has an
impact on chlorophyll production, but you only need it very small quantities when
compared to red light. If a plant does not get enough blue light, it will start getting
weaker, with yellow streaks in the leaves instead of green.
Red Light
(a) The growth of plant parts in response to light is known as phototropism. An example
of phototropism is the growth of plant stem in the upward direction in response to
sunlight.
(b) The stems of plants grow towards sunlight showing positive phototropism.
(c) The movement of plant parts towards the light source is known as positive
phototropism, whereas the movement of plant parts away from light is known as
negative phototropism.
The stems of plants show positive phototropism as they grow upwards. The roots of
plants show negative phototropism as they grow downwards into the soil
All plants require light for photosynthesis, the process within a plant that converts light,
oxygen and water into carbohydrates (energy). Plants require this energy in order to
grow, bloom and produce seed. Without adequate light, carbohydrates cannot be
manufactured, the energy reserves are depleted and plants die.
D. Wind
When relative humidity levels are too high or there is a lack of air circulation, a
plant cannot make water evaporate (part of the transpiration process) or draw nutrients
from the soil. When this occurs for a prolonged period, a plant eventually rots. When
the temperature is high and humidity is normal, more stomates will open, letting in
carbon dioxide for active Photosynthesis. If the air is excessively dry and the plant is
wilting, the stomatal openings close, thereby reducing photosynthetic activity and
ultimately plant growth. The extra moisture in the air means that plants have a higher
available moisture, transpire less and are able to keep their stomata (the tiny holes in
their leaves which allow gas exchange, including water vapor) open longer which in turn
means more photosynthesis and more growth.
2. Soil-Type, drainage, fertility, pH.
Soil - Commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases,
liquids, and organisms that together support life. It provides the structural support to plants
used in agriculture and is also their source of water and nutrients. An important function of soil
is to store and supply nutrients to plants. The ability to perform this function is referred to as
soil fertility. The clay and organic matter (OM) content of a soil directly influence its fertility.
Greater clay and OM content will generally lead to greater soil fertility.
Importance of soil
1. Soil provides plants with foothold for their roots and holds the necessary nutrients for
plants to grow;
2. It filters the rainwater and regulates the discharge of excess rainwater, preventing
flooding;
3. It is capable of storing large amounts of organic carbon;
4. It buffers against pollutants, thus protecting groundwater ...
Healthy soils are essential for healthy plant growth, human nutrition, and water filtration.
Healthy soil supports a landscape that is more resilient to the impacts of drought, flood, or fire.
Soil helps to regulate the Earth's climate and stores more carbon than all of the world's forests
combined.
2. Silt Soil - is a solid, dust-like sediment that water, ice, and wind transport and
deposit. Silt is made up of rock and mineral particles that are larger than clay but
smaller than sand. Carried by water during flood it forms a fertile deposit on valleys.
Shallow-rooted vegetables like lettuce, onion, broccoli, and other related
brassicas are good options. Nitrogen-fixing vegetables like peas and legumes are
also great to further amend your soil.
3. Clay Soil - is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals.
Clays develop plasticity when wet, due to a molecular film of water surrounding the
clay particles, but become hard, brittle and non–plastic upon drying or firing. Lettuce,
chard, snap beans and other crops with shallow roots benefit from clay soil's ability
to retain moisture, and broccoli, Brussels sprouts and cabbage often grow better in
clay soil than looser loams because their roots enjoy firm anchorage
4. Loamy Soil - A loamy soil, then, is one that combines all three of these types of
particles in relatively equal amounts. Loamy soils are friable, possessing a mixture of
clay, sand, and humus (and/or silt) that is ideal for growing plants. Loamy soil is
ideal for growing many crops including wheat, sugar cane, cotton, pulses, and
oilseeds. In this loam soil, vegetables grow well too. Tomatoes, peppers, green
beans, cucumbers, onions, and lettuce are some examples of common vegetables
and crops that grow well in a loamy soil.
Drainage
Is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an
area with excess of water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good
enough to prevent severe waterlogging, but many soils need artificial drainage to
improve production or to manage water supplies.
Purpose of drainage
One of the drainage system's functions is to collect surface water and/or ground
water and direct it away, thereby keeping the ballast bed drained. The drainage system
must also protect the substructure from erosion, from becoming sodden, and from
losing its load-bearing capacity and stability.
Flatlands are better suited to farming than highlands because they are lesser,
mostly flatlands with abundant rivers and streams. These rivers and streams serve as
water supplies, ensuring that the crops planted by farmers are increasingly beneficial.
4. Accessibility - The site should be serviced by good roads for ease of transport. It
should be accessible to potential customers.
5. Water Supply- The site of the farm should have a good source of water for
irrigation/watering and for spraying.
SOIL FERTILITY
Crops need nutrients just like people do. A fertile soil will contain all the major nutrients
for basic plant nutrition (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium), as well as other
nutrients needed in smaller quantities (e.g., calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, zinc,
copper, boron, molybdenum, nickel). Usually, a fertile soil will also have some organic
matter that improves soil structure, soil moisture retention, and also nutrient retention,
and a pH between 6 and 7. Unfortunately, many soils do not have adequate levels of all
the necessary plant nutrients, or conditions in the soil are unfavorable for plant uptake
of certain nutrients.
Soil Fertility – Is the ability of a soil to support vigorous crop growth by ensuring
adequate plant nutrients and suitable conditions for water uptake, and by providing
favorable conditions for root growth and development.
- A fertile soil is one that contains an adequate supply of all the nutrients required for
the successful production of plant life.
- Soil fertility is the ability of a soil to sustain plant growth by providing essential plant
nutrients and favorable chemical, physical, and biological characteristics as a habitat
for plant growth. Plant nutrients include the macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium, sulfur, calcium and magnesium.
Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. A pH value is actually a
measure of hydrogen ion concentration. Because hydrogen ion concentration varies
over a wide range, a logarithmic scale (pH) is used: for a pH decrease of 1, the acidity
increases by a factor of 10.S
A pH of 6.5 is just about right for most home gardens, since most plants thrive in the 6.0
to 7.0 (slightly acidic to neutral) range. Some plants (blueberries, azaleas) prefer more
acidic soil, while a few (ferns, asparagus) do best in soil that is neutral to slightly
alkaline.
Soil pH generally varies from around 3.5 (very acidic) to 8.5 (alkaline). A reading of 7.0
is considered neutral and the optimum for most plants is 6.5. When soil pH is too
high, it can pose problems for plant health and growth. For many plants, soil that is high
in alkalinity makes it harder for plants to drink in nutrients from the soil, which can limit
their optimal growth.
Soil pH influences plant growth through several factors. Those factors include soil
bacteria, nutrient leaching, nutrient availability, toxic elements, and soil structure. These
factors have equal importance. Yet, many gardeners tend to focus on nutrient
availability.
A soil pH in the right zone for a plant will make nutrients available to that plant. If there
are nutrients, but the pH is too high or low, the plant will not be able to absorb the
nutrients. Or, it could mean that there are not enough nutrients like those mentioned
above in the soil.
Alkalis are very corrosive in nature and penetrate deeply. Examples of strong alkalis
(lye) include barium, sodium, ammonium, calcium, lithium, and potassium
hydroxides.
Alkaline soil is referred to by some gardeners as “sweet soil.” The pH level of alkaline
soil is above 7, and it usually contains a great deal of sodium, calcium, and magnesium.
Since alkaline soil is less soluble than acidic or neutral soil, availability of nutrients is
often limited.
1. Land Preparation
It is the process of preparing the land for seeding and plantation. A land, if well-
prepared helps control the growth of weeds, promotes plant nutrients and helps
in direct seeding. Land preparation basically involves ploughing the soil or
digging it up, followed by harrowing the land to break soil clods and then levelling
the field. Generally, it takes 3 to 4 weeks to prepare the land before planting.
and preparation ensures ideal soil conditions for the crops to be seeded, in order
to produce a huge yield. The sustenance of the farm is of utmost importance for
the farmers who invest time, energy and money into the plantation. Factors like
the soil depth, soil quality, availability of water sources, distance to the field and
the quality of water play a pivotal role in helping to attain a huge yield from the
field. The process starts with clearing the land where the field is ploughed.
Operations like planting and application of fertilizers are carried out in order to
achieve a perfect soil condition to expose soil-borne pests and to help bring up
the nutrients to the surface. The Moldboard Plough is another primary tillage
equipment, well suited for tough ploughing job with outstanding depth of cut. It is
best suited for stone and root-laden soil and is designed to work in most types of
soil to perform basic functions such as soil breaking and soil inversion.
Land preparation is important to ensure that the field is ready for planting. A
well-prepared field controls weeds, recycles plant nutrients, and provides a soft
soil mass for transplanting and a suitable soil surface for direct seeding.
Tillage systems describe the nature and sequence of tillage operations used in
preparing the seedbed for planting. Tillage system differ in the degree of the soil stirring
and nature of the finished product.
Conventional Tillage has advantages and dis advantages that include the
following
Advantages:
1. It is the most convenient method for managing soil compaction.
2. It is easier to apply fertilizers and preform other operations when the land is
clean.
3. The lack of crop residues reduces hibernating pests.
Dis Advantages:
1. Erosion – The soil is exposed to agents of erosion.
2. Compaction – Excessive and repeated use of farm implements predisposes the
soil compaction.
3. Cost – Conventional Tillage is expensive
4. Soil Organic Matter loss – Soil Organic Matter decrease over time.
2. Conservation Tillage
It is the basic tillage strategies that entails practices in which some crop residues
remain on the soil surface after the operation. The chief goals of conservation tillage
are:
1. To reduce soil erosion
2. Conserve moisture
Conservation Tillage is sometimes called crop residue management. The common
types of conservation tillage include.
1. No tillage -
(Also known as zero tillage or direct drilling) is an
agricultural technique for growing crops or pasture
without disturbing the soi
3. Strip Tillage - is a field tillage system that combines no till and full tillage to
produce row crops. Narrow strips 6 to 12 inches wide are tilled in crop stubble,
with the area between the rows left undisturbed. Often, fertilizer is injected into
the tilled area during the strip-tilling operation.
4. Minimum Tillage - Minimum tillage is a soil conservation system like strip-till with
the goal of minimum soil manipulation necessary for a successful crop
production. It is a tillage method that does not turn the soil over, in contrast to
intensive tillage, which changes the soil structure using ploughs.
5. Ridge Tillage - is a form of conservation tillage where the farmer builds ridges or
raised beds. Planting is completed on the ridge and usually involves the removal
of the top of the ridge. Ridge tillage can improve soil health, reduce erosion and
runoff.