A Level History - (QSN & Answer) Zimbabwean History - Tasara

HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
[ADVANCED LEVEL] COMPILED BY MR TASARA O [2017]

SECTION A
SOURCES OF HISTORY
[1] Critically examine the methods that have been used to recover Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial
history.
[1] Examine critically any three sources that have been used in reconstructing the pre-colonial
history of Zimbabwe.
[1] How effective have been the strategies used to reconstruct the history of Zimbabwe’s pre-
literate communities?
The pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe is recovered through various sources. The three major
sources used in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history are oral tradition, archaeology and
written records. These sources are very useful in the reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-history.
It should also be noted that there is an element of complementarity among these sources.
However, one must note that each of these sources has got its own limitations. Hence a multi-
disciplinary approach [poly-method approach] is a necessity in an attempt to come up with
objective history of Zimbabwe.
Usefulness / importance of oral tradition
-Oral tradition has been extremely useful in providing information about the foundation of
Great Zimbabwe. It complements archaeology which also attributes the construction of the
Great Zimbabwe walls to the local people.
-Oral tradition provides historical information on Mutapa state. For instance, it provides
information about the origins of Mutapa state. In addition, names of some of the Mutapa rulers
like Nyatsimba Mutota and his successor, Nyanhewe Matope are known to the present
generations through oral tradition.
-Oral tradition has been useful in providing information about the Rozvi state. For example, it
provides information about the origins of the Rozvi state. More so, names of early Rozvi rulers
like Changamire Dombo are known through oral tradition.
-The 19thC history of the Shona and Ndebele has been transmitted through oral tradition and
this has been useful in giving an African perspective and countering the distortions of the 19th C
European writers.
Weaknesses / limitations of oral tradition
*However, it must be noted that oral tradition like any other source has its own weaknesses,
for example, it has the problem of manipulation to suit the present.
-Oral tradition has a problem of chronology. It therefore relies on archaeology for dates. Hence
there is an element of complementarity among sources.
-It has a short life span. Thus time factor cannot be disputed to be a serious element when
assessing the credibility of oral tradition.
-Oral tradition has a problem of memory lapses [the fallibility of memory]. Its reliance has to be
placed on the mental strength of the story teller, that is, whether or not the person is in a
position to accurately recollect all the facts. It cannot therefore be competently disputed that
information can be forgotten.
Mr O Tasara [BA History and Philosophy] 0773295116 Page 1

*Archaeology is another source which is very useful in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial
history. For years this source has provided historians with a basis for the reconstruction of
Zimbabwe’s pre-history. This is through various fossils and remains found at the sites they
excavated. The thrust of archaeology is the study of artifacts like tools, weapons and pottery
used by the people of the particular areas excavated. The famous excavations of ancient
Zimbabwean pre-colonial cultures included Great Zimbabwe, Ziwa, Gokomere, Leopard’s Kopje
and other Iron Age cultures.The political, social, economic and religious lives of these people
would be deciphered from the archaeological remains. Archaeologists would discover the way
of life from the remains found in excavations. The type of buildings, cattle pits and burial sites
speak about the type of life that was led by people of various pre-colonial cultures.
Usefulness / importance of archaeology
-Archaeology has been extremely important in generating knowledge about the Stone Age
period. Other sources like oral tradition and written records are silent about this period.
-The transition from Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age isalso known through archaeology.
-The history of large settlements like Great Zimbabwe is also known through archaeology.
-Archaeology can dig history of up to 2000000 years ago.
Weaknesses / limitations of archaeology
*However, archaeology also has its own limitations; for instance, it reduced the study of
Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history to the study of bones, waste products, rocks and other
artifacts.
-It has failed to supply names of people, places, genealogies or details about language spoken
by the societies. It therefore relies on oral tradition for this. Thus there is an element of
complementarity among the sources of history.
-It does not give names of rulers unless there are inscriptions on an artifact.
-It cannot account for population structure, the number of people according to sex [gender] as
well as the ethnicity of a given social group.
-Archaeology due to its physical nature carries an inherent risk that the artifacts can be
destroyed during the excavation and this affects the probative value of unearthed remains.
-Its contribution is weighed down by the fact that it neglects the political and other cultural
aspects. For instance, it does not give information on the hierarchy of dynasties. These may
however be obtained from oral tradition. This implies that the sources of history are
intertwined.
*Written records have also assisted in the reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-history. Historians
have relied on the writings from Arabs and Portuguese to have an understanding of pre-colonial
cultures in Zimbabwe.
Usefulness of written sources
-Portuguese written sources of the second half of the 16thC provide information about the
Great Zimbabwe.
*However, these are second hand accounts that were narrated to them by Swahili / Arab
traders who roamed the Zimbabwean plateau, for example, the description of Great Zimbabwe
by Joao de Barros.
-Portuguese sources of the 16thC [following the journey of Antonio Fernandes into the Mutapa
state] carried vivid accounts of the royal courts as well as the gold trade dominated by the
Swahili.

*However, these sources are rather limited in that they still heavily relied on information
supplied elsewhere or by Muslim traders.
-The 19thC accounts by missionaries, hunters and traders, have also been important in shedding
light on the Ndebele and Shona on the eve of colonial rule.
*However, it should be noted that they shed light on Ndebele raiding activities on the Shona
possibly with exaggerations as to their impact. These foreigners also wrote history to advance
their colonial agendas hence written records must be treated with caution.
-The letters of missionaries such as Charles Helm, Robert Moffat and John Smith Moffat give
accurate dates concerning the establishment of mission stations as well as their activities and
futile attempts to Christianise the Ndebele. It is known with certainty that Inyati and Hope
Fountain missions were founded in 1859 and 1870 respectively. It is also known that
missionaries engaged in various tasks like treating diseases like Mzilikazi’s gout, mending
wagons and writing books in vernacular languages [Shona and Ndebele]. It is also known how
the likes of John Smith Moffat and Charles Helm abused Lobengula’s trust by secretly
advocating the destruction of Ndebele kingdom and misled him into signing the Moffat treaty
and Rudd Concession in 1888 which paved way for the occupation of Zimbabwe.
*Written records in as much as they leave documentation of what could have happened
present a challenge as they raise the question of interpretation. In the absence of the person
who wrote a particular document, people are always free to infer the meaning they want in the
particular document. This effectively distorts the integrity of the history to be obtained from it.
*Written sources may not necessarily reflect the correct position of the history as human
factors like bias might also come into play. A person would write what they want to write and
there is nothing that stops them from portraying the events or facts from their chosen
perspectives. Written sources therefore have also to be viewed where available together with
other sources like archaeology which can authenticate the veracity of the writings.
*One challenge of written records is that they do not subject themselves to verification through
questions. This is an obvious advantage for oral tradition where the story teller has anapt
recollection of the facts and clarification can be done where the person is in the dark.
[1] Justify the use of a multi-disciplinary approach in the study of Zimbabwe’s history before
1450.
Pupils need to show that no one method or technique is superior to the others. They must
examine the various methods that can be used to recover Zimbabwe’s history citing merits and
demerits of each method. They may use the following
-Oral tradition
-Archaeology
-Written records
-Rock paintings / Rock art
-Linguistics
-Ethnography
[1] Why should oral tradition continue to be used to reconstruct the history of pre-colonial
Zimbabwe despite its weaknesses?
[1] ‘With all its demerits, oral tradition remains the key to unlocking the pre-colonial history
of Zimbabwe’. Do you agree?

Pupils need to highlight both the weaknesses and usefulness of oral tradition as a source of pre-
colonial history of Zimbabwe. They must also show that these sources complement each other.
No single source can give a complete picture of the pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe.
Weaknesses of oral tradition
-Oral tradition has the problem of chronology. Oral tradition is not specific with dates.
For this it relies on archaeology. Thus a poly-methodic approach is important.
-Oral tradition cannot give a complete picture of the pre-colonial Zimbabwe. For instance, it is
silent about the Stone Age period. However, information about the Stone Age is obtained from
archaeology and rock art. Thus the sources of history complement each other.
-Oral tradition has the problem of short life span. It does not go beyond four centuries. This is
where it is outweighed by other sources like archaeology and written sources.
-Oral tradition has the problem of memory lapses [the fallibility of memory].
-Oral tradition has the problem of manipulation to suit the present.
-The story teller may exaggerate in order to impress.
Why oral tradition must continue to be used? / Importance of oral tradition
-Oral tradition complements other sources such as archaeology, written records, anthropology
and linguistic evidence. Thus a multidisciplinary approach should be used.
-Oral tradition provides first-hand information. The original source is a reliable eye witness.
-It corrects the myths put forward by Euro-centrists concerning the origins of Great Zimbabwe.
-Oral tradition is very specific with names of kings, places and outstanding historical figures
which cannot be easily done by archaeology.
-It has no cultural misrepresentations.
-It caters for both preliterate historical epochs and illiterate societies.
-The researcher can ask questions to seek clarification.
[1] How far do you agree with the view that without oral tradition, the reconstruction of
Zimbabwe’s pre-history will be incomplete?
Pupils need to discuss the importance of oral tradition, with reference to other sources. They
must weigh the importance of oral tradition vis-à-vis other sources like archaeology and written
evidence in the recovery of Zimbabwe’s pre-history.
Importance of oral tradition vis-à-vis other sources
-Oral tradition played a complementary role with other sources like archaeology and written
records.
-It is the only source which can bring one very close to pre-colonial Zimbabwean history.
-It is the backbone of all other sources.
-All other sources depend on oral tradition, for example, archaeology depends on oral tradition
for names of people and places.
-Oral tradition becomes the starting point without which the reconstruction of Zimbabwean
past would be very difficult.
-Archaeology and written records come in as complementary sources.
-Archaeology and written evidence provide a deeper analysis of the Zimbabwean past.
[1] Assess the usefulness [utility] of oral tradition in the understanding of the pre-colonial
history of Zimbabwe.
Oral tradition has been extremely useful in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history. For
instance, it provides information about the foundation of the Great Zimbabwe state, it provides

historical information on the Mutapa state, it also provides historical information about the
Rozvi state and it also helps in transmitting the 19th C history of the Ndebele and Shona.
However, it must be noted that oral tradition just like any other source has got its own
limitations, for example, it cannot give adequate information about Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial
history, it has the problem of chronology and it has a short life span.
-To start with, oral tradition has been greatly useful in the reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-
colonial history, for instance, it provides information about the foundation of the Great
Zimbabwe state. Shona traditions speak of the ancestors of the Shona as the builders of the
stone walls at Great Zimbabwe and many other sites around and outside present day
Zimbabwe. It corrects the myths spread by Euro-centrists of the 19th and 20th Centuries who
attributed its construction to foreigners like Arabs and Phoenicians. The Shona claims made by
oral tradition were subsequently verified by archaeological findings. Hence oral tradition is
useful in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.
-In addition, oral tradition has been useful in providing historical information about the Mutapa
state. For instance, it provides information about the origins of the Mutapa state. According to
oral tradition, Mutapa state was founded by Nyatsimba Mutota who migrated from Great
Zimbabwe with his followers to the Dande region. It is also known from oral tradition that
Mutapa state was an offshoot of Great Zimbabwe state which collapsed due to shortage of salt
and other resources. Furthermore, the names of some of the Mutapa rulers like Nyatsimba
Mutota and Nyanhewe Matope [his successor] are known to the present generations through
oral tradition. Hence oral tradition is very important in as far as the reconstruction of
Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history is concerned.
-To add on, oral tradition provides information about the Rozvi state. For instance, the origin of
the Rozvi state is known through oral tradition. According to oral tradition, the Rozvi state was
founded by Changamire Dombo who broke away from Mutapa and formed his state in the
South East. More so, the names of the early Rozvi rulers like Changamire Dombo are well
known through oral tradition. Hence oral tradition has an advantage over archaeology because
archaeology cannot provide names of people and places. Thus oral tradition is extremely
important in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.
-Furthermore, the 19th C history of the Ndebele and Shona has been transmitted through oral
tradition. It should be noted that these Shona traditions have been useful in providing an
African perspective and in countering some of the distortions of the 19 th C European writers.
Good examples of such distortions include European claims that the Ndebele-Shona relations
were hostile. It has also been claimed that the Shona were helpless victims of Ndebele
perennial raids. However, oral traditions from both groups counteracted such claims and
asserted that the relations were for the most part based on peaceful co-existence, trade and
cultural exchange. Oral tradition also claims that wars and raids did occur but even then they
were not endemic and destructive as the Euro-centrists have suggested. Hence oral tradition is
very helpful in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.
-However, it must be noted that oral tradition has got its own limitations, for instance, it cannot
give adequate information about Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history. For instance, there is no
accurate information about the names of the rulers of Great Zimbabwe who have been referred
to as Mambo in many accounts. That is a dynastic title which unfortunately does not shed any
light on the individual identities of the ruler. One name that is well known in the history of

Great Zimbabwe is that of Nyatsimba Mutota who left Great Zimbabwe with his followers in
order to find salt and other resources in Dande area. In addition, oral tradition is silent about
the history of the Stone Age period and the transition of from Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age.
For this one has to rely on archaeology and rock art [paintings]. Hence oral tradition just like
any other source has got some limitations.
-In addition, oral tradition has the problem of chronology. Oral societies had no calendars and
most traditions are not precisely dated. According to Henige [1971], perhaps the weakest
aspect of oral tradition is its inability to establish and maintain an accurate assessment of the
length of the past it purports to relate. In most cases, catastrophic events like droughts, plagues
of locusts and other major events usually mark the beginning of oral history. The Bantu, for
example, usually start their history with the time of exodus and expansion. Oral tradition thus
failed to provide specific dates and specific years because of reference to natural historical
events like years of drought, outbreak of locusts, floods, migration and wars.Oral tradition is
therefore concerned with major events in the development of a people rather than minor ones
that may have occurred on the way thus creating some historical gaps. Oral tradition
sometimes shortens or prolonged the duration of events. Hence oral tradition also has its own
weaknesses.
-Furthermore, one must note that oral tradition has a short life span. In Zimbabwe oral
tradition cannot go beyond four centuries [400 years]. Thus time depth is critical. This is where
oral tradition is outweighed by other sources like written records and archaeology which last
for a long time. Hence oral tradition on its own is not reliable in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-
colonial history.
-In summation, oral tradition is extremely useful in the reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-
colonial history. However, one must realise that although oral tradition has been of paramount
importance in recovering Zimbabwe’s prehistory, oral tradition has got its own limitations just
like other sources.
[1] To what extent can written sources recover Zimbabwe’s pre-history?
Pupils need to discuss the importance of written sources in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-history.
They also need to show the importance of other sources.
-Muslim documents, for example, Ibn Madrid’s sailing manual written between 1445 and 1489.
-Trade and hunting
-Reports on trade between the Shona and Portuguese.
-Traders who had ventured into the interior also supplied information.
*The written sources should be weighed against other sources like oral tradition, archaeology
and rock art as well as anthropology, linguistics and ethnography.
[1] How valuable are Portuguese sources in the reconstruction of the history of the Mutapa
state?
Pupils need to demonstrate the value of Portuguese writings and the other sources in
recovering history of Mutapa state.
Portuguese sources
-The Portuguese are the only written sources on the Mutapa state.
-Some of the sources were written by eye witnesses.
-They are in form of letters, diaries and official documents.
-The authors were missionaries, soldiers, prazeros, traders as well as Portuguese officials.

-The sources dwell on almost all aspects of life, political, social and economic.
-Portuguese accounts have been major sources of Mutapa history furnishing names of Mutapa
rulers, details about trade with the Swahili and Arabs and the Portuguese themselves.
-Portuguese sources also supply information about Mutapa’s political organisation
*However, some of the Portuguese sources contain distortions and exaggerations [challenge of
accurate translation into English].
Other factors
-Oral tradition provides information about Mutapa state.
-Archaeology also provides history of the Mutapa state.
[1] Assess the usefulness [utility] of archaeology in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial
history.
Archaeology is of paramount importance in the reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial
history. For instance, it generates knowledge about the Stone Age Period, it provides
information about the transition from Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age and it also provides
information about large settlements like Great Zimbabwe. However, archaeology just like any
other source has got its own weaknesses, for example, it failed to supply names of people and
places as well as details about the language spoken by the societies and it neglects the political
and other cultural aspects.
-Archaeology is largely useful in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history; for instance, it has
been useful in generating knowledge about the Stone Age Period. By digging up sites and
examining remains of animals, rocks and other remains, archaeologists have helped to
reconstruct Zimbabwe’s Stone Age pre-colonial past that was characterised by the use of simple
wooden, stone and bone tools for hunting small animals and digging up edible roots.
Archaeology should be credited for this because other sources like oral tradition are silent
about the Stone Age Period. Hence archaeology has been extremely important in the
reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.
-In addition, the transition from Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age is also known through
archaeology. Oral tradition is silent about this. The discovery of ancient iron workings through
archaeological excavations helped to shed light on the pre-colonial transition from Late Stone
Age to Early Iron Age. Iron tools have been discovered and these include axes, spears and hoes
which have enabled the Iron Age to be distinguished [differentiated] asan era which was
marked by the advent of agriculture and livestock production rather than hunting and gathering
of the Stone Agers. Remains of iron at Iron Age sites like Gokomere, Ziwa and Mabveni
discovered by archaeologists suggest the importance of mining and remains of pottery suggest
settled communities. This was unheard of during the Stone Age Period. Archaeologists also
discovered sea shells at Kadzi and Mabveni and this suggest some indirect connection with the
Indian Ocean trade during the first half of the first millennium AD. Hence archaeology is of
great importance in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.
-Furthermore, archaeology has been useful if providing the history of large settlements like
Great Zimbabwe. It played an important role in solving the controversy on the builders of Great
Zimbabwe. It supports the claims made by oral tradition that Great Zimbabwe was built by the
Shona. More so, it also known through archaeology that Great Zimbabwe participated in
external trade. For example, the 1903 findings at Great Zimbabwe of Persian bowls, Chinese
stone wares, Near Eastern glasses, iron spoon, copper rings, glass beads and copper chains

suggest the presence of long distance trade at Great Zimbabwe. It is also known through
archaeology that Great Zimbabwe people kept large herds of cattle and did crop cultivation.
Hence archaeology is useful in recovering the history of Zimbabwe.
-However, it must be noted archaeology also has got some limitations; for example, it failed to
supply names of people and places as well as the details about the language spoken by the
societies. For example, there are no names for any of the Stone Age communities, Great
Zimbabwe people and language that have been recovered through archaeological research.
According to Phillipson this was one of its chief weaknesses. It thus relied on oral tradition for
names of people and places. Hence, archaeology also has its own weaknesses.
-Lastly, archaeology’s contribution is weighed down by the fact that it neglects the political and
other cultural aspects. For example, it does not give information on the hierarchy of dynasties.
These may however be obtained from other sources like oral tradition and written records.
Hence archaeology alone is not reliable in reconstructing Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.
-In a nutshell, archaeology has been extremely useful in the reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-
colonial history. However, one must note ignore the fact that archaeology just like other
sources has got its own weaknesses.
[1] How valid is the assertion that without archaeology, the recovery of Zimbabwe’s pre-
history would be impossible?
Pupils need to assess the extent to which archaeology and other sources contributed the
reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-history.
Contribution / utility / usefulness of archaeology
-It has been extremely important in generating knowledge about the Stone Age period which
other sources like oral tradition could not do.
-The transition from Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age is also known through archaeology. Other
sources like written sources and oral tradition are silent about this.
-The history of large states like Great Zimbabwe is also known through archaeology.
-It can provide history of up to millions of years [through the carbon 14 dating system] which
other sources like oral tradition cannot do.
-It provides dates to information obtained through oral tradition. This is because oral tradition
is chronologically limited.
Contribution of other sources
-Rock art reflects the history of earliest inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa [the San
hunter-gatherers].
-Written sources produced by Arabs and Portuguese also contributed.
-Oral traditions offer information on the rise of states like Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe,
Mutapa and Rozvi states.
-Contribution of social anthropology
-Role of linguistics
[1] Assess the validity of the assertion that archaeology is the only source of evidence for the
Late Stone Age and Early Iron Age periods in Zimbabwe.
Pupils need to show the sources of history for the Late Stone Age and the Early Iron Age periods
-Archaeology has been extremely useful in providing information about the Late Stone Age
Early Iron Age period.

-Though archaeology provides some information about the Stone Age period, it must be noted
that rock paintings [especially by the San hunter-gatherers] become an important source of
history of the Stone Age period.
-Other sources like oral tradition, linguistic evidence and anthropology are also to be
considered.
[1] How far can archaeology alone demonstrate the economic organisation of Early Iron Age
societies in Zimbabwe?
[1] How valuable has archaeology been as a source of information on the economy of the
Early Iron Age?
Pupils need to demonstrate the extent to which archaeology contribute to one’s knowledge of
the economic organisation of the Early Iron Age as well as the contribution of other sources. For
archaeological sites, pupils need to consider Gokomere, Ziwa, Mabveni and Leopard’s Kopje as
well as Great Zimbabwe.
Contribution of archaeology
-Archaeological findings like cattle bones, grain, beads, pottery of different types, sea shells,
livestock figurines, carbonised grain seeds, iron tools and implements, Chinese porcelain, iron
gongs and so on, demonstrate that a variety of economic activities were carried out at these
sites and specific economic activities such as crop cultivation, livestock keeping, trade, hunting,
mining and so on.
*These should be weighed against the roles of other sources like oral tradition as well as
written sources from Arab writers and linguistic evidence, rock art and ethnography.
[1] How far can archaeology be relied on in the reconstruction of the history of Great
Zimbabwe?
Pupils must assess the usefulness of archaeology and its limitations in the reconstruction of the
history of Great Zimbabwe. They must also show the contribution of other sources.
Usefulness of archaeology in recovering the history of Great Zimbabwe
-Archaeologists managed to discover remains of Chinese dishes, glass beads, sea shells and
Persian pottery showing the existence of long distance trade.
-Iron gongs, from Ingombe Ilede which were also unearthed by archaeologists are evidence of
regional trade which helped to boost its economy at that time.
-Slivers of ivory which were discovered by archaeologists are evidence of elephant hunting and
trade.
-Carvings of soapstone birds, male and female figurines show the importance of religion that
was in existence at Great Zimbabwe. Carvings were also used at initiation ceremonies.
-Monuments at Great Zimbabwe played an important part as a religious sanctuary. It was in
these sanctuaries that religious rituals were performed by the inhabitants of Great Zimbabwe.
-Traces of agricultural activity have been discovered due to the existence of spindle whorls. This
creates a possibility that the people of Great Zimbabwe were cotton growers and possibly
practised weaving as an economic activity.
-Archaeologists excavated well-polished hill top huts, plenty of imported artifacts and finely
decorated and styled pottery. Plainer pottery was found in remains of huts down the valley
symbolising social stratification.
-Archaeologists discovered stonewall enclosures, which were dwellings of rulers, symbol of
prestige by rulers and for protection against enemies.

Weaknesses of archaeology in recovering history of Great Zimbabwe
Archaeology is militated to some extent against its credence as a reliable source by the
following limitations
-No names were given for the dynasties that ruled Great Zimbabwe.
-Less information is given by archaeology on the history of the commoners. The absence of
commoners does not mean that there were no commoners due to the fact that there was
evidence of social stratification. The fact that details of commoners cannot be found from
archaeological excavations is clear evidence of the weaknesses of archaeology.
-Less information is obtained from archaeology on the social aspects but much was recovered
in terms of economic history.
-No graves were found at Great Zimbabwe site. This creates two possible scenarios, either the
people were not dying at all or the dead were buried at some undisclosed place. The former
option is unrealistic for obvious reasons relating to life spans, while the latter simply reinforces
the limitations of archaeology in the sense that it was not telling us everything that was
happening at Great Zimbabwe.
*Not much accurate information could be obtained from written documents as Great
Zimbabwe was a pre-literate state.
*Oral tradition has also been useful in explaining the foundation of Great Zimbabwe and the
local origin of Great Zimbabwe purported by oral tradition has been supported by archaeology.
Hence the sources of historical evidence complement each other.
[1] ‘Some historians have claimed that during the Iron Age period the means of production
and production relations changed substantially around 1000 AD in Zimbabwe’. What
archaeological evidence supports this assertion?
Pupils need to substantiate the above assertion
*Early Iron Age
-Gokomere tradition of pottery
-Villages in river valleys
-Little trade -few beads in Early Iron Age sites
-Very few cattle in villages
-Simple clay figurines
-No state formation
*Late Iron Age
-Kutama tradition with no immediate forms of pottery between Gokomere and Kutama pottery
-Villages on hills
-Evidence of long distance trade-many beads in the Late Iron Age sites
-Large numbers of cattle in each village
-More advanced including clay and soapstone, cattle and women
-State formation, for example, Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa and Rozvi.
[1] ‘Some historians have claimed that during the transition from hunting and gathering to
herding and farming, means of production and social relations changed substantially’. What
historical evidence supports this assertion?
Pupils need to use historical sources like written records, archaeology, oral tradition, linguistic
evidence, rock paintings and so on, showing how they complement each other in showing
changes like

-modes of production [primitive communalism to tributary through lineage modes]
-hunting and gathering to herding and farming
-change from few property to more property
-change from few domestic animals to more
-change from being nomadic to being less nomadic
-change from stone tools to iron tools
-change in pottery type
-introduction of iron smelting
-change from smaller communities to slightly larger ones
-increase of the gap between males and females
[1] What evidence is found at Ziwa ruins to demonstrate that it represented an agricultural
society?
Pupils need to analyse the agricultural activities of the Ziwa people. The Ziwa complex was an
Early Iron Age community which existed from around 1300AD.
*Evidence of agricultural activities include
-large scale stone terraces covering steep hills
-presence of wide cultivation ridges covering hundreds of hectares of valley soils
-old water furrows demonstrating their utilisation of available water resources
-pit structures thought to have been used as cattle pens as well as homesteads
-ruined stone built homesteads used as defensive forts
-evidence of iron extraction which was mainly done to support agricultural technology
-remains of agricultural seeds which were probably grown by the people
-pottery remains dated 16th and 17th C which also supported agricultural activities
[1] What evidence is there to show that Early Iron Age Zimbabwean societies were
technologically advanced?
Pupils are expected to refer to Gokomere, Ziwa and Leopard’s Kopje culture as part of evidence.
Some of the evidence they can discuss will include various artifacts excavated from the 3 sites
stated above.
-These include pottery, old stone tools and weapons, copper, iron and other metal tools and
implements.
-They can also comment on the methods of mining and smelting of iron ore.
-The improvements in types of building should also be discussed.
-Some of the buildings like Gokomere were strategically located.
[1] Discuss the archaeological evidence for the Early Iron Age in Zimbabwe. What does the
period represent in social, economic and political terms?
Pupils need to analyse and evaluate archaeological evidence.
-Around 200-300AD farming settlements appeared south of the Zambezi.
-These villages were associated with a number of pottery traditions which suggest not only
settled communities but also shared identities.
-They grew crops, kept livestock and used iron.
-Their appearances mark the inception of the Iron Age in Zimbabwe.
-Whether this culture came from the north as a result of migration or developed locally from
the Later Stone Age cultures is still debatable.

-Evidence for the Early Iron Age is known from such sites as Kadzi [Northern Zimbabwe], Ziwa
[Nyanga] [Eastern Zimbabwe], Gokomere and Mabveni [Southern Zimbabwe]. These sites are
characterised by stamp decorated pottery and remains of Dhaka plastered houses.
-Kadzi and Mabveni possessed sea shells suggesting some indirect connection with the Indian
Ocean during the first half of the first millennium.
-The pottery found at these sites clearly suggests they were agricultural communities, who
probably cultivated grains and beans. This is further supported by the location of the sites
which seem to favour fertile soils near streams, as is the case in northern Zimbabwe. Thus these
communities were basically subsistence farmers.
-They also kept livestock.
-It is supposed there were few specialised political institutions before the 6 th and 7thC AD.
-These communities were of ‘equals’ with senior men and women resolving conflicts or issues
that would arise.
-Society was largely bound by kinship, marriage or mutual involvement in cattle or land
ownership.
-The circumstances of everyday life influenced co-operation between groups / communities.
-The social order was reinforced by the belief system, which was probably tied to the landscape
[ancestral worship and guardians of the land].
-Essentially therefore, the Early Iron Age societies were egalitarian.
-Chiefdoms were to come much later following the expansion of these communities westwards
where they established themselves in the Matopos [at Zhizo], west of Bulawayo [at Leopard’s
Kopje] and in the Shashe-Limpopo valley [at Schroda and other sites].
[1]What evidence is there to show that Great Zimbabwe participated in regional and inter-
regional trade?
Evidence has been mainly obtained from archaeology. Excavations at Great Zimbabwe since
1903 produced a variety of associated findings of traded goods. These were found in several
enclosures. Some of the goods were dated back to the 13th and 14th centuries.
-Goods consisted of Persian bowls, Chinese dishes, near eastern glasses, iron spoon, iron lamp
holders, copper chains, rings and a copper box.
-These foreign goods may have been brought to Zimbabwe by a trader or traders as gifts for
chiefs to promote good relations.
-A variety of glass beads [yellow, green, blue], brass wire, sea shells, iron wire, axe, hoe heads
and chisels were most likely trade items.
-Local goods such as ivory, iron gongs, gold and gold wire and beads, soapstone dishes and
copper crosses were found at Great Zimbabwe but appear to have been manufactured
elsewhere in the region.
-The list of trade goods testifies that people of Great Zimbabwe had trade contacts not only
with such areas as China, India and the Middle and Near East but also with other African
regions such as Central and Eastern Africa.
-Iron gongs were of African origin but certainly not made in Zimbabwe. They were probably
made in Central Africa. They have also been found in some graves at Ingombe Ilede on the
banks of the Zambezi. Copper objects from Ingombe Ilede have also been found at
Chumnungwa away from Great Zimbabwe. All these give evidence that the people of Great
Zimbabwe took part in regional and inter-regional trade.

[1] How justifiable is it to describe Zimbabwe’s pre-historic rock art as the country’s first
history book?
Pupils need to demonstrate the value of rock paintings in the reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s
pre-history. They must also highlight the value of other sources.
Rock art / paintings
-Rock art provides much of the history of the Stone Age communities in Zimbabwe. Thus rock
paintings were the mouthpieces of the hunter-gatherers [the San] who painted them.
-The drawings of men hunting in groups or alone show that the San were hunters.
Archaeologists have come to know that the San practised a hunting and gathering economy
through studying these paintings.
-The drawings of women and girls collecting fruits show that the San were gatherers.
-The drawings of boys riding cattle show that the Khoikhoi domesticated cattle.
-The drawings of people dressed in animal skins also showed pre-historic clothing.
-The drawings of people seated around a fire suggested that they lived in families.
-Some drawings also showed that the San were dancers.
-The drawings of people fighting using sticks showed that they used sticks showed that
sometimes wars erupted with rival groups.
-Some rock paintings showed basket traps and rafts or small boats they used when catching fish
Other sources
-Archaeology is also important in generating knowledge about the Stone Age period.
-It authenticates rock paintings. Hence the sources of history complement each other.
-It also provides information about the transition from Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age.
-History of large settlements like Great Zimbabwe is also known through archaeology.
-Written records are also important in reconstructing Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.
-Pupils must take note of the Arabic documents, Portuguese sources and 19th C accounts by
missionaries, hunters and traders as well as letters of missionaries like C Helm, R Moffat and J S
Moffat.
-Oral tradition is also important in recovering Zimbabwe’s pre-history.
-It provides information about the origins of Great Zimbabwe.
-It provides information about the Mutapa state.
-It provides information about the Rozvi state.
-The 19th C history of the Ndebele and Shona has also been transmitted through oral tradition.
THE STONE AGE PERIOD
[2] Explain how hunting and gathering influenced the way of life of the Stone Age
communities on the Zimbabwean plateau.
Pupils need to examine the impact of hunting and gathering on the Khoisan communities in
Zimbabwe.
-Food security necessitated smaller groups and smaller families.
-Nomadism occurred as a result of the need to safeguard against the depletion of the
environment.
-Nomadism also occasioned the construction of temporary shelters.
-Hunting and gathering resulted in the sharing of responsibilities according to sex [women
gathered, men hunted].
-Co-operation and co-ordination were also necessary to ensure the success of the activities.

-Dependence on the environment also necessitated a communal way of life and a sound
knowledge of the wild.
-Plenty of time to spare was used for recreational activities, that is, rock painting and dancing.
[2] Assess the impact of hunting and gathering on early Shona communities in Zimbabwe.
Pupils need to examine the positive and negative impact of hunting and gathering on the Shona
communities
*Social effects
-Hunting and gathering demanded that people had to live in groups and had to co-operate and
co-ordinate their activities to ensure success of their activities.
-These new communities were forced to learn how to conserve their environment of hunting
and gathering if they were to be viable.
-Hunting and gathering resulted in sharing of responsibilities [sexual division of labour], a major
outstanding feature in this period.
-They led to job specialisation [hunters, gatherers, traders], that is, stratification based on
profession.
-Hunting and gathering resulted in emergence of classes, for example, hunters, gatherers and
traders.
-Hunting and gathering resulted in overpopulation due to food security.
*Political effects
-There was also demand for leadership to organise the economic activities, for example, at
Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe and Leopard’s Kopje.
-Production of more efficient iron tools resulted in warfare and death of many people.
*Economic effects
-Hunting and gathering spearheaded the development of a communal way of life.
-They also led to the introduction of trade both local and external. Ivory began to be traded
with foreigners.
-They led to production of more efficient iron tools.
-Production of more efficient iron tools resulted in the increase of killing rate of animals.
[2] Compare and contrast the main features of the Late Stone Age and Early Iron Age.
Pupils are expected to produce answers which clearly demonstrate the cultural, technological
and economic changes which occurred among hunter-gatherers.
-The Late Stone Age is largely identified with artifacts such as microliths, bones, stones, adzes,
scrappers, a variety of shell artifacts including beads, bone tools with a variation from one site
to another.
-Other features include rock art, burial of the dead in formal graves, bows and arrows and body
decorative.
-There is also fishing equipment such as hooks, gorges and sinkers.
-Earthen ware pottery appeared in some areas of western Zimbabwe and adjacent Botswana
from about 150 BC. There are thousands of Late Iron Age sites; but only a few are well
investigated and these include those caves and rock shelters in the Matopos [Amadzimba],
Bambata, Malemo Dam and so on, Dombazanga [Chiredzi], Diana’s row [Rusape], Charama
plateau [Gokwe], the Victoria falls region and Hwange National park.
-Late Stone Age shows societies which are innovative and technologically more advanced than
those of earlier times.

-The Iron Age is associated with the introduction of iron, pottery, crop farming, herding of
domestic animals and the establishment of permanent settlement.
-Thousands of sites have been reported by archaeologists but well known sites include Inabeni
[Chivhu], Kadzi [Northern Zimbabwe], Gokomere [Masvingo], Maxton [Shamva] and Coronation
[Harare].
-In terms of economy, the Late Stone Age is characterised by hunting and gathering as well as
exploitation of wild animals and plant remains.*The Iron Age is characterised by farming as the
main subsistence as well as hunting and gathering of resources, some local and regional
exchanges of goods such as pottery. Such exchanges may have occurred during the Late Stone
Age involving shell beads and other items.
-In technology, the Late Stone Age is dominated by microliths. The bow and arrow must have
revolutionised hunting. *The Early Iron Age technology is exemplified by pottery, which
revolutionised life styles. It is a symbol of Iron Age subsistence / agriculture as well as
permanent settlements.
-Socially, the Late Stone Age communities were organised along band links of a few groups of
people [10-25] depending on the availability and distribution of resources as well as
seasonability. They were essentially non stratified living in caves, on rock shelters while Early
Iron Age communities were settled in villages again with no sign of social ranking. They
preferred settling in hillsides- to exploit soils for crop farming and grazing.
-What is shown here is a gradual development of the same communities from simple to more
advanced modes of production and subsistence.Some of these technological aspects were not a
result of migrations as many archaeologists have thought, but an indication of continuous
developments in the same area over time.
[2] Compare the way of life of the San with that of the Early Iron Age Shona societies in
Zimbabwe.
The political, social and economic systems of the San differed greatly from that of the Early Iron
Age Shona communities. For instance, the Shona communities stayed at one place for a long
time whilst the San were very nomadic. The San lived in small groups whilst the Early Iron Agers
lived in large groups, the San lived in caves whilst the Early Iron Agers lived in pole and dagga
huts. However, it must be noted that there were also some similarities in the political, social
and economic way of life of the San and the Early Iron Age Shona societies. For example, both
did hunting, gathering, fishing and so on. One must however note that the similarities were
outweighed by differences.
-The political, social and economic way of life of the San and the Early Iron Age Shona societies
is greatly different, for instance, the Shona communities had a much more clearer political
structure than that of the San. They were ruled by chiefs who made most if not all decisions in
the state. These chiefs distributed land, led at ceremonies and tried cases. This implies that the
Shona societies had a centralised political system. In the contrary, the San did not have chiefs
and practised consensual democracy. Thus disputes were to be solved communally. This meant
that there was no sign of social ranking as no one monopolised decisions. Even movement to
different campsites was organised by the group.
-The San lived in caves and temporary shelters. This was contrary to the Early Iron Age Shona
people who lived in permanent shelters of pole and dagga.

-The San lived in small groups and had small families. This contrasted greatly with the Early Iron
Agers who lived in large groups and had large families.
-The San people were nomadic. This was because they wanted to live in an environment that
would provide them with everything they needed for their survival. In the contrary, the Shona
communities stayed at a place for a long period of time.
-The San had a very rigid economic way of life as they survived through hunting and gathering.
About 82 % of their food came from gathering. In the contrary, the Shona communities had a
broad economic way of life, that is, they had a number of economic activities such as crop
cultivation, livestock production, trading, mining and blacksmithing among others.
*However, there were also some similarities between the way of life of the San and that of the
Early Iron Age Shona communities. For instance, both groups caught fish to supplement their
diet. They both used basket traps made from reeds to catch fish. They however differed in that
the San used hooks made from bones whilst the Early Iron Agers used hooks made from iron
and were more efficient than those made from bones.
-Both the San and Early Iron Age Shona communities hunted wild animals. For the San this was
one of the main sources of food and was very important.
-Both gathered wild fruits, roots, honey, flying ants, locusts and so on.
-Both practised division of labour.
[2] Compare the socio-economic life of the Khoikhoi with that of the Early Iron Age Shona
communities.
Pupils need to examine the differences [social and economic] between the Khoikhoi and the
Early Iron Age. They may use the following points.
Social
-habitat
-settlements
-group sizes
-marriage
-practices
-religion
-social classes
Economic
-hunting
-gathering
-livestock keeping
-crop production
-fishing
-craft work
-mining
-trade
-land tenure
[2] ‘The forest was the only source of the San hunter-gatherers’ livelihood’. Discuss.
Pupils need to examine the importance of the forest in the lives of the San. They must also
explain the importance of other sources of livelihood.

-The forest was very important in as far as the life and existence of the San was concerned, for
instance, they relied on the forest for their food and this was in the form of honey, fruits, game
meat, insects, lizards and many others.
-The forest also provided the San with medicine in the event of sickness. They obtained
medicine from tree roots, leaves and barks. Thus the forest played an important role in the
welfare of the San.
-The San also depended on the forest for their shelter. They found shelter in the caves. They
also lived in temporary shelters which were made from bush materials like tree branches, reeds
or grass.
-The San depended on the forests for firewood.
-The San obtained clothes from the forests. The animals which they killed provided them with
clothes through skins.
-The San obtained tools and implements from the forests. These tools included arrows, digging
sticks made from wood, stone and bones. Tree barks were used for carrying fruits which would
have been gathered in the forest. They also used tree barks for making tassel bags. They used
ostrich egg shells for carrying water. This is enough testimony to demonstrate that the San
heavily depended on the forest for their livelihood.
*However, although the San largely depended on the forest for their survival, it must be noted
that they also depended on other things for their survival. For instance, the San hunter-
gatherers also depended on water bodies like rivers where they obtained fish and other aquatic
animals like hippopotamus which they ate for food.
-It is believed that the San also stole things like cattle and goats from the Khoikhoi and the
Bantu people to earn a living.
-Some of the San hunter-gatherers even worked for the Khoikhoi as herders to earn a living.
According to H Bhila and K Shillington [1986], ‘A San family might join a Khoikhoi clan, to herd
their cattle in return for some milk.
-Sometimes groups of San people acquired cattle from the Khoikhoi and set themselves up as
pastoralists. Thus they would also rely on cattle for their survival.
*In summation, the assertion that the forest was the only source of livelihood for the San is not
true. However, one cannot doubt that the forest was the major source of their survival.
[2] ‘Although the San were regarded as backward people, some of their activities were far
ahead of their time’. Do you agree?
[2] Examine the validity of the view that although the San were backward politically, socially
and economically they were progressive in some respects.
The economic, social and political way of life of the San shows that they were backward
people.For instance, they did not have the notion of a state, they did not have permanent
settlements, they practised nomadism, they lived in caves, they wore clothes made from animal
skins and they depended on hunting and gathering for their survival. However, it should be
noted that some of their activities were advanced [far ahead of their time], for example, they
practised family planning, they had advanced hunting and fishing skills, they had a sense of
beauty and they could extract medicine to cure the sick. Thus one can argue that the above
assertion is largely valid.

-To start with, considering the way they dressed, one can argue that the San were backward
people. This is because they wore clothes made from animal skins. In addition, their clothes did
not cover the whole body. Rather, their clothes covered private parts only.
*However, one can argue that the San were also progressive since they had a sense of beauty, a
development which has endured to this day. According to P Garlake, their rock paintings show
that the San wore a few clothes, but also did put on many jewels for beauty purposes. Hence
although the San were backward people, some of their activities were advanced.
-In addition, the San hunter-gatherers were backward people in that they did not have the
notion of a state.They had small families and lived in small groups of about 5-35 people. When
the group became too big fragmentation occurred. This however hindered state formation.
*However, one must note that the San were in some respect advanced. This is because the San
kept the population at low levels which the environment could sustain [support]. According to
D N Beach, the San practised some form of natural family planning. Hence they were prudent.
-Furthermore, the San were backward in the sense that they depended on hunting and
gathering for their livelihood. This shows that their economy was very rigid. More so, the choice
of hunting and gathering food rather than producing it shows that the San were backward. It
should be noted that about 82 % of their food came from gathering.
*However, it must be noted that the San were also provident in that they used sophisticated
hunting methods. For example, they used poisoned arrows to kill animals. They extracted the
poison from roots, barks, snakes, spiders, scorpions and the like. This was sophisticated
because the San knew that the poison was neuro toxic and does not contaminate the whole
body of the animals shot. More so, the San never killed more than they needed to eat. One
must also realise that the San knew how to preserve food. For example, the meat of the
animals they hunted was smoked and dried for later use. This practice endured to this day.
Hence they were prudent.
-To add more, the San people were also backward because they buried the dead in caves and
not in graves like what the contemporary people do.
*Although this was the case, it should be noted that the idea of burying the dead continued to
this day hence the San were far ahead of their time. More so, like the contemporary people,
the San believed that the dead can still influence the living. They also had the belief that upon
death the soul went back to the great God’s house in the sky. This belief is still common even to
people of nowadays. Hence the claim above is valid.
-The San were backward people because they lived a nomadic way of life. This explains why
they did not build permanent shelters and lived in caves.
*However, the San lived a nomadic way of life because they recognised the value of protecting
the environment. They moved to a new area [hunting ground] before one area is completely
exhausted. Hence they were prudent.
-The San were far ahead of their time because they had the knowhow to extract medicine to
cure diseases. They extracted medicine from tree roots, leaves, barks and so on. The San
women were specialists in this field as they could harvest and prepare medical plants. These
medicines could treat a wide range of ailments like snake bites. This meant that the San were
advanced because extraction of medicine from plants had survived to this day.

*However, vegetation was destroyed in the process of extracting medicine and when looking
for poles to build temporary shelters and there is no evidence to show that the San planted
trees –hence deforestation –a sign of backwardness.
-Further still, the San were far ahead of their time because the San hunter-gatherers just like
people of nowadays had religious affiliation hence.The San generally observes the supremacy of
one powerful God while at the same time recognising the presence of lesser gods along with
their wives and children. The most important spiritual being of the San was Kaggen [a deity].
The word Kaggen can be translated as mantis. This led to the belief that the San worshipped the
praying mantis. However, Kaggen is not always a mantis but the mantis is one of his
manifestations. He could also turn into an Eland, a hare, a snake or a vulture. When he is not in
one of the animals, Kaggen lives his life as an ordinary San. Hence the San were advanced
because just like people of nowadays, they had religious affiliation.
-The San were progressive in the sense that they had the ability of making tools. They made
tools like wooden digging sticks used for various purposes, bows, arrows and pegs.
*However, in the process of making tools they destroyed trees. There is no evidence to show
that trees were planted. Hence the San were backward people.
[2] Explain the reasons for, and the impact of, the Bantu people’s triumph over the San on the
Zimbabwean plateau before 1450.
Pupils need to examine the reasons why the Bantu displaced the San and the impact.
Reasons for the Bantu people’s triumph over the San
-The Bantu were superior in numbers due to large population.
-They used more advanced tools and weapons.
-There was social cohesion, for example, there was existence of chiefs.
-They established permanent settlements.
-They built strong and durable shelter, for example, huts.
-There was food security due to crop cultivation.
-They had better military organisation and tactics.
Impact of the Bantu people’s triumph over the San
-There was displacement of the San people from the Zimbabwean plateau.
-The Bantu established permanent settlements on the Zimbabwean plateau.
-There was spread of iron technology and end of Stone Age period.
[2] To what extent did the San way of life reflect sustainable living with the environment?
Pupils need to assess the San way of life and evaluate the extent to which they were able to
conserve their environment while making a living out of it at the same time. They must also
show that the San also did harm to the environment.
-From a demographic point of view, one can argue that the San were provident as they had
small families and lived in small groups of about 5-35 people. This implies that they kept the
population at levels that the environment could sustain [support].According to DN Beach; the
San practised some form of natural family planning. More so, fragmentation occurred when a
group became too big to be supported by the environment.
-The San were prudent as they knew how to preserve food for future use. For instance, some of
the meat they obtained from animals they hunted was smoked and dried for later use. This
meat was preserved because it had to be carried when the group moved on to the next place.

-The San way of life reflected sustainable living with the environment because they used
sophisticated hunting methods. These include the use of traps and poisoned arrows. With these
methods, the San could kill only what they needed to eat. Moreover, they moved on to a new
hunting ground before one area was completely exhausted.
-The San were provident as they did not throw away the skins of the animals they hunted.
Rather, they used them to make clothes and blankets to warm themselves especially in
temperate climates. More so, ostrich egg shells and tortoise shells were used to carry and store
water. Leather was also used to make net bags for carrying food. Bones were used to make
tools and fishing hooks. Hence they were not wasteful.
-The San also used sophisticated fishing methods and they could catch what they eat only. They
used hooks made from bones and basket traps [size of fish].
*However, the San also did some harm to the environment; for instance, being nomadic meant
that the San could occupy a certain place and leave it when the resources got exhausted [wild
animals, fruits, roots, honey, insects and lizards]. Also the choice of hunting and gathering food
rather than producing it was not a noble or sensible idea.
-The San had no leader who could control the hunting and fishing grounds.
-The San destroyed trees in the process of extracting medicine and poison as well as in the
process of making tools, pegs, bows and arrows and in the process of building temporary
shelters.
-Pit traps they used for hunting at times trapped animals which were inedible for example
hyenas.
[2] How far did the life style of the Khoisan people influence that of the Iron Age communities
up to 1000 AD?
Pupils need to examine the extent to which the Khoisan influenced lives of the Iron Age people
and vice versa.
-Both communities influenced each other. The Iron Age communities borrowed some ideas
from the Khoisan possibly in the area of hunting and gathering. These activities continued into
the Iron Age. They adopted some dietary practices from the Khoisan people as a result of the
latter’s lifestyle, for example, knowledge of edible wild fruits, roots and bulbs. The skill of
hunting itself was transferred to the Iron Age communities by the Khoisan who were specialised
hunters.
-The Iron Age people benefited from the Khoisan’s knowledge of traditional medicines for the
treatment of snake bites as well as family planning techniques.
-There was also intermarriage and hence cultural fusion between the two communities.
*On the other hand, the Iron Age people influenced the Khoisan, especially with their advanced
knowledge of iron working.
-The Khoisan hunting became more efficient with the use of iron tools.
-The growing of crops was also adopted by the Khoisan from the Iron Age people.
-The Khoisan learnt a better and more advanced political system from the Iron Age
communities.
THE CHANGES [TRANSITION] FROM LATE STONE AGE TO EARLY IRON AGE
[3] Assess the validity of the assertion that the discovery of iron brought more good than
harm to early Zimbabwean communities.

The discovery of iron greatly benefited the early Zimbabwean communities. For instance,
hunting was improved, crop production became more organised, trade both internal and
external became more pronounced, mining was now being done with the use of iron tools and
there was emergence of permanent settlements. However, the discovery of iron also had some
negative effects on early Zimbabwean communities, for example, exploitation of men by men
became more apparent, people began to raid each other and warfare emerged leading to death
of many people. Thus it is therefore clear that the discovery of iron brought more good
[benefits] than harm [non benefits] to early Zimbabwean communities because the positive
effects of the introduction of iron outweighed the negative effects.
-To start with, the discovery of iron was greatly beneficial to early Zimbabwean communities,
for instance, hunting became more effective. The iron technologists continued to hunt just like
the stone agers but it was improved by the use of iron tools and implements like iron tipped
arrows and spears which were more efficient than wood and stone tools used during the Stone
Age. The Iron Agers could now kill big animals like elephants and kudus. This implies that more
meat was made available to a wide range of people and this improved the health of people.
Logically, that gave the ordinary people the opportunity to live longer than before. Hence the
discovery of iron was beneficial to the early Zimbabwean communities.
*However, on a negative note, improved hunting with the use of iron tools and weapons
resulted in indiscriminate killing of animals as well as in competition for hunting grounds.These
iron weapons made people to raid each other for grain, cattle and goats. Thus the discovery of
iron was not without its demerits to early Zimbabwean communities.
-In addition, the discovery of iron made crop cultivation more organised, productive and
widespread.Crop cultivation is believed to have started towards the end of the Late Stone Age
period but during the Early Iron Age it was improved by the use of iron tools and implements
like hoes, axes, mattocks and so on which replaced the old stone tools. These iron tools were
stronger, sharper and more reliable. This enabled people to clear large pieces of land for
agriculture. The iron tools enhanced speedy clearing and tilling of the land. More so, new crops
like millet and sorghum were added to the various roots, melons and bean crops. This boosted
production of food and consequently agriculture became people’s primary means of survival.
Thus the Iron Agers were now depending less on hunting and gathering. The choice of
producing food rather than gathering it has been an important change and this improved their
diet. Hence the discovery of iron was beneficial to the early Zimbabwean communities.
*However, though crop production was improved, it led to exploitation of men by men. Those
who produced much [surplus food] used the poor [weaker groups] in their fields. Thus the
discovery of iron also brought some harm to early Zimbabwean communities.
-Furthermore, the domestication of animals became common [pronounced]. They kept animals
like cattle, sheep and goats and cattle became a symbol of status. The domestication of animals
meant an improvement in their diet as meat; milk and fat were now available. Cattle and other
animals were also used for trade and for paying tribute as well as lobola.
*However, although the domestication of animals was very beneficial to the Iron Agers, it led to
exploitation of men by men just like crop cultivation. For instance, those with large numbers of
cattle employed those without as herd boys. Thus the discovery of iron also had some demerits
to early Zimbabwean communities.

-The introduction of iron led to mining with the use of efficient iron tools like mattocks, picks
and so on. They mined minerals like copper, iron and gold. Gold was used for trading with
foreigners like the Swahili and Arabs. Iron was important for tool making and copper was used
for making jewellery like copper bangles. Mining with the use of iron tools enabled people to
reach very considerable depths of over 100 feet until stopped by water and insufficient
ventilation. Hence the discovery of iron was very beneficial to early Zimbabwean communities.
*However, the introduction of iron resulted in competition for mining grounds. There was also
overexploitation of minerals due to the use of iron tools.
-The discovery of iron made trade to become more pronounced during this period. Both
internal and external trade became visible and more organised. Towards the end of the Early
Iron Age, Zimbabwean iron users traded with foreigners coming from as far as Persia, Arabia
and other places. There is also evidence that they might have had access to the Indian Ocean
and Chinese markets. Muslim traders exchanged Indian made Damascus swords for iron with
the early iron agers. Evidence also indicated that they must have traded gold and copper for
products like Chinese porcelain and beads. Thus the iron technologists obtained foreigngoods
through trade hence the introduction of iron was a good innovation to early Zimbabwean
communities.
*However, on a negative note, trade led to over exploitation and depletion of resources like
gold, iron, copper and ivory.
-The introduction of iron brought about the establishment of permanent settlements, which
benefited the iron agers in Zimbabwe. They built permanent houses of pole and dagga with
grass thatch. This implies that families could now no longer have to move from one place to
another as what the Stone Agers did. The permanency of the settlements was explained by the
fact that bulky yields of grain they harvested could not be carried easily from one place to
another. This was contrary to the Stone Agers who tended to be mobile [nomadic] because
they depended on the environment for their livelihood. Hence the introduction of iron brought
more good than harm to early Zimbabwean communities.
*However, it must be noted that trees were destroyed in the process of clearing land for
settlements. They were also destroyed as they built houses from poles obtained from trees.
-The introduction of iron led to specialisation in areas like mining, blacksmithing, trading,
weaving, basketry, fishing and farming. This led to an improvement in the standard of living of
people as they were offered a lot of options with regard to survival skills.
*However, specialisation led to exploitation of men by men as have nots worked for the haves.
-The introduction of iron resulted in division of labour based on sex and skills. Women gathered
while men hunted, mined and caught fish. This made work easier and faster.
*However, due to division of labour, exploitation of women and children became apparent.
They were given the most arduous [difficult] task of crop cultivation. They became weaker and
subordinate workers of the society.
-The introduction of iron led to the emergence of polygamy which was beneficial to the early
Zimbabwean societies. This was because polygamy was seen as an important source of labour
especially by the new farmers. Polygamy enabled people to cultivate large pieces of land thus
boosting food production and ensuring food security. Polygamy also helped as a unifying factor.
[3] Discuss the major changes that were brought by the introduction of iron technology in
Zimbabwe during the Early Iron Age.

[3]Assess the changes that took place in early Zimbabwean societies as a result of the
introduction of iron.
[3]Examine the impact of the use of iron on the activities of Early Iron Age Shona
communities.
[3] Identify and assess the economic, social and political changes which occurred in Zimbabwe
during the Early Iron Age.
Economic changes
-Crop production improved due to the use of iron tools.
-They began to domesticate animals like cattle, goats and sheep.
-Hunting was improved due to the use of iron tools and weapons.
-They began to mine minerals like gold, copper and iron using iron tools like picks and mattocks.
-Trade became more pronounced.
Social changes
-They began to establish permanent settlements.
-Population increased due to food security.
-There was emergence of specialisation.
-There was division of labour based on sex and skills.
-Exploitation of men by men became apparent.
-There was emergence of polygamy.
-There was emergence of classes.
-There was worship of the Supreme Being.
Political changes
-There was introduction of chiefs as there was demand for leadership to organise the economic
activities.
-People began to pay tribute to chiefs as a sign of loyalty.
-They began to raid each other.
-There was formation of villages on the basis of chiefdoms.
-There was clan formation due to population growth.
[3] Discuss the view that the introduction of iron among early Zimbabwean communities
resulted in revolutionary changes.
[3]How far can the changes that occurred in Zimbabwe during the transitional period from
Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age be described as revolutionary?
The changes that occurred in Zimbabwe during the transitional period from Late Stone Age to
Early Iron Age can be greatly described as revolutionary. Some of the revolutionary innovations
are the introduction of iron tools, the establishment of permanent settlements, the
introduction of polygamy, the introduction of chiefs and emergence of classes. However, it
must be noted that the new iron users did not completely break away from what the stone
technologists did. For instance, hunting and gathering continued and trade was also not a
revolutionary innovation.
-To start with, the Early Iron Age changes can greatly be described as revolutionary, for
instance, the emergence of permanent settlements was unheard of during the Late Stone Age
period. They built permanent houses of pole and dagga. Thus families could now no longer
have to move from one settlement to another according to season. The permanence of villages
was explained by the fact that the bulky yields of grain they harvested could not be carried

from one place to another. This was contrary to the Stone Age people who tended to be mobile
because they depended on their environment for livelihood. Hence the appearance of
permanent settlements was a revolutionary innovation.
-In addition, the introduction of polygamy was a revolutionary innovation and became popular
with the Iron Age period. This innovation was absent during the Stone Age period because the
Stone Agers had small families. Polygamy was seen as an important source of labour especially
by the new farmers. It also enabled people to cultivate large pieces of land thus boosting food
production and ensuring food security.The Early Iron Agers used iron tools, agricultural produce
and animals they kept for paying lobola. It must also be noted that bride price appeared for the
first time. Hence the changes that occurred during the transitional period from Late Stone Age
to Early Iron Age can largely be described as revolutionary.
-Furthermore, the introduction of mining was a revolutionary innovation. The Early Iron Agers
began to mine iron, copper and gold which was traded with the Swahili and Arab traders on the
Indian Ocean coast. According to J.D Fage, iron technology led to mining with the use of strong
iron tools like picks and reached very considerable depths over 10 feet until stopped by water
and insufficient ventilation. Hence one cannot hesitate to argue that the transition from Late
Stone Age to Early Iron Age was associated with revolutionary changes.
-To add on, the emergence of chiefs was a revolutionary innovation. It was unheard of during
the Late Stone Age where people had been practising consensual democracy. These chiefs
settled disputes and made laws. There is also a lot of evidence that chieftainship was
hereditary. Oftenly, these chiefs could fight to control resources, that is, land and animals. This
forced chiefs to mobilise armies which were not permanent. Hence, one can safely argue that
the emergence of chiefs was a revolutionary innovation.
*However, it must be noted that the new iron users did not completely break away from all
what the stone technologists did, for example, hunting continued. However, it was improved by
the use of iron tools and implements which were more efficient than old stone and wooden
tools used during the Stone Age. They began to hunt using iron tipped spears and arrow heads
though hunting was no longer important as they mainly concentrated on crop cultivation and
animal rearing. With the use of iron tools, more meat was made available to a wide range of
people and that improved the health of the people. Logically that gave the ordinary men an
opportunity to live longer than before. Hence not all the Iron Age changes were revolutionary.
-Furthermore, crop production was not a revolutionary innovation. It is believed to have started
towards the end of the Late Stone Ageand it became organised, widespread and productive
during the Early Iron Age due to the use of iron tools and implements.These iron technologists
grew a variety of crops and vegetables like millet, melons, roots, sorghum, pumpkins, beans
and peas. The use of iron tools like axes, hoes and so on revolutionised agriculture, increased
production, improved diet and lessened dependence on hunting and gathering. These iron tools
that were more reliable, sharper and stronger meant that people were now able to clear large
pieces of land for agriculture. This boosted production of food and consequently agriculture
became people’s primary means of survival.Hence it should be noted that some old elements
continued but were improved.
-Moreover, trade was not a revolutionary innovation. It was already there during the Late Stone
Age period but it became pronounced and more organised during the Early Iron Age.Both
internal and external trade became visible during the Early Iron Age. Towards the end of the

Early Iron Age the Zimbabwean iron users began to trade with foreigners coming from
especially Persia, Arabia and there is evidence that they might have had access to the Indian
and Chinese markets. Evidence also indicated that they must have traded gold and copper for
products like Chinese porcelain and beads. External trade also took the form of regional trade.
According to J.D Fage, archaeological findings at Ingombe Ilede seem to prove that there was
flourishing trade between Zimbabwean iron users and their Zambian counterparts. Internally
they exchanged surplus goods, for example, surplus grain could be exchanged for iron tools.
Hence trade which was already there during the Late Stone Age was improved during the Early
Iron Age.
-In summation, the changes that occurred in Zimbabwe during the transitional period from Late
Stone Age to Early Iron Age can largely be described as having been revolutionary. However, it
must be noted that the Early Iron Agers did not completely break away from all what the stone
technologists did. Rather, some old elements continued to cripple in but were improved during
the Early Iron Age.
[3]Discuss the importance of Cereal crop cultivation in the Early Iron Age communities in
Simbabwe
Pupils need to assess the value of cereal crops as well as other crops to the Early Iron Age
people.
Importance of cereal crops
-Cereal crops were introduced in the region by the Bantu.
-These included sorghum, millet and finger millet.
-Plant crops were also introduced during this time. These included cowpeas and pumpkins.
-Cereal crop cultivation was suitable for both high and low rainfall regions
-The people’s diet improved as there was a wide choice of food.
-Cereal crop cultivation resulted in sedentary settlements, population increase and barter
trade.
-Cereals were also used for payment of tribute.
-Ruling classes emerged.
-There was also state formation.
[3] ‘The knowledge of farming and iron technology among the early Zimbabwean
communities was a result of diffusion rather than migration’. Discuss.
There is no general consensus among historians as to who exactly introduced the knowledge of
farming [crop cultivation and animal keeping] and iron technology among early Zimbabwean
communities. As a result, two theories emerged in trying to explain how these innovations
originated. One theory argues that the knowledge of farming and iron technology was a result
of diffusion. The other theory argues that the knowledge of farming and iron technology was a
result of migration.
-The Migrationists believed that the knowledgeof farming and iron technology was brought
about by a new race of people called the Bantu. These theorists included D N Beach, S I G
Mudenge, T N Huffman, Soper and Phillipson. They argue that the sudden appearance of new
economic rapid features suggest that these innovations were introduced by immigrants from
elsewhere where technology was already well developed. This theory therefore implies that the
knowledge of farming and iron technology was introduced by a new race of people other than
the local Stone Age hunter-gatherers.

-According to archaeology and linguistic evidence these people could have been the Bantu. The
cultural and economic features of the Early Iron Agers, that is, herding, crop cultivation and iron
technology correspond more or less with the cultural and economic features of the Bantu
speaking people elsewhere. Sudanic cropswere grown on Early Iron Age villages and these
included bulrush, sorghum and millet. This implies that it were the Bantu who brought these
crops and the knowledge of farming. This is in line with T N Huffman, Soper and Phillipson who
argue that a wave of fast moving invaders who were as fast as Mfecane invaders and using
dangerous weapons made from iron were responsible for the introduction of iron technology in
Zimbabwe.
-According to Migrationists, the movement of the Bantu was massive and was championed by
iron technologists from north and east Africa. They occupied large areas of Central and
Southern Africa during the Early Iron Age period. These groups arrived in the area, that is,
Leopard’s Kopje, whose site was in Bulawayo and who later spread south from Matabeleland to
Mapungubwe. When these people came they introduced iron technology. This theory therefore
implies that iron technology in Zimbabwe was a borrowed phenomenon.
-The proponents of the Migrationist theory like Fagan postulated that from the first, Iron Age
houses resembled those of the Bantu peoples, with hardened floors, walls of mud, sticks and
thatched roof, supported by a central pole. Thus there is little doubt that the local people [Late
Stone Agers] were colonised and iron technology was introduced by these aliens. J Davidson
argued that a major change came to the region with the influx of the migrating Bantu who were
fleeing drought conditions and famine in the Sahelian region and they brought with them how
to smelt iron and work it into iron implements such as hoes.They also brought with them the
knowledge of farming.
*The Migrationists were however challenged by the Diffusionists for being racist. The
Migrationist theory is also discounted on the bases that in cases which have been studied the
migrant group does not represent more than 10% of the host population. The population was
not big enough to introduce drastic changes within the host communities. Hence the
Diffusionist theory is more viable.
-According to the Diffusionist theory, the knowledge of farming and iron technology was
brought about by the local people. This theory was put forward by scholars like P Garlake. He
argues that the Early Iron Age and the Late Stone Age does not represent any population
movement at all. The innovations can be economically explained in terms of local
developments between the Late Stone Age and Early Iron Age. This theory therefore implies
that the changes were innovations from the Stone Age people. Thus there was a gradual
development of the same communities from simple to more advanced modes of production
and subsistence.
-Diffusionists argue that the knowledge of farming and iron technology were local innovations.
They also argue that these changes occurred naturally and they were a result of
experimentation and interaction. Iron technology was accepted by the Late Stone Agers
because of the advantages iron tools had over bone, wood and stone tools. The implication
here is that the technological aspect was not a result of migration but it was an indication of
continuous development in the same area over time.
-Some proponents of the Diffusionist theory like P Garlake argues that if the movement did take
place, it did not occur in a straight north-south direction. Thus there could have been

movements also in many different directions even south-north. This theory therefore implies
that the knowledge of farming and iron technology were innovations by the local people.
[3] With reference to the movements of the Shona in Zimbabwe up to 1000AD critically
examine the theories of migration and diffusion.
[3]Examine the theories on the movement of the Bantu into the Zimbabwe plateau up to
1000AD.
Pupils need to examine the theories of migration and diffusion indicating whether the
migratory movements brought new people [Shona] into Zimbabwe bringing about changes or
else changes evolved locally. They need to analyse the arguments put forward by the
Migrationists like D N Beach, Mudenge and Mukanya against the archaeologists and other
historians. They must derive evidence to support the movement by the Bantu from place to
place, for example, Gokomere, Ziwa, Leopard’s Kopje and the Kutama cultures. Bring out the
main features of both Early and Later Iron Ages as evidence of the changes and movements as
revealed by the findings of specific Iron Age sites. They must also examine arguments by
Diffusionists that changes occurred naturally and that Stone Age people of Zimbabwe
developed and evolved naturally into the Iron Age.
[3]Discuss the contributions of Iron Age sites in tracing the movements and settlement
patterns of the Bantu on the Zimbabwe plateau.
Pupils need to analyse the Early and Late Iron Age sites in Zimbabwe. They are expected to
identify remains found at various settlements [Iron Age sites] and come up with dates in order
to establish a general pattern of movement and settlement. The following could be a guide;
-Bantu movements into Zimbabwe originated from across Zambezi River.
-Archaeological remains include pottery, metallurgy, bones and grains.
Early Iron Age
1] Referred to as the Gokomere pottery found in Central Zimbabwe. The site included the
following:
-Tunnel rock shelter-6th C
-Zimbabwe acropolis-4th C
-Mabveni-6th C
-Malipati-9th C
-Human activities include animal husbandry, crop cultivation and trade.
2] Nyanga-found in the eastern plateau
-Ziwa-4th to the 11th C
-Activities include animal husbandry, crop cultivation and trade.
Later Iron Age
1] Leopard’s Kopje-11th C-western plateau
-Bambadyanalo suggested a southward migration
-Emphasis on cattle
2] Msengezi [Central plateau]-13th C
-Emphasis on ivory trade
3] Mapungubwe-southern plateau
-Activities are trade and animal husbandry]
TRANSITION [CHANGES] FROM EARLY IRON AGE TO LATE IRON AGE

[3] Identify and assess the economic, social and political changes which occurred in Zimbabwe
during the Late Iron Age period.
[3] Assess the major changes brought about by the introduction of iron in Zimbabwe during
the Later Iron Age.
*Political changes
-There was formation of states during this period. These states included Mapungubwe, Great
Zimbabwe and Mutapa. It should be noted that this was a revolutionary innovation because
state formation was unheard of during the Early Iron Age.
-Kingship emerged during the Late Iron Age period. This was contrary to the Early Iron Agers
who were ruled by chiefs. The kings headed the states, controlled trade, led at ceremonies,
tried cases, appointed chiefs and levied tribute to their subjects as a show of loyalty. The kings
also punished wrong doers.
-During the Late Iron Age there was emergence of warfare. This was unheard of during the Early
Iron Age. These wars were arising largely out of disputes over succession.
*Economic changes
-The Late Iron Agers began to concentrate more on basic crop production. This explains why the
Late Iron Agers preferred good farming land. Crop cultivation was not a revolutionary
innovation. It was there during the Early Iron Age but it began to be practised on a large scale
during the Late Iron Age period. More so, land for cultivation was drastically increased using
iron tools like hoes and axes.
-The Late Iron Agers mastered the art or technique of storing grain for a long time.
-During this period there was also greater emphasis on animal rearing. Thus improvements in
crop cultivation were accompanied by improvements in the domestication of animals such as
cattle, goats and sheep. These improved the diet hence people could live longer and healthier.
One must note that during the Late Iron Age period there was clear association of wealth, cattle
and social status. Thus although hunting and gathering continued, they became less and less
important as people concentrated more on crop cultivation and animal rearing.
*Social changes
-The Late Iron Agers began to build more permanent settlements. This was because they could
not move with the bulky yields and large herds from one place to another. Thus economic
changes brought about social changes. It should be noted that the Late Iron Agers began to
prefer to settle near water sites, valleys and hills [hill tops].
-During the Late Iron Age period, there began to appear stone buildings. Initially the walls seem
to have been built to enclose cattle but in time, they played a much more important role as
they became symbols of status. The ruling class lived in stone enclosures and the poor lived
outside enclosures. The emergence of stone walls was a revolutionary innovation which was
unheard of during the Early Iron Age.
-Population increased greatly during the Late Iron Age period. This was largely due to better
food security. They obtained food from the crops they grew, animals they kept and hunted as
well as from items they gathered. Population also increased greatly because of polygamy which
was viewed as a source of manpower.
-Exploitation of men by men became more apparent. Women and weaker members of society
were greatly exploited. Women for instance, were given the most difficult task of crop
cultivation. More so, the haves employed the have nots as labourers. For example, those with

many cattle employed those without as herd boys and those with bulky yields employed those
without in their fields.
[3] Compare the way of life of the Early Iron Age with that of the Late Iron Age communities
in Zimbabwe.
Candidates must focus on the similarities and differences of the ways of life of the two Iron Age
Periods.
Similarities
-There was cultivation of crops like sorghum and millet during both periods though it became
more pronounced during the Late Iron Age.
-In both periods animals like cattle, sheep and goats were kept.
-In both periods iron tools and implements like axes, hoes, mattocks, picks, knives and swords
were used.
-In both periods houses of pole and dagga were built though the Late Iron Agers had more
permanent settlements.
Differences
-The Early Iron Age settlements were small and scattered.
*Late Iron Age settlements were big assuming regional identities.
-Early Iron Age pottery was less decorative and had few styles.
*Late Iron Age pottery had a variety of pottery styles.
-Trade was less pronounced during the Early Iron Age.
*It became widespread during the Late Iron Age.
-The accumulation of wealth and rise of rulers became more pronounced during Late Iron Age.
-The Late Iron Agers began to master the art or technique of storing grain for a long time
through construction of granaries.
[3] In what ways did iron technology lead to the formation of Iron Age States in Zimbabwe?
*Economic effects
-States were formed because of trade centres that were created as a result of iron.
-People began to settle where they could easily trade leading to the creation of states.
-Surplus production led to trade. People settled where they would obtain trade goods.
-Iron enhanced production which led to surplus which triggered trade.
-Trade enabled small groups of people to stay together thereby causing birth of states.
-Iron technology led to rich harvests and hence the need to settle in one place.
-Iron also brought about efficient tools which improved farming and mining which then boosted
trading activities.
-With the advent of mining, migration was minimised as the mineral was in the ground and
required the people to remain in situ.
-Food stability was brought about due to the improvement of the farming equipment. This
promoted stability and permanent settlement which was a key element in the establishment of
the states.
*Political effects
-The accumulation of wealth gave rise to kings.
-These kings could then proceed to organise people into villages and provinces which laid basis
for the establishment of states.

-Iron also improved the quality of weapons which were used in conquering enemies and
incorporating other states.
-The kings would also defend their states and exercised authority over the people and this
inevitably de facto existence of states.
-What sealed the status of the states was the stability which was brought about by permanent
settlement of people in places.
-Standing armies also arose due to improved weaponry.
*Social effects
-The economic and social factors triggered population growth which became a boost to the
states.
-The growth of population is also attributed to the improvement in diet for the people.
-The society also became stratified due to the economic factors and many states have this as an
attribute of their social structure.
RISE, DEVELOPMENT AND DECLINE OF EARLY STATES [1000-1450]
[3]Discuss the origin of states south of the Zambezi from the 10 th to the 12thC.
Pupils must focus on the development of state societies around Mapungubwe [Limpopo
Valley], Toutswe [Eastern Botswana] and Great Zimbabwe.
-Development of traditional structures and their control of key resources such as ivory, gold,
animal skins, some of which were traded to the towns in the East Africa led to the rise of states.
-Rising importance of cattle, which played a significant role in ideology and economy by the 10 th
and 11th C led to the emergence of states. Those able to amass wealth through cattle herds
asserted their power and assumed important positions in society. The value of these lay in their
capacity to transform traditional holds on property into tangible wealth which served to
distinguish its owners from the common people.
-Technology also led to the rise of states. A wide range of technical skills were harnessed to
produce iron and copper ceramics, wooden implements and building stones. There was
increased production of these craft specialisation.
-Agriculture [food production] also led to the emergence of states. There was need to harness
risks through iron technology to produce enough food to feed large groups of people. Increased
food production enabled maintenance of large population. This formed the basis of settlement
hierarchies.
-Development of stone and monumental architecture led to the rise of state societies. This
expressed the presence of elite, for example, at Mapela and Mapungubwe. Settlement layout
became a basis for social differentiation between the fewer rich and the commoners.
*NB These points over cut the states under discussion and pupils are expected to discuss these
before looking at individual reasons for the origins of Mapungubwe [1000-1200AD] and Great
Zimbabwe [1270-1450].
-Critical to both states is how wealth gained from agriculture, cattle, external trade and systems
of obligation such as tribute was transformed into real political power.
-Both states are founded on the same basic societies [Leopard’s Kopje] / Zhizo farmers and
gradually developed into a regional profile.
-For Great Zimbabwe, a much overlooked aspect is religion, an important aspect of state
ideology and an effective instrument in building people into an independent political union.

-A concluding commentary may discuss why Great Zimbabwe was preferred as a centre of a
state to Mapungubwe during the 13th C.
[3] Examine the view that the role of trade in the rise of Iron Age States has often been
exaggerated.
Pupils must give examples of states like Great Zimbabwe, Mapungubwe, Toutswe and Leopard’s
Kopje.
-Sedentary settlements which preceded state formation were a result of farming rather than
trade.
-Cattle accumulation greatly contributed to the emergence of states.
-Religion was also important mainly as a unifying factor.
-The introduction of iron technology also led to the emergence of state societies.
-Military strength also contributed.
-Trade flourished only after states were formed and most of the items gained from trade
benefited the ruling class.
-External trade thrived on gold mining which was just an off season activity.
[3] “The Leopard’s Kopje culture in western Zimbabwe and adjacent regions of Botswana and
South Africa marked the emergence of chiefdom and state societies in the region”. Do you
agree with this statement?
The key issue is the significance of Leopard’s Kopje to the emergence of chiefdoms and state
societies. Pupils must clearly bring out the intricate dynamics between Zhizo and Leopard’s
Kopje [south-west] during the 10th / 11thcenturies AD and explain how Mapungubwe rose to
prominence as a state.
-The road to chiefdom and state societies in pre-colonial Zimbabwe began among the Zhizo
[later Gokomere culture] and Leopard’s Kopje communities in south western Zimbabwe and the
Shashe-Limpopo valley.
-The Zhizo people, populating the Matopo’s areas as well as the middle Limpopo valley, lived in
small villages, growing millets and sorghum while keeping livestock.
-By the 9th C AD, some of these communities had moved westwards into the fringes of the
Kalahari [in western Botswana] where they formed a chiefdom centred around Toutswe,
Shoshong, Palapye and Serowe areas.
-At the same time, communities identified as those of the Leopard’s Kopje culture occupied the
western parts of Zimbabwe and the Shashe-Limpopo basin apparently left vacant by Zhizo
farmers.
-Whether the Leopard’s Kopje represents a development from Zhizo on its cultural succession
remains unclear. What is clear though is that these communities have been identified with
ancestral Shona speakers who were responsible for the introduction of an economic and social
life style that is associated with the Later Iron Age.
-The key issue is whether one can see within the Leopard’s Kopje culture levels of social
complexity that can be associated with chiefdoms or states. Evidence from Ntabazingwe Hill
north-west of Bulawayo, at Mapela on the Shashe and at Bambadyanalo [near the Shashe-
Limpopo confluence] points to this development – towards a ranked society. Society was now
keeping considerable wealth in terms of cattle which also fostered the tendency towards craft
specialisation. This craft specialisation was done to meet the needs beyond daily subsistence.
This was probably articulated by people in control of such wealth who also managed to impose

their will on others. This was probably reinforced by ritual and ceremony. More wealth was
generated from gold and ivory as well as animal hunting and the products of such wealth
dictated an export-oriented commercial enterprise. This created a rich class of people who
could use their wealth to manipulate the social will of others.
-Although the regions occupied by the Leopard’s Kopje culture are now dry and poor in terms of
agricultural production, there are indications that conditions were different environmentally at
the beginning of the second millennium AD. This encouraged experimentation with and
competition over certain resources. By the 12thC, Leopard’s Kopje farmers had established
hegemony centred at Mapungubwe hill on the banks of the Limpopo. Archaeological sites in the
Shashe-Limpopo basin clearly show a hierarchical arrangement of a state society. Mapungubwe
soon rose to prominence as a powerful centre and its richly adorned burials and elaborate
houses attest to the existence of a political elite. These were in charge of or presided over a
state which controlled much of the area occupied by the Leopard’s Kopje culture.
[3] To what extent have archaeological findings been useful in the reconstruction of the
economic activities of Mapungubwe state?
[3] How far can archaeology alone demonstrate the way of life of the people of
Mapungubwe?
Archaeology played a significant role in helping to unearth the economic, social and political
way of life of the people of Mapungubwe. The excavations at Mapungubwe help one to
understand the various facets of the lives of people in Mapungubwe. However, other sources
like oral tradition also contributed.
-It is known through archaeology that gold mining was rampant as an economic activity at
Mapungubwe. Archaeologists discovered numerous gold ornaments at Mapungubwe. N
Parsons argues that there were large gold deposits in the Tuli and Shashe River. Gold was a very
important item for trade with foreigners from the coast. There is evidence of furnaces at sites
which indicates that some gold was smelted in Mapungubwe state. This probably explains the
discovery of large quantities of gold beads at the site. It can therefore be concluded that
archaeology demonstrated the importance of gold as an item for trade and also a symbol of
wealth for the rulers of Mapungubwe.
-Archaeology shows that Mapungubwe was a trade centre and they did both internal and
external trade. There is evidence of an exchange economy based on local raw materials. There
is also evidence of external trade. They indulged in long distance trade through which they
attained foreign goods like glass beads of Indian origin. Apart from glass beads, gold trade with
distant contacts also brought foreign goods like Chinese celadon. They traded with traders from
the Indian Ocean coast in gold, ivory, animal skins and cattle. Copper and iron were also
accumulated for commercial purposes. There is also evidence of external trade from gold beads
and copper bangles. N Parsons argues that the discovery of stone spindle whorls used for
spinning thread shows that they were really involved in trade through which they acquired
cotton and cloth for spinning and weaving. Other ornaments they received include Persian
bowls, jewellery and ceramics. Through trade Mapungubwe state managed to obtain wealth.
*However, one should note that it was the rulers who monopolised on long distance trade and
as such they were the ones who benefited from it significantly. The rulers consequently
increased power and influence while the general people remained poor.

-It is also known through archaeology that the people of Mapungubwe kept domestic animals.
Archaeologists discovered many cattle bones at the state. This implies that cattle rearing were
also part of their economic system. Cattle enclosures, bones and figurines discovered by
archaeologists demonstrate the importance of pastoralism. Evidence of hidden bones suggests
the domestication of animals and these were more important as a source of meat compared to
wild animals. Cattle were also important for trade with foreigners [for foreign goods] and with
locals for locally manufactured goods. Cattle were also a symbol of wealth and just like any
other Shona state; they were used for paying lobola. Considering that cattle were of great
importance to the people, it clearly suggests that they were kept in very large numbers.
-It is known through archaeology that the people of Mapungubwe did craftwork. Archaeologists
have discovered pottery remains on the hill top. This implies that the people of Mapungubwe
did craft work. The pottery discovered had some design patterns suggesting that the people
actually embraced some cultural values. Carved ivory, bracelets and many bone tools were also
discovered which all sum up to prove that people had some skills in craftwork.
-It is known through archaeology that people of Mapungubwe did crop cultivation. The site was
surrounded by a valley which contained agricultural terraces. Remains of sorghum and cowpeas
confirm rich agricultural activities.
-Archaeologists have also found remains of buildings with dagga walls and courtyards indicating
that the people lived on permanent homes. A site containing human burials with golden objects
was discovered and this suggests a cultural value.
*However, archaeological remains are silent on the identity of the people who lived there and
their language. One therefore has to rely on other sources like oral tradition and written
records to establish this. This is indicative of the limitations of archaeology alone in
reconstructing the way of life of people of Mapungubwe.
-Archaeologists discovered a site containing burial for human remains with golden objects
which reveals that the people were pious. The graves had human skeletons buried with golden
and copper ornaments and with imported bleat green glass beads. This can only suggest that
the rulers were buried in such sites because it was these ornaments and jewellery that
distinguished them from the rest of the people. From this one can learn that the society was
stratified and that the people embraced some cultural piety. This is an attribute which came
through archaeological discoveries.
*However oral traditions also provide information on the state being pastoralist. It has it that
cattle were kept in kraals on the hill top, above the thick woodlands where tsetse flies lived.
They were taken down at night to graze and drink when the flies slept according to traditions.
GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
[4]Discuss the controversies surrounding the origin of Great Zimbabwe.
[4]Discuss the controversies relating to the origins of Great Zimbabwe.
[4] ‘Historical evidence on the origins and construction of Great Zimbabwe has been
deliberately distorted’. How accurate is this assertion?
[4] Critically examine the various theories that have been put forward by some scholars in
establishing the builders of Great Zimbabwe.
[4] Critically examine the various theories on the construction of Great Zimbabwe.
[4] Discuss the purpose for which the stone walls of Great Zimbabwe were built.
[4] ‘The Great Zimbabwe was built by the Shona for defensive purposes’. Discuss.

The origin of Great Zimbabwe is a centre of controversy among historians. The controversy is
centred on the builders [construction] of Great Zimbabwe, architecture [purpose] and dating.
Thus three controversies relating to the origin of Great Zimbabwe are the building controversy,
architectural controversy and time sense.
[a] Building controversy
Euro-centrists
Euro-centrists argue that Great Zimbabwe was built by foreigners. Scholars in support of this
view include R Hall and H Clarkson who say that the Great Zimbabwe walls are of Arab origin
because the Shona were not associated with the gold and copper artifacts found at Great
Zimbabwe. They further argue that it may be the Arabs who employed the Shona to build the
Great Zimbabwe walls, a skill they were notoriously good at.
*This point does not however hold much water because it goes back to the fact that the Shona
were the builders of Great Zimbabwe. There are also no traces of artifacts to support that the
Great Zimbabwe walls were of Arab origin.
-Another Euro-centric claim on the construction of Great Zimbabwe is that a northern race
coming from Arabia closely akin to the Phoenicians and Egyptians built Great Zimbabwe. This
view is suggested by Theodore Bent who says artifacts he found were of Arab origin. These
artifacts unveiled pottery shreds and spindle whorls, spearheads of iron, bronze and copper,
axes, hoes and gold working equipment such as crucibles. This theory argues that all these
artifacts were used by Arabs at Great Zimbabwe because the Shona-Karanga are too uncivilised
and narrow minded to have been associated with such objects.
*However, this has been discounted on the basis that these artifacts claimed to be Arabic all
seemed indigenous, some of which are actually used to this day by the Shona-Karanga. More
so, if it were the Arabs, they would have left something written at Great Zimbabwe as proof of
their construction of the walls since they are associated with drawing and writing. The mere
presence of artifacts of Arab or Egyptian origin does not attest to their existence at Great
Zimbabwe. They do not even prove their existence at Great Zimbabwe. The presence in
contemporary times of Chinese television in one’s residential house is no proof that the Chinese
built the house that houses the television.
-Euro-centrists like Joao de Barros gave credit to non-Africans like Jews and Phoenicians as
builders of Great Zimbabwe. They base their argument on the complexity of the stone
structures. Richard Hall, a white archaeologist, who was hired to investigate the Great
Zimbabwe site, concluded in 1902 that it was built by more civilised races than Africans.
*However, one must realise that this theory is racist in approach. It meant that Africans lacked
in technological ability to build architectural structures like Great Zimbabwe. The idea that
Africans lacked in technological ability is repugnant and is a clear testimony of white racist
bigotry. These Euro-centrists said the same thing about any other impressive human
achievements in Africa. No consideration was given to the possibility of local people having
built ruins of Great Zimbabwe because European writers generally agreed that Africans did not
have the capacity to build anything of significance.
-Eurocentrists also suggest that Great Zimbabwe was built by non-Africans probably the Queen
of Sheba. According to Karl Mauch, a young German, the soapstone and iron relics he
uncovered told him that ‘civilised’ white men must have lived there. From a lintel he cut some
wood that he described as reddish, scouted and very much like the wood of his pencil and he

concluded that the wood must be cedar from Lebanon and must have been brought by
Phoenicians. He thus propounds that Great Zimbabwe must have been built by the Queen of
Sheba because the wood found there was from Phoenicia.
*However, the wood that Mauch described aptly characterised the African sandal wood, a local
wood that later visitors also found in the walls of the Great Enclosure. There is no basis for
robbing the Shona of credit merely because of the beam which was found on the walls. Without
even conceding to the external origins of that beam, the presence of that beam might mean it
was the only thing that was imported on the structure. In the alternative, it might also be
argued that beams of that quality could also have been available locally which denigrates from
Mauch’s view that Great Zimbabwe was built by Phoenicians.
-Cecil John Rhodes in a bid to misrepresent the origin of Great Zimbabwe established the
Ancient Ruins Company and financed men such as James Theodore Bent who concluded in
1892 that items found within the Great Zimbabwe complex proved that Great Zimbabwe was
not built by local Africans.
*However, this was challenged on the basis that if Europeans or other foreigners constructed
the walls, why it that there has not been any literature left behind on walls, stone slates or on
papyrus since these were literate societies.
-Ian Douglas Smith continued the colonial falsification of Great Zimbabwe origin by developing
a fake history and a policy of making sure that official guide books for tourists would show
images of Africans bowing down to foreign innovators who allegedly built Great Zimbabwe.
*However, this theory has been ruled out as historians supporting a foreign origin appear to
have been guided by biases prevalent in colonial day.
Afro-centrists
-The Euro-centrists were challenged by Afro-centrists like D N Beach, P Garlake, K Mufuka, R
Summers, Huffman, A Hodza, S Mutsvairo and A S Chigwedere who argue that Great Zimbabwe
walls were built by Africans.
-Afro-centrists like James E Mullan give credit to locals, for example, the Lemba who were
multi-skilled particularly the Tavakare clan, who were masons. It is believed that they were
designers and builders of stone structures.
*However, some scholars argue that the Lemba are not native Africans for they have Semitic
origins. However, this view is dubious because by the time Great Zimbabwe was built, the
Lemba had become decidedly Africans having so thoroughly intermixed with Bantu
Africans.Thus Great Zimbabwe was local in origin.
-Afro-centrists also argue that Great Zimbabwe was built by the local people because artifacts
found at Great Zimbabwe are local and similar to contemporary Shona [Karanga] and so many
Madzimbabwe found throughout Zimbabwe. Ceramics [pots] found at Great Zimbabwe are
local and similar to the work of recent Shona speaking people. It should be noted that the few
foreign ceramics found at Great Zimbabwe can be attributed to long distance trade. Hence the
stone walls were local in origin.
-Mufuka and Garlake affirm that the artifacts found at Great Zimbabwe included the sacred
birds which indicate a Shona traditional culture.
-According to Afro-centrists, the people who built Great Zimbabwe were cattle herders, crop
growers, iron smelters and designers of pottery as well as builders in stone work. This
description suits the Shona hence the Euro-centric school has been ruled out.

-A number of archaeologists both whites and blacks have shown with tangible evidence that
Great Zimbabwe was built by the local people [indigenous Shona speaking people]. Thus
neither were they Swahilis nor Arabs. Such archaeologists included David Randall Maclever
[1905] and Getrude Caton Thompson [1927]. Maclever in 1905, after studying the mud
dwellings within the stone enclosures suggested that Great Zimbabwe was unquestionably
African in every detail and has a relatively recent date. He was the first European researcher to
say this and it was equivalent to blasphemy to the British imperialists and archaeologists were
banned in Zimbabwe for almost 25 years.
-Getrude Caton Thompson after a detailed excavation and examination of the oral tradition of
the modern Shona speaking people and artifacts nearby dwellings showed conclusively that
Great Zimbabwe was of African origin.
-Subsequent work by Summers, Robinson and Whitly in the late 1950s and more recently by
Huffman, Garlake and Thorpe, have established the fact that Great Zimbabwe walls were built
by the local people much more firmly.
-Journals of the Arab Traveller, Ibn Said [1214-1286] revealed that the builders of Great
Zimbabwe walls were the Shona. Hence the Euro-centric school has been discounted.
-D N Beach argues that by 1100 AD a people from the Gumanye culture developed a tendency
of breaking off local granite rocks in even sheets to build the walls, thus contending that the
skill originated locally. Besides, the Torwa at Danangombe did the same art and also the Nyanga
people at Nyangwe built similar walls proving that the skill originated locally. Thus one can
argue that the Afro-centric view has more concrete facts and this supports that the Shona
ancestors might possibly have built the walls due to the existence of the traditional artifacts
which were found at the state. There is nothing to impeach the competence of the Shona
people in the building of the walls at Great Zimbabwe. Thus it is indubitable that the Euro-
centric view emanates from pride and prejudice rather than fact. They just did not want to
embrace the fact that the blacks could also come up with spectacular architectural innovations
and designs which were nowhere to be found in Europe like Great Zimbabwe.
-Another claim on the Afro-centric theory is that Great Zimbabwe might have been built by the
native Karanga people of the Barozvi. Getrude Caton Thompson supports the view arguing that
the Barozvi who are the oldest tribal unit in Central and Southern Africa might have built Great
Zimbabwe. She further argues that historical evidence found at Great Zimbabwe shows that it
was inhabited by the Shona-Karanga who might as well have built it because to this day, huts
are common among the Shona-Karanga. Roger Summers argues that the Shona-Karanga only
provided the administrative drive while the Lemba have undoubted connections with the Arabs
and may have inherited some of the secrets of Masonry. Nevertheless, although R Summers
argues that the Shona worked hand in glove with Lemba the fact remains that the Shona were
involved in the building of Great Zimbabwe.
[b] Dating controversy / Time sense
This was the controversy concerning time or dating of Great Zimbabwe walls.
-Archaeology states that the Great Zimbabwe walls were built mostly during the time frame of
1100-1350 AD, through radio-carbon dating of the walls. Radio-carbon dating for the stone
walls are 1100, 1300, 1340 and 1350 AD.
-Archaeology also states that by 1100AD a ruling class from the Gumanye people is known to
have started the use of natural tendency of breaking the local granite in even sheets. Great

Zimbabwe developed from the Gumanye culture, hence suggesting that 1100 could be the
period in which the walls were built. N Parsons argues that the construction was done between
1200 and 1300AD while Great Zimbabwe was a trade centre. Archaeology reveals that few
upper class huts of rulers were basically a middle 13th C construction.
-Other historians have given the dates 1280, 1380, 1400 and 1440 AD.
-One can therefore state that Great Zimbabwe was built emphatically between the period 1200
and 1450 AD thus making the period 1100 to 1500 most applicable.
-However, whatever disagreements the Great Zimbabwe thrived between 1200 and 1500 AD.
[c] Architectural controversy / Purpose of the walls
The architectural controversy is centred on what purpose the stone walls [conical tower and
great enclosure] serve. Pupils need to show the pros and cons of each theory.
-K Mufuka argues that the upright stone walls were associated with religious beliefs of the
Shona. This implies that the stone walls were built as a religious [Hungwe] shrine or centre. This
is evidenced by the findings of the Hungwe soapstone birds. The existence of other objects like
bowls has been described as symbolising the importance of religion. Mufuka also argues that
the conical tower was quite long suggesting that the people wanted to be closer to Mwari.
According to archaeology the conical tower had an altar in it suggesting that it was used for
ritual purposes. Considering the fact that oral tradition speaks of ritual ceremonies being
officiated by svikiros at the Great Zimbabwe it could be that the state was built for religious
purposes.
-Mukanya argues that the conical tower was an expression of fertility and success.
-P Garlake argues that Great Zimbabwe was simply a symbol of ruler’s status, prestige, honour
and privacy.
-Some argue that Great Zimbabwe was built as a defensive structure because of the conical
structure of the building.
*However, the structure of the walls and the enclosures do not show defensive characteristics.
What is clear is that Great Zimbabwe was a very powerful and wealthy kingdom. D N Beach and
K Mufuka also dismissed the argument that Great Zimbabwe was built for defensive purposes.
They argue that Great Zimbabwe had no permanent enemies that threatened it to the extent of
building those complex walls. There is also no record of attacks on Great Zimbabwe that have
been documented. This therefore casts doubt on the security argument for the construction of
Great Zimbabwe.
-Some authorities argue that Great Zimbabwe was built as a trade centre.
-Others thought it was a symbol of power and an emblem of prestige. Thus Great Zimbabwe
rose as a prestigious settlement.
-Great Zimbabwe walls have been built for prestigious reasons because of the nature of the
arrangements of the stones. The size of the walls at Great Zimbabwe showed the power and
wealth of the king, his ruling class and his state. Moreover, some scholars argue that Great
Zimbabwe was never threatened up to the point of its decline and there were no shrines found
there suggesting that it was built mainly for prestigious reasons and not for defensive or
religious purposes. The Great Zimbabwe still dazzle and amaze people now due to the
magnificent work that was put in the architecture. The effect it has now could possibly have
been more when the walls were fresh and this created a dominant image in terms of prestige
for the people who constructed it. This could also possibly have been the reason why foreigners

were so much attracted to the Great Zimbabwe and thereby facilitating trade with the state.
*In summation, Great Zimbabwe was built by Shona-Karanga and Lemba [local people] as
purported. It was built between 1100 and 1500 largely for religious reasons.
[4] ‘The rise and growth of Great Zimbabwe state can be explained solely in terms of the
expansion of trade’. How justified is this verdict?
[4] How far true is the assertion that trade was solely responsible for the rise of the state
centred at Great Zimbabwe?
[4] ‘Without trade, the rise of the state centred at Great Zimbabwe would not have occurred’.
How valid is this assertion?
[4] ‘Trade was the main stimulus in the rise of Great Zimbabwe state’. How far do you agree
with this assertion?
Trade was responsible for the rise of the state centred at Great Zimbabwe to a lesser extent.
However it should be noted that there were other factors which greatly led to the rise of Great
Zimbabwe. These factors included cattle accumulation, religion, military strength of the people
of Great Zimbabwe, mining and crop cultivation. Hence, the assertion that without trade the
rise of Great Zimbabwe state would not have occurred is a historical misnomer.
-To start with, trade contributed to a lesser extent to the rise of Great Zimbabwe state. This is
because there is a core-relation between the decline of Great Zimbabwe and the decline in gold
exports.This meant that long distance trade was important in this particular state. Furthermore,
in 1903 the archaeologists found remains of Persian bowls, Chinese stoneware, Near Eastern
glasses of the 13th and 14th centuries, an iron spoon, soapstone dishes and many other artifacts
at Great Zimbabwe which were traded from China, India, Middle East and Near East. There is
also evidence that there was an increased demand for gold and ivory at the beginning of the
11th C and this coincided with the rise of Great Zimbabwe. This meant that Great Zimbabwe
rose at a time when gold and ivory trade was gathering strength.
-In pursuit of the above argument, Great Zimbabwe state was strategically positioned, that is
Great Zimbabwe than any other state lays closer to and has direct link with the Indian Ocean
trading network. More to that, Great Zimbabwe lays closer to the gold fields of present day
Matabeleland. Increased trade in gold and ivory led to increased wealth among the ruling class
and the possession of foreign goods became a symbol of status. Those with many foreign goods
gained loyalty from those without.However, it is believed that trade helped to consolidate
centralisation which had already been achieved under cattle accumulation. More so, sedentary
settlements which preceded state formation were a result of farming rather than trade. Trade
flourished only after states were formed and most of the items gained from trade benefited the
ruling class.Hence trade led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe to a lesser extent.
-However, it must be noted that there were other factors which also played a very important
role in the rise of Great Zimbabwe, for instance, cattle accumulation. This is because the state
was located in an area with good soils which produced good pasturelands. As such, the people
of Great Zimbabwe maintained large herds of cattle. The bones excavated at Great Zimbabwe
show a lot of dependence on meat diet. The cattle were taken to different grazing areas during
different times through the transhumance system. In summer the cattle were grazed on fresh
grasses on the high veld and were moved to the low veld when the high veld deteriorated. The
ownership of cattle led to control of wealth, increased production and an increase of labour
supply. Thus cattle became a symbol of differences between the rulers and the ruled. Since the

state was in a non-gold producing area, one can argue that the wealth and power of the people
of Great Zimbabwe must have developed from a cattle raising economy.
-In addition, crop cultivation was also important in the rise of Great Zimbabwe. This factor
complemented cattle accumulation. Thus it complemented the process which was already
underway. Crop production supplemented food and reliable diet. This helped to promote
population growth which helped to strengthen the military might of the state. The Great
Zimbabwe state was located in an area endowed with soils suitable for crop cultivation and the
climate of this region also promoted crop cultivation as rains were fairly adequate in most
seasons. Hence crop cultivation was greatly important in the rise of Great Zimbabwe state.
-Furthermore, religion is also attributed to the rise of Great Zimbabwe state. It is argued that
Great Zimbabwe rose as a religious centre. Religion is said to have been the first step towards
bringing cohesion, organisation and stratification of Great Zimbabwe society. Objects like
soapstone birds, stone monolith, the conical tower and many other artifacts found at the state
have been described as symbolising religion. Great Zimbabwe has been a cultural centre of
great religious importance, possibly the spiritual headquarters of the Shona ancestors.
*D N Beach however, argues that there is no conclusive evidence to support the fact that
religion was indeed responsible for the rise of Great Zimbabwe. He further argues that the state
could not have been a major Mwari centre as a closer look at the successor states, that is,
Mutapa and Rozvi does not show that they were idolaters. This implies that religion alone is not
completely satisfactory in explaining the rise of this state.
-To add on, military strength of the Gumanye culture people also led to the rise of Great
Zimbabwe state. This military strength was an ideal advantage for the development of the
state. The centre managed to control all surrounding areas. There was a large population which
enabled the people of Great Zimbabwe to fight off rivals and create for a strong kingdom based
at Great Zimbabwe. This implies that the rise of Great Zimbabwe is attributed to its military
prowess. The army was also used to enforce payment of tribute. The Leopard’s Kopje people,
for instance, paid tribute in form of gold and ivory to the Gumanye people at Great Zimbabwe.
*This theory was however challenged by P Garlake who argues that there is nothing to suggest
that military power helped in stimulating change in the state. Rather weapons were simply
minor and were used for hunting animals other than warfare. Hence the military theory is
important along with other factors.
-More so, mining is another factor which led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe state. There was
some evidence at the site that gold was refined and made into jewellery. Furthermore, studies
also revealed that there was evidence of iron working at Great Zimbabwe.
*However, it is difficult to fully support this theory because Great Zimbabwe itself was located
in a poor gold reef [belt]. The closest gold mine was found five miles away from Great
Zimbabwe and there was no evidence of extensive mining at the site. There were also no vital
deposits of minerals nearby. It is therefore possible that these raw materials, that is, gold and
iron could have come from outside Great Zimbabwe complex. This implies that mining on its
own is not a possible reason to explain the rise and development of Great Zimbabwe.
-Lastly, the fall of Mapungubwe state led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe. P Curtins points out
that the fall of Mapungubwe’s external trade could have led to the shifting of the focus of trade
further north to the Great Zimbabwe state. Pwiti concurs that the direct fall of Mapungubwe’s
external trade led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe. This implies that there was no competition

with local people. Great Zimbabwe was further aided by trade monopolisation and control of
the area.
Conclude
[4] Examine the validity of the assertion that crop cultivation and cattle rearing formed the
basis of Great Zimbabwe economy.
Pupils need to assess the extent to which Great Zimbabwe relied on crop cultivation and cattle
rearing for its survival.
-Crop cultivation and cattle rearing were very important economic activities of Great
Zimbabwe.
*Other sources of wealth are mining, trade, hunting and so on.
[4] ‘Gold and cattle were the main sources of wealth in the economy of Great Zimbabwe’.
How valid is this assertion?
Pupils need to assess the different branches of the economy of Great Zimbabwe.
-They must focus on the role of gold and cattle.
*They must also go on to look at the other branches of the economy like trade, tribute
payment, hunting, crop cultivation, fishing and blacksmithing.
[4] How far was the economy of Great Zimbabwe based mainly on long distance trade?
Pupils need to assess the different branches of the economy of Great Zimbabwe.
-They must focus on the role of long distance trade.
*They must also go on to look at the other branches of the economy like tribute payment,
hunting, crop cultivation, fishing, blacksmithing, cattle accumulation and mining.
[4] How far can archaeology alone demonstrate the economic organisation of Great
Zimbabwe?
Archaeology is a source of history that strives to study history through studying remains or
fossils. Through archaeology much has been revealed about the economic organisation of Great
Zimbabwe. There are indeed many discoveries that have been made at Great Zimbabwe.
However, it cannot be disputed that there were other sources which help to unearth the
economic organisation of Great Zimbabwe and these include Oral tradition and Portuguese,
Swahili and Arab records. Hence the assertion that archaeology alone can demonstrate the
economic organisation of Great Zimbabwe is not valid.
-Archaeology played a very important role in demonstrating the economic organisation of Great
Zimbabwe, for example, archaeologists excavated many cattle bones at Great Zimbabwe
indicating that cattle rearing was a major economic activity at Great Zimbabwe. Mashingaidze
argues that a large kraal was discovered meaning that pastoralism was the backbone of their
economy. Cattle were mainly needed for meat and milk which enhanced the people’s diet.
Cattle were also a symbol of status and were used for paying lobola. Ultimately many cattle
bones were discovered in the Great Enclosure suggesting that they were used for sacrificial
ceremonies. Thus through excavations of cattle bones, archaeology demonstrated that cattle
rearing was part of the state’s economic organisation.
-Archaeologists excavated [discovered] remains of grains and iron hoe heads which helped to
prove that crop cultivation was practised. Remains of millet grains and beans were discovered
purporting that the people grew crops like sorghum, millet, beans, cowpeas and pumpkins.
They used iron hoes and axes which made crop cultivation much easier. Men mostly cleared
woodlands for new fields while the women and children did most of the cultivation and

weeding. The division of labour made the system more efficient. Crop production also
promoted a balanced diet.
*However, some scholars like T N Huffman argue that if there was any crop cultivation, then it
may have been done on a small scale because the area had no sign of grain storage bins and
grinding stone associated with crop farming, thus disproving crop cultivation as the backbone of
their economy. Nevertheless, archaeology is credited for the discovery of hoe heads and some
remains of grains which suggest that crop cultivation prevailed as an economic activity of Great
Zimbabwe.
-More so, there were also archaeological findings at the site of iron spearheads and arrows,
showing that hunting continued as an economic activity of Great Zimbabwe. Hunting was
mainly done by men and became more important in supplementing food supplies. They hunted
animals like kudus for meat and elephants for ivory which they used for trade. Leopards and
lions were mainly hunted for their skins which formed part of the royal property and regalia. It
should however be noted that through the discovery of iron arrows and spears as well as
remains of wild animal bones at the site, archaeologists managed to demonstrate that hunting
was part of the economic system of Great Zimbabwe though it was now done on a small scale.
-In addition, archaeologists also excavated remains of foreign goods like Persian bowls, Chinese
dishes, iron lamp holder, rings and jewellery which demonstrates that Great Zimbabwe people
traded with foreigners.These artifacts were discovered around the hill complex. These items
show that the Great Zimbabwe practised external trade with Arabs and Swahilis who were
located along the Indian Ocean coast. The Great Zimbabwe people traded mainly with gold,
ivory, animal skins, iron, copper, livestock, baskets and grain in exchange for foreign goods like
cloth, glass beads, Chinese dishes, sea shells, brass wire and hoe blades. Through trade the
Great Zimbabwe society could obtain property and wealth and this led to increased wealth
among rulers. This probably explains why most of the international items and jewellery were
found at the Hill Complex where the king is known to have resided. Therefore it can be stated
that archaeology again helped to prove that trade prevailed through the discovery of the
international items. However, the king only benefited while the ordinary people suffered.
*One should also consider the fact that oral tradition contributed in demonstrating the
economic organisation of the Great Zimbabwe state. For example, it is known through oral
tradition that Great Zimbabwe obtained salt through trade. The area was not rich in salt and
they therefore acquired it by trading with people from the Indian Ocean. Oral tradition has it
that Great Zimbabwe traded in iron tools, implements, baskets and grain for the salt, which
they needed to nourish and add taste to their food. It can therefore be stated that oral tradition
played a role in demonstrating the economic organisation of Zimbabwe.
-Written records were also important in giving information about the economy of Great
Zimbabwe. For instance, Arabic sources [Ibn Batuta and Ibn Sayid] show that trade was a very
important economic activity of Great Zimbabwe. According to these sources, Swahili-Arab
traders reached as far south as the Sofala and contacted trade in gold which came from the
Zimbabwe plateau.
-More so, Portuguese sources of the 16th C [following the journeys of Antonio Fernandes into
the Mutapa state] carried vivid accounts of the gold trade dominated by the Swahili. However
these sources are limited in that the Portuguese still heavily relied on information supplied
elsewhere or by Muslim traders.

-In summation, archaeology played a very significant role in demonstrating the economic
organisation of Great Zimbabwe. However, other sources like oral tradition and written sources
also contributed though to a lesser extent.
[4] Explain the decline of Great Zimbabwe.
[4] Why did Great Zimbabwe decline as a centre of political power and wealth during the 15th
C AD?
[4] Explain the reasons for the decline of Great Zimbabwe in the 15 th C
Pupils need to examine the internal and external reasons for its decline.
Internal reasons
-Succession disputes within the ruling family led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe. These
disputes over succession caused dispersion from Great Zimbabwe. Nyatsimba Mutota, for
example, failed to become the newking of Great Zimbabwe after the death of king
Chibatamatosi. Mutota had an ungovernable ambition to establishhis own state. As a result he
moved to the north where he built his own state quite similar to Great Zimbabwe in terms of
stone work. Its capital was Chitakochangonya. It should be noted that when Mutota left Great
Zimbabwe, he migrated with a large number of people and this led to the disintegration of
Great Zimbabwe. Thus power struggles played a role in the demise of Great Zimbabwe.
-Civil wars also led to the disintegration of Great Zimbabwe. For example, there was a civil war
between Nyatsimba Mutota and Chagwa in 1450.The civil wars resulted from political instability
in the state. Thus political instability which came as a result of a large population created
conflicts within the subject people in the state. More so, competition from branches of the
ruling class and quarrels over grazing, hunting and farming lands created civil wars. The rulers
failed to sustain unity which resulted in civil wars. It should be noted that in response to these
factors, some people moved northwards to the Mutapa state which was attractive as it was rich
in resources like salt, ivory and pastures yet others moved to the Torwa state.
-There was a shangwa in 1430 which came in form of drought and other disasters which also
led to the demise of Great Zimbabwe. This drought and other natural disasters must have put
the final nail to an overstretched state. The drought occurred in successions at a time when the
population had reached a critical level. This destroyed the state’s ability to support its
inhabitants. The only alternative was to disperse. It is generally believed that people moved in
many directions, that is, in the north [Mutapa] and in the west [Torwa].
-Environmental stress led to the demise of Great Zimbabwe. It is argued that Great Zimbabwe
state grew too big to be supported by its environment [overpopulation]. As a result, there were
shortages of food stuffs, minerals, grazing lands, fire woods, farming land, game and salt.
Overstocking led to overgrazing and over cultivation led to soil infertility. Given something like
3 centuries of continuous occupation, it would be inevitable that environmental resources
would be exploited to an extent that the carrying capacity would fall below a critical level.
Ecological upheaval also caused considerable stress to the people of Great Zimbabwe and to
the Indian Ocean coast and their immediate periphery [hinterland].
*However, this explanation remains largely inconclusive. Neither archaeology nor historical
records are of much help in telling what led to the demise of Great Zimbabwe.
-Shortage of salt is also attributed to the decline of Great Zimbabwe. The Shona tradition
attributed the decline of Great Zimbabwe to severe shortage of salt. According to oral tradition,

Mutota, the heir to the throne moved to the north in search of salt rich areas. Salt might have
been an important item for trade.
*However, salt alone could not have led to the abandonment of the city. It has been suggested
that salt shortage mentioned by oral tradition may indicate several shortages in food supplies,
pastures, fuel and salt as well as other resources in the area not only at Great Zimbabwe but in
the city’s neighbours as well. It is important to note that the general reduction of natural
resources in the area must have been a gradual process which reached dangerous levels
towards the middle of the 15th C.
*Others have argued that this theory is mythical. There is basically no supporting evidence for
the view that Great Zimbabwe was abandoned as a result of shortage of salt although salt was
traded with communities from as far as Eastern Botswana and may not have directly involved
Great Zimbabwe.
External reasons
-Loss of control of trade led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe. By the mid-15th C Great
Zimbabwe had lost the ability to manipulate trade and commercial transactions between the
plateau and the coastal traders. The gold and ivory trade to the Sofala coast shifted north from
Sabi valley to Zambezi as it had previously shifted from Limpopo to Sabi which led to the decline
of Mapungubwe state. This implies that the Swahili and Arabs were now coming through the
Zambezi rather than the Sabi River.TN Huffman argues that there was a correlation between
the decline of Great Zimbabwe and the decline of gold exports and this meant that trade was
important in this particular state. Evidence shows that no gold was exported from Great
Zimbabwe from the end of the 15th C onwards. By the middle to the late part of the 16 th C,
Great Zimbabwe ceased to have commercial significance and this is confirmed by the early 16th
C Portuguese sources.
-The rise of new states led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe state. The Great Zimbabwe state
was challenged by the rise of new states, that is, Mutapa state in the north and Torwa state in
the west as well as Ingombe Ilede. The rulers of Great Zimbabwe ceased to accrue wealth
necessary to maintain their status. As few and few commodities moved through their hands,
they were no longer able to channel benefits to their clients. Where possible, their clients
sought benefits elsewhere. From the 15th C there was productive reduction at Great Zimbabwe,
following the emergence of centres elsewhere in Zimbabwe. The rise of Mutapa in the north
diverted and disrupted long standing markets on the east coast from the Sabi routes [which
favoured Great Zimbabwe] to the northern Zimbabwe polities. The area to the north was
attractive as it was rich in resources like salt, ivory and pastures. The rise of such polities as
Mutapa and Torwa challenged the authority of Great Zimbabwe. This implies that Great
Zimbabwe was overshadowed by new states. It is ironic if not coincidental that Ingombe Ilede
rose to prominence in the 15thC. By 1500 the site of Great Zimbabwe had been abandoned and
people moved in several directions.
-Possible attacks by the Arabs/Swahili traders who thought that there was a lot of treasure
inside the state led to its decline.
-The wars and attacks from the Sotho and Tswana to the south west of Great Zimbabwe led to
the demise of Great Zimbabwe.
[4] To what extent can the decline of Great Zimbabwe civilisation be attributed to ecological
factors?

[4] How far was the decline of Great Zimbabwe caused by environmental [ecological] factors?
Pupils need to assess the factors which led to the collapse and subsequent abandonment of
Great Zimbabwe. They are expected to divide these factors into ecological and other factors.
Ecological factors /Environmental factors
-Siltation of Save [Sabi] River led to the demise of Great Zimbabwe.
-Exhaustion of salt led to the disintegration of Great Zimbabwe.
-Depletion of wild life, especially elephants also led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe.
-Depletion of minerals like gold led to its demise.
-Loss of soil fertility and exhaustion of cultivable lands led to its decline.
-Degeneration of pastures
-Inadequate rainfall [drought] led to the demise of this state. The drought led to the death of
large herds of cattle and this resulted in the migration of people to lucrative areas in the north
[Mutapa] and west [Torwa].
Other factors
-Loss of control of trade [change of trade routes] led to its decline.
-The rise of prosperous and prominent rival states like Mutapa and Torwa led to its decline.
-Failure of the kings to maintain peace leading to succession disputes caused its decline.
-Mutota’s ungovernable ambition to establish his own state led to the rise of this state.
-Civil wars involving Mutota, Chingoo and Torwa led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe.
-The abundance of natural resources in Dande-Chidima area led to its demise.
[4] Examine the validity of the assertion that Great Zimbabwe did not decline, but was rather
abandoned.
Pupils need to assess the economic, social and political factors leading to the decline and
abandonment of Great Zimbabwe.
Economic factors
-Trade routes shifted to the north [loss of control of trade]
-Availability of fertile soils in the north
-Depletion of pastures, animals and minerals
-Availability of salt and ivory in Dande-Chidima area
Social factors
-A series of droughts at Great Zimbabwe
-Siltation of Save River
-Overpopulation at Great Zimbabwe.
Political factors
-Succession disputes
-Civil wars
-Rise of ambitious leaders like Mutota [Mutota’s ungovernable ambition to rule]
-The rise of new states like Mutapa, Torwa and Ingombe Ilede
-Attacks by the Arab/Swahili traders
-Wars and attacks from the Sotho and Tswana to the south west of Great Zimbabwe
SECTION B
MUTAPA STATE
[5] Explain the origins of Mutapa state.
[5] Explain the origins and rise of Mutapa state.

Learners need to explain the various theories on the origins of Mutapa and explain the political,
social and economic reasons for its rise.
Origins
Mutapa state was one of the Late Iron Age states. The origin of Mutapa state is debatable. Its
origin is derived from oral tradition, archaeology and written records. However, the evidence to
explain its origin is largely found in oral tradition. It was founded around 1400 AD under the
leadership of Nyatsimba Mutota, the son of king Chibatamatosi. It should also be noted that
there is no a single factor that can be regarded as solely responsible for the emergence of
Mutapa state. As a result, a plethora of factors were put forward in trying to explain the
emergence of this state and they can be divided into political, social and economic factors.
-According to oral tradition, Mutapa state was the direct successor of Great Zimbabwe state.
This implies that Mutapa state was an offshoot [outgrowth] of Great Zimbabwe. It is suggested
that Mutota, the son of king Chibatamatosi left Great Zimbabwe in search of salt after a
succession dispute. Mutota was also searching for gold, ivory, pastures, fertile soils and hunting
grounds. He went to the Zambezi valley where he defeated some weak communities who were
already settled there. These included the Tonga, Tavara and Korekore. As a result of his
conquests, Mutota was given the praise name ‘Mwenemutapa’ or ‘Munhumutapa’, meaning
lord of the conquered lands. Tradition also had it that because of the fertile soils and
abundance of wild game as well as more salt in the north, Mutota did not return to Great
Zimbabwe and he found his own state, which came to be known as Mutapa. It was named after
Mutota’s praise name. He established his capital at Chitako Hills [Chitakochangonya].
-The other tradition states that after years of continuous settlement, the area around Great
Zimbabwe and Guruuswa became exhausted and it was becoming increasingly unable to feed
and support the growing human and animal population. Hence this led to the movement of
some people to the north.
-Documents written by the Portuguese suggest that the Mutapa state existed before the
collapse of Great Zimbabwe state and the states were interrelated. This implies that Mutapa
was not an offshoot [offspring] of Great Zimbabwe state.
-Some authorities argue that Mutota originated from Guruuswa and was the son of a Karanga
ruler there. After the death of his father, he left Guruuswa area under a relative called Torwa
[Togwa]. Mutota settled in the north east in the Dande area [modern Mount Darwin area]. He
conquered the ethnic Tavara and Tonga people whose possessions he put under his authority
[kutapa] and they nicknamed him Munhumutapa [Munhu-ano-tapa], meaning ‘Master pillager’.
-Archaeologists argue that the direct successor of Great Zimbabwe state was the Torwa state
whose capital was at Khami near Bulawayo. This was evidenced by the type of ruins and
artifacts similar to those of Great Zimbabwe state. *However, there is no evidence to support
when the Torwa state existed.
Reasons for its rise [emergence]
Economic reasons
-Successful agriculture in the Dande area led to its rise.
-Pastoral farming [livestock production] in the north led to its rise.
-Availability of minerals like gold in the north led to the emergence of Mutapa.
-Accessibility of Dande area to international trade through the east coast led to its rise.
Political reasons

-Mutota’s military ability led to the rise of Mutapa.
-Able and wise leadership of Mutota led to its rise.
Social reasons
-Religion also led to the emergence of this state.
[5] How accurate is the view that the Mutapa state depended entirely on trade for its
survival?
The assertion that Mutapa state depended entirely on trade for its survival is a distortion of
history. Trade was important in the survival of Mutapa state to a lesser extent. This applied to
both internal and external trade. However, there were other factors which played a very
important role in the survival of Mutapa state. These included crop cultivation, livestock
production, religion and the role of the military.
-Trade was important in the survival of Mutapa state to a lesser extent. The people of Mutapa
practised both internal and external trade which strengthened the economy and promoted
unity. Internally, they traded amongst themselves and this helped in unifying the state.
Externally, they traded with foreigners like Arabs, Swahili and Portuguese as well as with other
African groups. They exchanged goods like gold, iron, ivory, iron tools and various wares from
activities like pottery, basketry, wood and stone carving. They in turn obtained products like
ceramics [pots], jewellery, knives, cloth and spirits and this enabled them to sustain their
economy. Trade was also vital in the sense that it enabled the people of Mutapa to obtain
goods which they cannot produce on their own.
- More so, trade was also of much importance as goods obtained [from foreigners] such as guns
were used in further developing and building up a strong political power base. Guns were used
for conquering and raiding other states for manpower and for wealth in form of grain, cattle,
goats and sheep.
-However, there were other factors which were also very important in the survival of Mutapa
state, for example, crop production. The people of Mutapa grew crops like finger millet,
drought resistant bulrush millet and varieties of sorghum as well as rapoko, beans, water
melons and later on maize. Maize were however not popular during these days since they were
believed to have been introduced by the Portuguese when they ventured into the Zimbabwe
plateau. These crops supplemented their diet and this enabled people of Mutapa to live longer
and healthier. This stimulated population growth which was so crucial in the growth of so a
large and powerful state. The Mutapa people were believed to have practised crop rotation and
this improved their yields. The generally favourable climatic conditions in Mutapa ensured
successful harvests and resulted in accumulation of surplus grain. Thus one can argue that trade
was not the only factor which led to the survival of Mutapa.
-In addition, animal rearing was another activity which the people of Mutapa mainly depended
on for survival. They reared animals like cattle, goats, and sheep. These animals provided them
with meat, milk and fat thus supplementing their diet. They also obtained skins which they used
for various purposes like making clothes, drums and shields. They also used these domestic
animals for trade, paying lobola, paying tribute as well as for traditional ceremonies. Thus
animal rearing was very important in as far as the survival of Mutapa state was concerned.
Hence to argue that Mutapa state depended entirely on trade for survival is a distortion of
history.

-Moreover, mining was another activity which led to the survival of Mutapa state. They mined
minerals like gold, copper, iron, silver and tin. Gold was mainly used for trade with
foreigners.Iron was largely used for tools manufacture. Copper was largely used for making
jewellery, for example, copper bangles. Thus it is beyond doubt that mining led to emergence
of specialisation in areas such as trading, blacksmithing and jewellery making which helped to
improve the standard of living of the people.Thus one can argue that the factors which led to
the survival of Mutapa state complemented each other. Hence the view that the people of
Mutapa depended entirely on trade for its survival is a misrepresentation of historical facts.
-Furthermore, hunting also played a significant role in the survival of Mutapa state. They
hunted animals like hares and kudus for meat to supplement their diet. They hunted animals
like rhinoceros and elephants for ivory which was mainly used for trade with foreigners.
Animals like cheetahs and leopards were hunted for their precious skins which again were used
for trade and were also used for paying tribute to the king. Thus it is a misconception to argue
that the people of Mutapa depended solely on trade for its survival.
-To add on, religion also played a vital role in the survival of Mutapa state. They believed in God
whom they worshipped through spirit mediums. Religion played a role of unifying people as
they had the common belief in God and also as they practised religious ceremonies like rain
making ceremonies where they were playing music, dancing and feasting together.More so, the
spirit mediums appointed kings. Thus religion played an important role in reinforcing and
maintaining the political power of the king as they believed that kings had a divine right to rule
and should not be forcibly removed from their positions. These kings also commanded
universal respect as it was believed that failing to respect the king meant that one would have
disobeyed God who appointed kings through spirit mediums. This minimised chances of
rebellions.Thus religion also played a role in consolidation of the Mutapa kingdom. Hence to
argue that Mutapa state depended entirely on trade for survival is misrepresentation of history.
-Lastly, the military [army] also played a vital role in the survival of Mutapa state. This was
because the army played a number of roles both in expansion and consolidation of the state.
For instance, the army was used for raiding other states for wealth [cattle, goats, sheep and
grain] which strengthened its economy and for manpower [boys and girls]. More so, the army
was also used for punishing rebellious chiefs, maintaining law and order in the state, herding
the king’s cattle, protecting the people and the king as well as the state from enemies.
Moreover, the army was also used for enforcing payment of tribute to the king. Hence the
people of Mutapa did not entirely depend on trade for survival.
-In summation, trade was important in the survival of Mutapa state to a lesser extent. However,
there were other factors which greatly led to the survival of this state. Thus one can safely
conclude that the assertion that Mutapa state depended entirely on trade for its survival is a
historical misnomer.
[5] How important was the social organisation of Mutapa in the political system of this state?
The social organisation of Mutapa was greatly important in the political system of this state. For
instance, polygamy unified people, religion was also a unifying factor and work parties brought
people together. However, there were other factors which were also important in the political
system of this state, for example, payment of tribute and a strong army.
Importance of the social organisation in the political system of this state
-The people of Mutapa lived in villages according to their lineages.

*This promoted unity in the state.
-The people of Mutapa practised polygamy.
*Polygamy was an important source of soldiers in the state. It should be noted that marriage
bonds created unity in the state. Rulers of Mutapa also used marriages to maintain alliances
with important lineages. More so, polygamous marriages also encouraged population increase
hence leading to the expansion of this state.
-The people of Mutapa state practised loaning of cattle [kuronzera].
*This was greatly important in as far as the political system of this state was concerned as the
cattle loaning system unified people in the state.
-The people of Mutapa state held work parties.
*These encouraged co-operation and unity within the state.
-The people of Mutapa state worshipped God [Mwari].
*This common belief in God unified people in this state [one God one nation].
-The people of Mutapa state also believed in Mhondoro spirits [National spirit mediums].
*The national spirit mediums were very important in the political system of this state as they
resolved disputes, especially over succession and installed the kings. It should also be noted
that the installation of the king by spirit mediums made the king a divine ruler who was feared
and respected. Thus he commanded universal respect. This was of great importance as it
helped to reduce chances of rebellion in the state.
-Religious ceremonies and rituals like rain making ceremonies, reincarnation and biras were
held in this particular state.
*These were very important in the political system of this state as they brought people
together.
Other factors which were important in the political system of this state
-The payment of tribute to the king was also important in the political system of Mutapa state.
This was because payment of tribute ensured loyalty of lesser chiefs to the king.It also
increased the wealth, power and influence of the king. In addition, payment of tribute also
made sure that lesser chiefs would become too rich, powerful and ambitious in the state. This
reduced chances of rebellions in the state.
-A strong army was also important in the political system of Mutapa. The army defended the
state from external attacks, maintained law and order in the state, discouraged revolts in the
state by punishing rebellious chiefs and collected tribute. The army was also important for
expanding the state.
-Trade was also important in the political system of this state.This was because trade created
good relations within the state as well as with foreigners. Trade also made the kings too rich,
powerful and strong.
-A strong economy was also important in the political system of Mutapa. This was because a
strong economy ensured peace and stability in the state.
[5] To what extent did the introduction of American food crops after 1500AD revolutionise
the Shona economy?
Candidates need to examine the changes brought to the Shona economy by the introduction of
crops from the Americas into the Zimbabwean plateau.
-The Portuguese were largely responsible for introducing these crops into the region.

-American crops were brought into the Zimbabwe plateau from Portuguese colonies in the
Americas by the Portuguese.
-Such crops included maize, cassava or manioc, pineapples, avocado pears, guavas, tomatoes,
bananas and potatoes.
-Maize made the greatest impact because they were easier to grow and were less laborious to
process into mealie-meal. Also maize had higher yields per area and a better taste compared to
the African traditional crops.
-Manioc was not very popular.
*However, the cultivation of traditional crops was not wholesomely abandoned because some
regions were not suitable for maize cultivation. More so, traditional crops could be stored for a
longer time as compared to maize. Traditional crops were still needed for beer brewing.
-Indigenous fruits remained popular among the people despite the introduction of American
fruits.
-Hunting and gathering remained popular in the Shona economy.
[5] How accurate is it to describe the Prazo system as the Africanisation of a European
institution?
[5] The Prazo system in the Zambezi valley has sometimes been described as ‘an
Africanisation of a European institution’. Do you agree?
The Prazo system in the Zambezi valley can greatly be described as ‘Africanisation of a
European institution’. This was because although it had exotic origins, the Prazo system had
many African traits, socially, politically and economically. For instance, the Prazeros married
African women, practised polygamy, used African medicine, adopted African religious
ceremonies, used African labourers, maintained their estates as minor kingdoms, ruled as
African chiefs and they forced Africans to pay tribute to them. However, it must be noted that
the internal organisation of the Prazos did not have a purely African picture, for example, they
continued with their religion [Christianity], Prazeros used old feudal laws to govern the Prazos
and there was deAfricanisation due to the introduction of Prazos.
-The Prazo system can greatly be described as an Africanisation of a European institution, for
instance, prazeros’ marriages had some African traits. For instance, the prazeros adopted
African practices like polygamy. It should be noted that polygamy [marrying many wives] was a
practice common among Africans.More so, the prazeros married African women [local Shona
women]. It should be noted that this intermarriage resulted in the birth of children of mixed
races known as mulattos. Hence the Prazo system though foreign in origin had many African
traits.
-In addition, the Prazeros adopted African religion. For instance, the Prazo holders adopted
African ceremonies like rain making ceremonies. This ceremony was done by the Shona when
they wanted to ask for rain from God. This explains why the prazeros surrounded themselves
with advisers including religious leaders who helped them in such religious ceremonies.It
should be noted that the prazeros also believed in witchcraft, a belief which was common
among Africans.This suggests that the Portuguese were gradually assimilated into local African
culture possibly by virtue of their numbers. Hence, this is enough testimony to demonstrate
that the Prazo system was an Africanisation of a European institution.
-Furthermore, the Prazo holders ruled as African chiefs and maintained their estates as minor
kingdoms. They were very powerful and performed the functions of African chiefs. For instance,

the Prazeros were responsible for deciding on all judicial cases. They maintained law and order
in the Prazos. They also settled all disputes in the Prazos. This implies that African chiefs and
kings lost their traditional powers to the Prazeros who became defacto African chiefs. Hence
the Prazo system was an Africanisation of a European institution.
-To add on, the Prazo holders forced Africans to pay tribute to them. Prazeros forced Mutapa
kings and African chiefs to pay tribute to the Prazeros in form of agricultural products like grain,
locally woven cloth, tobacco and sugar as well as cattle, ivory and gold dust. They also received
tribute in form of the choicest parts of other animals which died on the Prazeros’ lands. Initially
it were the Portuguese who paid curva [tribute] to the Munhumutapa but this was later
reversed. It should be noted that levying of tribute was an African practice hence the Prazo
system was an Africanisation of a European institution.
-In addition, the Prazo holders employed Africans as labourers in their estates. They employed
African chiefs and their subjects as labourers. African chiefs were given power voluntarily to
recruit labourers. The prazeros also employed Africans as soldiers known as Achikunda. These
Shona people employed as Chikunda armies were responsible for enforcement of law and order
in the Prazos. They also deal with any acts of rebellion in the state. Achikunda were also used to
punish those chiefs who refused to pay tribute. Hence the Prazo system was an Africanisation
of a European institution.
*However, it must be noted that the internal organisation of the Prazo did not have a purely
African picture, for example, the prazeros continued with their religion, that is, Christianity,
though it was fused with African Traditional Religion. They continued with their religion to the
extent of baptising the Mutapa king Mavura Mhande and his wife whose names were changed
to Domingos and Luiza respectively. Hence the Prazeros remained with some of their European
traits though they were far away from home.
-Moreover, the prazeros used the old feudal laws to govern the Prazos. The production
relations of the Prazo system resembled those of the feudal system where there were landlords
and tenants. The prazeros resembled landlords whilst the African labourers resembled the
tenants. Hence this implies that the Prazo system was similar to the feudal system in Europe.
Thus one can safely argue that there were also some European traits in the Prazo system and it
did not have a purely African picture.
-Furthermore, the Prazos did not have a purely African picture as there was also a
deAfricanisation due to the introduction of the Prazo system. The Prazos introduced by the
Portuguese were very large farms. These large farms were unheard of in Mutapa before the
coming of the Portuguese into the Zimbabwe plateau. More so, European crops like bananas,
cassava, paw paws, maize, coffee, tobacco and sugar cane were grown in Prazos though they
also grew some African crops like sorghum, millet and rapoko. Hence the view that the Prazo
system in the Zambezi valley was an Africanisation of European institution should not be
overemphasised.
*In summation, the Prazo system in the Zambezi valley can greatly be described as
Africanisation of a European institution. However, although this was the case, it should be
noted that there were also some European traits in the Prazo system.
[5] Examine the role of external trade in the politics of the Mutapa state in the 16th and 17th C
Pupils need to examine the impact of external trade on the politics of Mutapa between 1500
and 1699.

Positive role of trade
-Mutapa rulers obtained tolls [tariffs] as well as curva.
-Local chiefs also demanded their own dues.
-Mutapa ruler used the proceeds of trade to reward his soldiers and loyal chiefs and for barter.
-Rulers also used trade as a means of political control over subjects.
-Guns obtained from trade strengthened the military military might of the state.
Negative role of trade
-The development of trade routes facilitated the penetration of the Portuguese into the state.
-The introduction of fire arms [guns] promoted civil wars.
-It resulted in the creation of puppet rulers.
-It eventually led to the total collapse of the Mutapa’s political authority
[5]Compare and contrast Swahili merchant capitalism with that of the Portuguese in Mutapa
and Rozvi states.
-The pupils need to compare side by side the similarities and differences of Swahili and
Portuguese merchant capitalism.
Similarities
-Both were exploitative, that is, there was disparity in items exchanged.
-Both relied on middlemen.
-Both were eager to obtain minerals and ivory from Africans.
-Both attempted to use their religions in furthering their aims.
-Both organised markets [feiras / bazaars] in the interior.
-Both came from underdeveloped states
Differences
-Swahili capitalism was peaceful yet Portuguese merchant capitalism was aggressive.
-The Swahili penetrated from the coast into the interior yet the Portuguese wanted to colonise.
-Portuguese capitalism had more negative effects on the Africans than Swahili capitalism.
-Hatred between the two groups often resulted in conflicts which disrupted trading activities.
[5] Discuss the political developments in the Mutapa state during the 16 th and 17thcenturies.
Why did the state nearly collapse in the 17thC?
Pupils need to discuss the political events in Mutapa state from about 1500 to 1695 showing
how it survived the growing power of the Portuguese conquistadores. [See notes for more
information].
[5] What impact did Portuguese traders have on the Manyika from the middle of the 16 th C to
1890?
Pupils need to examine the commercial involvement of the Portuguese in the affairs of Manyika
and its consequences from 1550 to 1890.
-Portuguese penetration into the interior regions of the Mutapa state as well as Manyika was
already underway by 1550 when they began settling on the Zambezi.
-Their interests in Manyika lay in the many gold mines, which attracted traders and miners not
only from Manyika but surrounding regions of Tete, Uteve and Barwe. By the late 16 th C, the
Portuguese had a strong foothold in the Manyika kingdom.
-They were reportedly involved in unfair trading practices, which attracted the anger of the
Chikanga, the paramount ruler.

-The Manyika had replaced the Swahili as middlemen. Although the Portuguese trade did not
conform to Manyika laws and customs, the Chikanga did not use his military power to expel
them from his kingdom.
-Francisco Barreto and Diego Hanem’s expeditions of 1569 and 1575 saw Portuguese military
and political penetration of Manyika. The Manyika were forced to sign a peace treaty giving the
Portuguese a free passage and trade throughout Manyika. This expedition was a failure
because the Manyika did not reveal the location of the lucrative mines to the Portuguese
authorities. The local Portuguese would prefer a situation whereby they would trade profitably
with the Manyika, with nothing benefiting the Portuguese crown in Portugal, which came under
Spanish rule during this time.
-A scheme to attack Manyika using Prazeros from Tete / Sena in the early 17 th C failed to
materialise as it was opposed by the Portuguese miners and traders, as well as the viceroy in
Goa, India. The period 1575-1687 saw the rise of feiras [trading market centres] in Manyika,
Mukwanga and Butua.These feiras attracted traders from the local neighbourhood as well as
from distant regions. Manyika’s most important feira was Masekesa [Chipangura]. Others
include Matuca, Mukahanana and Vumba. These feiras had a sizeable Portuguese trading
population. The fortification on some of these reflect the changing military-political conditions
in the lower Zambezi from the 1590s onwards, but generally, Manyika was able to maintain law
and order and there was no breakdown of Manyika society as a result of this, or Portuguese
penetration.
-During the 18th C, Manyika came under Rozvi sovereignty, although they enjoyed a
considerable degree of independence. The kings allowed Portuguese traders into their country
although strict control was exercised over some gold mines. The Portuguese had been excluded
from trading in their feiras following their defeat of the 1690s. Thus during the 18 th C,
Portuguese traders had minimal impact on Manyika. Trade seemed to be on the decline, mainly
due to the failure by the Portuguese to transform their own trading institutions [viceroy,
capitao-mor and the feira] as well as applying effective diplomacy.
-Manyika experienced short dynastic reigns and civil wars during the early 19 th C, a situation
which witnessed increased Portuguese intervention in the kingdom. Contestants to the throne
sought assistance from the Portuguese, which gave the latter excessive freedom and privileges,
Manyika kings opposed to the Portuguese traders imposed rigid controls on them. However,
ultimate power lay in the feira, where the Portuguese lived and controlled.
-The Nguni incursions of 1822-1835 affected the feiras of Manyika, they were invaded and the
Portuguese traders expelled. This however did not destroy trade on a permanent basis.
Masekesa remained as a meeting point for traders. The relations between Manyika and the
Portuguese were not completely broken off.
-With gradual disappearance of the feira and the collapse of the gold economy, the Portuguese
took to hunting elephants for ivory. This involved fire arms. The latter half of the 19 th C
demanded such altered circumstances, which were heavily skewed towards the Ndebele. The
strength of the Portuguese in the lower Zambezi during this period depended on Manuel
Antonio de Sousa [Gouveia], who transformed the institution of the capitao-mor and
dispatched agents into the interior to trade on his behalf. Through diplomacy and military
tactics, he revived Portuguese authority in the interior.

[5] To what extent did the Portuguese-Swahili rivalry affect the Mutapa state from the 16 th to
the 18th C?
Pupils need to examine the effects of Portuguese-Swahili relations [economic, political and
religious rivalry] on the Mutapa state and the effects of other factors.
Economic effects
-Rivalry impacting on economic activities like mining, trade and agriculture
Political effects
-Rivalry impacting through Portuguese interference in Mutapa politics
-Portuguese military expeditions
-Effects of the introduction of guns
Social effects
-Religion
-Social decadence
Other factors
-Inexperienced leaders
-No standing army
-Maravi invasion
[5] ‘The activities of the Portuguese in Mutapa state were more destructive than
constructive’. Discuss.
Pupils need to examine the destructive and constructive effects of the Portuguese activities on
Mutapa state
Destructive activities
-Interference in the internal politics of the state as seen in taking sides in succession disputes,
led to the advent of puppet kings like Mavura and Rusere.
-The advent of guns led to political instability.
-There was unfair and unbalanced exchange system, with Africans getting worthless products
such as spirits, beads, cloth in exchange for gold and ivory.
-The credit system where Africans got items on credit led to enslavement when Africans could
not pay. Africans could get Portuguese products even if they did not have gold and ivory at that
time. They would pay in gold and ivory by a given date. Failure to pay resulted in confiscation of
cattle or enslavement of Africans. All this happened while the king enjoyed benefits of bribery.
-Trade with the Portuguese led to depletion of natural resources like gold and ivory which
eventually led to the demise of Mutapa state [a vast amount of gold was taken away from
Mutapa by the Portuguese].
-There was abuse of African women by the Portuguese. African women were raped by the
Portuguese resulting in the birth of children of mixed race [Mulatos]. This abuse of women
caused chaos in the state
-African chiefs and kings lost their powers to the Prazeros and were forced to supply slave
labour and were also forced to pay tribute to the Portuguese.
-Christianity brought divisions among Africans. Some were converted into Christians whilst
others refused and remained with their religion. As such these two groups with different
religions could not co-exist.
-Africans lost their land to the Portuguese due to the introduction of the Prazo system.

-The Portuguese brought social ills like prostitution which was unheard of before the
Portuguese penetration in Mutapa.
Constructive activities [benefits]
-The Portuguese brought new and improved farming methods which in turn improved food
production, for instance, the introduction of Prazos and crop rotation.
-The Portuguese introduced new crops such as maize, potatoes and fruits like bananas and
pawpaws. This helped to improve the diet of the people of Mutapa.
-The Portuguese also led to the advent of guns which improved national defence system. Guns
were later used for defense purposes against invading forces, for raiding and hunting animals
like elephants.
-The people of Mutapa got foreign goods from the Portuguese through trade. These included
clothes as well as guns.
-Modern civilisation was introduced, for example, clothes.
-The spread of Christianity by the Portuguese reduced barbarism and paganism.
-New mining methods were introduced.
[5] Assess the nature and effects of the relations between the Portuguese and the Mutapa
state during the 16th and 17th C.
Pupils need to assess the nature, positive and negative effects of the relations
Social relations
-Religious relations –there was introduction of Christianity.
-There was general reluctance of the people to take up the new religion
-The murder of Goncalo da Silveira, a Portuguese Jesuit missionary, gave an excuse to the
Portuguese to make inroads into the Mutapa state.
-There was rise in intermarriages between the Portuguese and the Mutapa women. This
resulted in the birth of Mulatos. Cultural erosion began to occur in the process.
Economic relations
-There was introduction of the Prazo system which effectively took large tracks of land from the
Mutapas. This triggered strife in the state as there was objection to the expropriation of the
land resource by the Portuguese.
-There was an increase in trade though the benefit to the Mutapa state was dubious. Valueless
[worthless] goods were given to the people of Mutapa people in exchange for gold, iron ore
and ivory among other goods.
-New crops were introduced due to the relations between the Portuguese and the Mutapa and
maize is one such crop which came from the Portuguese. This added to the already existing
cereals like finger millet [rapoko or rukweza], bulrush millet [mhunga] and sorghum
[mapfunde].
Political relations
-The Portuguese installed their puppetsas a way of controlling the Mutapa state.
-There was also military co-operation between the Portuguese and the Mutapa state though
this strategy would eventually benefit the Portuguese as they wanted to promote strife and
weakness in the Mutapa state.
-Slavery gave an excuse for people to flee from Mutapa state in search of freedom far from the
Portuguese and this consequently led to the collapse of the Mutapa state.

-Wars would eventually create captives which would be used to advance the interests of the
prazo holders.
[5] To what extent did external factors lead to decline of the Mutapa state?
[5] Assess the contribution of foreign intervention in the downfall of the Mutapa state.
[5] How far were external factors mainly responsible for the decline of the Mutapa state?
Pupils need to assess the contribution of external and internal factors to the demise of Mutapa
External factors / foreign intervention
-The Portuguese meddled in the politics of the Mutapa state by installing puppet Mutapas on
the throne. For instance, Mavura Mhande and Gatsi Rusere were installed as their puppets.
They used the divide and rule tactic to weaken the state. Thus it was now a foreign state within
a state because these puppets were to rule according to the demands and orders of the
Portuguese thereby ignoring the wishes of their people. This in turn outraged the people and
spirit mediums and civil wars broke out and these further facilitated the Portuguese
colonisation of the state. The growth of Portuguese control further undermined the authority
of Mutapa kings. Therefore, the Portuguese fuelled the decline of the state through fanning
civil wars and installing puppet rulers.
-The Prazo system also led to the decline of Mutapa state. As more and more Portuguese came
into the Mutapa state and obtained more Prazos, they began forcing more Africans to work in
their plantations [Prazos]. It was however, that same labour which was supposed to be used to
buttress [harness] the Shona economy. Thus the Prazo system was a bitter pill to swallow for
the Shona since they lost both labour force and land to the Portuguese. The Portuguese even
formed private armies [Achikunda] to raid for manpower. This weakened the Mutapa economy
and the power of the Munhumutapa and consequently led to the demise of the state.
-The Portuguese trading activities led to the collapse of Mutapa state. The credit system, for
instance, led to the enslavement of Africans after failing to pay the gold and ivory on the agreed
date. Some Africans had their cattle confiscated for failing to pay the gold and ivory on the
agreed dates. More to that, trade between Portuguese and Africans was not fair. Africans were
given worthless [valueless] products such as spirits, beads, cloth and so on, in exchange for
precious gold and ivory. These goods given to Africans were not vital for state development yet
they had their resources wasted.
-The rise of and attacks from the Rozvi state which was more organised and powerful than
Mutapa led to the fall of Mutapa. The Changamire campaigns led to the demise of Mutapa and
its relegation to the Zambezi. Others think that Changamire had precipitated the fall of Mutapa
but one must realise that the process of its downfall was already set in by the Portuguese
influence in the state. In 1693 Dombo attacked and defeated Mukombwe. This was facilitated
by the fact that Mutapa troops were inefficient as compared to those of the Rozvi.
-The Nguni incursions [Mfecane migrations] in the 1830s caused destruction and chaos in the
Mutapa state. The Mutapas like Kandeya and Dzeka were attacked by the Nguni. The Ngoni
under Nxaba and the Ngwana-Maseko invaded the state from the east. The Vanyai were too
weak to defend the Mutapa state. Soshangane also succeeded in carving for himself a large
state at the expense of what used to be Mutapa’s Manyika province. Other Nguni leaders took
with them some livestock and some Mutapa subjects on the way to the north. The Mutapa
were also invaded by the Ndebele under Mzilikazi in 1840. All these weakened the state leading
to its downfall.

-The Maravi [Zimba] invasions also led to the decline of Mutapa. The Zimba were apparently
Bantu speaking invaders, who dwelt in the Zambezi region and managed to expand their
influence to a large part of Makualand by about 1590. There is however no direct documentary
evidence providing information on their motivation for invading northern Zambezia.
-The colonisation of Zimbabwe by the British in 1890 led to the final collapse of Mutapa state.
Internal factors
-The installation of weak and inexperienced leadership [incompetent leadership] led to the
demise of Mutapa state. These weak leaders included Mavura Mhande, Gatsi Rusere, Nyahuma
and Chioko. It were the weak political successors to Mutota and Matope who provoked revolts
by vassals. For example, powerful vassal chiefs like Changa of Guruuswa and Togwa of Mbire
rebelled against the young and inexperienced Nyahuma and took control of areas under them,
laying the basis of what was to become the Rozvi Empire. They felt independent to start their
own kingdoms. Nyahuma was Matope’s sons who ruled in the 1480s. It must also be noted that
the state had become too vast for the young, inexperienced and incompetent leadership. More
so, as a result of incompetent leadership vassal states like Madanda and Uteve broke away
leading to the disintegration of the state. The weaknesses of the Mutapas rendered the royal
fire useless. The weaknesses of Mutapas like Mavura Mhande and Gatsi Rusere were also
manipulated by Portuguese to their advantage.
-Secession by Manyika, Teve [Uteve] and Danda provinces which left the authority of the
Mutapa confined to Dande, Chidima and Zambezi valley led to the disintegration of the state.
Thus Mutapa had lost a large part of its territory during the 15 th C. The Portuguese only arrived
in the empire in the 16th C. The Mutapa state they came into contact with was very much a
reduced and weak state. The Portuguese therefore were only responsible for the fall of the
small [remnant] Mutapa state. A large part of Mutapa had fallen away as a result of internal
factors. Thus the Portuguese arrival in the 16th C took place at a time of general decline of the
Mutapa state.
-The extent or size of the state brought about its demise. It had become too big to be controlled
by one ruler. This led to poor or inefficient administration. The vastness of the empire resulted
in lack of communication and failure to control the whole area hence promoting civil wars. Thus
the growth of the state though good for its glory proved to be costly in the long run and was
one of the reasons for its collapse.
-Succession disputes also weakened the state. The inheritance system used did not always
work. This is because sometimes there occurred succession disputes between potential
candidates, for instance, Mavura Mhande versus Nyambo Kapararidze. The Portuguese took
advantage of these problems to weaken the state further. Some Mutapa rulers began to ally
themselves with Portuguese, for example, Mavura Mhande and Gatsi Rusere collaborated with
the Portuguese in order to gain power. However, it should be noted that succession disputes
despite them being manipulated by Portuguese were a threat on their own to the survival of
the state.
-Civil wars also caused the downfall of Mutapa state. They were largely caused by succession
disputes. They broke out usually on the issue of who was to become the ruler. These civil wars
weakened the state and made it vulnerable to colonisation by the Portuguese. The Portuguese
took advantage of the splits within the state to colonise it. They used the divide and rule tactic
to control Mutapa state.

-Social catalysts like droughts caused the demise of Mutapa state. There were serious droughts
in the period 1823-1830 when the Zambezi valley seemed to be on the verge of starvation. The
droughts led to food insecurity and outward migration of people to other states like Torwa and
Rozvi leading to the disintegration of the state.The droughts also led to the collapse of Mutapa
agricultural economy and disunity in the state. There was death of many cattle and other
animals due to drought. Due to droughts the king failed to feed the army which weakened the
defence and security system and this resulted in lack of loyalty to the king.However, it should
be noted that the state had survived droughts before, for instance, in the 1560s and
1670s.Hence this factor is important along with other factors.
[5] To what extent was the final collapse of Mutapa state a result of a series of droughts in
the early 19th C?
A series of droughts contributed to the decline of Mutapa state to a lesser extent. For example,
these droughts led to food insecurity in the state and they also resulted in the collapse of the
state’s agricultural economy. However, there were other factors which were largely responsible
for the decline of Mutapa state. These factors included the colonisation of Zimbabwe by the
British, the attacks by the Rozvi state, Nguni incursions, succession disputes and civil wars.
-To start with, a series of droughts contributed to the decline of Mutapa state to a lesser
extent, for example, these droughts led to food insecurity in the state as the enire Zambezi
Valley seemed to be on the verge of starvation. It must be noted that the Mutapa king failed to
feed the army. This had great repercussions because it resulted in lack of loyalty to the king and
this weakened the defence system of the state. Thus the state became vulnerable toattacks by
various groups like the Ngoni, Maseko-Ngoni, Gaza-Nguni and the Ndebele. Hence the droughts
led to the decline of this state.
-In addition, this series of droughts also resulted in the collapse of Mutapa’s agricultural
economy. For example, many cattle and other animals like goats, sheep and donkeys died due
to these droughts. This greatly weakened the Mutapa economy which was mainly based
livestock production as well as crop cultivation. This led to outward migrations of people
leading to the disintegration of the state. Hence droughts in the early 19 th C were responsible
for the demise of Mutapa state.
*However, there were other factors which were greatly responsible for the decline of Mutapa
state, for instance, the colonisation of Zimbabwe by the British led to its final collapse.
-In addition, Nguni invasions of the 1830s contributed immensely to the demise of Mutapa
state [Mzilikazi, Soshangane, Nxaba and so on].
-To add on, succession disputes within the state played a significant role in the fall of Mutapa.
-Moreover, civil wars also played a pivotal role in the demise of its demise.
-Furthermore, the attacks by Rozvi state played a significant role in the collapse of Mutapa.
-Lastly, incompetent leadership played a vital role in the demise of Mutapa state.
[5] How far was incompetent leadership responsible for the decline of Mutapa state?
Incompetent leadership was responsible for the decline of Mutapa state to a lesser extent. For
instance, incompetent leaders attracted revolts from vassal chiefs, their weaknesses were
manipulated by the Portuguese to their advantage and their weaknesses rendered the royal fire
useless. However, there were other factors which greatly contributed to the fall of Mutapa
state. These factors included the colonisation of Zimbabwe by the British in 1890, succession

disputes, civil wars, attacks by the Rozvi state, Nguni incursions and the growth of Portuguese
power in the interior.
-To start with, incompetent leadership contributed to the decline of Mutapa to a lesser extent,
for example, their weaknesses provoked revolts by vassal chiefs. For example, powerful vassal
chiefs like Changa of Guruuswa and Togwa of Mbire rebelled against the young and
inexperienced Nyahuma and took control of the areas under them. Nyahuma was Matope’s son
and successor. Changa and Togwa rebelled because they felt independent enough to start their
own kingdoms. Thus although the Mutapa state was not completely destroyed as a result of
these rebellions, a large part of Mutapa had fallen away hence leading to its decline.
-In addition, the weaknesses of the Mutapa rulers were manipulated by the Portuguese to their
advantage. For example, incompetent Mutapa kings like Mavura abd Rusere became puppets
of the Portuguese. This happened after they sought and solicited [got] Portuguese military
assistance. They signed treaties of vassalage and were now to rule according to the demands
and orders of the Portuguese thereby ignoring the wishes of their people. This outraged
[angered] the people of and spirit mediums leading to civil wars which further facilitated the
disintegration of the state. More so, their weaknesses also made the Portuguese to refuse to
pay tribute to the Mutapas and instead the Mutapas were the ones who were now paying
tribute to the Portuguese. This weakened the resource base of the state hence leading to its
demise.
-Moreover, incompetent leaders in Mutapa rendered the royal fire useless. This was largely
because Mutapa state had become too big for the incompetent leaders like Nyahuma and
Chioko. This explains why vassal chiefs like Madanda, Manyika and Uteve broke away from
Mutapa leading to the disintegration of the state. Seccession by these provincesleft the
authority of Mutapa confined to Dande, Chidima and Zambezi Valley. Hence one can therefore
argue that Mutapa state, though not completely destroyed, had lost a large part of its territory
during the 15th C.
*However, there were other factors which were largely responsible the decline of Mutapa
state, for example, the colonisation of Zimbabwe by the British in 1890.
-In addition, succession disputes played a pivotal role in the demise of Mutapa state.
-Moreover, the attacks by the Rozvi state played a significant role in the decline of Mutapa.
-Furthermore, the Nguni invasions played an important role in the demise of Mutapa state.
-Furtherstill, serious droughts led to the decline of this state.
-Lastly, the growth of Portuguese power in the interior played a significant role in the collapse
of Mutapa state.
[5] To what extent were political and economic factors responsible to the decline of Mutapa
state?
Pupils need to examine the role of political and economic factors as well as the role of other
factors [social factors].
Political factors
-The state had become too big to be ruled by one ruler.
-Incompetent leadership led to the decline of the state.
-Succession disputes led to the decline of the state.
-Civil wars also contributed to the decline of Mutapa state.
-Nguni incursions led to its decline.

-Portuguese interference in Mutapa politics caused its decline.
-Maravi invasions also contributed to its decline.
-Secession by some chiefdoms weakened the state.
-The rise of the Rozvi state led to its demise.
-Rebellions from vassal chiefs led to its decline.
-The colonisation by the British led to its final collapse.
Economic reasons
-Unfair trade practices led to the decline of Mutapa.
-The credit system led to the collapse of Mutapa state.
-The Prazo system also led to the decline of this state.
-Exhaustion of natural resources also contributed to its decline.
-Loss of land to the Portuguese led to the fall of Mutapa state.
Social causes
-Successive droughts led to the decline of Mutapa state.
-Christianity which was introduced by the Portuguese divided the state.
-Slavery also led to the demise of Mutapa.
[5] To what extent did Portuguese activities contribute to the decline of Mutapa state?
[5] How far did the activities of the Portuguese contribute to the collapse of Mutapa state?
Role of the Portuguese
-The Portuguese introduced slavery in Mutapa in a bid to enhance their economic activities like
mining and farming. This was an unwelcome development in Mutapa state. This forced Mutapa
people to migrate southwards in a bid to escape being enslaved. Depopulation thus became
one of the major points of weakness in Mutapa state and consequently affected its stability.
The Portuguese thus can be blamed for the destabilisation of the state through slavery.
-The introduction of the Prazo system in Mutapa state weakened the authority of the Mutapas
and corresponding ascendancy of the Portuguese over lordship in Mutapa state. The Prazo
holders like Dias Bayao acquired large tracts of landfrom the Mutapa people with the help of
African slave armies [Chikunda] and used African chiefs and their subjects as labourers thus
weakening the state.
-The Mutapa people were forced to pay tribute and owed their allegiance to the Prazeros. The
impact of this was that the political leadership [kings of Mutapa] was robbed of its authority
and hegemony over the state. This consequently led to the disintegration of Mutapa state. This
clearly shows that harm was caused by the Portuguese on Mutapa state.
-The local people lost their independence to the Portuguese. This was because they were
turned into subjects of the Portuguese, particularly Prazeros. They assumed powers of the local
chiefs and performed all the duties and activities associated with that position. The net effect of
this was that the power and integrity of the Mutapa kings was rendered useless.
-Trade between the Portuguese and Mutapa people led to its decline. The balance of trade
shifted in favour of the Prazo owners [Portuguese]. The Portuguese took valuable commodities
such as gold, ivory, copper and iron in exchange for less valuable and less durable items like
spirits, cloth and beads. Thus the local resources were exploited and expropriated for the
benefit of the Prazo holders. The Portuguese economic activities led to the exploitation,
exhaustion and depletion of natural resources like elephants, mineral resources and land. More
so, the credit system also led to the enslavement of Mutapa people in case of failing to pay the

gold and ivory on the agreed date. This robbed the Mutapa of able bodied men who could work
in the fields. Some even had their cattle confiscated due to the credit system.
-Christianity which was introduced by the Portuguese in Mutapa led to the demise of Mutapa. It
had the effect of dividing people into believers and non-believers [traditionalists]. The
Portuguese came to Mutapa state which had its own established religious systems.
-The Portuguese interference in Mutapa politics led to the decline of this state. For instance,
they created puppet rulers like Mavura Mhande and Gatsi Rusere and they fanned civil wars
within the state which consequently led to division amongst the Mutapa people.
Other factors
-There were some weak and incompetent leaders in the state.
-Succession disputes also led to its decline.
-Civil wars led to its decline.
-Maravi invasions caused its decline.
-The Nguni incursions led to its decline.
-The emergence of ambitious leaders like Changa and Togwa further weakened the state.
-The size of the state led to its downfall.
-Severe droughts led to the fall of Mutapa state.
-The Vanyai [Mutapa army] had become too weak to defend the state and this made the state
further vulnerable to attacks and invasions.
[5] ‘The Portuguese were not entirely responsible for the decline of Mutapa state; they
merely sounded the death knell to a state on the decline’. Justify or refute the statement
with reference to the relations between the Mutapa state and the Portuguese in the 16 th and
17th C.
[5] ‘The decline of the Mutapa state was a result of varied and complex factors, the advent of
the Portuguese on the scene merely accelerated a process of decay underway’. How valid is
this comment on the decline of the Mutapa state?
Pupils need to examine the causes of the downfall of Mutapa. There are two possible
perspectives [angles] from which the question can be viewed.
[i] That the state started to fall before the coming of the Portuguese. The position taken is that
Mutapa state was founded by Nyatsimba Mutota and Nyanhewe Matope took over and
continued to expand the state.
-It is after the death of Matope in 1480 before the arrival of the Portuguese that the state
started to crumble.
-The reasons for the decline would be seen as having been
-Weak political successors to Mutota and Matope provoked revolts by vassal chiefs like Changa
and Togwa. Thus the fall of the state had nothing to do with the Portuguese.
-There was a bid for independence by Manyika, Teve and Danda provinces which decided to
break away from Mutapa.Mutapa authority was thus confined to the Dande area and the
Zambezi valley. Therefore the Portuguese arrival in the 16th C took place at a time of general
decline of the Mutapa state.
[ii] The question can also be viewed from the perspective of Portuguese blame for the collapse
of the Mutapa state.

-This perspective comes from a background of accepting that the Mutapa state of the 16 th C
was only that part which was under Mutapa’s rule in the Dande and Zambezi area and then
blaming the Portuguese for the collapse of the state.
-The activities of the Portuguese have to be interrogated.
-Interfering in Mutapa political affairs
-Fanning civil wars and installing puppets, like Mavura and Rusere.
-Depletion of natural resources like gold and ivory
-Enslavement of Africans [beginning of the Prazo system]
-Therefore the Portuguese could be regarded as having contributed to a greater extent towards
the decline of the lesser Mutapa state.
*But if one takes it from the view expressed in [i] then it can be argued that
-A large part of the Mutapa state had fallen away as a result of internal factors.
-The alliance between Gatsi Rusere and the Portuguese was a result of the desire by the
Mutapa to prevent further decline.
-The Portuguese exploited the prevailing insecurity to take over control of the area and were
therefore responsible for the final collapse of what still remained of the old Mutapa.
[5] Discuss the roles played by Mutapa Gatsi Rusere and Mutapa Mukombire [Mukombwe] in
preventing of the collapse of the Mutapa state during the 16 th and 17th centuries AD.
Pupils need to assess the effectiveness of Rusere and Mukombwe in preventing the collapse of
Mutapa state.
-Gatsi Rusere [1550-1624] assumed control at the time when the Mutapa state was under rebel
attacks. Notable of these was the Chunzo revolt [1597] and the invasion by one of his generals,
Chikanda of the state in 1599.
-Gatsi Rusere appealed to the Portuguese in Tete for assistance and Chunzo was eventually
defeated and killed only to turn to another revolt by Matuzianhe in early 1600. The civil war
paralysed Mukaranga, the heartland of the state.
-Unstable conditions in the state led to the overthrow of Mutapa Gatsi Rusere. More than two
decades later the Portuguese were seeking direct interference in the internal affairs of the state
as an avenue to gain control of the gold rich state.
-The ineffectiveness of Gatsi Rusere, in warding off rebel attacks on his own was the final
undoing or a major weakness.
-Following the renewal of Gatsi Rusere, the state was systematically conquered by the
Portuguese and the period 1624-1684 saw the appearance of what some historians call puppet
rulers – Kapararidze, Mavura, Kazurukumusapa, Dom Alfonso but the same may not be said
about Mukombwe [1663-1692].
-Mukombwe recovered some of the lands lost to the Portuguese especially the gold mining
areas and attempted to settle lands which had been rendered empty.
-He took an anti-Portuguese stance and his policies resulted in decreased Portuguese
population in the state.
-He fought the Portuguese Prazeros. This paved way for the final blow to the Portuguese
caused by the Rozvi led by Changamire Dombo [1693-1695].
ROZVI STATE
[6] Explain the origins of the Rozvi state.

There is no general consensus among historians as to how the Rozvi state originated. Its origin
is rather far from being straight forward. It had provoked a lot of scholarly interest. This
controversy has endured to this day. There are a number of theories which have been put
forward to explain the origin of this state.
-One theory argues for an early date of the origin of this state. The chief protagonists of this
theory included NgwabiBhebhe, who argued that the origin of the name Changamire can be
dated back to the 1480s in the history of the Mutapa.According to this theory, this was when
Mutapa Nyahuma [Matope’s son], who was young, incompetent and inexperienced ruled
Mutapa state. During Nyahuma’s reign, the powerful vassal chiefs of the Mutapa, that is,
Changa and Togwa rebelled against the weak Nyahuma [when the Mutapa state was at its
decline] and took control of the areas under them. Changa later turned against Togwa and
became paramount chief. He then became the founder of the Changamire dynasty and hence
the Rozvi state.With his powerful army, Changa was able to subdue the Torwa people. It were
these people [Torwa] who nicknamed Changa’s people, the Rozvi, meaning destroyers [varozvi].
He established his capital at Danangombe [Dhlodhlo] in Matabeleland. The capital was then
transferred to different places by different leaders, for example, to Naletale, Manyanga and so
on. It is imperative to note that the Changamire did not destroy the Torwa state and its culture
but took it over and in fact amalgamated with it [absorbed it].
-The other theory argues for a later date. The proponents of this theory included scholars like D
N Beach and Stanley Mudenge. According to this theory, the true founders of the Changamire
dynasty and the state [Rozvi] arose out of the violence and confusion of the Portuguese
attempt to conquer the Mutapa and Torwa states in the middle of the 17th C. As during
Mfecane period of the 19th C, those who could command a strong army were able to get
stronger, as more and more people attached themselves to a growing force for safety’s sake.
According to Mudenge, in all Portuguese records he examined, the term Rozvi is used only in
connection with the descendants of Dombo and his followers. According to Portuguese records,
Changamire Dombo founded his empire between 1684 and 1695 and lasted until the 1830s
with the arrival of Mfecane groups. However, there is no evidence from Portuguese sources
that the Rozvi as a nation bearing the name ‘Rozvi’ existed before the advent of Dombo.
Changamire Dombo, the founder of the Rozvi state was a cattle herder under Mutapa
Mukombwe. He was rewarded by the Mutapa and was given cattle which formed basis of his
power. Dombo then attracted a following and left Mutapa state with an army of about 300
soldiers. He moved south west and attacked the Torwa. While subduing the Torwa, the Rozvi
drove the Portuguese out of Manyika back to their former settlement in Masekesa. The
Portuguese agreed to come under the authority of the Rozvi ruler. The state extended as far as
Buhera, Bocha and South Eastern Highlands. The Rozvi became one of the most distinguished
pre-colonial kingdoms formed on the Zimbabwean plateau. After establishing themselves, the
Rozvi embarked on a conquest programme of the surrounding areas. The Mutapa Empire was
attacked and reduced to the position of a satellite state. Rozvi conquest made it the single
greatest power in the 18th C.
-There is also another theory which argues that the Rozvi state was a continuation of the Torwa
state. This implies that the Torwa and Rozvi were the same people. What only changed was the
name. The exponents of this theory had a simpler explanation on the origin of Rozvi state.
According to this theory, there was no invasion or conquest which occurred. In other words, the

Torwa state developed and changed its name to Rozvi. Changamire Dombo therefore was a
descendant of a Torwa Changamire who rose to power because of cattle wealth. Oral tradition
confirms that Dombo had magical powers. He could therefore have used these powers to get
the throne.
[6] Analyse the rise to power of the Changamire rulers in the 1680s.
Pupils need to examine the factors that led to the rise of the Rozvi state.
Weaknesses of the Mutapa and Torwa states due to
-Portuguese involvement
-Maravi invasions
-Rebellious provinces
-Civil wars
The charismatic nature of the first Changamire who
-Raised a huge army
-Used his army to carve territories out of Mutapa and Torwa states
-Used the army to eject the Portuguese
-Had control over trade
-Owned large herds of cattle
[6] Account for the rise of the Rozvi state and assess the extent to which the Nguni incursions
brought about the demise of the state.
Pupils need to assess the factors which promoted the rise of the Rozvi state and the impact of
the Nguni on the state.
The state was founded by Changa.
-There is controversy as to who exactly Changa was [was he a vassal chief or a herd man of the
Mutapa].
-There is the conspiracy theory involving Changa and Togwa followed by Togwa’s elimination by
Changa.
-Military prowess also led to its rise.
-Rebellions in Mutapa state led to the rise of the Rozvi state.
-Capitals were established at Khami, Dhlodhlo and Manyanga.
-Most popular ruler was Changamire Dombo.
Nguni incursions
-The Gaza-Nguni under Soshangane who settled in Gazaland
-The Ngoni under Zwangendaba and Nxaba as well as Nyamazana, who killed the Rozvi ruler,
Chirisamhuru at Danangombe
-The Ndebele under Mzilikazi who settled permanently in western Zimbabwe
Other factors which led to its downfall
-Succession disputes within the state
-The colonisation of Zimbabwe by the British
[6] Consider the view that Changamire Dombo’s only contribution to the establishment and
growth of the Rozvi state was his skill as a soldier.
Pupils need to examine the role of Changamire Dombo’s skill as a soldier in establishing the
Rozvi state. They must also examine his other qualities or personal attributes that were crucial
in the establishment of the Rozvi state.

a] Changamire Dombo was a military leader of renown under the Mutapa.
-He managed to conquer the Manyika, Torwa and Uteve provinces.
-Through military skill he was able to drive the Portuguese out of the Mutapa state.
b] Changamire Dombo’s political ambition spurred him to break away from Mutapa.
-His charisma and political maturity enabled him to attract supporters.
-His magical powers turned him into a revered leader.
[6] ‘Trade and religion played a pivotal role in the rise and expansion of the Rozvi state’. How
accurate is this view?
Pupils need to examine the role played by trade and religion in the rise and expansion of the
Rozvi state as well as the role of other factors.
Religion
-Had the role of supporting the ruling class in power and making exploitation acceptable to the
masses.
-People’s acceptance was reinforced by the mediums of the High God who advised the ruler.
-Ruling lineages created royal cults, where the veneration of the ancestors of the rulers became
a national duty.
-This helped to create unity in the state and a common sense of purpose.
-Religion and rain making powers were instrumental to the acceptance of rulers.
Trade
-Local and inter-regional trade promoted expansion.
-Trade added to the nation’s prosperity which in turn triggered expansion.
-Items obtained through trade were given to vassal chiefs as rewards hence promoted loyalty
and unity.
-Wealth generated through trade was reinstated for state building.
-Trade became a means of control by the king.
Other factors
-Crop cultivation
-Livestock production
-Role of the army
-Dombo’s charisma
-Tribute payment
[6] Assess the role played by trade and religion in the Rozvi state.
Pupils need to assess the positive and negative roles played by trade and religion in Rozvi state
[existence and expansion].
Trade
-Trade enhanced the political power of the king as he was the head of trade [controller of
trade]. State interference was meant to ensure that the Portuguese did not have an addue
advantage over local people. The Mambo is said to have exercised a strict monopoly of all
external trade and levied tribute to the Portuguese so that they would be allowed free
movement in the state. Control of trade by the king ushered command and authority over his
subordinates hence stability and expansion.
-Trade enabled people of Rozvi state to obtain goods which were not available at local level.
These included beads, cowrie shells, cloth, guns and so on. These were given in return for items

like gold, ivory and copper. However, since most of these goods were luxurious goods, they
may not have been very important to the generality of the people.
*However, trade led to depletion of resources like, game especially elephants for ivory anf
cheetahs for precious skins as well as minerals like gold, copper and iron.
-Some items like guns imported from foreigners strengthened the military might of the state.
Guns were used for raiding and conquering other states as well as for hunting large animals like
elephants for ivory. Goods obtained from faraway places such as guns were used in further
developing and building up strong political power base. The Rozvi were so active in trade such
that they succeeded in restoring pre-17th C trading patterns involving Vashambadzi which the
Portuguese had tried to destroy. However, Vashambadzi were not honest, they got too much.
*However items like guns obtained through trade promoted civil wars in the state.
-Trade was responsible for the expansion of the state. The guns which the king obtained from
trade were used to beef up the army. This enabled the Rozvi kings to secure political hegemony
as he used traded goods to reward his loyal vassal. This promoted unity, loyalty and peace as
well as security. Trade was very important because in 1722, 1743 and 1781 the Rozvi sent
powerful armies to protect the trading stations at Zumbo against attack from its enemies.
-Wealth generated by gold and ivory trade was later reinvested in the construction of elaborate
buildings such as Naletale, Dhlodhlo and Zinjanja among others.
-Trade also enhanced good relations with neighbours and it promoted cordial internal relations
as this was a necessary gesture for the exchange of goods. This in turn strengthened the state.
-Trade was an alternative source of food for the Rozvi. Internal trade brought cereals and game
meat which was obtained through hunting. More so, foreign trade brought new crops like
maize and this enhanced food stability which was essential for the growth and expansion of
Rozvi state.
Religion
-Religion reinforced the political power of the ruler [mambo]. This was because spirit mediums
intervened in the case of political disputes over succession. Spirit mediums are men and women
who claimed to be possessed by spirits of founding fathers like Dzivaguru, Nehanda, and
Chaminuka. Thus religion acted as a stabilising factor in the Rozvi state.
*However it must be noted that spirit mediums became too powerful leading to the decline of
the state.
-Religion also enabled the rulers to command universal respect thereby reducing the chances of
revolts. This is because it was believed that Rozvi kings were very religious persons with divine
origins. Even Rozvi kings themselves regarded themselves as divinely appointed. This made
kings’ thrones sacred. Failing to respect the king was tantamount to punishment by Mwari
because it was believed that failing to respect the king was equivalent to disobeying God
[Mwari]. Because Rozvi kings were connected to God, their opinions could not be questioned
and he should not be forcibly removed from the throne.
-Religion had a cementing effect in the state as it consolidated the political position of the king.
In cases of political disputes, religion had a significant input in the settlement of the same.
Religion indicted people’s senses to the thought of infallibility and sanctity of the king’s throne.
Thus this made the king to employ tremendous power, which in a way was essential to the
control of the state. The people therefore revered the king due to his religious connection. The

king also remained at the centre of religion as several rituals were clustered around the Rozvi
Mambo, and this instilled fear and respect for the king and helped in preserving his position.
-Religious ceremonies in the state such as biras and rainmaking ceremonies unified the state.
This was because people would be playing music, dancing and feasting together. These
ceremonies were led by the king. Thus the relationship between politics and religion was
enhanced by a number of rituals which clustered around the Rozvi Mambo.
[6] How important was the Rozvi social system to the survival of the state?
Pupils need to examine the importance of the Rozvi social organisation towards the survival of
the state. They also need to examine the role of other factors [economic and political] in
strengthening the state.
Role of social system
#The Rozvi lived in villages according to their lineages. This promoted unity in the state.
#The Rozvi marriages were exogenous, that is, they married from outside [they married non
Moyos]. This encouraged social integration of non Moyos.
#They practised polygamy. It must be noted that marriage bonds created unity.
-It should also be realised that polygamy was a source of man power [labour to boost the
economy and soldiers].
-Rulers also used marriages to maintain alliances with important lineages.
-Polygamous marriages also encouraged population increase hence state expansion.
#Kuronzera or cattle loaning system] helped the king to spread his influence and this gave rise
to subordination.
#The people of Rozvi worshipped God [Mwari]. It must be noted that the common belief in God
unified people [One nation one God].
#The Rozvi believed in Mhondoro spirits. National spirit mediums resolved disputes as well as
approving the Changamires.
#Ritual ceremonies were held, for example, rainmaking ceremony, reincarnation and biras.
These brought people together.
#Work parties were held in Rozvi state. These encouraged cooperation within the state.
#The spirit mediums installed the kings. This made the king a divine ruler who was feared and
respected. This also reduced chances of rebellions in the state.
Other factors [political and economic] which led to the survival of the state
-The payment of tribute to the king was important to the survival of the state. This was because
this ensured loyalty of lesser chiefs to the king. The payment of tribute also made sure that
lesser chiefs would not become too rich, powerful and ambitious. This lessened chances of
rebellions in the state. It also increased the wealth, power and influence of the king.
-A strong army led to the survival of the state. The army defended the state, maintained law
and order, discouraged or suppressed revolts and collected tribute.
-Trade led to the survival of Mutapa state. It created good relations with foreigners as well as
good relations within the state.
-An all-powerful king led to the survival of the state. He was the judicial, religious, military and
political leader.
-A strong economy led to the survival of the state. It ensured stability within the state.
[6] ‘The power and glory of the Rozvi Mambos between 1680 and 1830 has been grossly
exaggerated’. Do you agree?

[6] ‘The History of Zimbabwe during the late 17th and entire 18th C AD is dominated by the
Rozvi’.Do you agree?
It is a truism that the Rozvi Mambos were very powerful and that their state was too big. Thus
the Rozvi dominance of the history of Zimbabwe between 1680 and 1830 cannot be denied.
However, it must be noted that the power and glory of the Rozvi Mambos between 1680 and
1830 has been grossly exaggerated by both the Portuguese and some Rozvi traditions. The new
scholarship thus has reduced the inflated power and glory of the Rozvi Mambos to its proper
size. The Rozvi were not dominant over all the Shona and they were not supremely powerful.
The power and glory of Rozvi Mambos [Rozvi dominance]
-The power and glory of the Rozvi Mambos was demonstrated by the conquest nature of the
state. Dombo, for instance, embarked on a conquest programme of all surrounding areas and
he spearheaded his conquest from Guruuswa, his base. To support this view, Posselt named 17
groups who were the subjects of the Rozvi. More so, the name Rozvi came from the Shona
name ‘kurozva’, that is, to destroy. They were given this name because of their conquest
nature. For instance, Dombo fought and absorbed the Kalanga within the Guruuswa area. In
1690s Dombo conquered the kingdom of Uteve and Manyika and forced them to pay tribute. In
1690s again, the Rozvi conquered the Torwa. According to H.H.K Bhila, this was supported by
archaeological evidence which shows that the Rozvi dynasty annexed the Torwa state in 1690s.
The Rozvi also conquered Mutapa people and forced them to retreat northwards to a small
area called Dande. According to D.N Beach, in this way the Rozvi were able to create an empire
that stretched as far as Buhera, Bocha, Duma and the South-Eastern Highlands. By 1700 a new
and powerful empire had been established and Rozvi conquest made it the single greatest
power in the country in the 18th C.
-Portuguese sources portrayed the Rozvi Mambos as very powerful and greatly feared by the
Portuguese. The Portuguese even respected them as the most powerful rulers in the interior.
The main evidence for the power of the Mambos lay in the army of the Changamire which
earned the Rozvi the nickname, ‘the destroyers’. The Portuguese provided vivid evidenceof the
might of the army in their writings. Its army often defeated the Portuguese. For instance, in
1684 the Rozvi army slaughtered the Portuguese at Dambarare and Masekesa. In 1693 and
1695 the Rozvi attacked the Portuguese at their Feiras on the Zambezi Valley. It was after the
Portuguese were defeated that they exaggerated the power and glory of the Rozvi Mambos so
as to justify their defeat yet they initially viewed themselves as superior over all Africans.
-According to Portuguese sources, at times the Rozvi Mambos defended the Portuguese
settlements upon request. For instance, in 1772, a Rozvi army relieved Zumbo from a Mutapa
attack. Again in 1780 a force of Rozvi soldiers appeared at Zumbo to support the Portuguese.
Thus although the power and glory of the Rozvi Mambos has been greatly exaggerated, it
should be noted that the power of the Rozvi Mambos forced the Portuguese to change their
destructive trading tactics in the Zimbabwean interior and during the 18 th C they actually
acknowledged Rozvi power. More so, between 1743 and 1783, the Portuguese requested to
Rozvi protection against other groups in Zimbabwe as they wanted to create favourable trading
conditions for themselves, a situation which continued up to 1830s when the Rozvi power was
destroyed by the Nguni.
-The Rozvi had a strong military element. Armies of 2000 and even 4000 could be sent as far as
Zumbo and Manyika. According to D. N Beach, the most successful military group to emerge

from the new political system were the Rozvi. Beach again argued that a basic factor to be
borne in mind was that the Changamire state was the most powerful in Southern Zambezia.
-Some Portuguese sources say the Rozvi Mambos controlled the Mwari cult. Some Rozvi
traditions even say Dombo’s father was Mwari and his mother was a virgin. He could even
make rain and could change the colour of cattle. These sources had it that all the Rozvi Mambos
in the given time [1680-1830] were descendants of Mwari [High God]. The Portuguese also
argued that because they were connected to Mwari, the Mambos’ opinions could not be
questioned as the Mambos were greatly respected.
Exaggeration
-However, one must note that the power and glory of the Rozvi Mambos between 1680 and
1830 has been grossly exaggerated. The Rozvi state was too powerful especially during
Changamire Dombo’s reign. According to N Parsons, the Rozvi Mambos who ruled after Dombo
were less powerful individuals than Dombo himself and were forced to share power with other
Rozvi chiefs. More so, for reasons not yet known the capital was moved to Manyanga
[Thabazikamambo].
-The Rozvi state was not supremely powerful as has been claimed by Portuguese sources and
some Rozvi traditions. The Rozvi could raise armies and send them over long distances on
specific occasions but it could not do this on a grand scale.
-The size and extent of Rozvi rule has been grossly exaggerated. The actual extent of
Changamire Rozvi rule can thus be seen to have been rather less than the more exuberant
maps previously produced have indicated. In any case, such maps did not allow for the
fluctuation of Rozvi power over two centuries. The Urungwe Plateau, the Mutapa state, the
Mazowe Valley, Budya, Barwe, Teve, most of the SouthEastern Low veld, the Duma
confederacy, the Mafungabusi plateau and the Nambiya area seem to have been free from
Rozvi political influence for most of the existence of the Changamire state. Thus it is a distortion
to argue that the Rozvi dominated all the Shona in the interior. In fact, the Rozvi covered a large
area but this was exaggerated. To gain an accurate idea of the extent and nature of Rozvi
overrule, one must look at the traditions of their alleged subjects.
-The governing powers of the Rozvi Mambos were also exaggerated by writers like Posselt.
Rather, the later Rozvi kingdom is usually called the Rozvi confederacy by historians because it
was a union of semi-independent chiefdoms, whose unity became looser in the 18 th C. For
instance, the chiefdom of Mangwe in the south west became more and more independent. It
even extended its power over Pedi and Tswana groups migrating from the south to join it in the
upper Shashe area.
-There were some instances which demonstrated some serious limitations of the Rozvi
Mambos’ powers. There were many cases where the Rozvi Mambos either did not support their
tributaries against incoming dynasties or else did not attempt to do so. This on its own shows
serious limitations to Changamires’ power. Hence the view that the Rozvi Mambos were
extremely powerful is questionable. At this point, however, the inflated image of the Rozvi
Mambos has been reduced to its proper size.
-Some Rozvi traditions regularly claimed superiority to the rest of the Shona in practically
everything. Certainly they themselves [Rozvi] could have preferred the term empire, however,
inaccurate it might have been. The Rozvi claims to superiority over all the Shona are
problematic. The Rozvi claims, taken by themselves are no more trustworthy than similar

Mutapa or Ndebele claims or those made on their behalf by the British or Portuguese. Thus the
Rozvi historians could produce long lists of the subjects of the Rozvi based on their local
knowledge. Marwodzi’s list consisted of mainly Zezuru rulers.
-The new thinking had it that the Mambos came from ordinary Shona dynasties and were not
descendants of Mwari as has been claimed. For instance, Dombo was said to have been a herd
boy in the Mutapa state.
[6] Assess the contribution of foreign intervention in the downfall of the Rozvi state.
[6] Explain the reasons for the decline of Rozvi state.
Pupils need to assess the contribution of internal and external factors to the fall of Rozvi state.
Internal factors
-The kingdom became too big and was difficult to control. The Changamires lost a firm grip on
the subject people. Some people stopped paying annual tribute to the Mambos and this
weakened the resource base of the kingdom.Some tributary states like Maungwe in the
Southand Manyika in the east declared independence from Rozvi. The Kalanga also took
advantage of the weaknesses of the kingdom and rebelled. There were also some migrations
from the Rozvi state to the south of the Limpopo. This led to the disintegration of the Rozvi
state.
-There was a general decrease in population within the Rozvi state. Depopulation was
facilitated by the assimilation of some Shona elements into the Ngoni groups and some by the
Ndebele.It should be noted that some Shona joined the Ndebele [voluntarily] without being
forced. The massive killing of the Rozvi people by the various Nguni groups also facilitated
depopulation. Depopulation greatly weakened the Rozvi state in that it had no young able
bodied, men who would work in the fields. More so, the absorption of Shona young men was a
bitter pill to swallow for the Rozvi because it had no young men to recruit into the army and
this made the state vulnerable to attacks by invaders.
-Successive droughts and starvation hit the Rozvi state in the 19 th C leading to the demise of
this state. The state mainly depended on crop production and animal rearing and these
droughts seriously affected the economy of the state. Starvation was facilitated by the Ngoni
under Zwangendaba who burnt the Rozvi crops [scorched earth policy]. According to Mazikana
and Johnstone, the Ngoni groups succeeded in disrupting the Rozvi state’s economy before
continuing north. It should be noted that these prolonged droughts and starvation led to
population movements [migrations] which the Changamires could not control. These droughts
were followed by secessionist wars within the kingdom to control the limited food supplies and
avoid paying tribute.
-The Rozvi state also declined because of the rebellions from tributary states. Sub chiefs who
were usually loyal started to defy the authority of the Rozvi Changamire. New dynasties who
did not honour the land grants also came to power. These new dynasties like Chinamora,
Chihota and Seke, emerged with no allegiance to the Rozvi, thus spelling its doom.
-Succession disputes within the state led to its decline. There was emergence of competing
lineages for succession and wealth. Chiefs like Mavudzi and Gomoremvura became rebels and
each attracted a sizeable following. This led to division within the state.
-Dombo’s death led to the decline of Rozvi state. His death spelt disaster for the state because
it left a power vacuum which was difficult to fill. The leaders who came after Dombo were
uncharismatic and weak and lacked leadership qualities.

-There was an outbreak of civil wars within the Zimbabwean plateau. H.H.K Bhila argues that
the years between 1795 and 1850s were marked by serious civil wars in the Rozvi Empire and
its tributary states. It is highly probable that these civil wars resulted from the death of the
Rozvi Emperor, Rupandamanhanga. These wars created factions within the Rozvi dynasty and
this made the Rozvi state vulnerable to invasions by various Nguni groups and it was defeated.
The civil wars also triggered the demise of the state in that the Rozvi economy was rundown,
particularly long distance trade because the Portuguese trading posts were disrupted.
External factors
-Loss of control of long distance trade also provided the basis for the decline of Rozvi state. This
long established distance trade between the Portuguese and the Shona people was badly
shaken though not totally destroyed. Prosperity of both parties to trade declined. T O Ranger
argues that the chief cause of decline of this trade was that Portuguese trading towns of Sofala,
Tete and Sena were raided by Mfecane groups. Decline in gold production and weaknesses of
the Portuguese in suppressing opposition in the kingdom also facilitated the decline in gold
trade. As a result of the decline in gold trade, many traders fled from the kingdom.
-Invasion by Soshangane and his Gaza-Nguni [1830s] led to the decline of Rozvi state. He and
his Gaza-Nguni set out to create an empire east of the Save river and between the Zambezi and
Limpopo, an area occupied by thousands of Shona speakers. He sent out raiding parties from
Chirinda and subdued the local Ndau and Chopi ethnic groups. He established the Gaza state
and continued to plunder [raid] as far as Nyanga. Raids were also made on Portuguese trading
towns [posts or feiras] of Sofala, Tete and Sena and the Portuguese were forced to pay tribute
to Soshangane. These events shook up the patterns of Shona history in the area. Many Ndau
men were conscripted into the Gaza armies. The long established trading system between
Portuguese and Shona paramounts was shaken and prosperity to both parties to trade declined
-The invasion by Nxaba and his Ngoni [1830s] also weakened the state. The Ngoni stayed in the
Rozvi territory for some time, raiding the Shona for cattle and wives. Their effects were felt in
Manyika, Tete and Sofala. They moved north over the Zimbabwe when Nxaba was eventually
killed in battle with the Kololo.
-Invasion by the Ngoni under Zwangendaba [1830s] caused untold [much] destruction on the
Rozvi state and brought about its collapse. The Ngoni destroyed Rozvi villages and killed
thousands of people. According to T O Ranger, archaeologists have found in their excavations
vivid evidence of violence and many human skeletons were discovered in the great elliptical
building. Some Shona people were forced to join them. According to Ransford and Steyn, a few
Rozvi centres were passed by this Nguni group. This did not completely result in the downfall of
the Rozvi state. One must realise that although this was the case, the Ngoni invasion weakened
the state and made it vulnerable to the following attacks especially by the Ndebele under
Mzilikazi. The Ngoni defeated the Rozvi armies in the battle at Thabazikamambo [Dombo
raMbambo] in 1834, sacked their centres at Khami and Dhlodhlo. The Rozvi began to disperse
as Rozvi ruler ship was overthrown. The Ngoni crossed Zambezi to the area west of Lake Malawi
in 1835. Unlike the Shangani the Ngoni made a direct impact on Rozvi state.
-The Ngoni under Nyamazana, Zwangendava’s female relative, also plundered the Rozvi state. D
N Beach regarded the Rozvi attack by Nyamazana as the most dramatic blow that fell after
Zwangendava’s departure. By the time the female warrior arrived, the strength of the Rozvi
state had been shaken through fighting many hordes. Nyamazana defeated the Rozvi easily and

succeeded in killing its Changamire [the last Rozvi king], Chirisamhuru II, the son of
Gomoremvura at Manyanga around 1836. One tradition says he was skinned alive. Another
tradition says his heart was cut out to prove that Mambos were not double hearted.
Birmingham and Martin described the disruption by Nyamazana as cataclysmically suddenness.
Archaeologists have found vivid evidence of bones of people who were killed by these Mfecane
groups. A general Rozvi dispersal then occurred. Paramount rule of the Rozvi was overthrown.
-The Ndebele under Mzilikazi also conquered and took over the Rozvi state in the 19 th C [1840].
The Ndebele came at a time when the Rozvi had not recovered from Ngoni attacks thus the
Rozvi were swiftly defeated and were not able to offer any effective resistance. The Ndebele
settled in western Zimbabwe. They easily subdued the scattered and leaderless Rozvi.They
established theirstate in the area assimilating and forcing some of their neighbours to pay
tribute. The impact of the Ndebele on the Rozvi was more cultural than military. The Ndebele
caused much destruction among Shona communities as a result of their frequent rates of raids
for food, cattle and women. Like other Nguni groups, the Ndebele assimilated Shona young
men and women into their state system and were known as Lozwi. Other Shona people
survived in small groups to the north-east where they bitterly remembered their days of
prosperity. Others fled eastwards to take up residence among the Shona of western central
Mashonaland. Some Shona tried to resist and settled in the east under Changamire Tohwechipi,
but was finally captured by the Ndebele thus the Ndebele wiped out the last Rozvi ruler
bringing about its demise. According to T O Ranger, the Ndebele were the most and last
intruders who marked the demise of the Rozvi state.
-The colonisation of Zimbabwe by the British marked the final collapse of the Rozvi state.
[6] ‘The Nguni incursions of 1836-40 found a weak and tottering Rozvi state that was on the
verge of decline’. Discuss.
[6] To what extent was the decline of the Rozvi state caused by Nguni incursions?
Pupils need to examine the role of Mfecane [Nguni incursions] in the downfall of Rozvi state as
well as other factors which also led to the decline of Rozvi state.
Internal factors which led to the demise of Rozvi state
-Major droughts
-Serious civil wars
-General economic decline
-Depletion of natural resources such as gold and ivory
-The size of the empire led to its collapse
-General decrease in population
-Rebellions from tributary states
-The death of Dombo led to the demise of Rozvi state.
*There is need to appreciate that the Nguni invasions put a final blow to a state that was
already inevitably declining.
Role of Nguni incursions
The Nguni incursions can be seen in the bands of Nguni groups which passed through the Rozvi
state from the south as they were escaping the disturbances in Nguniland. They invaded the
Rozvi state when it was already declining.
-Invasion by Zwangendaba’s Ngoni

-Invasion by Ngwana Maseko-Ngoni
-Invasion by Nyamazana’s Ngoni
-Invasion by Nxaba’s Ngoni
-Invasion by Soshangane’s Gaza-Nguni
-Invasion by the Ndebele under Mzilikazi
*Each of these groups weakened the Rozvi state, although the Ndebele are said to have
inflicted the final and decisive blow
[6] ‘The Rozvi state was violently disrupted, though not completely destroyed by the Nguni
incursions’. Discuss.
Pupils need to examine the impact of Nguni incursions on the Rozvi state.
-Mfecane produced raiders like Nxaba, Nyamazana, Maseko and Soshangane who ravaged the
Rozvi state.
-Other Nguni groups which passed through the Rozvi state were Zwangendaba’s Ngoni who
raided for cattle, grain and women.
-Mzilikazi arrived in 1838 thereby completing the conquest of the Rozvi state and settled in
Zimbabwe.
[6] Analyse the impact of Nguni incursions on the Rozvi state.
[6] Evaluate the impact of Nguni incursions on the Rozvi state.
[6]Assess the impact of Nguni incursions on the Rozvi state.
[6] Discuss the impact of Nguni incursions on the various groups living in Zimbabwe between
1830 and 1860.
Pupils need to assess the extent to which some Nguni groups affected the various Shona /
Karanga groups in Zimbabwe up to 1860.The Nguni were brought about by the Mfecane, the
great disturbances of Southern Africa often associated with state formation in KwaZulu Natal.
In Zimbabwe many historians think it brought to an end the Zimbabwe culture following
extensive raiding and killing. Many people are said to have been forced into hills and mountains
to seek refuge. Some of the accounts have been exaggerated and go on to give details as to
what happened and where.
-Nxaba’s group and the Gaza-Nguni under Soshangane arrived in the region first before 1830
and their effects are felt in Manyika, Tete and Sofala. Soshangane and his Gaza-Nguni settled in
Gazaland and their raids were peripheral. Subsequent groups arrived after 1831 but these too
are hardly felt as they fought among themselves and were moving rapidly across the plateau.
-However, it were the south-western regions that were badly affected.
-Zwangendaba and his Ngoni, after defeat by Soshangane moved westwards into the heart of
the Rozvi state in western Zimbabwe. For a while they joined the Shangani in their raids but
later moved to the North West laying waste much of Mashonaland.
-The Rozvi eventually succeeded in driving away these groups but at a considerable loss to their
army and leadership.
-Nyamazana’s regiment also plundered the state, for instance, it tortured to death
Chirisamhuru II, the last Rozvi Mambo.
-The Ndebele arrived in 1840 but by that time there were no other Nguni groups left in
Zimbabwe, except the Gaza-Nguni. Mzilikazi’s Ndebele settled in the western part of
Zimbabwe. They dominated the Kalanga in the south-west and established a considered
tributary area. The Ndebele impact on the local Kalanga should not be seen in terms of raiding

but acculturation [language]. Thus the impact of the Ndebele was more cultural than military.
By 1860, this process was very much underway such that Rozvi / Kalanga identities were no
longer apparent.
[6] Analyse the view that the impact of Ndebele and Gaza raids on the Shona has been
exaggerated.
Pupils need to evaluate the effects of Ndebele-Gaza raids on the Shona. They need to outline
the exaggerations and scholars associated with these [Euro-centrists versus Afro-centrists].
Pupils may use the following points
-Ndebele policy towards their neighbours
-Shona adoption of Ndebele-Gaza culture
-Instances of peaceful co-existence between the Ndebele-Gaza and the Shona.
NDEBELE STATE
[7] ‘Essentially a raiding economy’. Is this a fair assessment of the Ndebele economy?
[7] How accurate is the assertion that the Ndebele economy was solely a raiding economy?
The Euro-centric conception that the Ndebele economy was entirely dependent on raiding is a
distortion of history. Rather, thetruth is that the Ndebele embarked on a number of economic
activities like crop cultivation, animal rearing, trade, hunting, mining, blacksmithing and
gathering which were very important in this state. Raiding though important was just but one of
the various components of the Ndebele economic system and did not hold key to the survival of
the Ndebele against other branches of the economy.
-The Euro-centrists argue that the Ndebele were nomadic and therefore their economy was
solely a raiding economy. They also argue that the Ndebele never engaged in trade. Thus they
tried to depict the Ndebele as a lazy ethnic group that entirely depended on raiding for survival.
This colonial myth was however thrown out of the window [into the historical dust bin]
-Raiding though important was one of the various Ndebele economic activities. They raided the
Karanga, Kalanga, Venda and so on, for cattle, women and grain. It should be noted that raiding
was intense during in the early days of Ndebele settlement in the south western
Zimbabwe.Raiding was initially necessitated by the desire to build a powerful and secure state,
to ensure sufficient food supplies, to enlarge the state and to ensure political subservience by
locally incorporated people.Thus raiding was not only an economic activity but a political one as
well. Recurrent droughts also forced them to raid.Raiding was also done by the Ndebele as a
punitive measure inflicted upon stubborn chiefs, for instance, rogue chiefs like chief Chivi and
chief Nemakonde [Lomagundi] were raided by Lobengula for refusing to pay annual tribute. The
Ndebele also raided to replenish their cattle destroyed by the lung sickness epidemic. Hence
raiding was one of the various components of the Ndebele economy.
-However, it must be noted that after establishing themselves in Zimbabwe, the Ndebele also
engaged in other economic activities like livestock production which was very important in the
economy of this state.They kept large herds of cattle, goats and sheep. It should be noted that
cattle amongst the Ndebele were very important just as they were in other Nguni groups. They
acquired some cattle during their migration through raiding, while more were obtained from
the Rozvi and other Shona through tribute. They practised the transhumance system with cattle
being protected by both regiments and herders. Cattle were used for paying tribute, paying
fines, for paying lobola, for trade and they also provided met and milk. It should be realised that
during the 1896-7 uprising the loss of cattle was one of the major Ndebele grievances showing

that cattle were very important among the Ndebele. Thus the assertion that the Ndebele
economy was entirely dependent on raiding is mythical.
-In addition, crop cultivation was another main pillar of the Ndebele economy. They grew crops
like sorghum, millet, rapoko, maize, beans, pumpkins, melons, potatoes and peas. It should be
noted that the hoe remained the most important tool used for cultivation.It is however
believed that crop cultivation was not very popular among the Ndebele because the climatic
conditions in Matabeleland were not favourable for crop production. This implies that it was
mainly done by the absorbed Shona people. Both men and women were involved in crop
production. Men cleared the land and fenced fields while women largely cultivated fields. Each
settlement had a special king’s field which was harvested first and the produce given to the king
for his distribution to the poor and disadvantaged in society as well as to be eaten by visitors.
Hence the Euro-centric conception that the Ndebele economy was essentially a raiding
economy is a historical misnomer.
-Furthermore, trade was also very important among the Ndebele. Trade started soon after the
Ndebele settlement on the Zimbabwe plateau. They traded among themselves and with the
Karanga and Venda to obtain grain and other food stuffs. They also engaged in long distance
trade with the Portuguese and later on with the British. They obtained foreign goods like guns,
ammunition, clothes and beads, in return for cattle. Oftenly they used Shona middlemen in
trading transactions with the Portuguese. It should be noted that trade in ivory and the issuing
of hunting licences were the royal monopoly done by none other than the king. Hence the
Euro-centric myth that the Ndebele never engaged in trade and entirely depended on raiding is
a misrepresentation of history.
-Moreover, the Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities. They mined minerals
like gold, copper and iron. Gold was used for trading with the Portuguese and the British.
Copper was used for making jewellery, for instance, copper bangles. Iron was used for making
tools like mattocks, hoes, picks, axes and swords. Mining was mostly done in winter, after
harvest when people did not have much work in the fields. Thus mining was a seasonal activity.
Hence the Euro-centric view that the Ndebele economy was solely based on raiding is a
misconception.
-Further still, hunting and gathering were also done by the Ndebele. They hunted large animals
like buffaloes and even small species such as hares. They gathered wild fruits, insects and
mushroom. Thus like other pre-colonial states, the Ndebele supplemented their food [diet] by
hunting and gathering. Thus the colonial myth that the Ndebele economy was essentially a
raiding economy is discounted.
-More so, the Ndebele were also involved in a variety of craftwork. For instance, they did
weaving, basketry, pottery, wood and stone carving. Blacksmithing was also done in the
Ndebele state. One must realise that the Ndebele largely depended on the Shona for iron tools
and weapons because the Shona were experts [specialists] in that field. Some Shona were
absorbed into the Ndebele society specifically to produce iron tools for them, for instance, the
Njanja iron workers. Hence, the Euro-centric view that the Ndebele economy was solely a
raiding economy is a myth which must be thrown into the historical dustbin.
-In summation, the assertion that the Ndebele economy was solely a raiding economy is a
myth. This is because the Ndebele embarked on a plethora of economic activities like crop

production, animal rearing, mining and trade which were very important. Thus raiding though
important was just but one of the various economic activities practised by the Ndebele.
[7] ‘The Ndebele-missionary relations between 1850 and 1894 were characterised by both
friendship and hostility’. Discuss.
Pupils need to show aspects of cordiality and hostility between missionaries and the Ndebele.
Activities that reflect cordial relations in the early years
-The Ndebele welcomed missionary groups like the London Missionary Society and allowed
them to open mission stations such as Inyati [1859] and Hope Fountain [1870]. The Jesuits
opened a station at Empandeni.
-The Ndebele gave missionaries land to farm and build schools and churches.
Acts of Hospitality on the part of the missionaries
-They treated the sick people. For example, Lobengula was treated of gout.
-They inoculated cattle [African cattle].
-They acted as advisers, interpreters and they wrote the king’s letters.
-They taught the Ndebele the 3Rs [Reading, Writing and Arithmetic].
-They traded with the Ndebele. Trade normally thrives in a peaceful environment.
-They preached the word of God.
Sour relations / hostile relations
-The Ndebele king punished those who accepted Christianity. They were forced to migrate to
areas far away from mission stations.
-Some converts were killed.
-Missionary preaching and teachings attacked Ndebele practices like polygamy, raiding and the
caste system.
-For 30 years of missionary work no followers were found.
-Missionaries became agents of imperialism, for example, John Smith Moffat signed the Moffat
Treaty. Charles D Helm falsely interpreted the Rudd Concession. D Carnegie and Father
Prestage gave their blessings for the destruction of the Ndebele state in 1893. The Dominican
sisters were nurses for the volunteer army that invaded Matabeleland in 1893-4.
[7] ‘The Ndebele were a warlike society that ravaged, dislocated and dominated the Shona
after 1840’. How far do you agree with this view?
[7] How far do you agree with the assertion that the Ndebele were a warlike, blood thirsty
and raiding polity who dominated the Shona since the 1840s?
[7] ‘It has often been argued that the Ndebele-Shona relations in the 19th C were far from
cordial’. Discuss
[7] How accurate is view that nineteenth century Ndebele-Shona relations were largely
hostile?
[7] ‘The Shona-Ndebele relations in the nineteenth century were characterised by peaceful
co-existence’. Do you agree?
[7] How valid is the perspective that the Shona-Ndebele relations during the pre-colonial
period were perpetually hostile?
The Euro-centrists argued that the Ndebele-Shona relations during the 19th C were far from
cordial [hostile/ sour]. They argued that after establishing themselves in western Zimbabwe the
Ndebele raided every part of the country up until 1890s, they painted the Ndebele as blood
thirsty raiders and the Shona as vulnerable and helpless victims. They also argued that the

Ndebele were always at war against the Shona. However, this was a myth because the Ndebele-
Shona relations were cordial. For example, the Ndebele were not always at war against the
Shona as the Ndebele were preoccupied with their own security during their early days of their
settlement in Zimbabwe, not all Shona were raided by the Ndebele and the Shona were not
helpless victims of Ndebele raids as they also conducted counter raids.
-To start with, the Euro-centric historians argued that the Ndebele were a warlike society and
were always at war against the Shona right from the beginning. *However, this was a
misconception. This is because in the early stages of Ndebele settlement, that is, between 1840
and 1870, the Ndebele preoccupied with their own security such that they could not always
fight the Shona. Adventurers like Frederick Courtney Selous and some colonial agents also
depicted the Ndebele as warlike so as to glorify their lives and justify their colonisation of
Zimbabwe claiming to help the Shona who were viewed as weak, vulnerable and inexperienced
in war. Such myths attracted the attention of the British South Africa Company to prove
justification and their damnable cruel race for the colonisation of Zimbabwe. It is also the same
myth which gave a basis for the 1893 Anglo-Ndebele war and consequent destruction of the
Ndebele state.Hence the Ndebele-Shona relations during the 19th C were cordial.
-In addition, Euro-centrists argue that after establishing themselves in Western Zimbabwe the
Ndebele raided every part of the country up until 1890s. They also argue that the relationship
between the Ndebele and the Shona was that of a master [Ndebele] and servant
[Shona].*However, this was a misrepresentation of history. The reality is that the Ndebele had
exercised influence over a small area, that is, Matabeleland. More so, it should be noted that
not all Shona were raided by the Ndebele. Those Shona who lived furthest from the Ndebele,
for example, in places like Harare and Manicaland were hardly raided. Only those Shona in
places like Masvingo did experience occasional raids. Assimilated Shona were no longer raided.
Those Shona on the periphery of the Ndebele state were left alone on condition that they
respected the call by the Ndebele king to provide labour. Some areas in the east did not
experience raids from the Ndebele but rather from the Gaza-Nguni [Soshangane]. Hence to
argue that the Ndebele-Shona relations were far from cordial is a historical misnomer.
-Moreover, Euro-centric historians also painted the Ndebele as blood thirsty raiders and the
Shona as vulnerable and helpless victims.*However, this was a distortion of history. The truth is
that the Ndebele did raid the Shona and other peoples in certain places at certain times but not
out of sheer blood lust or even because it was essential to their economic system as has been
suggested incorrectly by Euro-centrists. Rather, the Ndebele raids were made for a variety of
reasons. The major targets of Ndebele raids were those chiefs who refused to pay tribute, for
example, rogue chiefs like chief Chivi and chief Nemakonde [Lomagundi] who were raided in
1891 forrefusing to pay annual tribute. Thus Shona chiefs freely paying tribute were spared.
Thus raiding was a punitive measure inflicted upon stubborn chiefs. In the early years of their
settlement in Zimbabwe, Ndebele raids were done to ensure poitical subservience of locally
incorporated groups.Ndebele raids especially in the 1860s were meant to replenish their cattle
destroyed by the lung sickness epidemic.They also raided for women [beautiful] and to
establish their hegemony through controlling payment of tribute in the areas. Thus it is not
correct to say that there were no raids at all. The Ndebele were also a minority group who were
trying to dominate a majority group, the Shona, so they needed to enlarge their military base to
maintain domination. Some historians argue that both Mzilikazi and Lobengula discouraged

haphazard raiding because it affected the kingdom by creating more rivals. Reprisals were a
form of trouble which was brought by raids. The Ndebele were well aware of the superior
numbers of the Lozi, Tswana and the Shona with their greater access to the Portuguese guns, so
they had to be treated carefully. Even where raids were executed it seems that those raided
suffered only limited losses, not surprisingly, as most Shona settlements were well fortified on
hill tops and the Ndebele were often operating in small parties far from home. Another reason
for raiding was that raiding was a practice commonto many African societies of that time, of
small communities banding together to raid others for women and livestock for their own
immediate profit. The Shona were however not backward in that respect and raided the
Ndebele as well as each other. Thus the Shona also conducted counter raids. This shows that
raiding was not monodirective.Hence the Shona were not just weak and helpless victims of
Ndebele raids as Euro-centrists claimed.
-To add on, contrary to the Euro-centric conception that the Ndebele-Shona relations were far
from cordial, the Ndebele were perfectly acceptable to the Shona. This is because there was
peaceful co-existence as was typified [exemplified] by military co-existence. Both the Ndebele
and the Shona fought against imperialist presence [the British] in the 1896-7 Chimurenga /
Umvukela. Thus the Ndebele-Shona relations have not been well presented by Euro-centrists.
-Furthermore, the Euro-centric documentation that the Ndebele-Shona relations were hostile
has been ruled out. This is because there was trade between the Ndebele and the Shona. The
Ndebele exchanged goods like cattle for grain, iron tools and the like with the Shona especially
those of Mwenezi to Munyati regions. Hence the relations between the Shona and the Ndebele
were cordial as trade would thrive in basically friendly relations.
*More so, the Euro-centric view that the Ndebele-Shona relations were sour has been thrown
into the historical dust bin. The reality is that there was peaceful co-existence between the two
groups. This was because both Mzilikazi and Lobengula entrusted [loaned] some Shona groups
with their cattle. These were accorded the right to milk the cattle and even to slaughter them
for meat. This explains why Gomora’s Shona people in Masvingo had Ndebele cattle which they
subsequently expropriated to pay a fine after cutting European telegraph wires. Hence there
was peaceful co-existence between the two groups.
-Further still, the Euro-centric claim that the relations between the Ndebele and the Shona
were hostile is a misrepresentation of history. This is because the Ndebele gave some Shona
specialist groups high respect, for instance, the Njanja iron workers of Mufure area who
produced iron tools for the Ndebele. Thus the Ndebele depended on the Shona for iron tools.
The Ndebele also depended on the Shona, especially those from Mberengwa for medicine
[muti / mushonga].Hence there was peaceful co-existence between the Ndebele and the
Shona.
-In a nutshell, the Euro-centrists argue that the Ndebele-Shona relations in the 19th C were
hostile [far from cordial]. This is however mythical. Rather the reality is that the Ndebele-Shona
relations were cordial.
[7] To what extent did the missionaries’ hatred of the Ndebele lead to the destruction of the
state?
Candidates need to examine the missionaries’ resentment to the Ndebele and their wish for the
destruction of the state as well as the role played by other factors.

-Missionary frustration emanated from their ‘thirty years of quarantine’ in Matabeleland which
yielded nothing [T O Ranger 1976 p36].
-This failure was blamed on Lobengula who was regarded as an obstacle to progress.
-They viewed Ndebele conservatism as a hindrance to civilisation, commerce and Christianity.
-They also resented the way they were sometimes exploited by the Ndebele kings for nothing,
for example, repairing guns and treating the sick.
-Missionaries naturally became supporters of C.J. Rhodes.
-Reverend D Carnegie, J. S. Moffat, Reverend C Helm and Reverend J Mackenzie all welcomed
Rhodes’ occupation of Mashonaland and Matabeleland.
-Missionaries were convinced that “the sword alone could Christianise the Ndebele native” only
after its destruction.
-This explain why missionaries like J. S. Moffat andC Helm worked as Rhodes’ agents in signing
treaties like Moffat Treaty[ February 1888] and the Rudd Concession [October 1888].
*However, there were other factors which also led to the fall of the Ndebele state, for instance,
Rhodes’ determination to overthrow the Ndebele State.
-Failure to find the Second Rand in Mashonaland led to the destruction of the Ndebele state.
-Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream led to the destruction of the Ndebele state.
-Rhodes’ desire to prevent other countries from colonising Zimbabwe led to the destruction of
the Ndebele state.
-The desire to control large herds of Ndebele cattle led to the destruction of the Ndebele state.
-European agents like traders and hunters led to the destruction of the Ndebele state.
MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN ZIMBABWE [1850-1900]
[8] Why did European missionaries found it difficult to penetrate Ndebele society between
1860 and 1900?
Pupils need to examine the reasons for the failure of missionary activities in Matabeleland.
-The missionaries failed to penetrate the Ndebele society because the Ndebele had a strong
religion and a centralised political system. They could not entirely give up their religion. They
saw no need to accept the new religion and to abandon their old one as this was believed to
anger Amadlozi. This explains why the few who were converted were put to death, for
example, Mangeba, Mzilikazi’s trusted Induna and a member of the Umphakathi was killed. He
had become so devoted to Christianity to the extent that he denounced some Ndebele customs
and values. This enraged Mzilikazi who went on to kill him. Even anyone who showed signs of
becoming friendly to them was removed and sent to another area far away from mission
stations.
-The suspicion the Ndebele had about the intentions of foreigners, especially whites led to the
failure of missionaries to penetrate Ndebele society. Missionaries were distrusted as they
preached against Ndebele customs, beliefs and practices such as infanticide [killing of twins],
polygamy, raiding and the caste system. Lobengula, for example, was not happy when the
missionaries attacked polygamy which was widely practised in Matabeleland. Their attack on
Ndebele raids upon the Shona groups was inexcusable. It was very normal for all missionaries to
attack African values, norms and customs as barbaric. It was believed that these teachings
could eventually undermine and destroy the Ndebele socio-political and economic organisation.
-The conservative nature of the Ndebele society led to the failure of missionaries to penetrate
the Ndebele society. The Ndebele were not willing to accept any change in their society. To

prevent missionaries from contaminating their society, the Ndebele imposed royal sanctions to
deny missionaries freedom of movement. Mzilikazi only allowed missionaries to preach to
people he occasionally gathered at his capital so that they listen to the sermons in his presence.
This frustrated European missionaries who thought of getting rid of Ndebele kings, whom they
considered to be dictators and greatest hindrances to the spread of Christianity in
Matabeleland.
-Opposition from African Traditional leaders led to the failure of missionaries to penetrate
Ndebele society. The missionary teaching was disliked by African rulers because it undermined
traditional authority. This explains why from the beginning both Mzilikazi and Lobengula
imposed some royal censorship on missionary activities. The two kings were particularly
uncomfortable with the teachings of missionaries especially that which stressed on equality of
all men and that there was only one king who was God. Thus both kings did not welcome
concession to Christianity because it would threaten kingship for the king was in charge of
traditional religion.
-Cultural arrogance of the Ndebele led to failure of missionary activities in Matabeleland. The
Ndebele valued their culture and were generally a closed society. They had no intention of
allowing missionaries to achieve influence. This explains why after 20 years of preaching at
Inyati, the London missionaries made only one convert, a leper who later died.
-The missionaries found it difficult to penetrate Ndebele society because the Ndebele kings did
not feel the need for literacy since the administration of the Ndebele state was efficient
without it. The Ndebele were thus different from Lewanika of the Lozi who wanted literacy to
improve the elaborate bureaucracy and who wanted to develop trade.
-Ndebele militarism led to the failure of missionary activities in Matabeleland.
-Communication problems led to the failure of missionaries to penetrate Ndebele society. This
was due to differences in languages as missionaries could not understand local languages and
so failed to put across their message. Hence it was not easy for missionaries to make converts.
-Some missionaries were inexperienced and tactless in dealing with the Ndebele. This was
largely because they did not know the structure of the Ndebele society.
[8] ‘A blessing and a curse at the same time’. Assess the validity of this assertion with
reference to the missionary activities in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900.
[8] To what extent were missionary activities in Zimbabwe beneficial between 1850 and 1900
The missionary activities in Zimbabwe were largely beneficial to the people of Zimbabwe. The
positive effects included treatment of the sick, inoculation of cattle, promoting trade, improving
agriculture, introduction of various skills as well as improvement of infrastructure.However, it
must be noted that the missionary activities in Zimbabwe also had some non-benefits.The
negative effects of missionary activities included causing divisions among the local people,
attacking African Traditional Religion and customs, writing negative reports about Zimbabwe
and working for concession seekers which led to the occupation of Zimbabwe. Thus the
assertion that the missionary activities in Zimbabwe were a blessing and a curse at the same
time is greatly valid.
-To start with, the missionary activities in Zimbabwe were largely beneficial to the people of
Zimbabwe, for example, there was treatment of the local people by missionaries. Most
missionaries had medical knowhow because they had to survive in an environment that was
disease prone. They therefore brought with them their medical kits. John Smith Moffat, for

example, used his medical kit to treat Lobengula who was suffering from gout. This treatment
of the local people caused happiness among the people of Zimbabwe. Hence the missionary
activities in Zimbabwe were beneficial.
-In addition, inoculation of African cattle by missionaries was another benefit to the local
people. When there was a cattle disease around 1860 missionaries were able to source
vaccines mainly from South Africa which they used to inoculate Ndebele cattle which could
have died. Since cattle were very important in the Ndebele economy, the inoculation of their
cattle by missionaries brought happiness among the Ndebele.Hence the presence of
missionaries in Zimbabwe was a blessing.
-More so, missionaries improved agriculture in Zimbabwe. There was lack of food they were
used to in Zimbabwe, so they had to produce their own food. They were forced to farm and
during the process of farming, they introduced new [modern] farming equipment like ploughs,
cultivators and sickles, they brought from South Africa. Later on they introduced the planter. In
addition the missionaries introduced new crops like vegetables and foreign fruits. This
improved agriculture and the diet of local people. Hence the missionary activities in Zimbabwe
were beneficial to the local people.
-Apart from this, missionaries introduced various trades and skills. These included building,
carpentry, needle work and many others. This helped in employment creation and made rural
economies more viable and self-sustaining. People therefore started self-help projects. Hence
the missionary activities in Zimbabwe were a blessing to the local people.
*However, it should be noted that the missionary activities in Zimbabwe also had some non-
benefits, for instance, the spread of Christianity by missionaries led to divisions among the local
people. The converted were given foreign goods so as to attract more converts. Those
converted were forced to attack their own culture. This sector looked down upon those who
were not converted.The traditionalists [those not converted], that is, the king and ordinary
likewise looked down upon the few converted like Mangeba, Mzilikazi’s most trusted Induna.
The converted were labeled as outcasts. Thus the society was sectorised into two. Thus the
spread of Christianity created division in an otherwise very united-state. Hence missionary
activities in Zimbabwe were also a curse.
-Further still, missionaries attacked African Traditional customs, norms and values. It was very
normal for all missionaries to attack African customs, values and norms as barbaric. This was
expressed in many ways, for example, any convert was to take a European name. They also
attacked Ndebele traditional customs like Motontiso. Thomas Morgan Thomas, for instance,
influenced the converts not to honour it. Africans were asked to adopt white values because
they were seen as superior, civilised and more human than African ones. Hence missionary
activities in Zimbabwe were also a curse.
-More so, the missionaries wrote negative reports about Zimbabwe. Thomas Morgan Thomas,
for example, wrote a number of articles to the international press portraying the Ndebele state
and monarchy as blood thirsty and also as objects that retarded the spreading of civilisation
and the gospel into the area between Zambezi and Limpopo. It was such demonisation of the
Ndebele which Rhodes used to justify himself for taking the Ndebele nation. Hence the
missionaries were also a curse to Zimbabweans.
-Lastly, missionaries assisted in the colonisation of Zimbabwe. The missionaries left missionary
work to be employed by concession companies. This was the case with the London Missionary

Society whose members were paid agents of the BSAC. They worked against the local people as
interpreters and witnesses and misinformed African rulers about the realities of colonisation. C
D Helm and J S Moffat brought the real curse to the Ndebele. J S Moffat for example, took
advantage of the traditional family friendship between the Moffats and the Khumalos to
mislead Lobengula to accept signing the Moffat treaty [February 1888] which excluded
concession seekers, hunters and traders from other European nations. This treaty literally
bound Lobengula to the British. It was this treaty that Rhodes used to sign the Rudd Concession
using Charles Helm, whose terms were expressed in a language that amounted to sheer
cheating of Lobengula into giving away not only his mineral rights but his country. Hence the
missionary activities in Zimbabwe also were a curse.
[8] Assess the role played by missionaries, hunters, traders and concession seekers in the
colonisation of the Ndebele and the Shona [Zimbabwe].
Missionaries, hunters, traders and concession seekers played a fundamental role in promoting
the colonisation of the Ndebele and the Shona. They came to Matabeleland and Mashonaland
between 1850 and 1900. The activities of each group complemented that of the others.
-Missionaries like Robert Moffat paved way for the colonisation of Zimbabwe, for example,
when he negotiated with Mzilikazi and opened a mission station at Inyati in 1859. John Smith
Moffat, Robert Moffat’s son was in charge of the new station. In 1870, Charles Helm was in
charge of the new station at Hope Fountain. These stations accommodated those whites who
came into the interior [concession seekers].
-These missionaries sent reports to Europeans in Europe and South Africa about the riches in
Zimbabwe [Matabeleland and Mashonaland]. In other words, they published economic
prospects of Zimbabwe to their countries thereby generating interest in colonial conquest. This
helped in luring their home governments to have the desire to colonise Zimbabwe.
-Later on as paid agents of imperialism missionaries like John Smith Moffat were involved in the
negotiations and signing of the Moffat Treaty [February 1888] which placed Matabeleland
under the British sphere of influence and circumscribed Lobengula’s power in foreign policy
issues. J S Moffat fully exploited ‘old family ties’ with Ndebele royalty. J S Moffat and Charles
Helm were also involved in the signing of the Rudd Concession [October 1888]. Helm portrayed
Rhodes as a trustworthy and reliable man. This concession gave Rhodes complete mineral
rights and full powers to procure them in Lobengula’s territory. It was on the basis of the Rudd
Concession that the British granted Rhodes a charter for the colonisation of Zimbabwe .They
also used psychological pressure on Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession by constantly telling
him how terrible other negotiating groups were, for example, the Boers who had signed the
Grobbler Treaty [1887] with Lobengula. They misinterpreted treaties as they were used as
communication links between the ruler and concession seekers.
-Missionaries invited their governments to destroy the Ndebele state after failing to get
converts. Missionaries like Robert Moffat and John Smith Moffat sent treacherous reports
regarding the Ndebele as a ‘miserable people’ and for them “it will be a blessing to the world
when they [the Ndebele] are broken up”. Neither Mzilikazi nor Lobengula knew this.
-The missionaries published pagan practices by Africans which needed the attention of
European governments.
-The missionaries invited their governments to end slavery in Zimbabwe.
-All this justifies the phrase, ‘The flag followed the cross’.

-A number of European hunters came to Zimbabwe. They hunted game, especially elephants
for ivory. These hunters included Martinus Swartz, Henry Hartley, John Lee, Jan Viljoen, Piet
Jacobs and Frederick Courtney Selous. They were mainly interested in ivory, a commodity that
was in high demand in Europe. Hunters such as F C Selous came to the area to hunt going as far
as Mt Darwin. These hunters spied on the territory and sent back reports on how wild game
was abundant in the Ndebele and Shona areas. The hunters also spoke favourably of the
mineral prospects after discovering gold 70 miles south-west of present day Harare while
Selous even cut a road between Mashonaland and Matabeleland [Hunters’ road] to facilitate
transportation of ivory.This generated interest in colonial conquest of the Zimbabwe plateau.
-Eventually, F C Selous acted as a paid agent of imperialism [British imperialism] by guiding
Rhodes’ pioneer column as it trekked in from South Africa to assume control of Mashonaland
on behalf of Britain.
-Traders such as George Westbeech, interested in gold also journed into the interior as far as
Lewanika’s territory north of the Zambezi River.Some of the traders were Sam Edwards, Joseph
MacCabe, George Philips and Karl Mauch, who was also a geologist.These traders spread
rumours about the abundance of gold in the area leading to suggestions that there could
actually be a ‘second rand’ in Zimbabwe. This stimulated the interest of the people like Cecil
John Rhodes in the Ndebele and Shona territories.
-From the information [exaggerations] disseminated by missionaries, hunters, traders and
concession seekers came to Lobengula’s capital in large numbers. These included Piet Grobbler,
Sir Sydney Shippard, Edward Lippert, Maund, Swinburne, Thomas Baines and Charles Rudd. All
these Europeans entered the country from South Africa using what came to be called the
‘missionary road to the north’. Their presence at the king’s capital created confusion. Eventually
feeling threatened, Lobengula bowed down to missionary pressure and signed treaties like the
Moffat treaty and Rudd Concession which led to the colonisation of Zimbabwe by the British.
*It should be noted that it were the missionaries, traders, hunters, travellers as well as
concession seekers who popularised the interior. Thus the colonisation of Zimbabwe owed a lot
to the beliefs of abundant economic resourcesand the various concessions obtained from the
African rulers.Without them, Zimbabwe could have been hardly known. Most of these were
degradadoes [social misfits at home] and this explains why most of their accounts were not
fully authentic [they were not trained].
[8] How far do you agree with the view that Christian missionaries were forerunners of
colonial conquest and rule in Zimbabwe?
[8] Discuss the role played by Christian missionaries in the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
[8]Comment on the view that the missionaries were primarily responsible for the colonial
occupation of Zimbabwe.
[8] To what extent can the missionaries be held responsible for the colonisation of
Zimbabwe?
Pupils need to examine the role played by missionaries as well as other factors in triggering the
colonisation of Zimbabwe.
Role of missionaries
-They played a role of pacifying and dividing the local population.
-They demonised the Ndebele society. They published pagan practices of the Ndebele.

-They facilitated and participated in the signing of the fraudulent treaties such as the Rudd
Concession.
-The sent reports to their mother countries about the riches in Zimbabwe.
-They built mission stations which later on accommodated concession seekers.
-They invited their governments to destroy the Ndebele state after failing to get converts.
Role of other factors
-The colonisation of Zimbabwe was part of a wave European imperialism.
-The Berlin Conference of 1884 led to the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
-Cecil John Rhodes engineered the process in his bid to achieve the ‘Cape to Cairo dream’.
-Hunters, traders, prospectors, explorers, travellers as well as concession seekers also played a
role in the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
-Lobengula and his Indunas, Lotshe and Sikombo also facilitated the process.
THE OCCUPATION [COLONISATION] OF ZIMBABWE BY THE BRITISH
[8] To what extent was the colonial occupation of Zimbabwe by 1890 caused by economic
factors?
The economic factors contributed greatly to the colonial occupation of Zimbabwe. These
economic factors included the belief by the whites that Zimbabwe was the second rand, the
need for raw materials, the need for markets and the need to invest in Zimbabwe. However, it
must be noted that there were other factors which also led to the colonisation of Zimbabwe,
for instance, the need to civilise Africans, Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream and Rhodes’ desire to
encircle the Transvaal.
-To start with, the economic factors contributed largely to the colonisation of Zimbabwe, for
example, there was the belief by the British that Zimbabwe was the second rand. The British
believed that Zimbabwe was built on a hill full of gold. Gold was discovered in 1886 in Transvaal
and rumours of more gold north of the Limpopo stimulated European interest in Zimbabwe.
Rhodes believed that the gold belt stretched from Transvaal into Zimbabwe and sohe wanted to
control it. Hunters, traders and missionaries had spread the rumour that there was a second
rand in Zimbabwe.I Mandaza argued that Southern Rhodesia was colonised by the British
because of the belief held vigorously towards the end of the 19thC that it was a second rand,
with enormous reserves of gold and other precious metals. Rhodes therefore directed his
efforts to the fulfillment of the rumour that there was a bigger rand in the area across the
Limpopo occupied by the Shona and the Ndebele.Hence the economic factors made the
occupation of Zimbabwe inevitable.
-In addition, the need for raw materials in Zimbabwe by the British led to the colonisation of
Zimbabwe. Due to the industrial revolution in Europe, there was need for areas where cheap
raw materials could be obtained. To get cheap raw materials, there was need to create colonial
empires. No one can doubt that Zimbabwe was a victim of colonisation by Britain because there
was cheap gold, land, timber and labour in Zimbabwe. Hunters, traders, missionaries and
explorers had spread rumours of the availability of game, especially elephants for ivory, gold
and timber in Zimbabwe. Hence since the British were industrialists, the colonial occupation of
Zimbabwe was unavoidable.
-Furthermore, the need for markets by the British goods led to the occupation of Zimbabwe.
Due to the industrial revolution in Britain there was overproduction of goods which was
accompanied by under consumption of those goods. As a result, there was need by the British

to look for ready markets somewhere. Zimbabwe promised to be a new market for the
products produced in European industries and for Rhodes occupying Zimbabwe would help him
to achieve this process. Hence the colonial occupation of Zimbabwe was largely due to
economic factors.
-Moreover, the need to invest surplus capital by the British led to the colonisation of
Zimbabwe. Due to the industrial revolution in Europe the British industrialists acquired large
amounts of money. As a result, the British industrialists wanted to invest their surplus capital in
Zimbabwe because they did not want their money to remain idle. They wanted to invest their
surplus capital so as to get more and more profits. Zimbabwe was thus seen by the British as a
place for future economic investment. Hence given such a scenario, one cannot hesitate to
argue the economic factors played a pivotal role in the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
-Further still, the need for cheap labour in Zimbabwe by the British led to the occupation of
Zimbabwe.
-To add on, the colonisation of Zimbabwe was also due to the desire by the British to control
large herds of Ndebele cattle.
-More so, the need for fertile land in Zimbabwe by the British also led to the colonial
occupation of Zimbabwe.
*However, it must be noted that there were other factors which also led to the colonisation of
Zimbabwe, for instance, Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream. Rhodes was an avowed imperialist and a
dreamer. His ambitions were to set up a chain of British colonies [territories] from Cape [South
Africa] to Cairo [Egypt] linked by a railway line.Zimbabwe was along this belt of British
territories and was not an exception. Hence the colonisation of Zimbabwe was inevitable.
-In addition, Rhodes’ desire to encircle the Transvaal [Boers] led to the colonisation of
Zimbabwe. The Boers [Transvaalers] wanted to expand northwards [occupying Zimbabwe] as it
was their only outlet. This was because the British had occupied Botswana [Bechuanaland] and
the Portuguese had occupied Portuguese East Africa [Mozambique]. The British and the Boers
were thus competing for control of Zimbabwe. This was shown by the signing of the Grobler
Treaty by the Boers in 1887and the signing of the Moffat Treaty by the British in 1888. Hence
Rhodes was determination to encircle the Transvaal led to the occupation of Zimbabwe.
-Rhodes’ desire to prevent other countries from colonising Zimbabwe led to the occupation of
Zimbabwe. Apart from the Boers, there were other Europeans who were also interested in
occupying Zimbabwe. For instance, the Germans wanted to expand eastwards as they had
occupied Namibia [German South West Africa] and the Portuguese who wanted to join
Portuguese East Africa [Mozambique] with Portuguese West Africa [Angola]. This would
frustrate [hinder] against the formation of Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo British belt of colonies. Hence
the occupation of Zimbabwe by the British was inevitable as the Boers, Portuguese and
Germans posed threats to Rhodes’ dream of creating a Cape to Cairo British Empire.
-Further still, the Berlin Conference [1884-5] led to the occupation of Zimbabwe. The doctrine
of effective occupation at Berlin suggests that a country would freely occupy its colony
effectively and no country would fly over others’ sphere of influence. This gave Rhodes the go
ahead to occupy Zimbabwe. The conference came up with the decision that any European
power interested in any African areas should take steps to establish effective occupation. It
should be noted that prior to the Berlin Conference there was little or no rush by European
nations to carve portions of land in Africa. However, after the Berlin Conference the entire

African continent except Ethiopia and Liberia had been sliced into spheres of colonies by
European powers. To this trend of events, Zimbabwe was no exception. Therefore, the principle
of effective occupation made the occupation of Zimbabwe inevitable.
-Lastly, the need to civilise Africans led to the colonisation of Zimbabwe by the British. The
Europeans thus wanted to tame the African ‘jungle’, to spread Christianity and education to the
‘Dark Continent’ of Africa. Rhodes who believed in British superiority thought that it was the
British responsibility to civilise the so called Dark Continent and Zimbabwe was not an
exception. The desire to spread Christianity in Zimbabwe was one of the factors which were
important in Rhodes’ colonial plans. The reports of missionaries who were in Lobengula’s
kingdom portrayed a picture of barbaric people who were opposed to the spread of
Christianity. There was a general perception that the civilization of Africa was a Whiteman’s
burden. Rhodes believed that the more the British occupied the better for the entire world and
human race. Hence the need to civilise Africans also led to the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
-In conclusion, the colonial occupation of Zimbabwe in 1890 by the British was largely due to
economic reasons. However, there were other factors which were also responsible for the
colonisation of Zimbabwe though to a lesser extent.
[8] Examine the view that Cecil John Rhodes’ colonial plans on the Zimbabwean plateau were
based on exaggerated accounts of its economic resources.
Pupils need to examine the role played by the myth of the existence of economic resources in
the colonisation of Zimbabwe as well as other factors.
-The rumour of the existence of even a better rand in the north of the Limpopo was certainly
something that Rhodes wanted to hear in order to satisfy his imperialistic fervor. C J Rhodes
was never been to Zimbabwe but he relied on various accounts of his agents who interacted
with the Ndebele and undertook general exploration of Zimbabwe. The rumour of abundance
of minerals played a vital role in accentuating Rhodes’ quest to colonise Zimbabwe. The
unfortunate case in Zimbabwe is that the various missionaries, hunters and explorers who
visited Zimbabwe turned myth and presented it as reality. They spread the rumour of the
existence of the second rand in Zimbabwe.
-The colonisation of Zimbabwe was also due to industrialisation in Europe. There was need for
raw materials like timber, gold and ivory to support industrialisation. Hunters had spread
rumours of the availability of game, especially elephants for ivory. Traders had also spread
rumours about the abundance of gold.
-The competition which arose in Europe due to industrialisation called for the creation of new
markets. Zimbabwe promised to be a new market for the products produced in European
industries and for Rhodes occupying Zimbabwe would help him achieve this process.
-The need for fertile soils by Rhodes also caused the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
*Although exaggerated accounts of Zimbabwe’s economic resources played a pivotal role in
colonial plans of Rhodes, there are also other factors which influenced Rhodes’ decision to
colonise Zimbabwe. For instance, the Zimbabwe plateau had good climatic conditions which
were favourable for agricultural activities. Furthermore, Rhodes was diagnosed with a hole in
his heart and he needed tropical weather for his health.
-The desire to spread Christianity was one of the factors which were important in Rhodes’
colonial plans. There was a general perception that the civilisation of Africans was a
Whiteman’s burden. The reports of missionaries who were in Lobengula’s kingdom portrayed a

picture of barbaric people who were opposed to the spread of Christianity. The colonisation of
Zimbabwe would therefore entail the dismantling of the Ndebele superstructure.
-Rhodes’ belief in racial superiority of Britain was very vital in the occupation of Zimbabwe. He
believed that the more the British occupied the better for the entire world and human race.
Thus Rhodes’ plans were not only motivated by economic factors.
-The doctrine of effective occupation at Berlin Conference accelerated the pace of colonisation
of Africa. Zimbabwe was not spared and Rhodes had significant interest in establishing his
hegemony on Zimbabwe.
-There were several threats from Boer, Portuguese and German imperialism to Rhodes’ dream
of building a railway line from Cape to Cairo. With such threats the considerations were not just
economic, but they were premised on the reality and prospect of actually occupying Zimbabwe.
It is this same pressure which prompted the signing of the Rudd Concession which Rhodes used
to obtain the Royal Charter which gave him the permission to occupy Zimbabwe on behalf of
the British government.
[8] Comment on the view that Cecil John Rhodes played a central role in the colonisation of
Zimbabwe.
Pupils need to assess the role played by Rhodes and other key personalities in the occupation of
Zimbabwe.
Role played by Rhodes
-Rhodes had a desire to paint the whole of Africa red. He wanted to occupy Africa from Cape to
Cairo.
-He used his personal fortune for the colonisation of Zimbabwe as the colonial office was not
interested, fearing to burden tax payers.
-Rhodes sent J S Moffat to cancel the Grobbler Treaty of 1887 [signed between Lobengula and
Boers] and acquire a treaty for Britain [the Moffat Treaty] which excluded other players.
-He signed the Rudd Concession and obtained the Charter which gave him the permission to
occupy Zimbabwe.
-Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession.
-He formed the British South Africa Company.
-He recruited the pioneer column
Other important players
-Missionaries like Charles Helm and J S Moffat played a role in the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
-Chief Khama of Bechuanaland also played an important role in the colonisation of Zimbabwe
because he provided Ngwato mercenaries.
-Indunas like Lotshe and Sikombo persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
-Hunters like F C Selous who led the way [guided the pioneer column] were also important.
-Lobengula’s reaction also led to the occupation of Zimbabwe. He restricted the Amajaha who
wanted direct confrontation with the whites.
[8] Examine the motives behind Cecil John Rhodes’ colonisation of Zimbabwe and assess the
part played by his agents during the occupation of the country.
Pupils need to examine Rhodes’ aims in colonising Zimbabwe as well as the role played by his
agents.
Rhodes’ aims [ambitions or motives]
-He wanted to encircle the Transvaal.

-He wanted to prevent other countries from colonising Zimbabwe.
-He wanted to occupy Africa from Cape to Cairo-Zimbabwe was along the way.
-He wanted to exploit minerals [second rand] in Zimbabwe.
-He wanted raw materials like gold, ivory and timber in Zimbabwe
-There was need for markets
-Rhodes had a desire to seize Ndebele cattle
-There was need for investment
-There was also need for fertile land
-The need to civilise Africans
-The need to spread Christianity
-Good climatic conditions in Zimbabwe
-Rhodes occupied Zimbabwe for prestige
Role played by his agents
-Role played by missionaries like C D Helm, R Moffat and J S Moffat
-Role played by concession seekers like Charles Rudd
-Hunters like F C Selous also led to the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
-Role played by traders like Henry Hartley
[8] ‘The principle of “effective occupation” adopted by European powers at the Berlin
Conference and not the Rudd Concession [1888] made the occupation of Zimbabwe
inevitable’. Discuss.
[8] Examine the view that the Berlin Conference of 1884-5 rather than the Rudd Concession
made the occupation of Zimbabwe inevitable.
Pupils need to examine the impact of the Berlin Conference and the Rudd Concession on the
-Resolutions at Berlin caused pressure on concession seekers and later led to the rush for
Lobengula’s signature include
-The intention to occupy an area was to be made clear.
-There was to be effective occupation of territories.
-There was to be signing of treaties and publicising them in newspapers to avoid clashes over
the same territory.
-Lobengula signed the following treaties before the Rudd Concession, the Moffat Treaty and the
Grobbler Treaty. The Moffat Treaty limited Lobengula’s decision-making power in foreign
policy. It excluded other players.
-Other powers were kept out after the publicity of the Rudd Concession.
-There was signing of the Lippert Concession which was bought by Rhodes.
-There was formation of the BSAC and there was the pioneer column.
-Lobengula’s efforts to repudiate the Rudd Concession were ignored.
-Rhodes was granted the Royal Charter by the British government.
[8] ‘The occupation of Zimbabwe by the British was inevitable and the Rudd Concession of
1888 merely facilitated the process’. Discuss.
Pupils need to examine the events which preceded the occupation of Zimbabwe and show how
these events pointed towards eventual occupation.
Events and factors

-By 1880 many European visitors like hunters, traders, prospectors and missionaries who had
been to Zimbabwe gave favourable [positive] reports to Europeans both in Europe and South
Africa about the abundance of resources like game, ivory and gold in Zimbabwe. They spied for
their imperial nations. This stimulated interest in colonial conquest By Europeans.
-The 1884-5 Berlin Conference came up with the decision that any European power interested
in any African areas should take steps to establish effective occupation. This further
necessitated the need to establish a stronghold over Zimbabwe.
-The discovery of gold in 1886 in the Transvaal and rumours of more gold north of the Limpopo
River stimulated European interest in Zimbabwe. Several European countries developed
significant interest in Zimbabwe and they desired to have it under their dominion.
-Rhodes’ imperial vision of the Cape to Cairo British belt of colonies led to the occupation of
Zimbabwe. Rhodes wanted to occupy Africa from Cape [South Africa] to Cairo [Egypt] and link
them with a railway line. Zimbabwe fell in the way of his dream hence its occupation by the
British was unavoidable.
-The rise of Rhodes in South Africa both as an economic giant and a political force in the 1880s
made the occupation of Zimbabwe inevitable.
-In his bid to execute the Cape to Cairo dream, Rhodes put in motion well calculated and
orchestrated machinery through treaties and diplomacy.
-In order to secure his interests in Zimbabwe, Rhodes convinced the British government to
establish a protectorate over Botswana. The purpose of this establishment was to hold possible
German expansion eastwards.
-In 1887 the Grobler Treaty was signed between Lobengula and the Transvaal. It was a
friendship treaty. It marked the beginning of treaties which eventually led to the occupation of
Zimbabwe. After the Grobler Treaty, the British signed the Moffat Treaty [February 1888]
[which excluded other players and restricted Lobengula from entering into any other
agreement] and the Rudd Concession [October 1888]. The Rudd Concession was meant to
reserve the area [Zimbabwe] for British influence and it eventually led to the occupation of
Zimbabwe. These two treaties also forestalled Boer ambitions north of the Limpopo.
-The 1888 visits to Lobengula by Boers, Portuguese and the rivals of Rhodes wanting him to
revoke the Rudd Concession created insecurity on the part of Rhodes. This forced Rhodes to
quickly seek the Royal Charter [1889] and to occupy Zimbabwe [1890].
Analysis
-Lobengula welcomed Europeans such as hunters, missionaries, traders and prospectors. He
also received gifts from them but they in turn spread news about the riches of the country.
Such awareness attracted the attention of business people like C J Rhodes.
-Lobengula signed many treaties which brought about the occupation of Zimbabwe. Despite the
fact that he was not conversant with the language in terms of which treaties were signed he
proceeded to commit himself to the agreements. Lobengula was not literate in the European
sense and did not understand the implications of the terms given in the treaties.
-There was no competency on the part of Lobengula on how to handle international diplomacy
yet he proceeded to sign the Rudd Concession which was eventually open to many
interpretations. The colonialists fooled Lobengula into believing that he was safeguarding his
state. Thus his limited knowledge and comprehension of international diplomacy was exploited
by imperialists, for example, interpreters of the Rudd Concession. The British imperialists even

went to the extent of using psychological pressure on Lobengula. He was told about how bad
the other groups were and the need for him to sign the treaties with the British who were
‘friendly’. This then made Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession thinking he was doing his
kingdom a favour. Lobengula was clearly let down by the people he trusted most. Corrupt
officers like Lotshe Hlabangana and Sikombo Mguni were bribed by the British to persuade
Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
-Lobengula was ill-advised. He trusted the wrong people, for example, C Helm and J S Moffat
who were paid agents of the occupation forces.
-Lobengula showed fear when he prevented the Ndebele army [Amajaha] from removing all
whites who were coming to his capital. The fear was due to the fact that the whites had
advanced weapons yet the Ndebele had spears. Attacking whites would have accelerated the
pace of occupation as the whites would have found an excuse for attacking the Ndebele state.
-Dishonesty of British imperialists and their determination meant occupation would come one
way or another. It was inevitable whether or not there was a Rudd Concession. Zimbabwe was
still going to be colonised by the British or any other group which could have established the
stronghold. Rhodes was well aware of this fact and this explains why he employed various
strategies. He knew that if he did not occupy Zimbabwe some other European country would
occupy it and this explains the speed with which he moved for the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
-The Rudd Concession did not change much the fate of Zimbabwe. Assuming the British wanted
to go the strict rule, the Rudd Concession for all intense purposes did not qualify to be a valid
agreement as there was no meeting of minds and it was fraudulently entered into. The British
knowing very well the illegality of the document still proceeded to move into Zimbabwe and
were well aware of the protests which Lobengula had against the Rudd Concession but they still
proceeded to occupy Zimbabwe. It is therefore clear that the occupation of Zimbabwe was
inevitable. The British knew very well that Lobengula was not the king of the whole of
Zimbabwe, as there were several other chiefs throughout Zimbabwe who were in power and
whatever agreement they entered into was not supposed to affect the Ndebele state but the
opposite happened. This simply demonstrates the vigour and the determination the British had
to colonise Zimbabwe whether or not the Rudd Concession was there. The Rudd Concession
simply gave the British an excuse to colonise Zimbabwe and not even a cognisable legal basis
for its occupation.
[8] How far was the colonisation of Zimbabwe a result of a clash of interests between Cecil
John Rhodes and king Lobengula?
Pupils need to examine the role played by conflicting interests between Rhodes and Lobengula
in the colonisation of Zimbabwe as well as the role of other factors.
#C J Rhodes was an advocate of British imperialism.
-He wanted to have his Cape to Cairo dream realised.
-He embarked on the following to achieve his goals
-He persuaded the British High Commissioner at the Cape and sent J S Moffat to Gobulawayo to
have the Grobler Treaty dropped. He signed the Moffat Treaty which excluded other players.
-He sent his own mission [Charles Rudd, Francis Thompson and Rochfort Maguire] to negotiate
a mineral treaty with Lobengula.
-He used the mineral concession to obtain the Royal Charter.
-He sent Jameson to Lobengula to sign the Jameson Treaty.

-He recruited volunteers [pioneers] to invade Mashonaland.
-He welcomed the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war [1893-4] that completed the colonisation
of Zimbabwe.
#On the other hand, Lobengula tried his best to prevent the takeover of the country.
-He welcomed hunters, traders and missionaries in good faith.
-He received presents from them which he reciprocated with generous treatment and grants of
mission and hunting grounds.
-Some of these Borgseens began to spread news about the riches of the country.
-He signed treaties without full knowledge of their consequences.
-He restrained his army from attacking the pioneers.
-He was ill-advised and trusted wrong people some of whom were paid agents of C J Rhodes.
-He had limited knowledge of international diplomacy.
*All this resulted in the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
Areas of conflict
-The boundary question
-Conflict over control [ownership] of the Shona
-Control of land
-Construction of a railway line past Matabeleland
-Existence of the second rand
Other factors
-The Berlin Conference [1884-5]-doctrine of effective occupation
-Climatic conditions
-Clash between Rhodes and Germans as well as Portuguese
-Competition between Boers and Rhodes
[8] How far do you agree with the assertion that the Rudd Concession signed by king
Lobengula in October 1888 was a fraudulent agreement?
[8] ‘The Rudd Concession of 1888 was a fake’ Discuss
Pupils need to examine the Rudd Concession with a view to ascertain the validity of the
statement.
Reasons to show that Lobengula was cheated in the signing of the Rudd Concession
-Use of acquaintances by Rhodes is enough testimony that Lobengula was cheated. In the
signing of the Rudd Concession, Rhodes involved missionaries like J S Moffat and Charles Helm
who were well known by Lobengula. Lobengula trusted these missionaries not knowing that
they were used as agents of imperialism by Rhodes and wanted to see the destruction of the
Ndebele state. They pretended not to be taking sides.
-Indiscriminate use of bribes by Rhodes shows that Lobengula was a victim of calculated
deception. Rhodes bribed C Helm to persuade Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession. Francis
Thompson also bribed Lotshe, one of Lobengula’s most trusted Indunas to persuade Lobengula
to sign the Rudd Concession. Lotshe was promised 300 gold sovereigns if he persuaded
Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession which he did. This explains why Lobengula after signing
the Rudd Concession killed Lotshe.
-The actual personalities involved in the negotiations showed that Lobengula was cheated. This
is because the Rudd team was made up of intellectual giants who had ventured into various
works of life, battle hardened men and were economic heavyweights who could trick anyone.

-The repudiation of the Rudd Concession by Lobengula is a clear indication that he was cheated.
When some concession seekers told Lobengula that he had sold the country, Lobengula soon
sent indunas [Umshete and Babeyane] to the British Queen to inform her that he had not given
anybody the right to do anything in his country. The Queen replied that, “A king gives a stranger
an ox, not his whole herd of cattle”. This implies that Lobengula had given too much and had
already sold the country. Thus Lobengula’s actions after signing the Rudd concession show that
he was cheated. T N Rushwaya states that, “According to the international law, the Rudd
Concession was a fraud”. This was because Lobengula later queried.
-The sneaking of Francis Thompson during the night shows that Lobengula was cheated. The
Rudd team quickly rode off after signing the treaty leaving Thompson behind who sneaked
during the night. If the treaty was genuine, Thompson should not have left the state in that way
-C J Rhodes’s actions after signing the treaty show that Lobengula was cheated. For example,
after receiving the document, Rhodes quickly went to Britain to seek permission to occupy
Zimbabwe. He obtained the Royal Charter in October 1888. Rhodes also delayed Lobengula’s
emissaries or envoys [Umshete and Babeyane] to the queen.
-The specialised language of the Rudd Concession shows that Lobengula was cheated. It was
signed using legal language which Lobengula could not understand. Lobengula did not even
understand the English language which was used.
Reasons to show that Lobengula desired partnership with the British
-Lobengula signed the Rudd Concession on his will. He wanted to buy time and play the whites
against each other by signing treaties. This explains why treaties were in successions, for
example, Grobler Treaty [1887], Moffat Treaty [Feb 1888] and Rudd Concession [October 1888].
It was only after his diplomacy failed that he claimed that he was cheated. For D Chanaiwa,
Lobengula’s diplomatic resistance apparently worked effectively until 1888. From 1870 to 1888,
Lobengula like Cetshwayo of the Zulu, consistently and successfully pursued a well formulated
diplomatic strategy to protect the vital interests of the Ndebele nation.
-Lobengula’s desire to be protected by the British drove him into signing the Rudd Concession.
Lobengula wanted to be protected from his enemies like Lewanika of Barotseland and Khama of
Bechuanaland. Thus it was fear of his neighbours which forced him to sign this treaty. The Boers
had already signed a treaty with Lobengula in 1887 [Grobler Treaty].
-The military clause of the Rudd Concession had a magnetic effect on Lobengula. According to
the Rudd Concession, any white miners engaged in mining in Zimbabwe could have to fight and
defend the country under Ndebele command if requested. More so, Lobengula was promised a
gunboat which was to be placed on the Zambezi River for defence against possible raids from
Lewanika. All this was advantageous to Lobengula hence he signed the treaty.
-Lobengula signed the treaty without a clear understanding of its future implications. Thus it
was illiteracy which contributed much to the occupation of Zimbabwe. He unknowingly gave
the British the authority to do all things they deem necessary [to win and procure the same] to
promote their economic activities. This meant that Rhodes could bring in machinery, recruit
labourers, levy taxes and could even force locals to work in the mines. Literally Rhodes had
permission to do anything he believed was necessary in his search for minerals.
-Lobengula signed the Rudd Concession when he was sick. Agreements signed by sick people
are not viable [axiom].
-The police drill had a psychological impact.

ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR / 1893-4 WAR OF DISPOSSESSION
[8] Critically examine the causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893.
[8] What led to the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893-4 between the Ndebele and the British South
Africa Company [BSAC]?
Pupils need to analyse the causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war
Long term causes
-The boundary question caused the 1893-4 war.
-The dispute over ownership of the Shona caused this war.
-Failure to find gold in Mashonaland made the whites to anticipate that the second rand was in
Matabeleland.
-The desire to seize Ndebele cattle caused the 1893-4 war.
-Settlers’ resolution that there would be no peace in the area unless the Ndebele were crushed
caused the war.
-Refusal by some Shona chiefs like Chivi [1891] and Nemakonde [1891] to pay tribute
Short term causes
-The murder of Lobengula’s emissaries is another cause of the Anglo-Ndebele War.
-The Victoria incidents caused the 1893 war. These are cases involving chiefs like Gomora
[1893] and Bere [1893]
[8] Assess the developments from 1890 up to 1893 which inevitably led to the Anglo-Ndebele
war.
Pupils need to examine the causes of the 1893 Anglo-Ndebele war with a view to demonstrate
that war became increasingly unavoidable.
-Dispute over ownership of the Shona
-Refusal by some Shona chiefs [chief Chivi and chief Nemakonde] to pay tribute to Lobengula
-The murder of Lobengula’s emissaries / messengers
-Settlers’ resolution that there would be no peace in the area unless the Ndebele were crushed
-The failure to find gold in Mashonaland made the whites to assume that the second rand was
in Matabeleland.
[8] Discuss the view that the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893-4 was unavoidable.
Pupils need to analyse the causes of the 1893 War with a view to determine whether it was
avoidable or not. Candidates may focus on the following causes.
-The Rudd Concession was a contested agreement.
-The settler resolution that there would be no peace in the area unless the Ndebele were
crushed
-The Ndebele was a raiding nation and their raids disrupted settler economic activities.
-The quarrel over ownership of the Shona
-Failure to find gold in Mashonaland and the belief that the second rand was in Matabeleland
-The Victoria incidents.
[8] Comment on the view that the Victoria incidents of 1893 were simply used as an excuse
by the BSAC to destroy the Ndebele state.
Pupils need to analyse the role ofthe Victoria incidents in causing the Anglo-Ndebele war.
a] Victoria incidents

i] Chief Gomora’s subjects cut 500m of telegraph wire which belonged to the whites.
-The BSAC ordered him and his people to pay back the damage.
-Gomora used Lobengula’s cattle as payment.
-Lobengula discovering this demanded his cattle back.
-The whites returned the cattle but this widened enmity. War was put a step ahead.
b] Chief Bere of Mashava stole [raided] Lobengula’s cattle in the Shurugwi area.
-Lobengula decided to teach the Shona a lesson.
-The punitive exercise disrupted the whites’ economic activities, that is, farming and mining.
-The Shona ran away seeking shelter in white areas.
-This disrupted production. The whites wanted to put this to an end in order for their activities
to be resumed.
-This further worsened tension between the British and the Ndebele.
*Eventually this culminated into a war as Lobengula’s Amajaha failed to respect the directions
given to them by Jameson, that is, to vacate the designated area [Victoria] in two hours. The
BSAC used this as an excuse to invade Matabeleland.
-The company had long term desire to destroy the Ndebele state. This would herald the total
-The boundary issue created enmity between the two administrations.
-The clash over who owned the Shona caused the war.
-The influence of missionaries caused the 1893 war.
-Matabeleland was a stumbling block to the Cape to Cairo dream. Rhodes wanted to construct
a railway line cutting across Matabeleland.
-The desire by Rhodes to acquire a hero status in Britain after the fall of the Ndebele state
caused the war.
-Whites’ fear to co-exist with a powerful and potentially dangerous Ndebele state caused the
war.
-Failure to find the second rand in Mashonaland made the whites to anticipate that
Matabeleland was the second rand.
-The desire to seize Ndebele cattle by the whites caused the war. The great herds of Ndebele
cattle were attractive to the whites. These could only be obtained through war [conquest].
[8] Examine the causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893-4 and determine who was to blame
for the outbreak of the war.
[8] Analyse the causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893-4. How valid is the accusation that
the Ndebele started it all?
Pupils need to examine the causes of the 1893 war and pass a judgment as to whether the
British or the Ndebele were to blame for its outbreak.
-The disputes over ownership of the Shona caused the war. The settlers regarded the Shona as
their source of cheap labour while the Ndebele regarded Mashonaland as their traditional
raiding ground. Therefore, they both claimed ownership of the Shona.
-The boundary question also caused the 1893 war. The settlers negotiated the setting of a
boundary between them and the Ndebele but the significance of such a boundary was little or
not understood at all by the Ndebele who kept on violating it.
-The settlers had since come to the conclusion that there would be no peace in the area until
the Ndebele were defeated.

-Since their arrival in Mashonaland, the settlers were disillusioned because of failure to find
gold in large quantities. They began to entertain the belief that the huge gold deposits they
were after were in Matabeleland.
-The tribute question also contributed to the outbreak of the 1893 war. Some Shona chiefs such
as Nemakonde and Chivi believing that the settlers had come to protect them refused to pay
tribute to Lobengula. This provoked punitive raids from the Ndebele.
#The Victoria incident caused the 1893-4 war.
-In Masvingo some Shona people under chief Gomora cut telegraph wire which belonged to the
whites. The settlers retaliated by confiscating Ndebele cattle from Gomora.
-Another chief, Bere of Mashava stole Lobengula’s cattle in the Shurugwi area. The Ndebele
sent punitive expeditions which disrupted settler economic activities.
-The murder of Lobengula’s peace envoys to the Cape provoked Lobengula and he ordered his
warriors to prepare for war. The settlers were already preparing for a war.
Who was to blame for the outbreak of this war?
Both settlers and the Ndebele were to blame though the settlers were largely to blame.
#Lobengula was to blame because he should not have agreed to the fixing of a boundary
between Matabeleland and Mashonaland without understanding its implications.
-Lobengula should have restrained his impis [soldiers] and instruct them not to disrupt settler
activities. However, his untiring efforts to peaceful co-existence with the settlers to the last
minute were commendable.
#Settlers shouldered much of the blame because they were largely instrumental in bringing the
war. Provocative incidents were created in such a way that the Ndebele would appear to have
started the war.
-In the wake of the Bere saga, the British deliberately attacked the Ndebele regiments clearly
retreating from Victoria in compliance with their demands. They tended to take matters into
their own hands. The resultant killing of some of the Ndebele warriors including leaders like
Mgandani was a provocative act on the part of the Whites but even then Lobengula still
exercised restraint.
-While Lobengula emphasised his commitment to peace, the BSAC stepped up its provocations
by arresting and murdering Lobengula’s peace envoys to the Cape. These envoys were Inguba
and Muntusa. They were intercepted at Tati by BSAP officials. The British should have
negotiated with Lobengula.
-The fact that the British had come to the conclusion that peace would not prevail [thrive] in
Zimbabwe unless the Ndebele were defeated made the war inevitable.
-The secret Victoria agreement where the BSAC promised land and mineral grants in
Matabeleland to whites in return for participation in an anti-Ndebele war also reveals that the
Ndebele wanted war. According to Needham and others, the white settlers were each
promised 2469 hectares of land, 20 gold claims and a share of Lobengula’s cattle. Consequently
as many as 800 settlers were enlisted for service and it remained for the BSAC to provoke war.
THE FIRST CHIMURENGA / UMVUKELA / NDEBELE-SHONA UPRSINGS [1896-7]
[8] To what extent was the destruction of the Ndebele monarchy responsible for the
outbreak of the First Chimurenga in Matabeleland?
The destruction of the Ndebele monarchy contributed to the outbreak of the 1896 war in
Matabeleland to a lesser extent. There were however other factors which were largely

responsible for the outbreak of the 1896 Chimurenga. These factors included loss of land by the
Ndebele to the British, loss of cattle, forced labour, introduction of taxation, loss of
independence, natural disasters and the Jameson raid failure.
-To start with, the destruction of the Ndebele monarchy contributed to the outbreak of the
1896 war in Matabeleland to a lesser extent. Following the disappearance of Lobengula and the
defeat of the Ndebele in the 1893-4 Anglo-Ndebele war, the Ndebele were denied from
choosing a new king. According to T O Ranger, in Matabeleland, in an attempt to transform the
whole structure of the Ndebele society, the monarchy was abolished. Lobengula was dead and
his sons were sent to South Africa to be educated there.
-Moreso, the regimental towns were broken up and none of the Ndebele Indunas were
recognized as authorities for the purpose of administration. Members of the Zansi caste were
compelled to work side by side with the Hole. This resulted in loss of political power and
cultural integrity, loss of military pride and loss of national pride. Hence war was inevitable as
the Ndebele wanted to resuscitate their monarch.
*However, there were other factors which were largely responsible for the outbreak of the 189
Umvukela, for example, the loss of fertile land by the Ndebele to the whites and the creation of
reserves like Gwai and Shangani caused the war.
-To add on, loss of independence by the Ndebele led to the 1896 war.
-More so, loss of cattle to the whites by the Ndebele also caused the war.
-In addition, forced labour is another cause of this war in Matabeleland.
-Furthermore, the natural disasters of 1895-6 also caused the 1896 war.
-Moreover, the imposition of taxation by the whites caused the 1896 war in Matabeleland.
-Lastly, the Jameson raid was the immediate cause of the war in Matabeleland.
[8] To what extent were the results of the Anglo-Ndebele war responsible for the outbreak of
the 1896 Chimurenga / Umvukela in Matabeleland?
The results of the 1893 war contributed greatly to the outbreak of the 1896 Chimurenga /
Umvukela in Matabeleland. For instance, the Ndebele fertile land was taken, the Ndebele lost
their cattle to the whites, they also lost their independence, there was introduction of forced
labour, there was introduction of taxation and they were denied from choosing a new king after
the dissapearence of lobengula in 1894. However, there were other factors which also led to
the 1896 war, for example, natural disasters, religious contradiction and the Jameson raid
failure.
-To start with, the results of the 1893 Anglo-Ndebele war were largely responsible for the
outbreak of the 1896 Umvukela; for example, the Ndebele lost their land to the whites and
were driven into reserves specifically Gwai and Shangani.
-In addition, loss of cattle by the Ndebele after the 1893-4 war also caused the 1896 Umvukela.
-More so, the institutionalisation of taxation after the Anglo-Ndebele war caused the 1896 war.
-Furthermore, the introduction of forced labour in 1894 caused the 1896 Umvukela.
-Moreover, loss of independence by the Ndebele after the 1893-4 war caused the 1896 war.
-To add on, the destruction of the Ndebele monarch after their defeat in 1894 caused this war.
*However, there were other factors which also led to the outbreak of the 1896 Umvukela, for
instance, there was religious contradiction.
-Further still, natural disasters of 1895-6 also caused the 1896-7 Chimurenga.
-Lastly, the Jameson raid failure also made the 1896 Umvukela inevitable.

[8] Explain the causes of the 1896-7 Chimurenga / Umvukela.
[8] Give an account of the factors behind the outbreak of the first Chimurenga.
The causes of the first Chimurenga were largely common to both the Ndebele and the Shona.
These common causes included loss of land to the whites by both groups, loss of cattle, forced
labour, introduction of taxation, loss of independence and natural disasters. However, there
were some causes which were different [unique] to both groups. For instance, the destruction
of trade with the Portuguese affected the Shona only, the demand for a king caused the war in
Matabeleland and the Jameson raid failure was the immediate cause of the war in
Matabeleland.
-To start with, the causes of the first Chimurenga were largely common to both the Ndebele
and the Shona, for instance, loss of land by both groups to the whites forced them to take up
arms against the whites. The Shona lost their land to the whites soon after the occupation of
Mashonaland in 1890. This was because the white mercenaries were rewarded with large tracts
of land as earlier promised. The Ndebele also lost most of their land to the whites after their
defeat in the 1893-4 war. The whites created reserves specifically Gwai and Shangani where the
Ndebele were forced to live. These reserves were dry, remote and tsetse fly infested. Thus
there was little production which would take place in such an environment. Hence the 1896-7
war was inevitable as land among both the Ndebele and the Shona was very important in as far
as their economy was concerned.
-In addition, loss of cattle to the whites by the Ndebele and the Shona caused the 1896
Umvukela. The Shona for example, lost their cattle to the whites through taxation. To avoid
selling their labour in mines and farms with harsh working conditions, the Shona sold their
cattle so as to obtain money to pay tax. This was because taxes were paid in form of money.
The Ndebele also lost their cattle to the whites soon after their defeat in the Anglo-Ndebele
war. The whites confiscated [took] Ndebele cattle notwithstanding the fact that cattle were the
backbone of the Ndebele economy. The Ndebele lost about 80% of their cattle to the whites.
According to T.O Ranger, before the 1893-4 war the Ndebele had 250000 cattle but after the
war, they were left with only 40930 cattle. Hence war was imminent as both the Ndebele and
the Shona resented loss of cattle which was the backbone of their economy.
-Furthermore, the introduction of taxation by the whites forced both the Shona and the
Ndebele to take up arms against the whites. After the defeat of the Ndebele in the 1893-4 war,
both the Ndebele and the Shona were forced to pay tax to the whites. These taxes included hut
tax, dog tax and dip tax.These taxes were to be paid in cash. Taxes were raised not so much to
raise revenue but to force Africans to work in farms and mines. The British South Africa Police
did the collection of taxes brutally. Those who failed to pay tax had their cattle and sheep
seized. Hence the 1896-7 war was imminent as both the Ndebele and the Shona were
determined to get rid of taxes which had become a burden to them.
-Moreover, the introduction of forced labour caused the 1896-7 Umvukela. After the defeat of
the Ndebele in the Anglo-Ndebele war, the whites who needed labour to work in mines and
farms embarked on recruitment of forced labourers in Matabeleland and Mashonaland. It
should be noted that the Native Commission recruited people to work disregarding the Ndebele
caste system. The three castes were treated alikeand were equal in the eyes of the whites. The
Ndebele interpreted this to mean that they were reduced to the level of the Hole. Workers
were subjected to heavy punishments for simple offences. D N Beach argued that the crux of

the 1896 rising was the labour issue and the use of the hippopotamus whip. For A Davidson, the
sjambok became the epitome of whitemen’s administration. It should be noted that the
standard punishment was 25 lashes. T O Ranger argued that it was the custom of the whites to
beat their employees towards pay day so that they forfeit their wages. Hence one can safely
argue that forced labour and ill-treatment of Africans by the whites made the 1896-7 war
inevitable.
-Further still, natural disasters which occurred in 1895-6 forced both the Ndebele and the
Shona to take up arms against the British. For instance, there occurred a serious drought in
1895-6. This drought was followed by a plague of locusts which destroyed their crops. The area
was also hit by a severe cattle disease [rinderpest].To prevent the spread of the disease to
white farms, the company administrators shot thousands of African cattle that included even
healthy ones. Worse still, the people were not allowed to eat the meat of those cattle shot as
those cattle were burnt. The Shona and the Ndebele however thought that the killing of those
cattle was a deliberate move to starve them. Both in Matabeleland and Mashonaland these
disasters were given a religious interpretation by religious leaders like Nehanda, Kaguvi,
Mlugulu, Mkwati and Siginyamatshe. The disasters were regarded as calamities which had
befallen the state due to the presence of the whites. Hence war was inevitable as religious
leaders encouraged people to drive out the whites if natural disasters were to end.
-Worse still, loss of independence by both the Shona and the Ndebele made the 1896-6 war
unavoidable. This loss of independence was indicated by the payment of taxes to the whites by
both the Ndebele and the Shona in their own country. The flogging [beating] of African chiefs
showed loss of independence. More so, Shona chiefs and Ndebele indunas were also used to
recruit labourers for the whites. Thus African chiefs became mere mouthpieces to implement
policies and decisions of the whites and were no longer sole originators of policies. Loss of
independence was also shown by the fact that British laws took precedence over African laws.
The traditional leaders lost the respect they used to enjoy in society. According to D Chanaiwa,
resentment against alien rule engendered a growing attitude of resistance towards whites.
Hence war was inevitable as both the Ndebele and the Shona disliked their subservient
position.
*However, one must realise that there were some causes which were unique to both the
Ndebele and the Shona, for example, loss of trade with the Portuguese caused the 1896-7 war
in Mashonaland. The coming of the British led to the banning of Shona lucrative trade with the
Portuguese. Guns, beads, cloth and many goods were acquired from the Portuguese. T O
Ranger argued that this trade was replaced by an exploitative one with the British South Africa
Company [BSAC]. Which left no room for Africans to bargain [negotiate]. The goods coming
from South Africa through the BSAC were expensive than those they acquired from from the
Portuguese. The banning of Shona-Portuguese trade was a serious grievance among the Shona,
especially people from Makoni and Mangwende. Hence the disruption of Shona-Portuguese
trade which had existed for centuries was a thorn in the flesh of the Shona. Thus war between
the Shona and the Whites was imminent.
-To add on, the demand for a new king caused the war in Matabeleland. After the death of
Lobengula in 1894, the Ndebele were denied from choosing a new king by the whites.
According to T O Ranger, in Matabeleland, in an attempt to transform the whole structure of
the Ndebele society, the monarch was abolished. Lobengula’s sons were sent to South Africa.

More so, the regimental towns were broken up and none of the Ndebele indunas were
recognized for the purpose of administration. Members of the Zansi caste were were even
compelled to work side by side with the Hole. Hence war was inevitable as the Ndebele wanted
to resuscitate their monarch.
-Lastly, the Jameson raid failure was the immediate cause of the war in Matabeleland. Leandar
Starr Jameson and his platoon had gone to Transvaal to raid the Krugger government. They
wanted to overthrow Paul Krugger and his government. Unfortunately Jameson and his soldiers
were defeated. The defeat of Jameson destroyed the myth that the British were unconquerable
[invincible]. The Ndebele were thus however offered an opportunity to rise against the whites.It
was the absence of the BSAPolice which gave the Ndebele a lot of courage to rise against the
whites. There was not enough police in Zimbabwe. The Ndebele warriors began to attack white
farmers and traders in Matabeleland marking the beginning of the first Chimurenga in
Matabeleland.
-In summation, the causes of the 1896-7 Umvukela were largely common to both the Ndebele
and the Shona. However, one must realise that there were also some causes which were
unique to both groups.
[8] Analyse the causes of the First Chimurenga. How important was the role played by the
spirit mediums.
Pupils need to analyse the factors that caused the Shona and Ndebele uprising of 1896-7
showing how common or how different were the factors to both groups. They must also show
the role played by spirit mediums as well as the role of other factors.
Common causes
-Loss of land to the whites by both the Ndebele and the Shona caused the war.
-Loss of independence by both the Shona and Ndebele caused the war.
-Loss of cattle by both the Ndebele and the Shona to the whites caused them to take up arms
against the whites.
-Forced labour made both the Ndebele and the Shona to take up arms against the whites.
-The institutionalisation of taxation caused the war in Matabeleland and Mashonaland.
-Natural disasters caused the war in Matabeleland and Mashonaland.
Different causes
-The Jameson raid was the immediate cause of the war in Matabeleland.
-The demand for a new king affected the Ndebele only.
The disruption of trade with the Portuguese affected the Shona only.
Role played by spirit mediums
Candidates must focus on positive and negative role as well as the role of other factors.
-They encouraged both groups [Ndebele and Shona] to fight. They did so by blaming natural
disasters on whites in Zimbabwe. Spirit mediums like Mkwati, Mlugulu, Siginyamatshe,
Nehanda, Kaguvi and Chaminuka gave the disasters a religious interpretation. They said the
disasters which had befallen the state were due to the presence of the whites. The spirit
mediums however, urged people to drive out whites from Zimbabwe so that the calamities
would come to an end. This implies that unless the whites were driven out, life was not going to
return to normal in the country. Hence this forced the Ndebele and Shona to take up arms
against the whites.

-The spirit mediums also presided over war discussions. This was when they advised on
strategies to be used. Hence they played a pivotal role in as far as the first Chimurenga was
concerned.
-During the war spirit mediums provided medical herbs to those who were sick or wounded.
-Religious leaders played a role of unifying people. The Shona no longer enjoyed the central
influence of the Rozvi Empire hence religion unified them. This was in line with T O Ranger who
argued that the Ndebele had lost its king [Lobengula in 1894]. During the 1893 war, the
Ndebele state was destroyed. They had no king and no state. Efforts to restore the king had
failed. Hence the spirit mediums played a very significant role in the 1896 insurrection.
-The spirit mediums organised and planned the war.
-Kaguvi operated around Chegutu hills. He urged his followers to kill whites.He assured the
warriors that they would win the war. He promised immunity from bullets to the fighters. He
said bullets would turn into water and would not harm them. This forced many people into the
war. He was captured and executed.
-Nehanda was a female spirit medium who operated around Mazoe area. She worked closely
with Kaguvi and urged followers to kill whites.
-Mkwati was a Mwari priest who operated in Matabeleland. He coordinated the rebellion and
provided the religious leadership. He also promised followers immunity from white bullets and
a return to the old days once the settlers had been driven. He distributed captured guns
amongst his followers. He fled from Matabeleland and continued fighting among the Shona.
-Traditional leaders and individuals like Chingaira, Makoni, Chief Mapondera, Mangwende,
Mashonganyika and Nyamweda also played an important role in the chimurenga.
-Warriors themselves were also important.
[8] Explain the causes of the 1896 Chimurenga / Umvukela in Matabeleland.
Pupils need to explain the causes of the war in Matabeleland only.
Economic causes
-Loss of land by the Ndebele to the whites
-Loss of cattle by the Ndebele
-Introduction of forced labour
-Introduction of taxation
Social causes
-Natural disasters
-Religious cotradiction
Political factors
-Loss of independence by the Ndebele
-The Jameson raid failure
[8] Explain the causes of the First Chimurenga in Mashonaland.
Pupils need to explain the causes of the 1896-7 war in Mashonaland only.
Economic factors
-Loss of land by the Shona to the whites
-Loss of cattle by the Shona to the whites
-Introduction of taxation by the whites
-Introduction of taxation by the whites

-The end of Shona-Portuguese trade
Social factors
-Religious contradiction
-Natural disasters
Political factors
-Loss of independence by the Shona
-Loss of political power by Shona chiefs
[8] Analyse the reasons for the defeat of the Shona and the Ndebele in the 1896-7
Chimurenga / Umvukela.
Pupils need to explain why both the Ndebele and the Shona were defeated.
Strengths of the whites
-The whites had superior weapons like maxim guns.
-The Company forces were more mobile than the African troops. The used horses and wagons
whilst the Africans travelled on foot.
-The whites used the scorched earth policy.
-The whites captured and executed inspirational leaders like, Kaguvi, Nehanda and Makoni.
-The whites used brutal interrogation methods and torture which forced Africans to reveal the
whereabouts of their leaders and strongholds.
-Total determination on the part of the whites led to the defeat of the Africans.
Weaknesses of the Ndebele and Shona
-African organisation was inferior to that of the whites [BSAC].
-There was lack of coordination between the two African groups [Ndebele and Shona].
-Africans had inferior weapons like spears.
[8] ‘The Ndebele defeat in the 1896 Chimurenga / Umvukela was inevitable’. How valid is this
assertion?
Pupils need to evaluate the reasons for the defeat of the Ndebele in the 1896 rising. They
should focus on the issue of inevitability.
Weaknesses of the Ndebele
-The Ndebele were not supported by other subjects such as the Kalanga and the Shona joined
late in June.
-The Ndebele had poor strategies.
-Spirit mediums seem to have made the wrong assumption that the whites would evacuate the
country hence they left the main route through Mangwe open and this was used by the whites
for reinforcements.
-There were divisions and disagreements within the Ndebele ranks and the Ndebele lacked a
central rallying point to coordinate the war effort since the destruction of the state in 1894.
-On the other hand, the whites had superior weapons like maxim guns yet the Ndebele used
spears.
-The use of laagers and forts helped the whites to win the war.
-The whites had greater mobility as they used their cavalry.
[8] To what extent did the execution of Nehanda and Kaguvi contribute to the defeat of the
Shona?

Learners need to explain the role of the execution of Nehanda and Kaguvi as well as the role of
other factors.
Contribution of the execution of religious leaders
-They were a source of motivation and courage of the Shona.
-They were leaders hence their death resulted in lack of leadership.
-They were coordinators during the war.
-Their death demoralised the Shona fighters.
Other factors
-The Shona used inferior weapons.
-The Shona lacked unity.
-The whites had better strategies.
-The Shona had poor communication.
[8] To what extent did lack of unity contribute to the defeat of the Shona in the 1896-7 war?
Learners need to explain the role of lack of unity as well as other factors in the defeat of the
Shona.
Contribution of lack of unity in the defeat of the Shona
-There was lack of coordination among the Shona.
-Some Shona chiefs did not join the war, for example, chief Mutasa.
-Some Shona chiefs fought on the side of the whites.
-The Shona had no common military strategy.
Other factors
-The Shona had inferior weapons.
-The whites had better transport.
-The surrender of the Ndebele made the whites to concentrate on the Shona only.
-The whites were better organized.
[8] Why the first Chimurenga in Mashonaland extended to 1897?
[8] Why the Shona took so long to be defeated in the 1896-7 uprising?
The extension of the first Chimurenga to 1897 was largely due to the strengths of the Shona.
For instance, the used guerilla warfare tactics, they had guns they acquired from Portuguese,
war amongst the Shona was not restricted to the soldiers only and the Shona chiefs fought as
separate entities. However, the weaknesses of the whites also made the Shona to take so long
to be defeated, For example, the whites underestimated the Shona and they were not familiar
with the terrain.
-To start with, the extension of the first Chimurenga to 1897 was greatly because of the
strengths of the Shona, for example, the Shona used guerilla warfare tactics like hit and run.
The Shona used nocturnal [night] attacks. They also embarked on surprise attacks. The Shona
fighters also disguised themselves as ordinary hunters.
-In addition, the Shona fought as separate entities. They fought in many small groups, so it was
series of Zvimurenga. This made it difficult for the whites to defeat them easily.
-Furthermore, spirit mediums coordinated the war and encouraged individual chiefs to keep on
fighting.
-Some Shona chiefs like Makoni and Mangwende used fortified mountains. There were many
hills in Mashonaland and these provided cover for the Shona.

-Moreover, the Shona had guns they acquired from the Portuguese and few modern rifles they
captured.
-The Shona had stored a lot of food in caves.
-More so, war among the Shona was not restricted to the professional fighters only but it
included everyone including women.
-Further still, the Shona were familiar with the terrain.
*However, the weaknesses of the whites also led to the extension of the uprising to 1897, for
example, the whites underestimated the Shona.
-To add on, the whites initially had fewer troops because some had been taken to South Africa
in the Jameson raid.
-The whites were not prepared for the war with the Shona and they took long to mobilse than
the Shona.
-In addition, the British South Africa Company had financial problems.
-Moreover, the whites as enemies were easily identified because of their colour.
-The whites were also not familiar with the terrain in Mashonaland.
-The resources of the whites had been over stretched due to the war in Matabeleland.
NDEBELE-SHONA RESISTANCE TO EUROPEAN ENCROACHMENT INTO ZIMBABWE
[8] How effective were the Ndebele and Shona in resisting European penetration from 1870
to 1897?
Various strategies were employed by the Ndebele and the Shona in response to the
encroachment of Europeans onto the Zimbabwe plateau. However, it should be noted that
these strategies completely failed in the long term because the European penetration
continued to grow until colonisation was finally achieved in 1897.
Strategies employed by Lobengula [the Ndebele] in resisting European encroachment
-Lobengula granted a limited number of mining concessionsto Europeans during the 1870s. For
instance, Karl Mauch and Henry Hartley were granted a concession to mine gold at Tati area in
1870 [Tati Concession]. Tati was a disputed area between the Ndebele and the Ngwato.
Thomas Baines was also granted a mineral concession in 1871. The mining concessions were
meant to ward off a flood of concession seekers roaming in the kingdom.
*However, this did not prevent more Europeans from coming.
-Lobengula granted hunting concessions to European hunters like Frederick Courtney Selous
and Henry Hartley. They were given permission to hunt animals including big game like
elephants for ivory. They were even given the permission to construct a road linking
Mashonaland and Matabeleland in order to facilitate the transportation and movement of the
hunters and their goods.
-Lobengula granted trading concessions to European traders like George Westbeech, Leask,
Tainton and Philips. Lobengula evidently hoped to control the influx of Europeans by granting
these concessions to these few Europeans.
*This strategy clearly backfired as these Europeans went on to sell their concessions to the
powerful C J Rhodes who consolidated them with his own Rudd Concession as a basis for
requesting a Royal Charter from the British Queen to enable him to colonise Zimbabwe on
behalf of Britain.
-Lobengula continued Mzilikazi’s policy of accommodating and cooperating with missionaries
like C Helm and J S Moffat. He gave them the permission to open up a second mission station in

Zimbabwe at Hope Fountain in 1870. The first one had already established at Inyati in 1859.
Lobengula also took the missionaries’ advice to deal exclusively with Rhodes’ agents.
*That proved disastrous as it led to the signing of the Rudd Concession in 1888.
-Lobengula granted land concessions to various groups of Europeans. First it was the missionary
organisations such as the London Missionary Society who were granted land to open a second
mission station at Hope Fountain in 1870. Powerful individuals like Edward Lippert also received
land grants [Lippert Concession]. Lobengula’s plan in granting the land concession was to make
it difficult or impossible for Rhodes to operate his mineral concession without coming into
conflict with Edward Lippert. It was clearly a desperate attempt to cancel out the Rudd
Concession.
*However, it ultimately failed because Lippert conspired to sell his concession to Rhodes whose
hand was strengthened by the addition of a land concession to the mineral concession [Rudd
Concession] already in his possession.
-Lobengula signed protection treaties with the whites. A good example of such a treaty was the
Grobler Treaty which he signed with the Transvaal government [Boers] in 1887. Lobengula
signed this treaty in the hope that this would act as a deterrent to other European countries
and prevent them from seeking concessions or to control his kingdom.
*Instead of stemming the flow of Europeans, Lobengula’s strategy only succeeded in bringing in
the British who sought to outdo the Transvaal [Boers]. The British eventually persuaded
Lobengula to repudiate the Grobler Treaty and sign the Moffat Treaty [February 1888] and the
Rudd Concession [October 1888]. Lobengula agreed to sign the Moffat Treaty because he was
facing threats from Boers and Portuguese. So he wanted to safeguard his country from either
Boersor Portuguese. In the contrary the treaties he signed set in motion an unfortunate series
of events which led to the ultimate demise of his state [colonisation of Zimbabwe].
-Having realised the disastrous implications of the Rudd Concession, Lobengula decided on a
diplomatic offensive that involved writing letters and sending emissaries [Umshete and
Babeyane] to the British Queen.
*However, Lobengula’s diplomatic initiative failed to prevent the Queen from granting C J
Rhodes the Royal Charter to colonise Lobengula’s kingdom.
-To avoid an imminent invasion by the whites Lobengula made use of pacifying tactics by
restraining his soldiers from provoking a war with the whites. Some historians contend that
many of Lobengula’s subjects wanted to drive out the whites forcefully from their land but
Lobengula knew how powerful the whites were in terms of weaponry and he therefore pacified
his people.
*However, it must be noted that this diplomatic strategy of restraining his restless army from
attacking the so called pioneer column only succeeded in postponing [delaying] but not
preventing the Anglo-Ndebele conflict which eventually erupted in 1893.
-Lobengula used the strategy of playing off the Europeans against each other. This strategy was
tried by various African rulers with mixed results.
*It ultimately proved a failure for Lobengula as the Europeans he tried to set against each other
often cooperated against him instead. Edward Lippert who had been granted a land concession
in the vain hope of getting him into conflict with Rhodesdecided to sell the Lippert Concession
to Rhodes. The traders and prospectors also sold out to Rhodes and consequently strengthened
rather that weakening him. By playing one group of whites against another and postponing

decisions, Lobengula hoped that concession seekers would get tired and loose hope, but this
was in vain.
-Lobengula adopted a policy of delaying his decisions, for example, when he signed the Rudd
Concession. This was meant to dishearten the concession seekers. Before succumbing to
pressure from his trusted indunas, Lotshe and Sikombo and missionaries like Charles Helm,
Lobengula succeeded in delaying for five good weeks before signing the Rudd Concession.
*However, his resilience was outwitted by the pressure from his advisors like Helm and Lotshe.
Thus he eventually signed the death warrant of his own state, that is, the Rudd Concession.
-Lobengula embarked on peaceful co-existence with the whites. Having tried and failed in
everything else, Lobengula decided to live in peace side by side with the nascent British state in
Mashonaland.
*It was however, an uneasy peace and the three years from the British occupation of
Mashonaland [1890] were filled with tension and deliberate provocation of the Ndebele by the
British settlers. It was only a matter of time and Lobengula’s strategy was shattered by a quarrel
over the Shona and the boundary question which led to the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war
of 1893-4.
-The Ndebele also used warfare to resist European encroachment, for instance, the Anglo-
Ndebele war of 1893-4. This was their first direct military resistance to European occupation.
This Ndebele military resistance shocked the European settler community.
*However, this failed as the Ndebele were defeated leading to the completion of the
Strategies used by the Shona to resist European encroachment in Zimbabwe
-The Shona peacefully co-existed with the whites. They thought that the British were coming as
traders just like the Portuguese. The Shona believed white settlement as temporary like what
the Portuguese did.
-Some Shona collaborated with the whites. They welcomed the whites partly as allies against
the Ndebele.
-Some Shona paramounts played one white interest off against another. Chief Makoni, for
example, signed a treaty with the BSAC in 1890 and immediately afterwards signed another one
with the Portuguese. This however did not help to prevent the occupation of Zimbabwe.
-After failure of diplomacy, both the Shona and the Ndebele resisted by force in 1896-7
Chimurenga. They took up arms against the whites.
*This however, failed as the both groups were defeated leading to the establishment of colonial
administration which forced Africans into forced labour, taxation and loss of independence.
[8] How effective were the strategies employed by Lobengula in resisting European
penetration from 1870 to 1893?
Pupils need to examine the various methods used by Lobengula to prevent European
penetration into his state as well as the effectiveness of these methods.
-Lobengula made use of diplomacy in an attempt to keep Europeans at bay, for example, he
signed the Tati Concession [1871], Baines Treaty [1870], Grobler Treaty [1887] , Moffat Treaty
[February 1888], Rudd Concession [October 1888] and Lippert Concession [1889].
*In all these, Lobengula was diplomatically outmanoeuvred.
-He also used warfare, for example, the 1893-4 Anglo-Ndebele war.
*However, through this war, Lobengula finally lost his control of the state.

SECTION C
COLONIAL RULE IN ZIMBABWE SINCE 1890
THE LAND QUESTION
[9] Assess the effects of the various measures taken by the settler governments between
1890 and 1931 to dispossess the Africans of their land.
Pupils need to assess the various measures taken by the settler governments to dispossess
Africans of their land and the effects of these measures.
-There was the reserve system. In 1894 the first reserves were set up in Matabeleland in the
Gwai and Shangani areas. These were infertile, drought stricken, tsetse fly infested, far away
from roads and the Ndebele described them as cemeteries and not homes. The reserve system
was extended to Mashonaland in 1898. This reduced peasant agriculture.
-There was institutionalisation of forced labour in white farms and mines. This diverted African
labour from African plots.
-After the 1896-7 uprising 24, 8 million acres of land was reserved for use by Africans.
-Between 1908 and 1915 the BSAC took 1, 5 million acres of best land away from the reserves.
Boundaries of all reserves were redrawn to exclude any areas which had rich soils and high
rainfall. Most reserves were placed far away from markets where crops might be sold. Between
1909 and 1912 people living on land outside the reserves had to pay extra taxes.
-By 1920 nearly 65% of all blacks lived in reserves. Most reserves were far away from railways
and markets. Settlers received financial help from the government to improve their farms. They
also received free scientific advice about how best to grow crops and prevent diseases.
-By contrast some peasants received help on how grow the same crop on smaller pieces of
land. They were trained at Dombosahava and Tjolotjo.
-By 1920s the reserves were overcrowded and overstocked. This forced many Africans to work
as migrant labourers.
-The 1925 Morris Commission divided land into Agro-zones. Africans were relegated to zones 4
and 5 where there was low rainfall.
-In 1930 the Land Apportionment Act was passed. It was meant to limit competition between
blacks and white farmers. It confirmed the existing poor reserves and it also made it illegal for
blacks to buy land outside reserves. Apart from locations towns were for whites.
-Settlers passed the Maize Control Act and the Cattle Levy Act which resulted in the paying of
less money for maize and cattle owned by blacks. Peasants suffered greatly. By the 1930s
thousands of people were obliged to work for very low wages.
[9] Examine the principal motives of the passing of the Land Apportionment Act of 1930.
Pupils need to examine the reasons for passing of the LAA of 1930.
Political motives
-To ensure security to the whites
-To permanently subject Africans to economic subjugation
Economic reasons
-To eliminate competition on agriculture between blacks and whites
-To solve labour problems in industry and agriculture
-To reserve prime land for whites
-To dispossess Africans of their land
Social motives

-Racial segregation
-Impoverishing the black majority
-To encourage white settlement in Rhodesia as a way of boosting white population.
[9] Examine the claim that by 1940 the Land Apportionment Act had subjugated, marginalised
and impoverished the hitherto self-sufficient African agriculturalists.
Pupils need to examine and assess the validity of the above assertion.
-In 1898, 2, 4 million acres of land were reserved for Africans.
-Between 1908 and 1915 the BSAC took 1, 5 million acres of land away from reserves. New
boundaries were drawn that excluded all rich soils and high rainfall areas from African control.
-By 1920s, 65% of blacks lived in reserves.
-The settlers received financial assistance from the government to improve their farms and free
scientific advice on the best way to grow crops and prevent diseases.
-By contrast reserves were overcrowded and overstocked hence peasant production declined.
-The Land Apportionment Act made it illegal for blacks to purchase land outside the reserves.
[9] ‘The claim that the Land Apportionment Act [LAA] of 1930 largely benefited Africans is a
clear misrepresentation of facts’. Assess the validity of this judgment.
There is need for validation or invalidation of the assertion
-48000 Europeans were allocated 51% of land while more than 1000000 Africans were assigned
29, 8%. Thus Europeans got the segregation they had been demanding.
-In 1937 rent paying tenants and Africans were to be moved to reserves.
Arguments for
-The LAAserved Africans from land hungry white settlers.
-It allowed separate development and therefore minimal interference with African culture and
customs.
Negative effects of the LAA
-There was artificial creation of a vicious cycle of poverty in rural areas
-The LAA led to appalling standards of living for Africans.
-The LAA was the cornerstone of European economic and political security
[9] ‘The formation of the land policy was undoubtedly influenced by labour considerations’.
Consider the validity of this assertion with reference to the period 1890 to 1950.
Pupils need to examine the inter-relationship of land appropriation and dispossession on one
hand and labour supply on the other.
Historical background
The tap root of imperialism was economic profit and after colonial occupation in 1890 this
could be realised through constant supply of labour to white farms, mines and industries in
urban areas.
-Africans resisted supplying labour to the whites.
-Creation of reserves [1894-1902] created artificial poverty that would induce Africans to
provide labour.
-Private Locations Ordinance [1908]
-Reserve Commission [1914-1920]
-Land Apportionment Act [1930]
In conclusion, pupils must pass a judgment which reflects the interdependence of land
appropriation and dispossession and labour supply or lack of it.

[9] What measures were taken by the settler government to frustrate African economic
activities between 1894 and 1951?
The settler government employed a plethora of measures to frustrate African economic
activities between 1894 and 1951. Most of these measures greatly affected African economic
activities but some failed to work.
-In 1894 the settlers created reserves in Matabeleland specifically in Gwai and Shangani. The
Ndebele were forced to live in these reserves. These reserves were dry [badly watered],
remote, tsetse fly infested and had infertile soils [sandy soils]. There was little production which
would take place in such an environment. The Ndebele viewed them as cemeteries and not
homes. Most Ndebele resisted moving into these reserves and were considered either as
squatters or had to pay rent. Being a squatter meant they had to provide labour. Rent was also
paid in labour to avoid eviction. Thus the whole way of the Ndebele was thrown into jeopardy
by the manner in which the question of land was dealt with.
-There was institutionalisation ofland tax on areas outside reserves. However, the different
taxes did not necessarily increase the number of labourers in mines nor did it ruin peasant
agricultural production. Instead it made people increase their acreage, improve their methods
of farming and change to marketable crops.
-Whites were given access to agricultural loans at the expense of the blacks. The Native
department decided to deliberately support white farming activities against those of Africans.
-The Land Apportionment Act was passed in 1930.
-Maize Control Act was also passed.
-Cattle Levy Act was also enacted.
-The Land husbandry Act was passed in 1951.
-There was institutionalisation of forced labour. However, some Africans deserted work places,
frailed illness, deliberately broke machines and so on. Others sold their cattle to avoid working
for the Europeans.
[9] Account for the fall in peasant agricultural production in colonial Zimbabwe between 1890
and 1940.
Pupils need to explain why agricultural production fell among the Zimbabwean peasants. They
must show that the whites largely contributed to the fall in peasant agriculture. They must also
explain the role of other factors.
Role of settlers
-The creation of reserves led to the fall in peasant agriculture. For instance, in 1894 the Gwai
and Shangani reserves were created in Matabeleland. From 1898 the reserve system was
extended to Mashonaland. The reserves were created in areas which had poor soils, tsetse fly
infested, drought stricken, badly watered and were far away from roads, railways and markets.
The Ndebele referred them as cemeteries and not homes. In the contrary the white settlers
allocated themselves the best lands and subjected the blacks to the barren lands, which
effectively affected their agricultural production.
-The institutionalisation of forced labour led to the fall in peasant agricultural production in
Zimbabwe. Labour was diverted from African plots to their own farms. Forced labour was also
extended to settler mines. This contributed to the sharp decline in peasant agriculture.

-Eviction of Africans from white commercial farms from which they had been experiencing
significant harvests led to the fall in peasant agriculture. This resulted in overcrowding of the
reserves by 1920s.
-The 1925 Morris Commission divided land into Agro-zones and Africans were relegated
[relocated] to natural regions [zones] 4 and 5 where there was low rainfall. This was
strategically done by whites in order to enhance their agricultural production but at the same
time effectively disempowering the black majority from getting harvests from the land. This
explains whypeasant agricultural production fell in Zimbabwe.
-The Land Apportionment Act of 1930 also led to the fall in peasant agricultural production. The
LAA was one such legislation which took away land from the blacks. It is through the LAA that
Africans were evicted from white commercial farms which were generally rich.
-The institutionalisation of the Cattle Levy Act [1934] led to the fall in peasant agriculture.The
legislation introduced taxation for cattle and the blacks had no means to pay and they
consequently lost their cattle as they were taken for tax purposes. The cattle were used by
blacks for their agricultural production. This situation effectively robbed blacks of their means
of production on their lands.
-The Maize Control Act led to the fall in peasant agriculture. This act was meant to limit
competition between Africans and settler farmers. Black produce fetched less on markets.This
scenario disadvantaged the blacks significantly and led to the fall in peasant agricultural
production. This was also a strategic way of frustrating Africans from their land by technically
making them lose interest in farming and subject themselves to forced labour.[
Other factors
-Natural disasters in the 1890s such as droughts, outbreak of locusts and rinderpest are
attributed to the fall in peasant agricultural production.
-The fall of peasant agriculture was also due to the fact that African farming methods were
rudimentary [undeveloped]. The Africans used methods which were outdated and archaic. They
also used poor implements. All these led to the fall in peasant agricultural production.
THE LABOUR QUESTION IN ZIMBABWE
[9] How successful was the British South Africa Company [BASC] and settler governments in
dealing with the labour problems in Southern Rhodesia prior to the outbreak of the Second
World War [1945]?
Once established, the mining and agricultural sectors required labour. As a result, the BSAC and
the settler governments employed a diversity of methods in a bid to deal with labour problems.
These measures included forced labour, imposition of taxation, creation of reserves and land
dispossession. However, it must be noted that although the British South Africa Company and
settler governments were largely successful in dealing with labour problems, they did not
completely do away with the labour problems.
-The British South Africa Company and the settler government were largely successful in
dealing with labour problems in Southern Rhodesia.Forced labour [chibharo] was one of the
measures taken by the whites in dealing with labour problems. Able-bodied African men were
forcibly recruited to provide labour for Europeans. Through chibharo there was extensive use of
force by the Labour Bureau in mobilising labour from the villages. According to Makambe [p
294-5] whole villages were attacked, houses burnt to force chiefs to cooperate. African chiefs
were coopted in labour recruitment, an act of forced collaboration. According to Phimister and

van Onslen, with its brutal police boys the Labour Bureau organised chibharo raids in which
victims were rounded up and lined in prison like perfection. Those who resisted were often
flogged [beaten]. The recruitment board officers took advantage of the economic forces like
drought [an ideal time to recruit because people did not have food]. This was case in 1903,
1912 and 1918.
*However, although quite a number of Africans were recruited through chibharo, it must be
noted that the Ndebele and Shona areas largely remained poor recruitment grounds because
they never really wanted to work for the whites. For example, out of the 8429 workers engaged
by the board in 1900, 2160 have deserted in March 1901 [van Onslen and Phimister, p78].The
board also faced the problem of seasonal supply of labour from the Shona and Ndebele during
the rainy season as they would abandon jobs while the whites wanted permanent labour. It
must also be noted that most Africans fled from the chibharo recruiters and went into hiding.
Thus this method failed to provide adequate labour. Some Africans also deserted their masters
and went to South Africa to look for jobs in mines where salaries were better. Forced labour
also resulted in Africans frailing [faking] illness and this reduced productivity.
-Imposition of taxation was another method used by the whites to solve labour problems. To
force Africans to work for Europeans, various taxes such as hut tax, dog tax, poll tax, dip tax,
cattle levy and tax on additional wives were imposed. Thus taxes were not largely meant for
raising revenue but to force Africans to work for the whites.
*However, although this method forced many Africans to work for the whites, again it failed to
provide adequate labour for the whites. Some Africans managed to avoid working for
Europeans by selling what they produced as peasants in order to raise money for taxes. Some
sold their cattle so as to raise money for paying taxes.
-After realising that the above two methods [forced labour and imposition taxation] failed to
provide adequate labour, the settlers took steps to dispossess the Africans of their land by
creating reserves firstly in Gwai and Shangani and later in Mashonaland. They went on to take
away further land with rich soils from the already designated reserves and finally by passing the
Land Apportionment Act in 1930.
*However, although these measures forced a lot of Africans to look for jobs in European farms
and mines, the labour force still remained inadequate.
-The whites also resorted to migrant labour so as to combat the problem of labour. After failing
to secure adequate labour locally the settlers were forced to recruit labourers from Northern
Rhodesia, Mozambique and Nyasaland. These migrant labourers were treated virtually as slaves
in that they were denied the right to choose their employers.
*However, it must be noted that although this method contributed significantly towards solving
the labour problem, migrant labour did not completely bring to an end the labour problem.
Therefore the settlers did not quite succeed in dealing with the labour problems. The biggest
challenge in labour during the entire period was competition with better paying South African
mines. There was a north to south migration by migrant labourers [especially from Zambia,
Malawi and Mozambique] and they used Zimbabwe as a launching peg and then desert to
South Africa.
-In a bid to deal with the labour problems, the settlers introduced the Pass Law in 1902. This
was meant specifically to control labour desertions. This meant that deserters who would go to

other employers would need a pass. The pass law was thus meant to reduce random
movement of black labour.
*However, although this method was successful in minimising labour movements, it should be
noted that desertion continued ultimately leading to low productivity and low profit margins.
Passes were deliberately lost or destroyed as a way of desertion and in certain cases passes
were forged to allow them to go and work in South Africa. Desertion was a protest against
capitalist exploitation.
-The Master and Servant Act [1901] was another piece of legislation which came into effect.
This operated throughout the colonial period. The Act stipulated the number of working days
per contract period and allowed employers to engage labourers for more than the calendar
month. This implies that a month could be extended to 42 days without pay. At some mines
labourers were forced to accept six months contracts in the presence of compound police boys.
At other mines managers simply refused to sign workers who had completed their contracts
hence they could not leave the mine for another through the pass laws.
*The Master and Servant Ordinance largely managed to regulate the mobility of the black
labour force and stabilise employment under contract.
-The 1911 African Labour Regulations Act was another piece of legislation which covers
employees in agriculture and mining and it blocked employees from switching employment for
higher wages. The stealing of employees was forbidden. Worker mobility was denied by this
act. The act also authorised compound inspectors to search and arrest illegal compound
dwellers. The passing of this act was a result of the establishment of more farms and mines and
competition for labour increased. Under this act it was an offense to poach labour especially
agricultural labourers who were in short supply.
-To ensure a constant supply of labour at cheap or no cost, in farms and mines, the colonial
regime introduced the Compound System which was well known for its pervasiveness and
brutality. The system was employed in medium sized mines and farms, that is, those employing
between 300 and 750 black labourers. Raftopoulous and Phimister argue that the compounds
were closely monitored to ensure continuous labour supplies.
[9] To what extent did taxation solve the labour problems faced by settler governments
between 1900 and 1930?
Pupils need to examine the effectiveness of the imposed taxes on Africans in order to force
them to work for the white settlers.
-The whites imposed taxes such as dog, hut, poll, cattle, land and wife tax. These taxes were
imposed on Africans who had not known taxation in the form it was being levied. The whites
brought monetary economy and the blacks had to pay taxes in form of money [monetary form].
Blacks did not have money because their economy was not monetary but was premised on
barter trade. The only source of money was working for the whites in mines and farms. The
purpose of the taxes was therefore to push the blacks into settler mines and farms.
*However, while some Africans worked for the whites to get money for taxes, others decided
to sell their cattle to pay tax and to avoid working for the whites.
-There were other measures imposed which were meant to solve labour problems. For
instance, there was institutionalisation of forced labour. Forced labour was a direct way of
getting labour from blacks.
*Some Africans however ran away from forced labour recruitment.

-The Rhodesian Native Labour Bureau [1901] was put in place in order tomobilise the labour
force amongst the black people and hence creating more pool of workers for the whites.
-Creation of reserves was also meant to solve labour problems among the whites. Reserves
were created in such areas as Gwai and Shangani in Matabeleland and later on in Mashonaland.
The blacks were resettled in reserves which were badly watered and had infertile soils. There
was little or no production which would take place in reserves. The reserves were created in
such a way that it streamlined the blacks from active commercial farming and it forced many
black people into working for the whites.
-The Pass Laws of 1902 also helped to solve labour problems among the whites.
-Land dispossession was also done through various pieces of legislation like the 1930 Land
Apportionment Act. This effectively took away land from the blacks and left them with no
option except to work for the whites in farms and mines.
[9 Assess the various measures taken by the BSAC and settler governments in dealing with
labour problems in Southern Rhodesia.
[9] Analyse and assess the effects of the various measures taken by the British South Africa
Company and settler governments to deal with the labour problems between 1900 and 1930.
[9] Critically examine the effects of the various measures taken by the BSAC and settler
government in dealing with the labour problems between 1900 and 1930.
Pupils need to assess the measures taken by the whites in solving labour problems as well as
the effects [impact] of the measures.
Measures taken by the BSAC and settler governments
-Creation of reserves
-Forced labour
-Imposition of taxation
-The Rhodesian Native Labour Bureau
-Land dispossession
Effects of the measures on the BSAC and settler governments
-More employment
-Looting of black cattle
-Importation of labour from Malawi
-Poor production
Effects on Africans
-Fleeing to South Africa
-Machine breaking
-Desertion
[9] Examine the problems faced by mine and farm workers between 1900 and 1948 and
assess the workers’ response to those problems.
Pupils need to assess the problems that were experienced by workers and their response.
Workers’ problems
-Poor ventilation in mines
-Low wages and long working hours
-High taxation
-Unabated accidents

-Poor housing [compound accommodation, poor ventilation, no windows, overcrowded, damp
floors]
-Poor health facilities
-Poor diet
-No job security
Workers’ responses
-They resorted to absenteeism.
-They faked illness.
-They embarked on sit-ins.
-They used strikes and demonstrations, for example, Shamva strike [1927], Wankie Colliery
strike and Ayrshire strike.
-They formed Trade Unions.
-They deserted work places for better paying places.
-Refusal to carry passes was another response by Africans.
-They forged signatures on passes or lost passes deliberately yet some destroyed passes.
-Go-slows
-Loafing
-Deliberately breaking machines
-Deliberate wastefulness of raw materials [resources] so as to reduce productivity.
-Some workers injured themselves.
-Stealing of food and crops from whites
-Insolvency and abuse of livestock
-Refusal to pay taxes
-Formation of burial and dance societies
-They formed African independent Churches, for example the Watch Tower Movement in
mining centres of Shamva and Wankie.
*All these measures taken by Africans helped to reduce productivity as well as reducing profit
margins.
Failures
-There was no redress to the accommodation crisis as this persisted in mines.
-Whites continued to perpetuate the pass laws, hence exploitation of the mine workers
continued unabated.
-Poor working conditions continued.
[9]How and to what extent did the Africans succeed in resisting European exploitation on the
mines, farms and cities by 1950?
Pupils need to assess the methods used by Africans in resisting European exploitation in mines,
farms and cities and effectiveness of their response to exploitation.
# In mines, resistance was in form of
-go-slows
-strikes like the Shamva strike of 1927
-absenteeism
-desertion
-machine breaking
-accidents

# On farms there was
-passive resistance
-non-cooperation as methods of fighting exploitation
# In towns [cities] Africans used
-strikes, for example, the railway strike of 1945and the general strike of 1948
-they also organised themselves into associations such as the Rhodesia Bantu Voters
Association [RBVA].
*These methods were not effective in the short term as they were easily suppressed by the
colonial authorities.
*However, in the long term, such resistance formed the basis for the nationalist movement of
the 1960s.
[9] Assess the level of worker consciousness among African workers in Zimbabwe up to 1930.
Pupils need to examine progression of African worker consciousness in colonial Zimbabwe.
-Blacks responded and used many strategies in the face of repressive system of labour.
-Workers’ consciousness was seen in Africans’ persistent migrations south-wards to the Rand at
the expense of local jobs.
-Worker consciousness was also seen through loafing, deliberate wastefulness, go-slows, faking
illness, self-inflicted injuries, abuse of equipment, desertion and strikes.
-In the 1920s and 1930s some worker organisations were started such as Clements Kadalie’s
Industrial and Commercial Workers’ Union.
EARLY AFRICAN RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL RULE IN ZIMBABWE
[10] Discuss the repressive nature of European settler rule in Rhodesia between 1923 and
1948. How did Africans respond to their rule?
Rule in Southern Rhodesia was characterised by increased repression, especially after 1923.
Pupils must discuss the aspects of this repression as seen through various legislative
instruments.
-The 1930 Land Apportionment Act gave Europeans prime land for commercial agriculture and
placed Africans into reserves where there was little or no production.
-The Maize Control Act of 1934 gave Africans lower prices for their crops compared to
Europeans.
-Africans were converted into sources of cheap labour to serve both the urban and commercial
farming areas.
-In towns Africans were forced to move around with passes [pass law of 1902].
-In agriculture Europeans were given access to better agricultural land compared to Africans
who were only trained by demonstrations and given a certificate.
-The location of reserves made it difficult to market agricultural produce thereby effectively
reducing competition with Europeans.
*Obviously increased colonial repression was met with either passive or open African
resistance, for example,
-abandonment of commercial farming by Africans
-desertion of farming and mining compounds
-sabotage [deliberate machine breaking and deliberate wastefulness]
-industrial action [strikes like Shamva strike of 1927 and the 1948 General strike]
-rise of African Independent Churches

-Burial and Dance Societies
*All this created the seeds of mass nationalism.
[10] Discuss how Africans reacted to increased oppression and exploitation in the 1920s and
1930s in colonial Zimbabwe.
Candidates need to examine the manner and ways through which Africans reacted to increased
oppression.
*Oppression and exploitation was manifested through
-Land dispossessions
-Forced labour
-Taxation
-Low wages
-Racist laws
*Africans reacted by
-forming associations like the RBVA and the Ndebele Home Movement.
-Trade Unions such as the ICU
-Widespread strike actions in mines and farms such as the Shamva mine strike of 1927.
-Desertions and acts of sabotage in mines and farms
[10] What actions did Africans take and with what success in their protest against colonial
rule in Rhodesia in the first half of the 20th C
After the subjugation of the Ndebele and the Shona in the uprising of 1896-7, the Africans
passively accepted the status quo. However, they showed their dislike of settler rule through
hidden resistance and then through an attempt to organise associations along European lines
hoping that these would secure reform and allow Africans to be accommodated within the
colonial structure.
# Africans showed their dislike to colonial rule by
-Absenting themselves from work. However, this was punishable by imprisonment and loss of
pay.
-Workers often deserted their masters and went to South Africa to look for jobs in the mines
where salaries were better.
-They deliberately caused accidents a work.
-They deliberately broke machines [sabotage]. This would give them time to rest during the
period the machines were being repaired.
-Sometimes they worked slowly [go-slow] so as to reduce production.
-Those working in factories stole some items which they sold cheaply to their fellowmen in the
locations [Tsvete].
*These actions did not succeed in securinga better deal for the Africans to some extent but at
least reduced profits for the settlers.
# Associations- Attempts at political organisation took the form of efforts aimed at securing
African accommodation within the colonial system.
-Rhodesian Native Bantu Voters Association tried to secure voting rights for theeducated
Africans in the 1920s but to no avail.
-The Matabeleland Home Movement led by Nyamanda, Lobengula’s son tried to buy land which
would be redistributed to the displaced Ndebele. The scheme failed.

-In 1927, the Industrial Commercial Workers Union, deriving inspiration from a similar
organisation in South Africa led by Clemens Kadalie tried to fight for better conditions by
organising strikes. These strikes were suppressed and foreigners deported.The leaders were
arrested and imprisoned.
-In the 1930s, Rev Samkange and Rusike formed the Southern Rhodesia Native Congress whose
approach to the problems was reformist.Like other organisations of the period it did not
achieve anything.
*Overall, African actions during the period did not achieve much but rather provoked more ill-
treatment of Africans. On the positive side the Africans had succeeded in making the Europeans
realise that they were not satisfied with the status quo.
[10] To what extent was the Industrial Commercial Workers Union [ICU] of 1927 responsible
for its own failure before 1940?
Pupils need to examine the reasons why ICU failedto realise its aims. They must identify aims
[goals] and explain why they were not fulfilled.
Aims f ICU
-It called for high wages.
-To improve working conditions on farms and mines.
-Improvement of the conditions of peasants
-To address the plight of traders and educated Africans
-Relaxation of voting qualifications.
-The need to organise trade unions in towns
Internal reasons for its failure
-ICU leaders were unable to articulate problems for different industries.
-The leaders lacked experience as it was the first trade union in the country.
-It was affected by financial problems.
-Leaders were mostly foreigners hence were not taken seriously.
External reasons
-Trade unionism was illegal on the part of the blacks.
-Trade unionists were not allowed on farms and mines.
-There were no trade unions for the different industries.
-Most workers were unskilled thus could be easily replaced if they were troublesome.
-Some workers were migrant workers who only worked for money to pay tax hence cared less
for improved conditions.
-Workers were fragmented as industries were far apart.
-Forms of transport and communication were scarce at the time and leaders were less mobile.
-Spies infiltrated ICU meetings.
-Leaders were harassed.
-Foreign leaders like R Sambo were deported.
[10]Analyse the effectiveness of Nationalist Movements in Southern Rhodesia between 1955
and 1975.
Pupils need to analyse the effectiveness of the activities done by all political movements that
were meant to end colonial rule.
-There was formation of nationalist parties.

-Boys and girls were recruited and sent to Mozambique, Zambia, China, Russia and Korea for
military training.
-Rallies and meetings were organised.
-In cities, strikes, demonstrations, sit ins and boycotts became rampant.
-They canvassed international support, for example, from OAU and UNO.
-They pressurised Britain to spearhead the 1961 constitutional talks.
Ineffectiveness
-Political parties were moderate
-There were in fights
-There was leadership crisis-Muzorewa
-Leaders were placed in detentions
-There were interparty divisions
-They were urban based
[10] Assess the occurrence of industrial unrestin colonial Zimbabwe up to 1950.
Pupils need to assess the reasons for unrest in industries up to 1950 and the impact of the
unrest.
Causes
-Poor working conditions on farms, factories, mines and industries.
-The Master and Servant Act
-The industrial conciliation Act [1934]
-Public Order and Maintenance Act
# Unrest manifested in the form of demonstrations, strikes, absenteeism and desertion.
[10] Analyse the British South Africa Company’s colonial structures and assess their
effectiveness preventing further uprising after 1897.
Pupils need to describe the structures of government put by the BSAC as well as an evaluation
of their effectiveness in curbing African uprisings.
-The setting up of the Administration with Salisbury as the headquarters
-The setting up of the legislative council
-The appointment of the Administrator and the Commandant General as head of police.
-The construction of railway lines which reached Umtali [1898] and Bulawayo [1897]
-The imposition of taxes
-The imposition of harsh laws like the Pass Laws, Master and Servant Act and so on
-The setting up of the Native Department
-Land policies in both Matabeleland and Mashonaland.
Assessment
-By 1923 Africans were finally under the control of whites.
-Resistance to colonial rule was weak and isolated although there were instances of strike
action in mines and towns for example, in Shamva [1927] and the General strike [1948]
[10] Describe the structure of the 1898 constitution of Southern Rhodesia.
Pupils need to discuss the composition of the 1898 constitution of Southern Rhodesia. They
must demonstrate knowledge about the internal structure of the 1898 constitution.
# Major aspects and their duties
-Administrator
-Police

-Magistrate
-Native Commission
-Chiefs
# The British government monitored the activity of the BSAC hence the need for a British
resident Commissioner.
[10] Analyse the view that the Second World War was mainly responsible for the rise of
nationalism in Zimbabwe.
Pupils need to examine the role played by the Second World War in generating nationalism.
They must also examine the role of other factors.
Role of Second World War
-Black soldiers returning from the war brought back lessons and experiences of fighting
oppression.
-They had fought and some died as equals alongside whites but upon returning to Zimbabwe,
they were no longer equals.
-The majority of African countries gained their independence shortly after the Second World
War thereby providing inspiration to the Rhodesian blacks.
*The independence of India and Pakistan in 1947 were also a source of inspiration.
Other factors
-Economic exploitation
-Poor working conditions
-Continued expropriation of resources
-Social segregation
FEDERATION OF SOUTHERN RHODESIA, NORTHERN RHODESIA AND NYASALAND [1953-1963]
[11] What reasons were advanced in favour of the establishment of the Federation of
Rhodesia and Nyasaland? Explain why it fell in 1963?
[11] What arguments were put forward by settlers for the establishment of the Central
African Federation? Explain why it collapsed in 1963?
[11] Explain the view that the Federation of Rhodesia of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was created
for economic rather than political reasons.
[11] How far true is the view that the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was created for
economic rather than political considerations?
Pupils need to examine the reasons [motives] behind the establishment of the Federation of
Rhodesia and Nyasaland. They must also explain why it collapsed in 1963.
Economic reasons for its establishment
-The federation would cut administration costs. It was going to be less expensive for the white
administration to administer one huge colony. Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland were all colonies of Britain.
-The federation would enable the Central African region to prosper and develop rapidly [faster]
than was possible in the three territories as separate entities. Southern Rhodesia would provide
agricultural products and minerals. Northern Rhodesia would provide copper and Nyasaland
would provide labour. Hence labour problems would be solved. The settlers in the three
territories wanted to share profits of agriculture, gold and copper.

-The federation would attract foreign investors and promote industrialisation. This would make
Central Africa less dependent on South Africa. Thus this would form a strong British colony to
be able to compete with South Africa.
-Planning on an overall scale would be far more effective, enabling maximum use of raw
materials, power, labour and skills.
-The settlers wanted to create a large and more diversified national economy. Such a bigger
economic unit like the federation would attract the capital needed to develop projects like
railway development and a big hydro-electric power scheme since the copper belt was now
finding it difficult to supply power needs of the three territories.
-The federation would provide a big market for goods produced in the federation.
Political reasons for its establishment
-The federation was meant to foster settler domination and supremacy over Africans. Settlers
in Northern Rhodesia believed their position would be strengthened by the many settlers in
Southern Rhodesia. From a political point of view, the whites saw a federation as a way of
perpetuating their supremacy by denying the political advancement of Africans in the two
northern territories whose constitutional position was different from that of Southern
Rhodesia.
-The federation would create a formidable British military stronghold in Central Africa able to
compete with South Africa.
-The federation was established because of the fear that Africans might revolt against the
whites in Central Africa. Africans had already started forming trade unions and political parties.
So a federation would help the British to control those Africans and monitor their movements.
The federation was going to make it easier to control the blacks under one administration as
compared to what was happening prior.Thus this federation would protect whites in the three
territories from nationalist calls for independence. It would check [prevent] the rise of African
nationalism. Hence the whites wanted to suppress nationalistic feelings.
-The federation would enable the Africans and the Europeans to work in a partnership in which
the Europeans would be senior partners [riders]. The blacks would be horses in the partnership.
Africans according to Wellensky “can never hope to dominate the partnership”.
-Many settlers feared being politically overwhelmed by larger African majorities north of the
Zambezi. The federation was seen as a more promising vehicle to attain autonomous dominion
status.
-The federation would check the spread of apartheid from South Africa and the rise of African
nationalism. The English speaking white minorities of the two Rhodesias and Nyasaland having
noted out the possibility of joining Afrikaner dominated South Africa wanted the federation to
contain African nationalism in Southern Rhodesia and prevent the impending independence of
the protectorates of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland which they perceived in terms creeping
communism and nationalism.
Social reasons for the establishment of the federation
-The three territories would benefit from common facilities such as the University College in
Southern Rhodesia [UZ] and Kariba Hydro-electric project.
-The federation was going to make Africans much more inferior in the eyes of thewhites.
-It was meant to racially undermine the blacks.
-It would improve the availability of electricity.

Reasons for its collapse
The federation fell in 1963 due to a plethora of factors
-The federation fell because there was unequal development [development disparity] in the
three territories with Southern Rhodesia being the Bambazonke. For example, the University of
Zimbabwe, Kariba Dam and capital city [Salisbury] were all in Southern Rhodesia. More so,
parliamentary seats were more in Southern Rhodesia. Southern Rhodesia had many industries
than in other two territories. The headquarters of the railways were in Southern Rhodesia.
Hence Southern Rhodesia was thus monopolising everything. The two northern territories
[Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland] began to complain that development was only taking place
in Southern Rhodesia with resources derived from the north.
-Opposition from African nationalists led to the collapse of the federation. These African
nationalists included Kamuzu Banda, Hary Nkumbula, Joshua Nkomo, Kapwepwe and Kenneth
Kaunda.“We know that our brothers in the South are slaves” declared Nkumbula of the ANC in
Zambia. From the outset nationalists in the two northern territories were opposed to the
federation and segregatory policies of Southern Rhodesia and the demand for dominion status
by the settlers further stimulated opposition in the three territories. The Africans in the three
territories agitated for political independence. The two northern territories saw a federation as
a barrier against the aspiration for advancement towards self-determination. The federation
was widely seen by blacks in northern territories as a device to prolong rule by whites who
were much more numerous in Southern Rhodesia.
-Failure of thepolicy of partnership [horse and rider] led to the collapse of the federation.
Africans were greatly concerned by Huggins’ explanations and his likening of it to that of the
‘horse and rider.
-Britain’s change of policy and granting of independenceto her colonies led to the collapse of
the federation. Faced with growing opposition, the British government changed its policy and
granted colonies independence. Britain no longer had the will and interest to rule in Central
Africa. As a result she granted independence to the two northern territories. Britain accepted
that the two northern territories could secede. Malawi was given the right to secede following
Macmillan’s speech on wind of change in Cape Town. Zambia also followed Malawiin pulling
out.It therefore became difficult to continue the federation with one state still under colonial
rule. Thus in 1963 the federation collapsed.
-Trade unionists and workers’ organisations in Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland opposed the federation. Trade unions staged strikes, demonstrations and petitions
to show their dislike for the federation. Hence its collapse was imminent.
[11] Assess the view that from its inception, the federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was
doomed.
Pupils need to analyse the controversies which shrouded the formation of the federation of
Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
-The formation of the federation was opposed from the onset by both Africans and Europeans.
-The aims for which the federation was formed were unacceptable to Nyasaland and Northern
Rhodesia.
-The ‘horse’ and its ‘rider’ aspect was not welcome to all Africans.
-The constitution of the federation was biased towards Southern Rhodesia.
-There was no equal representation in the federal parliament.

-There was mistiming on those who formed it because the tide of nationalism was already
sweeping across Africa.
-Kaunda, Banda and other nationalistsblasted the federation before it even started.
-Trade unionists, politicians and some whites opposed the formation of the federation.
[11] ‘A partnership of a white rider and an African horse’. Is this a fair assessment of race-
relationship in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland?
Pupils need to examine the nature of relationship between whites and blacks in Rhodesia and
Nyasaland during the federation. They must consider disparities in political, economic and
social benefits.
Politically
-It was also meant to suppress nationalistic feelings.
-Whites wanted to enhance total control of the three colonies.
-It was going to be much easier to control the blacks under one administration as compared to
what was happening prior.
-The federal council
-The electoral system
Economically
-It was going to be less expensive for the white administration to administer one huge colony.
-It was going to solve their labour problems as well.
-It was economically viable for them
Socially
-It was going to make Africans much more inferior in the eyes of the whites.
-It was meant to racially undermine the blacks.
[11] ‘Southern Rhodesia benefited most from the Central African Federation [1953-1963]’. Do
you agree?
[11] How valid is the assertion that Southern Rhodesia benefited most from the Central
African Federation [1953-1963]
[11] Examine the view that the Federal Constitution and its work reveals that Southern
Rhodesia was the ‘rider’ while Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia were the ‘horse’.
Pupils need to assess the Federal Constitution and the achievements of the Federal
Government.
-The Federal Constitution allowed Southern Rhodesia to dominate the partnership, for
example, the Federal parliament initially had 36 MPs of which 18 were from Southern Rhodesia,
11 from Northern Rhodesia and 7 from Nyasaland.Thus more parliamentary seats were in
Southern Rhodesia.
-66% of the income tax revenue would go to Southern Rhodesia while Nyasaland and Northern
Rhodesia each would get 17%.
-Salisbury which was in Southern Rhodesia was the Federal Capital.
-There was development disparity, for example, hydro-electric power was located at Kariba on
the Southern Rhodesian side.
-The University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was in Southern Rhodesia though largely funded by
the exploitation of copper from Zambia [Northern Rhodesia].
-Many colleges, for example, Gweru Teachers College and Mutare teachers College were built
in Southern Rhodesia [Zimbabwe.

-Arts and gallery plus the National Archives were located in Southern Rhodesia.
-Hippo Valley and Triangle Sugar Estates were irrigated using water from Lake Kyle built by the
Federal Government in Southern Rhodesia in Fort Victoria.
-The so called ‘Federal Boom’ reflected the achievements of Southern Rhodesia much more
than to the northern counter-parts.
-Southern Rhodesia played a dominant role and reaped the most from the federation.
*However, there were developments in the other two territories [Northern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland], for example, there was a hydro-electric power project at Nkula Falls in Malawi but
funded by two and half million pounds.
-Hydro-electric power plant was also incepted at Kafue River but it generated less power.
-Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were to share electricity from Kariba.
-Intake at the University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was from the three states.
-Many nationals especially from Malawi were employed in Southern Rhodesia.
-Coffee and tea plantations were introduced in Nyasaland on the Shire Highlands.
-Schools and health institutions were built in all the three countries.
[11] Assess the achievements and explain the collapse of the Federation of Rhodesia and
Nyasaland in 1963
*Economic achievements
-There was rapid industrial growth during the Federal decade. Industries grew during the
Federation especially in Southern Rhodesia. Iron and steel manufacturing industries increased
in Bulawayo, Salisbury, Lusaka and other cities in the federation. Hence there was employment
creation largely in Southern Rhodesia.
-Foreign investment was attracted resulting in the growth of Salisbury as the capital city of the
federation and the construction of the Hydro-electric power station at Kariba.
-In the early years of the federation, the economy was booming. The Gross Domestic Product
[GDP] rose from 350, 6 million pounds in 1954 to 448 million pounds in 1956.
-National income had risen from 303 million to 440 million pounds between 1953 and 1959.
-Exports increased by 74% through Beira, Angola, South Africa and Tanzania.
-Irrigation schemes were built in Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia, for
example, Hippo Valley Estate, Mlanje Tea Estate, Triangle Sugar Plantation and Kafue Irrigation
scheme.Thus there was increased output in agriculture export, for example, tobacco, tea,
coffee and sugar cane.
-There was increased production in mining of gold, copper and asbestos.
-There was development of research stations for agriculture, forestry.
Social achievements
-There was an improvement in transport, for example, Bulawayo was linked with Maputo
[Lourenco Marques]. Roads were constructed and tarred.
-There was construction of dams. For example, Lake Kariba was constructed in 1959. It was the
biggest man-made lake in the world. Thus the federation built the world’s famous Kariba dam
for hydro-electricity. Thus the biggest of the federal scheme was to harness Zambezi River at
Kariba Gorge by constructing a dam which would supply hydro-electric power for the copper
belt and the industrial region of Southern Rhodesia.Lake Mtirikwi [Kyle Dam] was also built in
Southern Rhodesia during the federal decade. This made irrigation possible.

-Hydro-electric power plants were incepted, for example, at Kariba. It supplied electricity to
Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Other hydro-electric power plants were
incepted at Nkula falls in Malawi and at Kafue River.
-Hwange thermal power station was also built in Southern Rhodesia to boost power supply.
-Educational facilities expanded during the federal decade. For example, there was construction
of secondary schools for Africans and these included Fletcher High School in Gwelo.
-The University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was established in Salisbury in 1957, in Mt Pleasant.
On the dissolution of the federation, Southern Rhodesia inherited the university as well as the
federal army equipment. The university greatly benefited Southern Rhodesia intellectually,
infrastructurally and economically. However, Zambian and Malawian students were also
afforded a chance to learn at the University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. This implies that
Africans in the three territories were able to acquire higher qualifications.
-There was urban development during the federal decade. African workers in towns felt some
benefit from the boom, improved wages and working conditions. It is therefore generally
recognised that the period of federation was one of increased economic prosperity, but
authorities disagree on the contribution the federation itself made to this state of affairs.
-Health facilities improved. For example, a number of well-equipped hospitals were built in big
towns like Salisbury, Bulawayo, Kitwe and Blantyre. For instance, Harare hospital was built in
Salisbury.
THE SECOND CHIMURENGA
[12] Why did the nationalists in Zimbabwe resort to the armed struggle?
[12] Outline the main grievances of the African nationalists in Rhodesia after the Second
World War. Why did they resort to the armed struggle?
*Main grievances
They protested against
-the Land Apportionment Act [LAA] and Land Husbandry Act [LHA]. The blacks resented land
alienation through various acts like LAA and LHA.
-discrimination at work [Industrial Conciliation Act of 1934] and in public places [They wanted
equal job opportunities].
-the Pass system [1936 Native Registration Act]
-low wages and poor working conditions throughout the colonial period
-exclusion from the franchise
-lack of adequate education facilities. They resented education colour bar.
-exclusion from civil service [job colour bar]
-lack of adequate health facilities.
*Why did they resort to the armed struggle?
-Negotiations had failed to bring about change.
-Successive nationalist parties had been banned and leaders detained.
-The Smith regime was becoming more and more oppressive [Law and Order Maintenance Act].
-Ian Douglas Smith declared UDI [Unilateral Declaration of Independence] in 1965 and Britain
refused to use force.
-Sanctions imposed on Smith by the UNO [United Nations Organisation] were violated by
Portugal and South Africa and proved ineffective.

-There was influence from ex-servicemen. The ex-servicemen from World War Two spread
doctrines of liberty [freedom], equality, justice as well as nationalism.
-Africans wanted majority rule as opposed to white minority rule. They resented the fact that
the white minority controlled resources and means of production.
[12] Why did Zimbabwe’s independence from white colonial rule take so long to achieve?
It took so long for Africans to attain independence because of various reasons
Weaknesses of the Africans
-There was lack of unity among African nationalists. Some even collaborated with the whites.
-There was need for time to politicise the masses.
-Erroneous analysis by the political parties of their situations.
-There was infighting by the political parties.
-Smith had many ways of fighting.
-The whites arrested political leaders
-The Rhodesian front used some dirty tactics.
-The Rhodesian government was given support by South Africa, Portugal and other countries.
-The whites were totally determined to hold on to their acquired wealth.
-For some settlers, Rhodesia [Zimbabwe] was their only home.
[12]Evaluate the role played by the Front line states in Zimbabwe’s liberation struggle
between 1965 and 1980.
Pupils need to assess the significance of the role played by Front line states compared with
other factors in the struggle for the liberation of Zimbabwe.
Role played by Front line states
-They provided rear bases for both ZANLA and ZIPRA forces.
Front line states included Mozambique, Botswana, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Angola and
Lesotho.
-They provided training camps for guerilla recruits in Mozambique, Tanzania and Botswana.
This was because training was difficult in the country [Zimbabwe].
-They provided headquarters of the liberation movements [ZANU and ZAPU].
-They received refugees, for example, in Botswana.
-They organised meetings to solve problems pertaining to the movement.
-They offered educational facilities for Zimbabweans.
-They facilitated military, financial and material aid.
-They spoke in support of the nationalist movements at various organisations like UNO, OAU,
Non-Aligned Movement and Commonwealth.
-They demanded the unity of the two main liberation movements [ZANU and ZAPU]. In other
words, they facilitated the alliance of ZANU and ZAPU to form the Patriotic Front.
-They provided diplomatic and moral support.
-They pressured the Patriotic Front to sign the Ceasefire Agreement at Lancaster House
Conference.
-They provided equipment.
-They provided food.
-They provided medical supplies / facilities.
Other factors

-China, Russia and Cuba also assisted.
-The International Community assisted through the UNO.
-Internal factors like the role of peasants, guerillas and the youths also contributed.
[12] ‘A crucial external force for successful execution of the armed struggle’. How fair is this
comment on the role played by Front line states in the liberation of Zimbabwe?
Pupils need to examine the impact of the contribution of the Frontline states on the effort of
the liberation movements [ZANU and ZAPU].
Role of Frontline states
-provided bases
-equipment
-food
-diplomatic aid
-moral support
-helped in training
*However, candidates may raise the following challenges
-The assassination of Herbert Chitepo on the Zambian soil and imprisonment of several ZANLA
commanders which derailed the armed struggle.
-Zambia’s role in the détente exercise that resulted in a lull in the guerilla war and confusion
among the guerillas.
[12] Evaluate the role played women in the liberation of Zimbabwe.
Pupils need to evaluate the role played by women as well as the role of other factors in the
liberation of Zimbabwe.
*Role of women during the war of liberation
-Women gave moral support to the freedom fighters.
-They washed clothes for comrades.
-They were a source of information.
*Role of other factors [other people, countries and organisations]
-Mujibas were baggage carriers, recruits, information providers and familiarised tours on the
geography of the areas, collected blankets, collected sell outs for punishment, spied and
provided morale during pungwes.
-Workers provided money, transport, medicines, books, clothes and radios.
-Missionaries provided centres for recruitment, medicine and hiding places for guerillas.
-Foreign countries like USSR [Russia], Yugoslavia, Namibia, China and Czechoslovakia provided
weapons and training of cadres.
-Front line states and OAU played great roles in liberating Zimbabwe.
[12] ‘The role of religion in the liberation struggle of Zimbabwe has been underestimated’.
How accurate is this assertion?
Pupils need to assess the role of religion during the war with a view to determine the accuracy
of the statement. Candidates are expected to consider both African Traditional Religion and
Christianity.
Role of African Traditional Religion
-It was a source of inspiration to the fighters who regarded themselves as the bones of
Nehanda.

-Key traditional religious leaders joined the guerillas in Mozambique to provide spiritual and
ideological leadership.
-The support that the traditional religious leaders lended to the struggle resulted in the
peasants following suit since traditional religion was their religion.
-Traditional religious leaders freely criticised the political leaders hence checking their abuse of
power.
-Religious leaders carried the message from the ancestors in support of the struggle hence
guerillas believed they were protected by the ancestors in their fight.
-It instilled discipline among the guerillas who were required to observe rules of the ancestors
such as respect for life.
-Due to the traditional religious beliefs, guerillas treated their prisoners of war humanly and
lived at peace with wildlife.
-Spirit mediums gave warning against imminent enemy attacks.
-Spirit mediums co-operated with guerillas in recruitment and politicisation of the fighters by
giving them blessings.
Role of Christianity
-Provided material support for guerillas-medicines and clothes.
-Provided shelter and food at mission stations near the borders with Mozambique such as Mt
Selinda, Mutamba, St Augustines and Hartzel.
-Mission schools were recruitment grounds for the guerillas.
-Promoted the doctrine of equality of men which the guerillas were fighting for.
-Also offered other forms of humanitarian assistance
-Provided material and spiritual support to refugees through the participation in welfare
programmes among refugees in Botswana, Zambia and Mozambique.
-Sought assurance of Marxist liberation movements that there would be freedom of worship in
a new Zimbabwe.
[12] Discuss the view that peasants contributed more to the liberation of Zimbabwe than the
International Community.
[12] Discuss the view that without peasants’ involvement, the guerillas would not have won
the war of liberation.
[12] How far can it be argued that the peasants played the most critical role in the success of
the armed struggle in Zimbabwe?
[12] ‘The peasants played the most crucial role in the success of the armed struggle’. Do you
agree?
Pupils need to examine the role played by peasants as well as other factors in the liberation
struggle.
Role of peasants
-The peasants included men and women, the boys [Mujibhas] and girls [Chimbwidos]. Their
roles included the following.
-There was a general failure of the initial phases of the liberation struggle prior to peasant
involvement [1966-72]. There was need to change tactics by incorporating peasants into the
armed struggle as realised by Herbert Chitepo of ZANU and Chikerema of ZAPU.
-The Mujibhas [young men] and Chimbwidos [young women] provided morale and information
on enemy movements.

-Mujibhas and Chimbwidos alsocarried supplies from one base to another and they were
messengers.
-Peasants cooked and offered food, new recruits and all necessary logistics.
-Peasants organised pungwes.
-Peasants acted as the sea in which the fish swam. They provided essential cover as according
to Mao Tse Tung, “the masses were the water and the guerillas were the fish”.
-Peasants provided shelter to the guerillas.
-Peasants acted as spies for guerillas.
-Peasants sabotaged infrastructure.
a] The International community
-Frontline states, Eastern Bloc [Communist Bloc] provided arms and training, Western countries
and OAU all contributed
-The humanitarian organisations of the UNO also played their part
-China, USSR, Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Lesotho are to be credited for
provision of bases for training, weapons, educational support, food, moral support and other
humanitarian considerations.
b] The war could however, not have been won without the guerillas who fought on the battle
front and politicised the masses.
[12] Assess the view that external influence was vital in the attainment of Zimbabwe’s
independence.
-Pupils need to examine the role of external influence in the effort to gain majority rule in
Zimbabwe as well as the role of other factors.
Role of external influence
-The Frontline states
-The OAU/AU [liberation committee gave guns and pushed for PF unity].
-The Eastern Bloc
-The Western countries
-The Commonwealth
-The UNO
-USA and Britain put pressure on Rhodesia to give independence.
Internal factors
-The liberation movements [ZANU and ZAPU].
-The urban workers
-The peasants
-The guerillas
[12]How effective was the resort to ‘dirty war’ tactics by the Rhodesian army in fighting
against the guerillas?
Pupils need to assess the impact of the use of unorthodox way of fighting by the Rhodesian
security forces during the war.
-Effects of the activities of the Selous Scouts.
-Effects of chemical warfare.
-Effects of food and water poisoning.
-Effects of keeps [protected villages].

-Effects of the bombing of refugee camps in neighbouring countries [Tembwe, Nyadzonyaand
Chimoio-Mozambique and freedom camp-Zambia].
*Pupils must also highlight counter measures by the guerillas.
[12] ‘External pressure rather than the effects of the liberation war forced Ian Smith and the
leaders of the liberation movements to the negotiating table’. How valid is this statement/
Pupils need to examine the reasons which brought Zimbabwe’s liberation war to an end.
Role of external pressure
-Pressure on Smith was also coming from the United Nations Organisation.
-South Africa was threatening to cut off both military and other forms of assistance to Ian
Smith.
-The liberation movements were also facing pressure from OAU and the Frontline states.
Role of the effects of the liberation war
*On the other hand, the effects of the war in the country also contributed to bringing the war
to an end.
-Insecurity of both blacks and whites had reached unacceptable levels.
-Economic disruption was destroying the economy.
-The death toll for both combatants and civilians was rising.
-Both sides were suffering from war weariness.
-The costs of conducting the war were now unbearable for Ian Douglas Smith.
[12]How effective were the strategies used by Ian Douglas Smith to thwart the liberation
struggle in Zimbabwe?
Pupils need to examine the different ways used by Smith to weaken the efforts of nationalists in
their quest to attain independence through the barrel of the gun.
-Banning of political parties
-Detention without trial of nationalist leaders
-Conscription of blacks into their army to boost the numbers
-Driving the Africans into protected villages.
-Cross border aerial bombardment, for example, in Mozambique-Chimoio [1977], 900 refugees
mainly children and women were killed, in Zambia-Victory farm [1978], 330 refugees including
200 girls were killed.
-Sowing the seeds of division by assassinating prominent nationalists like Herbert Chitepo
[ZANU-PF] and Jason Ziyapapa Moyo [PF-ZAPU].
-Indiscriminate killing of civilians especially in rural areas
-The Internal Settlement with moderate nationalists
-The scorched earth policy.

A Level History - (QSN & Answer) Zimbabwean History - Tasara

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HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

[ADVANCED LEVEL] COMPILED BY MR TASARA O [2017]

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