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Wilson Zivave
Sharon Hofisi
Course Book
Tawedzerwa Moyo For ZIMSEC Form 5 and 6
Family and Religious Studies

Indigenous Religion and Judaism

Course book

Wilson Zivave Tawedzerwa Moyo Sharon Hofisi

Inhalt

TOPIC 1: TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION............................................................................ 1

Unit 1: Concept of God............................................................................................................................. 1
Unit 2: Existence and functions of spirits............................................................................................... 5
Unit 3: Concept of ancestors................................................................................................................... 11
Unit 4: Totems and indigenous identities.............................................................................................. 14
Unit 5: Communication with the spirits ................................................................................................ 18
Unit 6: Symbolism Indigenous Religion ................................................................................................. 22
Unit 7: Beliefs in life after death ............................................................................................................. 26
Unit 8: The nature of mediumship......................................................................................................... 30

TOPIC 2: INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND MEDIUMSHIP.............................................................. 34

Unit 9: Concept of mediumship.............................................................................................................. 34

TOPIC 3: UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION......................................... 38

Unit 10: Family relations and ethical conduct ...................................................................................... 38
Unit 11: Respect for elders...................................................................................................................... 43
Unit 12: Community and social responsibility....................................................................................... 47

TOPIC 4: INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND MARRIAGE .................................................................. 50

Unit 13: Marriage institution................................................................................................................... 50
Unit 14 Divorce.......................................................................................................................................... 58

TOPIC 5:.INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND GENDER RELATIONS .................................................. 62

Unit 15: Status of women in Indigenous Religion................................................................................. 62
Unit 16: Women participation in politics ............................................................................................... 65

TOPIC 7: INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT................................. 67

Unit 17: Reverence for nature and kinship with nature ...................................................................... 67
Unit 18: Sacred phenomena in the natural environment ................................................................... 70
Unit 19: Taboos and the natural environment...................................................................................... 73

TOPIC 8: INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND ENTERPRISE ................................................................ 75

Unit 20: Indigenous Religion and wealth creation ............................................................................... 75

TOPIC 9: INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND HEALTH ....................................................................... 78

Unit 21: Concept of health ...................................................................................................................... 78
Unit 22: Methods of healing ................................................................................................................... 81

TOPIC 10: INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND POLITICS............................................................. ....... 85

Unit 23: Concept of governance.............................................................................................................. 85
TOPIC 11: TENANTS OF JUDAISM............................................................................................... 89
Unit 24: Covenant .................................................................................................................................... 89
Unit 25: Law............................................................................................................................................... 93

TOPIC 12: PROPHECY................................................................................................................... 98

Unit 26: Prophecy and its origins ........................................................................................................... 98
Unit 27: Early manifestations of prophecy............................................................................................ 106
Unit 28: Functions of prophets ............................................................................................................... 108
Unit 29: Ways in which prophets received their messages................................................................. 112
Unit 30: Methods used by prophets to communicate their message................................................ 115
Unit 31: True and false prophecy............................................................................................................ 120
Unit 32: Prophecy, politics and social justice......................................................................................... 124

TOPIC 13: JUDAISM AND CONTEMPORARY ISSUES.................................................................. 129

Unit 33: Marriage institution .................................................................................................................. 129
Unit 34: Death and related beliefs......................................................................................... ................ 133
Unit 35: Health and well being .............................................................................................................. 137
Unit 36: Status of women in Judaism..................................................................................................... 142
Unit 37: Judaism and the land question................................................................................................. 147
Unit 38: Environment conservation........................................................................................................ 150

Examinations: ................................................................................................................... 154

Index: ................................................................................................................................. 157

 TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Unit Concept of God

1
Unit objectives people acknowledge the Supreme Being as Father,
Creator, Eternal, completely Beneficent, ethically Holy and
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: creatively Omnipotent. The Supreme Being is the creator
and sustainer of all things. He is outside and beyond His
•• explain the concept of God. creation.
•• identify the attributes of God.
On the other hand, He is personally involved in His
creation, so that it is not outside of Him or His reach. He is
Introduction simultaneously transcendent and immanent. Indigenous
The indigenous people believe in the existence of one knowledge of the Supreme Being is expressed in proverbs,
Supreme Being whom they venerate through ancestors by short statements, songs, prayers, names, myths, stories and
conducting libation, rain asking ceremony and thanksgiving religious ceremonies. All these are easy to remember and
after harvest. This Supreme Being is known by different pass on to other people. There are no sacred writings in
names depending on one’s cultural background. This unit indigenous societies. God is no stranger to the indigenous
explores the concept of God in Indigenous Religion as well as people and was not invented by missionaries.
identifying the attributes of God in Indigenous Religion.
Indigenous people have several names of the Supreme
Being. Among the Shona Supreme Being is known as
Key words Mwari while among the Ndebele, he is known as Umlimo
or Unkulunkulu. For the Xangani, He is known as Xikwembu,
Immanent – being naturally part of something; existing while the Sotho call him Modimo. These names of the
throughout and within something. Supreme Being explain the nature of God in Indigenous
Religion. The Supreme Being is transcendent and can only
Omnibenevolent – all-loving, or infinitely good, usually in
be approached through ancestors. He is also spirit since He
reference to a deity or supernatural being.
is known as Mudzimu Mukuru and He is the living timeless
Omnipotent – having unlimited power, force or authority. who was there before creation.

The concept of the Supreme Being is similar among

Omnipresent – being everywhere simultaneously.
indigenous communities like the Shona, Ndebele, Sotho,
Omniscient – having total knowledge. Kalanga, Xangani and the Venda. They understand God to
have attributes which include omnipotence, omniscience,
Transcendent – free from constraints of the material world. omnipresence, transcendence, immanence, benevolence
and so on. The Supreme Being has some negative traits
Concept of God like anger, jealousy and fury which are seen through human
Indigenous people believe that there is one Supreme calamities. These negative traits are seen through natural
Being known with different names depending on one’s occurrences like thunder, storm, wind, whirlwind, dark cloud
cultural background. This one Supreme Being is known and and running streams as well as natural disasters.
worshipped by indigenous people in Zimbabwe. Indigenous

TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION 1

Being is found even inside closed houses, forests, caves and care like that of a grandmother. This is the reason why God
any other place. This is the reason why every space is sacred is also given the name Mupazvose in indigenous society.
in Indigenous Religion. However, it is important to note that
if the Supreme Being is found everywhere, there should not 5. Transcendent
be the sacred and profane places in Indigenous Religion. Being transcendent is an attribute of the supreme in
Indigenous Religion. An attribute of being transcendent
2. Omniscient
is closely connected with another attribute of
This means that the Supreme Being is all knowing. Seeing being immanent. Transcendent and immanent are
and hearing explains the concept of God as omniscient complementary. Transcendent means he is so far and that
in a concrete way. The indigenous people believe that man cannot reach Him. Names such as Wekumusoro, Leza,
the Supreme Being has ears which hear everything and Xikwembu, Modimo and Umvelinqangi shows that he so far.
eyes that see everything. Furthermore, indigenous people He transcends all boundaries; He is omnipotent everywhere
visualize Him as the “Great Eye” or the “sun” which beams and at all times. This is the reason why he is approached
its light everywhere. In all these expressions, indigenous through a chain of ancestors.
people regard Him as the omniscient from whom nothing
is hidden since nothing can escape His vision, hearing and 6. Immanent
knowledge. God knows everything, observes everything and Immanent is another attribute of the Supreme Being which
hears everything without limitation and without exception. is the opposite of transcendent as the Supreme Being
This is why the indigenous people regard him as the “Wise comes close to man. In this way, God is thought of as
one”. They believe that the Supreme Being sees both the dwelling far away in the sky, or “above” beyond the reach of
inside and outside of man. Nothing can be hidden from men. The Supreme Being is associated with the sky. Some
Him. He has the account of each and everyone’s life in have myths telling of how men came from the sky or of how
His memory. He knows the joys, sorrows, failures and God separated from men and withdrew Himself into the sky,
successes of everyone. To know what He is thinking, diviners whence nobody could directly reach Him. He is immanent
are consulted. However, it is important to note that, if the so that men can and do in fact establish contact with Him.
Supreme Being is all knowing he should forewarn people This is done through rituals which makes God nearer and
about evil things that will happen in future. approachable to human beings. He is immanent, being
manifested in natural objects and sacred phenomena.
3. Omnipotent
The attribute of immanence implies that God mixes with
This means that God is all powerful. It also means that God his creation. Though transcendent, the Shona, for instance,
is almighty. The indigenous names of God which shows believe that God can be located on geographic space. The
that he is all powerful and mighty include Samasimba, early migrations of the Shona people prove that they were
Chipindikure, Chauta and Usomandla. The power of guided by the voice of Zame which manifested itself on
the Supreme Being is seen in practical terms as he various natural phenomena such as trees, grasses and
changes everything. Among the indigenous people, God’s rocks. Even today, the Shona and Ndebele God is believed
omnipotence is seen in his exercise of power over nature. to be stationed at the Matopos where they occasionally
For example, the Supreme Being is the one who makes the perform rain asking ceremonies.
sun set, make rain fall and make natural disasters stop.
7. Self-existent
The wind, the sun and the rain are beyond human power
but not beyond God’s power, who works through them God in indigenous society is not a created being for He
and other natural phenomena or objects. This means that is the first one to exist before creation was there. He is
the Supreme Being controls human life and nature. He not caused to exist but exists on his own. This attribute
changes the situation anytime He wants because He has explains the origin of God that He is self-existent and pre-
the power. He is invincible, unbeatable, unconquerable and eminent. The name Mutangakugara clearly expresses this
unshakable. attribute. The Supreme Being is the first, who has always
been in existence, and would never die. He has no Father
4. Omnibenevolent and is not a man. God is self-sufficient, self-supporting
and self-containing, just as He is self-originating. In simple
God in indigenous society cares for the people. He is given
terms, God is an uncreated living being without parents,
names which shows that he loves people and he is a care
without family, without any of the things that compose or
giver to the indigenous people. He is given the name
sustain human life. He is truly self-dependent, absolutely
Ambuye to reflect his everlasting love for people. Ambuye
unchangeable and unchanging.
means grandmother, this means that God has the love and

TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION 3

8. Pre-eminency and pestilence by God. The role of God is to
ensure that people live in accordance with the
The Supreme Being is largely believed to be the Great One moral and religious principles of the indigenous
or Great God or the Great King, or the surpassingly great people.
Spirit. The Ndebele name Unkulunkulu, means the Great- •• God communicates His demands to the people
Great-One or the Greatest of the Great. The Xangani name through ancestors. So His role is to warn people
Tatana and the Shona name Mwari also testify to this. of what He wants from the human world.

9. The Supreme Being is spirit

Activity 1
God is spirit and he is given the names Mudzimu Mukuru
meaning a great spirit. In Ndebele they regard him as In groups, discuss the attributes of God in Indigenous
Umdali meaning the old ancestor. This name is very similar Religion. Present your findings to the class.
to other indigenous communities like Venda, Xangani and
Sotho where God is also known as Mudzimu, Muzimu and
Modimo respectively. Summary of the unit
This name connotes that God is spirit since Mudzimu in •• Indigenous people believe that there is one
Shona is associated with spirit. This is also evidenced by the Supreme Being known by different names
fact that there are no images or physical representations of depending on one’s cultural background.
God by indigenous people. He is considered to be a Spiritual •• Indigenous people have several names of the
Being who is invisible. Idowu believes that the Supreme Supreme Being.
Being is the fathomless spirit since no human mind can •• The Supreme Being is transcendent and can only be
measure him and no intellect can comprehend or grasp approached through ancestors.
Him. •• The Supreme Being among the Tonga is known as
Leza while in Xangani is known as Xikwembu.
10. The Supreme Being is in absolute control of the •• Indigenous people believe that the Supreme Being
universe is everywhere.
•• Indigenous names of God which show that He is all
God has ultimate control of the universe. This is the reason powerful and mighty are Samasimba, Chipindikure,
why indigenous people consider God as King and ruler of Chauta and Usomandla.
the universe. He is the regarded by the Ndebele people as •• God in indigenous society cares for the people.
Nkosi meaning king. The name is similar to the Shona name •• God is immanent is another attribute of the
Ishe (Lord). This is similar to Venda, Xangani and Sotho in Supreme Being. This is the opposite of transcendent
Matebeleland South where God is Murena, Xikwembu and as the Supreme Being comes close to man.
Morena respectively. These names suggest that the Supreme •• God in indigenous society is not a created being for
Being is in control of the universe. He is the first one to exist before creation was there.

The functions of God in Indigenous

Revision Exercise
Religion
•• Providing rain, that is why He is called
Essay Questions
Chidzivachepo. All rain comes from the Supreme 1. Explain the concept of God in Indigenous Religion.
Being and no human being is able to provide What are the functions of God in indigenous religion?
rain and give it to the world. 2. Analyse the key attributes of God in Indigenous
•• Protecting people from evil attacks. In Religion.
Indigenous Religion anything bad can be 3. Write brief explanatory notes on the following
stopped by God and there is nothing bad that attributes of God in Indigenous Religion.
happens in human life without the approval of
(i) Omnipotent
God and the ancestors.
(ii) Omnipresence
•• Blessing people with children, rain and fertility.
(iii) Omniscient
Indigenous people require blessings which are
(iv) Transcendent
given by the Supreme Being through ancestors.
(v) God is spirit
If people follow religious ethics and venerate
God, they are guaranteed of blessings.
•• Punishing people who break taboos like incest.
People are given punishment such as drought

4 Unit 1: Concept of God

 TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Existence and functions of

Unit

2
spirits

Unit objectives that spirits are respected by indigenous people. They

believe that they exist and they influence human life.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Everything in humans whether good or bad is caused by
spirits. This implies that blessings and curses, prosperity
•• explore the existence of spirits.
and poverty, good health and illness are all attributed to
•• examine the types of spirits.
spirits. The existence of spirits in indigenous religion is
•• explain the functions of spirits.
reflected by constant consultation with the diviner as well as
appeasement rituals done by the indigenous people.
Einführung
Evidence of spirit existence
The spirit under discussion is that of the living soul of a •• Grave names are suggestive that there is life
deceased person. The indigenous people believe that there after death. For example, rinda which means
are various types of spirits which are both good and bad. to wait or waiting. Buriro “to go” to some
Ancestors are an example of good spirits while avenging destination, imba “hut” the grave is the hut of a
spirits, nature spirits and alien spirits are largely considered spirit.
to be bad spirits. The indigenous people believe that spirits •• Existence of spirit mediums - spirit mediums
exist and they have positive and negative functions in are representatives of the dead. They act as a
humans. link between the spirit world and the human
world. The fact that the dead comes back to help
the family, clan and nation is enough evidence
Key words to prove that the dead are the living dead. The
dead continue to exist though in a different
Ancestor – the spirit of a dead relative which return to
form.
assume the responsibility of guardianship in the family.
•• Burial procedures which are suggestive like the
Ghost – the spirit of a deceased person appearing after idea of accompanying the dead with cups and
death. clothes. The Shona believe that when one dies
he/she embarks on a journey to the spirit world
Spirit – a supernatural being, often but not without physical nyikadzimu. On this journey the dead would
form. require weapons and food. This is the reason
why an African is buried with certain tools and
Spirit existence food is put in the grave.
•• Some have experienced the spirits speaking,
Spirits are creations of the Supreme Being and they occupy for example, people would hear voices in
a status between the Supreme Being and humans. This homesteads of the deceased. Furthermore,
means that spirits are half human and half Supreme Being sounds can be heard at the home of the
in terms of their attributes. These spirits are subordinate deceased. For instance, walking sounds can be
to the Supreme Being and it is because of this reason heard.

TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION 5

 restrictions are rewarded and those who break the dead. This results in the spirit resting on any person
taboos are punished. whom it is not related to. This is the reason why it is called
•• They meet the expectations of people in their stranger or alien spirit because it finds a host whom it is not
everyday life. They ensure fertility both of the related to.
land and of the people. When a woman begets a
On the other Gelfand (1973) believes that alien spirits are
child, the ancestors are thanked.
outcast spirits of sorcerers, witches and deceased people as
•• Some are guardians and protectors of the land,
well as suicide victims. This is because sorcerers, witches
for example, territorial spirits. They are believed
and suicide victims cannot become ancestors since a home
to guard against foreign invasion/enemies.
bringing ceremony is not done for such people. The spirit of
•• They protect the environment. Indigenous these people becomes a alien or stranger spirit (shavi/idlozi)
people believe that land and natural resources
which is in Shona is a term derived from the verb kushava
belong to ancestors. Sacred places like Chiroro
which literally means ‘to search for’. Some indigenous
forest are protected by ancestors from
people believe that alien spirits are spirits of hunters who
deforestation or any form of environmental
die in the forest hunting hence there is an alien spirit of
practice that degrade the environment.
hunting.
•• They help in governance issues as ancestors
help in the appointment of a Chief as well as Manifestation of alien spirits
protection of the Chief. The Chief governs using
laid down principle from the ancestors. The staff The first sign that someone may become a host of an alien
that is given to the Chief represents ancestors spirit is mild illness. The targeted host falls ill, but if the
who assist in governance issues. illness persists a diviner is consulted who will explain and
•• Ancestors ensure the health and well-being move on to act by healing in two forms either by exorcising
of the family and community. It is the duty of or accommodating the spirit. A cult is established through
ancestors to protect the living from any form a welcoming ritual ceremony of the alien spirit. During this
of illness that are caused by witches and other ceremony there will be indigenous music for alien spirits,
factors. Diseases are a mark of desertion by dancing and drumming. After the ceremony the host can
ancestral spirits. now entertain the spirit. Women are largely possessed with
•• Ancestors help in the preservation of family this spirit.
heritage and community cultural heritage.
Types of alien spirits
Ancestors encourage people to preserve their
culture and by so doing this preserves heritage •• Ndebele alien spirit is known as Dzviti among
of the indigenous people. For example, it is the Shona. The Shona host of the spirit will be
prohibited by ancestors for a woman to be at imitating the Ndebele. These spirits enable one
a ritual ceremony wearing trousers. Women to become a warrior who is good at fighting.
during rituals should cover their heads. This •• Mermaid alien spirit (njuzu/injuzu) is a
preserves the cultural identity of the people. water spirit of divination that is derived from
•• However, ancestors can cause sickness and mermaids. Its function is to heal and predict the
they are feared because of their ability to cause future through the use of divination.
sickness or other misfortunes if a member of a •• Hunting alien spirit (Udzimba) is a spirit that
family commits an offence against another. This comes from a foreign family. It imparts hunting
shows that ancestors have a negative function skills as well as bravery into the host.
among the indigenous people. •• Healing alien spirit (Chisena) is an alien
spirit whose origin is traced to Maroro in
2. Stranger/Alien spirits Mozambique. It imparts healing powers to the
host.
Alien spirits are spirits of the people who died accidentally •• European alien spirit (Chizungu) is a spirit of a
and far away from their homes and relatives and no proper dead European which possesses an indigenous
funeral ritual has been done. Zvobgo (1991) also believes person. When a person is possessed he or she
that the shavi/idlozi is a wandering or alien spirit, usually speaks in English about wealth and also speaks
of a foreigner who died and was not given a proper burial. of tea and sugar. It imparts smartness onto the
For example, when people go for hunting one could be person.
devoured by lions. In other words, alien spirits are people •• Rozvi alien spirits is associated with healing
who die far away from their home but their whereabouts powers and it is derived from indigenous people.
are not known. Rituals to domesticate the spirit like bringing •• Musical talent alien spirit (Jukwa) is an alien
back ceremony (kurova guva/umbuyiso) are not done for spirits associated with healing and ability to

TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION 7

 children who would have failed to take care of Other nature spirits
them. Furthermore, if a child beats up or scolds
one of his or her parents, it results in avenging (a) Goblin (chikwambo/ondofa)
spirits. Avenging spirits may also come as result
These are the people who die with grievances. In terms
of tampering with the mother’s property like
cooking utensils. If one breaks or tampers with of manifestation, a goblin is very tricky. Some want to
the mother’s property, it should be replaced categorize it as a spirit but sometimes it can change form.
while she is still alive otherwise she may die with It may be an object or animal. It can be sent to make its
a grievance and become an avenging spirit. demands known. It can also be bought or imported but can
•• Non-payment of lobola of mother’s cow (mombe also be indigenous. Most goblins are believed to come from
youmai) by the son-in-law can cause the spirit foreign lands. A goblin demands blood for the business to
of the deceased mother to haunt those who thrive. It also demands sex from time to time. It will need
owe her. Children can perform rituals to placate a wife if it is a male. One must reserve one member of the
this spirit. The victim may experience fertility family for that business. If the goblin is not respected in
problems as well as madness and mysterious terms of its demands, it will backfire and kill the people in
illnesses. the family. It comes in form of avenging spirit if one fails
•• Death of a pregnant woman or a woman who to fulfil the promises one made to it and the business
dies soon after giving birth as a result of the in- collapses.
law or husband. It has a tendency of quantifying
itself by causing or calling other avenging spirits (b) Ghost
into the family of the offender. It is the most
It is the spirit of somebody who has died. It features usually
fearful of avenging spirits.
at night and if one is steady, it is friendly. One can identify
•• Failure to pay a servant or slave and he or she
dies with grievances. His or her spirit can come the person and can let one go. If you become aggressive it
back to seek compensation, especially when they will shoot up and down and disappear temporarily. The only
died without being paid their dues. If the person way to repel this is to smoke marijuana (mbanje) or use gun
was ill-treated at work, the spirit comes back powder. They are found at special places like graveyards.
seeking revenge. It may demand a wife/virgin/
(c) Spook (Chipoko)
husband as a form of compensation.
•• A spirit of a spouse or partner who died through These are wandering spirits that take the form of a human
negligence of or ill-treatment or unfaithfulness being. Jackets can be found at the grave yard.
of the other partner.
(d) Zvidhoma
Functions of avenging spirits
It can change form and shape. They take the form of a
•• People will respect the sanctity of human life human being. They can be short, stout and ever serious.
and hence they enforce norms against murder.
Footprints are weird, it can be double footed and you
•• Retribution or compensation ensures peace and
cannot see where it is going. It is very aggressive and can
creates right relationships among people.
hit a person. These are the spirits of dead persons that are
•• People learn to be thankful to their in-laws.
raised through magic. Some say they are spirits of children
•• They promote respect among people especially
because of their voices which are devastating. It can only be
to reward people for services rendered.
removed by a traditional healer.
•• People learn to be generous to the poor and to
treat them with dignity.
•• They influence positive ethical behaviour in
society. Activity 1
•• They foster respect for parents and protects the
vulnerable groups in society. Visit a local person who is a host of a spirit and conduct a
•• They guard against ill treatment of orphans, research on the roles that they do in indigenous society.
handicapped and strangers as these are difficult
to appease.
•• They administer justice to extent of exchanging Summary of the unit
life for another and the payment of cattle.
•• It fosters respect for women. •• Everything among humans whether good or bad is
believed to be caused by spirits.
•• Ghosts are seen at grave sites as well as abandoned

TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION 9

 houses during the night as sparks of light or human figures.
•• There are two main categories of spirits namely; human and nature spirits.
•• Ancestors are the spirit of the dead relatives, people which the indigenous people are related to.
•• Ancestors protect the living from mysterious and evil spirits, misfortunes as well as witches and sorcerers.
•• People are united through ceremonies held in their honour.
•• Ancestors help in the preservation of family heritage and community cultural heritage.
•• Alien spirits are spirits of the people who died accidentally and far away from their homes and relatives and no proper
funeral ritual has been done.
•• Alien spirit can cause one to become a social misfit.
•• Failure to care for parents causes parents to die with grievances such that they will come back to haunt children who
would have failed to take care of them.

Revision Exercise
Essay Questions
1. “Spirits are an essential component in Indigenous Religion”. How valid is this assertion?
2. Examine the functions of spirits in Indigenous Religion.
3. “Possession by alien spirits enhances social status of the host in society”. Discuss.
4. Examine the role of alien spirits in promoting enterprise.
5. Compare the positive and negative attributes of alien spirits and ancestral spirits in Indigenous Religion.
6. Evaluate the importance of Ngozi or avenging spirits in the promotion of Unhu/Vumunhu/Ubuntu.

10 Unit 2: Existence and functions of spirits

 TENETS OF INDEGENOUS RELIGION

Unit Concept of ancestors

3
Unit objectives underscore their importance in the lives of the people. It is
therefore the desire of every living human being to join his/
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: her ancestors after death.

•• explain the concept of ancestors. Ancestors can be defined as the people who died but
•• evaluate the role of ancestors in Indigenous Religion. exist in spiritual form. These departed ones are believed
to still be influential in the lives of the living, hence, Mbiti
called them the ‘living dead’. These dead include family
Introduction elders like fathers, mothers, grandfathers, uncles, cousins,
aunts among others. These are the family elders who
Indigenous religious beliefs are centred on the belief in deal with family affairs. Midzimu/Amadlozi also include
ancestors. Veneration of ancestors is key to Indigenous important spirits of chiefs called mhondoro (territorial
religious beliefs and practices. Ancestors play a mediation spirits). Territorial spirits are above family spirits in the
role between God and the people. This unit explores the ancestral hierarchy because the former deals with issues at
concept of ancestors in Indigenous Religion as well as the territorial level whilst the later are spirits of patrilineal
evaluating their role in the lives of the indigenous people. ancestors concerned with family affairs.

According to Aschwanden (1982), the word ‘mudzimu’ was

Key words formed by contracting mudzi (root) and mukuru (large).
He further contends that the two words ‘root’ and ‘large’
Ancestor – one from whom a person is descended, whether represent what every traditional Karanga most desires
on the father’s (paternal) or on the mother’s side (maternal). to become, through his children and grandchildren, the
founder of a large new clan. Comparing ancestors to a
Guardian – someone who watches over or protects.
‘large root’ has also significant implications on their role
Libation – the act of pouring a liquid, most often beer, in in anchoring and supporting the families and clans they
sacrifice on the ground, on a ritual object, in honour of represent. Hence, Bourdillon posits that they are guardian
some deity. spirits who are influential in the people’s lives.

Mediation – the act of intervening for the purpose of Ancestral spirits dwell in the spirit world called Nyikadzimu/
bringing out a settlement. amadlozini. They are believed to dwell in the branches of
big trees such as world cork tree (muhacha/umkhuna),
Veneration – the act of treating with great respect. mubvumira and mubvamaropa. Ancestors according to
the Shona people are not geographically constrained. As
Concept of ancestors spiritual beings, they are not limited in terms of space
Ancestral spirits occupy a quintessential position in and time. They were referred to as those in the air ‘Vari
the lives of the indigenous people. In fact, it has been kumhepo’ and sometimes as those on underneath ‘vari pasi/
argued in various circles that without ancestors, the life abaphansi’ implying that their abode was also believed to be
of the indigenous people is incomplete. This attempts to subterranean.

TENETS OF INDEGENOUS RELIGION 11

grandchildren have decided to start their own families. This dialogue. There are no excuses for failing to
is done in order to seek blessings from the ancestors so meet their expectations.
that the marriage be a fruitful and joyous one. Barrenness
Note that: The relationship between the people and their
and incessant conflicts are evidence that ancestors have not
ancestors is symbiotic. Whilst it has been observed that
blessed the marriage.
ancestral spirits play a crucial role among the indigenous
The indigenous people believe that ancestors are people, it must also be acknowledged that they too depend
responsible for wealth creation. Ownership of a large on the living in a number of ways.
herd of cattle is viewed as a sign of power and prestige.
•• The people are the ones that perform the
The ancestors promote fertility of livestock. Cattle are bringing back ritual ceremony so that one
essential for lobola payment which multiplies the lineage. graduates into the world of ancestors.
Cattle also produce food that sustains the lives of the •• The people brew beer for them so that they
people. Abundant food in agriculture, hunting and fishing is quench their thirst.
attributed to the ancestors. •• The people look after the monuments they
Ancestors play a pivotal role in the promotion of health and have constructed such as Great Zimbabwe and
Njelele shrines. The living therefore has a role of
well-being. Absence of illness brings relief and joy and this
protecting, rehabilitating and cherishing them as
is as a result of a good relationship between the people and
their sacred heritage.
their ancestors, especially expressed through a series of
•• The living also sweep the graves of their
rituals conducted. Chronic conditions within the family or
ancestors and protect them from those who
society show that there is no good relationship between the
may want to temper with them.
people and their ancestors.
•• Ancestors also deliver their messages through
Ancestors also play political roles. They helped during the mediums.
liberation struggle by guiding the masses and guerrillas to
fight against the white settlers. Through spirit mediums
Activity 1
such as Nehanda and Chaminuka, they inspired the masses
and also supplied valuable information to the guerillas in a
bid to resist colonialism. Research on why ancestorhood is the most desirable state
after death in Indigenous Religion.
They also help in the installation of chiefs. Through
mediums, the ancestors guide the people during the
installation of chiefs. Summary of the unit
Up and above all, it is important to note that ancestral •• Ancestral spirits occupy a quintessential position in
spirits guide the people in their day to day activities. They the lives of the indigenous people.
bring success to the family and hence good fortunes such as •• Ancestors can be defined as the people who died
winning lotteries, promotion at work, finding employment, but exist in spiritual form.
accessing valuable minerals is all attributed to the •• Ancestral spirits dwell in the spirit world.
ancestors. •• A person can only become an ancestor if he or she
dies a ‘good death’.
Critique •• Ancestors are guardians to the family.
•• Ancestors play a pivotal role in the promotion of
•• Ancestors in Indigenous Religion are very
health and well-being.
vindictive. They punish their devotees for
blunders, negligence or omission of rituals. Their
punishment is sometimes collective and may Revision Exercise
include those who are not directly involved in
the crime or violation. Essay Questions
•• Ancestors at times allow witches to terminate
1. Explore the role of ancestors in Indigenous Religion.
the life of family members instead of playing
2. Discuss the qualifications for ancestorhood in
their duty as guardians to the family. They may
Indigenous Religion.
also allow the ngozi spirit to wreak havoc within
3. “The relationship between the ancestors and the living
the family culminating in the excessive loss of
can be best described as reciprocal.” Discuss.
life including that of the innocent.
4. “The ultimate purpose of any indigenous person is to
•• Ancestors are also prescriptive and
become an ancestor.” Discuss.
authoritarian. They do not give room for

TENETS OF INDEGENOUS RELIGION 13

 TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Totems and indigenous

Unit

4
identities

Unit objectives Lineage – descent in a line from a common progeny.

Sacrilege – violation of something regarded as sacred.

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Totem – any natural object or living creature that serves as
•• identify lineages of totems of founding ancestors.
an emblem of a tribe, clan or family.
•• explain the importance of totems in Indigenous
Religion.
The history of totemism
Introduction The exact time when totemism originated in Zimbabwean
societies in still shrouded in mystery. Several theories have
been propounded in a bid to explain the origins of totems
Totems occupy a central role in the lives of the indigenous amongst indigenous societies. One such theory traces the
people. Whilst many indigenous cultural norms have
origins of totems back to the earliest migrations of the
been significantly eroded by the inevitable process of
Bantu people. It is believed that when the Bantu people
modernisation, totemism has defied all odds through
were migrating from Guruuswa (a place found in the North
projecting itself as an indispensable feature of indigenous
of Zambezi), they reached a place known as Baradzano,
cultural norms and values. A totem is defined as an animal,
where they took different routes. Those who migrated
animal body part, plant or any natural object that is used as
eastwards assumed totems associated with aquatic life
an emblem by clan, family or lineage. It can be alternatively
since they were closer to the seas and oceans. These took
defined as an animal, animal body part, plant or natural
object that is believed to be sacred by a particular group of totems such as fish, crocodile and hippopotamus. Those
people. Totems can therefore be animals for example Lion who migrated westwards, assumed totems of wild animals
Shumba, Hove, Zhou, Dube, Mhara, Mpofu among others. since they passed through the country, hence they assumed
They can be animal body parts for example Gumbo, Moyo totems of animals such as Shumba, Dube, Mhara, Nyathi
and Tsiwo. They can also come in the form of natural objects among others. Selfishness and pride led others to try to be
for example Mlalazi which means stone. Totems therefore unique hence they chose totems of animal body parts for
serve both a religious and social function in indigenous example Gumbo, Moyo, Tsiwo among others.
societies. This unit will identify lineages of totems and
Chigwedere A (1980:19) maintains that the adoption of
founding ancestors as well as assessing the role of totems in
totemism is associated with the earliest known ancestor of
the lives of the indigenous people.
the Shona people, Mambiri. It is forwarded that Mambiri
chose the Shoko or Soko (monkey) totem to guard against
Key words incestuous behaviour and also for social identity of
his followers. This took place in a mythical place called
Exogamy – marriage to a person belonging to a tribe or Guruuswa, which was located in the North of Zambezi in
group other than one’s own as required by custom or law. Southern Tanganyika. As the early Shona people swelled
in numbers, marriage became difficult due to the fact
Identity – the difference or character that marks off an
that they practiced the custom of exogamy (marrying only
individual from the rest of the same kind.

14 Unit 4: Totems and indigenous identities

Summary of the unit
•• Totems are important because they give identity to the indigenous people.
•• There are various theories on the origins of totems amongst the indigenous people.
•• Totems can be traced back to the founding ancestor who is the leader of the clan.
•• Totems play a significant role in the lives of the indigenous people.
•• Totemism may destabilise communities through promoting hate and favouritism.

Revision Exercise
Essay Questions
1. Discuss the origins of totems among the indigenous people of Zimbabwe.
2. Evaluate the importance of totems in Indigenous Religion.
3. Assess the significance of totems in environmental preservation among indigenous people.
4. To what extent does totemism lead to social instability amongst indigenous societies?

TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION 17

 TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Communication with the

Unit

5
spirits

Unit objectives Veneration and communication

with spirits and ancestors
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Veneration refers to the way in which respect and honour
•• identify different ways of communicating with spirits.
is accorded to the ancestors and spirits. Veneration is
•• assess the different ways of communicating with the
a concept which should not be equated with ancestor
spirits.
worship. Mbiti (1975) remarks that there is a difference
between veneration and worship in the sense that naming
Introduction them in prayers and performing rituals show respect for
the living dead but ‘this does not and cannot mean that
In indigenous societies, the world is believed to be inhabited they are worshipped’. Ways in which indigenous societies
by beings both visible and invisible. Among the visible things demonstrate their respect to ancestors and spirits include:
include humans, animals and plants. The invisible things •• praying to God through them.
include deities, divinities and ancestors. The belief remains •• making sacrifices and giving offerings.
that there is an interaction between the visible and invisible •• pouring libations.
worlds. The communication process forms a vital role in •• naming children after them.
cementing the relationship between the indigenous people •• addressing them by their proper names and
and their ancestors. Communication refers to the process titles.
of exchanging information between entities. The people use •• teaching children about them.
a variety of ways in communicating with their ancestors. •• building shrines.
This unit will explore the ways in which the indigenous •• preserving their graves as heritage sites.
people communicate with the spirits as well as assess the
Communication is a concept that describes how information
significance of these methods in linking the physical world
and the spiritual realm. is exchanged between entities. It is therefore important in
Indigenous Religion because it establishes the link between
the physical and spiritual world. Communication with the
Key words ancestors is dynamic. They relate to the living and still
influence the lives of the living. It must be acknowledged
Communication – the process of exchanging information however that communication between people and ancestral
between entities. spirits is a two-way process. The following points summarise
Divination – the art of discovering secrets or the future by the nature of communication between people and spirits
supernatural means. they seek to venerate.
•• Indigenous people communicate with spirits for
Meditation – a devotional exercise of, or leading to
a good or bad cause.
contemplation.
•• They communicate with the spirits through
Medium – an individual privileged with conveying a religious practitioner such as a diviner or
information from the spirit world. medium.

18 Unit 5: Communication with the spirits

as part of their agricultural rituals. Before vegetable leaves It is a way of remembering It was done less regularly
are eaten at the beginning of the rainy season, recognition the ancestors and is usually especially when the need
must be given to the spirits of the land, the mhondoro done regularly. arises.
and the ancestors. In April, after harvesting of crops, a
Many involves the use of Does not involve the use
thanksgiving ritual is performed to show gratitude to the
animals as symbols for of animals as symbols.
ancestors for the season’s harvest. A thanksgiving ritual can
example, the bull).
be performed again to thank the ancestors for the good
rains especially at the onset of the rainy season. 3. Divination (kurova gata/ukutshaya amathambo)
It is important to take note of the fact that the process of
It is a supernatural way of forthtelling the past and
kupira/ukuthethela at community level involves calling the
foretelling the future. The indigenous people consult a
names of clan leaders who seem to be territorial spirits in
diviner so that he communicates with the ancestors on
charge of community affairs.
their behalf. The process involves the casting of lots. The
lots in their varying combinations would act as symbols of
Ethical considerations
mystical revelations from the spiritual world. Divination is
There are certain considerations which are compulsory usually done after the death of a family member in order
when performing the libation ritual and dedication to to ascertain the cause of death. The diviner plays the role
ancestors ritual . The person leading the rituals should: of interpreting the meaning of these lots and immediately
inform the family members on the way forward.
•• not handle harmful charms.
•• not have committed murder. It is also the first step in the healing process in the event
•• abstain from sexual activities for at least three that a family member got ill. Divination diagnoses the
days before undertaking the ritual. nature and cause of the ailment and even prescribes the
•• be in a good state of mind, free from stress and remedies required for the ill member to recover. Divination
other pressing issues. is only done by mediums of the spiritual world such as
traditional healers, territorial spirits and soothsayers among
Similarities between libation ritual and dedication others. These are representatives of the spiritual world
ritual who serve the role of mediation between people and their
ancestors.
•• Both are processes of communicating with
ancestors.
•• Both involve the use of snuff and offering of
Mode of communication between spirits
libations. and humans in Indigenous Religion
•• Both have ethical considerations before
performing them. (a) Dreams
•• Both are done just before sunrise and
A dream is an event that one sees when he or she is asleep.
immediately after sunset.
Among the indigenous people, ancestral spirits manifest
•• Both are ways of forwarding requests to
themselves through dreams. For instance, their desire to
ancestors.
possess a person would be signalled by incessant strange
•• Both involve recitation of the family ancestors’
dreams of wild beasts, serpents, mermaids and also hearing
names.
voices. Within the family, there could also be other people
•• Both are done during the bringing back ritual
gifted with receiving dreams from the ancestors. These
ceremony (kurova guva/umbuyiso/ Malende).
dreams would serve the purpose of alerting the living on
Differences between libation ritual and impending danger in the family.
dedication ritual
(b) Calamity and misfortunes
Libation (Kupira/ Dedication to ancestors
Ancestors reveal their anger through mishaps in the
ukuthethela) (Kusuma/Ukubika)
community. In case of violation of taboos and other
It is a way of appeasing the It is a way of notifying the
traditional customs, ancestral spirits register their anger
ancestors. ancestors.
through calamities such as droughts, earthquakes, floods
Usually sacrifices of animals No sacrifices of animals among other things. Family members can also be struck
are offered. made. with misfortunes such as physical disability, chronic
Usually associated with Usually associated with conditions and barrenness. An angry maternal spirit can
thanksgivings rituals. rites of passage. punish a child through misfortunes for tormenting its

20 Unit 5: Communication with the spirits

 TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Symbolism in Indigenous
Unit

6
Religion

Unit objectives animals have a religious and spiritual importance amongst

the indigenous people and hence it is considered a taboo
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: to eat meat that belongs to one’s totem. Similarly, there
are some animals that are believed to be messengers of
•• identify symbols in Indigenous Religion. the spiritual world and hence are sacred. Baboons often
•• interpret the significance of symbols in Indigenous carry messages for the travellers. It is believed that when
Religion.
a traveller sees a baboon seated or walking, it signifies
that his/her journey has been blessed by the ancestors.
Introduction However, if a traveller comes across a baboon seated
with its palm on the cheek, it is a bad omen advising the
A symbol is something (an idea, a sign, a ritual art traveller to abort the journey since it is unsafe. Lions that
or behavioural pattern) that stands as a means of stay in the community are also considered sacred. They
communicating the inner sense. They are objects that are guardians of the land (mhondoro) and their presence is
believers or followers worship, venerate and pray to. Symbols
meant to safeguard the community from external threats. If
take the form of icons, objects, sculptures and traditional
that lion is harmed, this would culminate in the unleashing
regalia which have sacred connotations. Symbols are words,
of punishment on the offender or the whole community.
pictures, gestures or objects that carry a particular culture or
Indigenous people also use their domestic animals as
religion. Symbols form an indispensable part of Indigenous
symbols. Ancestral spirits are believed to take host on
societies in as much as they are vehicles to express the
bulls or goats. These animals are sacred and cannot be
people’s spirituality. The thrust of this unit is to identify
slaughtered without the consent of the ancestors. Other
the various symbols used in Indigenous Religion as well as
interpret their significance in the lives and beliefs of the animals that are believed to be symbolic include the python,
indigenous people. fish eagle and the pangolin. The Nyami-Nyami which is half
fish and snake is another mystical animal that is symbolic
among the BaTonga people. It represents the river god.
Key words
2. The natural environment
Patriarchy – a power structure in which man are dominant.
The sun is considered as one of the most highly symbolic
Symbol – is something that stands to communicate the objects in Indigenous Religion. It is regarded as female due
inner sense of something. to its life-giving powers and hence it is a symbol of hope and
regeneration. Stones and statues are believed to store the
Types of symbols in Indigenous souls of sacred spirits and are therefore symbols of both
Religion religious and political power.

Some trees and forests are highly symbolic. Big trees such
1. Animals
as Muhacha and Mubvamaropa are believed to be sacred.
Some animals in Indigenous Religion are believed to be The Indigenous people believe that ancestral spirits live
sacred and it is regarded a taboo to kill them. Totemic in tree branches, especially of big trees. Muhacha tree

22 Unit 6: Symbolism in Indigenous Religion

 followers as most of them do not allow room for criticism or evaluation. This will impede critical thinking and lead
to the creation of blind followers.
•• Some of the symbols perpetuate patriarchy which has contributed much in undermining women’s rights. Man’s
weapons are a symbol of patriarchy and this may lead to women oppression in Indigenous societies.
•• Symbols which express women’s sexuality have a tendency of degrading women especially those that emphasise
on virginity. These symbols are meant to shame women who do not meet the ‘standard’ woman as defined by
men in a patriarchal society.

Activity 1

In groups, discuss how symbols from the natural environment shape indigenous peoples’ beliefs and practices.

Summary of the unit

•• A symbol is something that communicates the inner sense.
•• Symbols play a vital role in the beliefs and practices of indigenous people.
•• Symbols in Indigenous Religion cover various facets of life like the natural environment, music, attire, weapons, utensils
among others.
•• Symbols are important in communicating knowledge and information.
•• While symbols are important, they also have their demerits.

Revision Exercise
Essay Questions
1. Explore any five types of symbols in Indigenous Religion.
2. Examine the importance of courtship symbols in Indigenous Religion.
3. Assess the significance of symbols in Indigenous Religion.
4. Evaluate the significance of symbols in environmental preservation in Indigenous Religion.

TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION 25

 TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Unit Beliefs in life after death

7
Unit objectives evil event and many people give special names to their
children to try to ward off the re-occurrence of untimely
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: death.

•• explain the concept of life after death. When death occurs in Indigenous Religion, consulting a
•• examine rituals associated with life after death. diviner on the cause of death is done (kurova gata). When
•• discuss the evidence of life after death in Indigenous death occurs in Indigenous Religion, it is usually attributed
Region. to spiritual elements (witchcraft, offending one’s ancestors)
rather than medical or physical reasons. The practice of
consulting a diviner after the death of a person (kurova
Introduction gata) is done a few days after burial through consulting a
Indigenous people believe that death does not mark the reasonable number of diviners to ascertain the cause of
end of one’s existence. Those who are dead are believed to death.
continue being active in the lives of the living as ancestors or Becoming an ancestor is a desirable goal of every individual
the ‘living dead’. Indigenous people therefore perform a series and it cannot be achieved if an individual does not live a
of rituals in a bid to ensure a safe journey for the deceased meaningful life or has his or her life prematurely ended
into the world of ancestors. The unit seeks to unravel the either through an accident or by an unnatural death. People
evidence of belief in life after death in Indigenous Religion who die through unnatural means are usually buried at
as well as explore the significance of the bringing back ritual the outskirts of the family homestead probably to prevent
(kurova guva/umbuyiso) among indigenous people.
the spirit of the deceased from bringing misfortunes to the
family.
Key words Failure to give a deceased person a proper burial after
death may result in the individual becoming a wandering
Death – the cessation of life and all associated processes.
ghost, unable to live properly after death and constituting a
Ghost – a spirit of a deceased person appearing after death. danger to those who are still alive. Dancy and Davies (2004)
argue that death indicates the physical separation of the

Life after death in Indigenous individual from other humans. Funeral rites and ceremonies
serve to draw attention to this permanent separation, and
Religion particular attention is paid to funeral rites to avoid undue
In Indigenous religion, life does not end with death, but offense to the dead.
continues in another realm. Death although a dreaded
Evidence of belief in life after death in
event, is believed to be the beginning of a person’s deeper
relationship with creation. The goal of death is to raise an
Indigenous Religion
ancestor after death. A person who has died should be People in Indigenous Religion demonstrate their strong
given a proper burial supported by a number of religious belief in life after death in a number of ways. They express
ceremonies. The death of children is regarded as a grievous their convictions through burial rites, beliefs and post-burial

26 Unit 7: Beliefs in life after death

back ritual ceremony (kurova guva/umbuyiso) is conducted. existence but it is just a transition from the physical world to
In many places the procedure involves: the spiritual world. The spirits of dead people are believed
to be influential in the lives of the living provided the
•• beer drinking, dancing and singing.
deceased are accorded a proper burial and the bringing
•• the sacrifice of an animal usually a goat through
back ceremony (kurova guva/umbuyiso) is performed. After
drowning in water.
•• the eating of meat without adding salt. the bringing back ceremony, the people in Indigenous
•• the dragging of a branch (usually Muzeze) from Religion believe that the spirits of their deceased relatives
the gravesite to family homestead. are re-integrated into the family as guardian spirits.
•• the distribution of the deceased’s belongings. The belief in ancestral spirits is therefore clear testimony
•• inheritance of the name of the father by his that indigenous people believe in the afterlife.
eldest son.
•• Wife inheritance through circulating a dish Belief in avenging spirits
with water before the late man’s uncles by the
wife of the deceased. However, inheritance is Avenging spirits are spirits of people who die with a
voluntary, and if the widow does not want any grievance and come back to seek vengeance against those
of his uncles, she would choose her son to be who wronged them. It is the most feared spirit amongst
responsible over her life but the two cannot the indigenous people because it seeks reparation through
have sexual relations. collective punishment. Indigenous people therefore believe
that the sanctity of life should be preserved because killing
The practice of wife inheritance has since diminished due to
of innocent souls would attract the wrath of the ancestors.
the improved status of women in society and also the threat
of the HIV and AIDS pandemic. The murdered person does not rest in peace until he or
she is compensated for his or her untimely departure from
Significance of bringing back ritual ceremony the physical world. Similarly, a child who ill-treats his or
(kurova guva/umbuyiso/Malende) her mother will attract the wrath of her mother when she
dies. To end the misery emanating from the grieving spirit
•• The ritual signifies that the living and the dead
of his or her deceased mother he or she has to perform a
are part and parcel of the same community.
ritual called appeasement ritual of maternal spirits (kutanda
•• Indigenous people believe that performance
botso). The belief in avenging spirits implies that indigenous
of this ritual enhances the protection of their
people believe in life after death.
families from all sorts of misfortunes such as
sickness, witchcraft and natural disasters among Belief in ghosts
others.
•• The ritual also eases tension posed by death Indigenous people believe in the existence of ghosts. They
in the community, by installing the spirit of the believe that people who do not get proper burial end up
deceased among the family homesteads. roaming about haunting the living. Ghosts are spirits of
•• The ritual enables the spirit of the deceased to people who because of several reasons fail to join the
join his or her family by coming from the bush ancestral world.
into the home.
•• It is a ritual of remembering the dead. Belief in alien spirits
•• It is a celebration of humanity’s conquest over
Indigenous people believe in the existence of alien
death.
spirits. Alien spirits are spirits of people who have not
•• It also comforts the living knowing that their
departed relative has been re-integrated into the received proper funeral ceremonies. They seek to express
family to secure it from external threats. themselves through taking possession of unrelated people.
•• It brings peace into the family through taming The alien spirit according to Indigenous Religion is a quest
the spirit of the deceased. against oblivion caused by death.
•• The ritual of wife inheritance attempts to
normalise life by attempting to fill the void left
Activity 1
by the deceased husband.

Belief in ancestors Research on the procedure and significance of the bringing

back ceremony. Present your findings to the class.
People in Indigenous Religion believe in the existence
of ancestors. They believe that death is not the end of

28 Unit 7: Beliefs in life after death

 TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Unit The nature of mediumship

8
Unit objectives Types of spirit mediums
There are different types of mediums who work in different
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
ways. There are clairvoyant mediums who have psychic
•• explain the practice of medium ship. ability of being able to see pictures, people, places, objects
•• delineate the observances and the ethical principles of and colours sent from the spirit world. For example,
mediums. Chaminuka had a vision in which he saw the coming of the
•• discuss the criteria to distinguish true from false Europeans. There are also clairaudient mediums with the
mediumship. gift of hearing spirit voices while clairsentient mediums have
the ability of sensing and feeling the impressions of spirit,
Introduction especially in cases of letting the medium know how they
passed on. Lastly there are trance or channel mediums who
Mediums play an important role in informing the human are very common in indigenous community. The ancestral
world what the spirit world wants and vice-versa. They play spirit possesses the medium by taking over the body of the
an important role in socio-religious and political roles. By host and takes control of what ever is happening. The host
definition mediums are people who get in touch with the changes his or her voice, walking style and even his or her
spirit world. On the other hand, mediumship refers to the posture.
practice of mediums who mediate communication between
spirits of the dead and living human beings. Put differently, Initiation into medium ship
Medium ship is an office of medium which involves the
Initiation into medium ship is guided by rules and conditions
carrying of information between the living and the living
of the spirit which wants to possess the host. It is a long
dead. In indigenous religion, there are prominent mediums
process which involves calling through dreams, sickness
like Mbuya Charwe the Medium of Nehanda, Sekuru
and misfortune. A long vetting process is done for the
Shambira the medium of Nehoreka. This unit deals with
practice of mediumship, observances and ethical principles incumbent host to be accepted as a true medium. Initiation
of mediums as well as providing a criterion of distinguishing into mediumship is involves the following stages;
true mediumship from false mediumship. 1. First stage: Call
A call is a vocation or strong urge to become a medium.
Key words This call marks the first stage in initiating the incumbent
medium into mediumship. Without a call, one cannot
Diagnosis – the identification of the nature and cause of an become a medium and this call happens in form of dreams,
illness. mysterious sickness and misfortune (mashura). The spirit
visits the would-be host in dreams as well as making the
Host – a person who acts as a medium to an external spirit.
host experience mysterious illnesses which cannot be
Probation – a period of time when a person occupies a healed through any means except acceptance to become
position only conditionally and may easily be removed for a medium. Others will experience strange things like
poor performance. accidents, seeing snakes and other misfortunes.

30 Unit 8: The nature of mediumship

Safeguarding the moral code of the territory Activity 1
True medium maintains and safe guards the moral code of
the nation. This means that true mediums are reservoirs of In groups, conduct a research on the initiation and practice
unhu/ubuntu. They are strong defenders of morality as they of mediumship. Present your findings to the class.
condemn sexual immorality, corruption and other moral
vices. True mediums practice what they represent by being
role models. On the other hand, a false medium is marked Activity 2
by gross immorality as the medium engages in adultery,
incest, corruption and lying. For example, Mbuya Rotina In groups, debate on the criteria to distinguish true from
Mavhunga lied to the nation that there was diesel from the false mediumship.
rock. By so doing she displayed some moral defects.
Summary of the unit
Main roles of mediums
•• Mediums play an important role in informing the
•• Mediums ensure the good welfare of the people human world what the spirit world wants and vice-
as whole. Good welfare is seen when all the versa.
people within a particular area are well catered •• There are different types of mediums who work in
for. For example, a chief who does not favour different ways.
one family at the expense of other family. It is •• A call is a vocation or strong urge to become a
the duty of the medium to ensure members of medium.
that particular territory are fairly treated. •• Practice of mediumship refers to things that
•• They are also responsible for fertility and rain. are supposed to be done by mediums during
Spirit Mediums ask for rain on behalf of the possession and outside spirit possession.
people and also ensure production in farming. •• A medium should lead and guide people during
Crops become fruitful because of a spirit ritual actions like rain making ceremony.
medium. •• Ethics of mediumship refers to the behaviour and
•• They help in resolving chieftaincy issues by conduct of the host as demanded by the spirit.
appointing and anointing the incumbent •• Ethics of mediums involve proper dress code as
chief. Chiefs are not chosen by people but demanded by the spirit.
by ancestors and as such spirit mediums play •• True mediumship is marked by a call and initiation
an important role in matters of traditional into mediumship.
governance. •• Keeping observance (miko) as well as ethical
•• They safeguard special days “chisi”. Chisi is a principles and taboos is a mark of true
special day of ancestors when ancestors or mediumship.
owners of the land are respected by not going •• Mediums ensure the good welfare of the people as
to the fields or gardens. Spirit mediums thus whole.
play an important role in ensuring that special
days are observed. In Gutu, Thursday is a special
day reserved for ancestors while in Nyajena
Revision Exercise
Wednesday is the holy day.
Essay Questions
•• Spirit mediums ensure that high ethical
standards are adhered to. They guard against 1. Analyse the practice of mediumship.
incest and bestiality (makunakuna) which are 2. Examine the five stages of initiation into mediumship.
unethical practices against the traditional ethos. 3. Discuss the salient ethics of mediumship.
It is the role of the spirit mediums to be the 4. “Mediums are avid upholders of high ethical
moral custodians of the territory or country. principles”. Discuss.
•• Mediums were consultants during periods 5. Discuss the criteria to distinguish true from false
of war which made them directors of war mediumship.
operations for example Mbuya Nehanda
(Charwe) and Sekuru Kaguvi were instrumental
in initiating the first Chimurenga in Mazoe area.
Mediums incited bravery and determination in
people fighting colonial rule.

TENETS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGION 33

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND MEDIUMSHIP

Unit Concept of mediumship

9
Unit objectives Mediumship
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: A medium is someone who supposedly conveys information
from the spirit world. The indigenous people believe in
•• explain the concept of mediumship. an omnipotent God and Creator whom they call Mwari,
•• identify early and contemporary mediums. Musikavanhu, Xikwembu, Modimo, Leza and Umlimu among
•• assess the interaction between early mediums and the other names. Indigenous people do not pray to God himself
white settlers. but always contact the lesser spirits, who living as they do in
the spiritual world, are in communication with all the other
Introduction spirits including God. Real communication with the world of
spirits is done through a medium or host of the particular
Spirit mediums play a vital role in the social, religious and spirit whose help is sought.
political lives of the people. Mediums from different parts of
the country significantly influenced the course and nature Indigenous people claim that they make a real contact
of the liberation struggle. Through their principled religious with a spirit once the medium becomes possessed. When
convictions, they were able to steer the masses against White the medium is possessed, he becomes a new personality
colonialism. They were the vanguard of the society’s norms altogether working as the spokesperson of the spirit. The
and traditions and the traditional leaders relied heavily on medium is a bridge between the living and the spiritual
them for religious and political counsel. This unit seeks to world, he himself is drawn into this spiritual world in a
identify early and contemporary mediums in Zimbabwe. It is prehypnoptic state (Gelfand 1956).
also hoped that the interaction between early mediums and
Gelfand (1956) identified the main categories of spirits and
white settlers will also be assessed.
their mediums as illustrated.

Key words Categories of the spirits and their

functions
Chimurenga/ Umvukela – the national uprising against
white rule in Zimbabwe. 1. Guardian spirits (Mhondoro)

•• They are tribal spirits which cater for the welfare

Colonisation – the act of establishing a colony.
of the whole clan.
Medium – an individual who conveys information from the •• They officiate at rainmaking ceremonies.
spirit world. •• They perform ritual cleansing of sacred places.
•• They also cleanse those who violate customs
Witch – a person responsible for causing misery in the and traditions.
society through use of charms and magic. •• They advise chiefs on social, political and
religious matters.

34 Unit 9: Concept of mediumship

 UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Family relations and ethical

Unit

10
conduct

Unit objectives Jealousy – suspecting rivalry in love.

Ubuntu – a philosophy that puts communal interests ahead

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
of individual interests.
•• examine the nature of family relations in Indigenous
Religion Nature of family relations in
•• identify ethical aspects that affect family relations in Indigenous Religion
Indigenous Religion
Family relations are behavioural, psychological and social
relations among the various members of the nuclear and
Introduction extended family. The extended family forms the basis of
all social cooperation and responsibility. The indigenous
The family plays a crucial role in indigenous societies. The
people therefore have extensive and strong family ties
family is considered as the basic building block of a life that
which form the core of their family structures.
brings about existence of a society. The extended family
represents the majority of indigenous families. The cultural In the typical African extended family, the first tier of close
morals and norms of the community that are applied by relatives includes grandparents, uncles and cousins. The
the extended family helps the individual to develop into a second tier is made up of those related through marriage
respected member of the community. The family forms the perhaps described as the in-laws. The third tier of an
foundation upon which the morals of children are built, African’s relatives are those of the same totem group or
nurtured and developed. This unit seeks to examine the clan. All other people fit into one or other of the categories
nature of family relations in indigenous societies as well as based on their totems, allowing indigenous people to
identify the ethical aspects that affect these family relations. identify relations even with strangers.

In Western culture, a nuclear family is paramount. It consists

Key words of the husband (father), wife (mother) and their biological
children. Other relatives are considered as distant. The
Envy – the resentful desire of something possessed by closest relatives are one’s parents and siblings, meaning
others. children coming from the same womb. In indigenous
societies, on the other hand, the husband, wife and
Family – a group of people related to each other by blood, children are inextricably connected and intertwined with
adoption or marriage. the relatives of both spouses to create one big family (the
extended family).
Family relations – behavioural, psychological and social
relations among the various members of the nuclear and In indigenous society like among the Shona and Ndebele
extended family. societies, for example, one’s father’s brothers are also
designated with the title ‘baba’ or ‘obaba’ (father) and must
Fidelity – loyalty to one’s spouse or partner including
be given equal respect. There are titles used to indicate if
abstention from extramarital affairs.
they are older (babamukuru or ubaba omdala) or younger

38 Unit 10: Family relations and ethical conduct

Summary of the unit
•• The family plays a crucial role in indigenous societies.
•• Family relations are behavioural, psychological and social relations among the various members of the nuclear and
extended family.
•• Respect in Indigenous religion is accorded by age.
•• During marriage rites, all members of the extended family would be invited.
•• Ethics are principles governing behaviour, that is, what is right or wrong.
•• The fundamental essence of the family and the universe is ‘love’.
•• Faithfulness is the core assumption and foundation of marriage.
•• Forgiveness is essential in marriage so as to solve conflicts that may arise in marriages.
•• Parental love is typically the most unselfish emotion, as most parents are willing to sacrifice their lives for their children.
•• Peace in the family is tied to love and harmony among siblings.
•• Indigenous societies celebrate virtues such as sharing. The Shona and Ndebele people are known for the hospitality.

Activity 1

In groups, discuss how Ubuntu values promote good citizenship. Give feedback to the class.

Revision Exercise
Essay Questions
1. Discuss the nature of family relations in Indigenous Religion.
2. Evaluate the importance of ethical conduct in shaping family relations.
3. Identify ethical aspects that affect family relations.
4. Examine the role of Ubuntu/Unhu in shaping family relations.
5. Analyse how family relations promote good citizenship.

42 Unit 10: Family relations and ethical conduct

 UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Unit Respect for the elders

11
Unit objectives The indigenous people have respect for nature, ancestors,
elders, traditional leaders, sanctity of life and their in-laws.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Respect for ancestors
•• explain the concept of respect in Indigenous Religion.
Ancestors occupy a central role in Indigenous Religion and
•• examine the value of respecting elders in Indigenous
they are sometimes referred to as spirit elders. Veneration
Religion.
of ancestors is part and parcel of the religious life of the
indigenous people. Ancestral benevolence is assured
Introduction through propitiation and sacrifice. Respect for ancestors
is through offering libations and performance of rituals
Elders play a significant role in the social, political and
to remember the ‘living dead’. Seeking guidance from the
religious life of the indigenous people. They play a pivotal
ancestors is also a sign of respect for their guardianship
role in the family and society at large. Their invaluable role in
role.
the society makes them to be held in high regard especially
by the younger generation. They are believed to possess
2. Respect for elders
esoteric knowledge and hence respect for them is considered
a virtue in many indigenous societies. This unit seeks to Indigenous people respect their elders in a number of ways.
explain the concept of respect in Indigenous Religion as well Elders can mean family elders, community elders or any
assess the value of respecting elders. other old person in the society. Young people in the society
should seek guidance from the elders in the community

Key words who are considered to be the guardians of knowledge

and wisdom. Elders are to be greeted politely and also be
Elder – is an older member, usually a leader of some obeyed when they give counsel and advice. In indigenous
society. society the young people should acknowledge the seniority
and experience of the elders and not seek to challenge their
Lobola – the bride price paid by the groom to his in-laws as authority. This is supported by the proverb ‘Mukuru mukuru,
a token of appreciation during marriage. hanga haigari bvunde’ which literally means that an elder
person remains an elder and should be respected because
Respect – an attitude of consideration or high regard. of his age and status.

Concept of respect 3. Respect for parents

Respect can be defined as an attitude of consideration or Children are obliged to show unquestionable respect and
high regard. Respect is characteristic of a person who has loyalty to their parents. A child who ill-treated his or her
Ubuntu values. Respect in indigenous societies is taught parents risked attracting misfortunes from the ancestors.
from childhood within the family set up. The concept of The belief in maternal avenging spirits (Kutanda botso)
respect touches all facets of life in Indigenous Religion. amongst the indigenous people shows the significance

UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION 43

the ancestors. It was believed that respect for elders brings Summary of the unit
with it many benefits to the community. Disregard for the
elders also attract a proportionate form of punishment •• Respect is characteristic of a person who has
on the individuals involved and the community at large. Ubuntu values.
Some of the benefits of respecting elders include one of the •• Ancestors occupy a central role in Indigenous
Religion and they are sometimes referred to as
following;
spirit elders.
•• Those who respect elders are believed to have •• The indigenous people respect their elders through
blessings bestowed upon them by the ancestors. a number of ways.
•• Those who respect elders will gain valuable •• Children are obliged to show unquestionable
knowledge about the societies’ customs and respect and loyalty to their parents.
traditions. •• During marriage, the groom’s family is supposed
•• Respect for elders will lead to the creation of to show gratitude to the in-laws through paying
peaceful and harmonious societies. lobola.
•• By showing respect to elders, young people •• The life of the indigenous people is characterised by
hope to receive respect when they reach that reverence and kinship with nature.
age. •• People in Indigenous Religion have high regard for
•• Respecting elders will result in the ancestors the sanctity of life.
proving protection to the people from •• People in Indigenous Religion have great respect for
misfortunes. elders.
•• Respecting the elders in the community is •• Indigenous Religion accords high respect for the
tantamount to respecting the ancestors because elderly people in the community.
the elders are representatives of the ancestors
on earth.
•• Respect for elders is a significant value of Revision Exercise
Ubuntu which cultivates a culture of good
citizenship centered on loyalty to those in Essay Questions
leadership positions.
1. Discuss the concept of respect in Indigenous Religion.
•• If the elderly people are respected, they feel
2. Assess the value of respect for elders in Indigenous
that their role is appreciated and hence they
Religion.
feel indebted to educate and equip the younger
3. Evaluate the role of elders in conflict resolution.
generations with their knowledge and wisdom.
4. To what extent does the concept of respect for elders
Critique in Indigenous Religion promote good citizenship?

•• The concept of respect for elders, has often

led to indoctrination in Indigenous Religion.
Indigenous Religion teaches that elders cannot
be challenged because they claim monopoly
over knowledge and this has the effect of
hampering critical thinking and development of
new ideas.
•• The concepts of respect for elders also leads
to authoritarianism. Political leaders have
committed a lot of evils and injustices and still
expect young people not to question or criticize
them as this would be taken as disrespect.
•• The concept of respect for elders has often led
to conflicts as the old feel challenged when
young people seek to bring new ideas. The
elderly people in the community have often
abused their authority to undermine the rights
of the younger generation, for example through
forced or arranged marriages.

46 Unit 11: Respect for the elders

 UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Community and social

Unit

12
responsibility

Unit objectives Social responsibility – what an individual does to benefit

the community he or she lives.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
The concept of communalism
•• identify elements that enhance communal life in
Indigenous Religion. Communalism is the doctrine that the community is the
•• evaluate the factors that negatively affect the focus of activities of the individual members of the society.
communal system. Africa Economic Development Institute (AEDI) in one of
its special articles defines communalism as an allegiance
limited to one’s ethnic group, commonly based on sharing
Introduction history and cultures, characterised by collective cooperation
and ownership by members of a community. In other terms,
Indigenous Religion is characterised by a communal way of it is a state of affairs whereby individuals in the society
life. There is a fundamental belief that community interests consistently pursue certain fundamental virtues on the
should go ahead of individual interests. An individual is basis of enhancing a common or social good.
expected to harness his/her efforts towards the realisation
of community goals and aspirations. The communal Communalism in indigenous societies, shows harmonious
way of life is epitomized by the extended family which forms of life without any antagonism of classes due to ethics
constitutes the majority of indigenous family structures. of mutual help and empathy. In the communal way of life,
Whilst the communal way of life is adjudged to be ideal in the elders are held to have all knowledge and wisdom. They
many indigenous societies, many factors come into play to have to be believed without questioning. In the system of
undermine this communal system. This unit seeks to identify the community’s teaching and learning, the child is expected
elements that enhance the communal life in Indigenous to learn to know things in relation to what the community
Religion as well as evaluate the factors that negatively affect wants. Communal knowledge takes its rise from the needs
the communal system. of the common life in the community and its end is the
preservation of the community life and heritage.

Key words Elements of a communal way of life

Communalism – a social system based on collective (a) Sharing
ownership of property.
Indigenous societies are characterised by sharing of
Equality – the equal treatment of people irrespective of resources. The individual relied on the society to satisfy
social or cultural differences. his or her needs. Sharing involves the exchange of ideas,
Globalisation – the process of becoming a more skills and material things. It is common in most indigenous
interconnected world. families to borrow from their neighbours regardless of
whether they are blood relatives or not.
Patriotism – love of one’s country; devotion to the welfare
of one’s compatriots.

UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION 47

 democratic participation. of life in this globalising world.
•• The principle of respect for elders in the society •• Urbanisation encourages people to move to
promotes good citizenship premised on loyalty cities in search of work, leaving their families in
to leaders. the rural areas.
•• It promotes the general welfare of the society. •• Technical advancement has also reduced the
•• It enhances internal security against any possible need for labour in the fields as the use of
invasion because of the bond of unity and tractors, combine harvesters and herbicides
togetherness. has diminished the need for labour intensive
•• It enhances good ethical conduct in the society. practices such as nhimbe/ilima.
•• Donor aid has created a dependency syndrome
Factors negatively affecting a communal and families no longer aim to maximize yield
way of life production through industriousness. The Zunde
ramambo/isiphala senkosi concept is no longer
•• Poverty prevents people from fulfilling their relevant as its duties have been assumed by
traditional obligations such as supporting the donor agencies.
extended family. Those who are poor will find
it difficult to contribute towards the welfare
of their extended families. Many families have Summary of the unit
found it hard to raise members of the extended •• Indigenous Religion is characterised by a communal
family especially after the demise of their way of life.
parents. They find it difficult to extend their •• Communalism is the doctrine that the community is
benevolence to members outside the nuclear the focus of activities of the individual members of
family yet they are struggling to meet the basic the society.
needs of their own families. •• Communalism in indigenous societies, shows
•• Christianity has challenged African practices harmonious forms of life without any antagonism
such as polygamy by equating them to sin of classes due to the ethics of mutual help and
and adultery. Polygamous families form the empathy.
fulcrum of the extended family. The advent •• Indigenous societies are characterised by sharing of
of other religions has impacted negatively on resources.
the indigenous communal life by criticizing •• Indigenous people derive their unity of purpose
polygamy. Christianity has managed to convert a from their common identity.
considerable number of indigenous people and •• Indigenous people believe that there is an
has swayed their allegiance against indigenous advantage in pooling resources together.
customs and value systems. •• A communal way of life is aimed at reducing the
•• Modernity and Westernisation of the indigenous gap between the rich and the poor.
culture stresses on individual success, •• Poverty prevents people from fulfilling their
competitiveness and profit, aspects which are traditional obligations such as supporting the
incompatible with a communal way of life. extended family.
The indigenous people under the influence
of modernity are now pre-occupied with the Revision Exercise
accumulation of wealth for personal prestige.
People are now accruing property for individual Essay Questions
benefit while neglecting the plight and welfare of
their extended families. 1. Discuss the elements that enhance communal life in
•• Globalisation has further increased the widening Indigenous Religion.
gap between the rich and the poor. Globalisation 2. Examine the factors that negatively impact on the
refers to the process of becoming a more communal system in Indigenous Religion.
interconnected world. Through globalisation, 3. Analyse the advantages of a communal way of life in
some people have become richer, while others Indigenous Religion.
have become poorer. The widening gap between 4. Assess the role of Indigenous Religion in promoting
the rich and the poor has made it difficult social responsibility.
for people to work for common goals in the 5. Evaluate the challenges faced by a communal way of
community. People tend to prefer chasing life in Indigenous Religion.
individual goals so as to catch up with the pace

UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION 49

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND MARRIAGE

Unit Marriage institution

13
Unit objectives Marriage institution in Indigenous
Religion
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Marriage from an indigenous perspective is a union
•• identify the types of marriage in Indigenous Religion.
between two or more parties who seek to bear, rear and
•• explain pre and post marital rites.
promote life and extension of relations to other interested
parties. It should be noted that marriage is not an individual
affair in indigenous society rather it is a communal affair.
Introduction One is married into a family and for the family. As such
The marriage institution forms the backbone of indigenous marriage involves all the family members of the couple as
families. It provides the best environment for sexual well as ancestors. Marriage is regarded as complete when it
gratification and reproduction. Marriage grants an individual is endorsed by the ancestors. This explains why marriage is
higher social status in society and as such qualifies one sacred in Indigenous Religion. Mbiti (1975) subscribes to this
for ancestorhood. Both monogamous and polygamous view that marriage is the meeting point for three layers: the
marriages are allowed in Indigenous religion and they departed, the living and those to be born. It is because of
form the basis for the extended family which is so crucial in this that marriage is a religious matter.
cementing family bonds in indigenous societies. By the end
Heterosexual marriage and family structures are central
of this unit, it is hoped that types of marriages in Indigenous
to the indigenous experience. As such, marriage should be
religion will be identified and pre and post marital rites will
between a male and a female. For marriage to be complete
be explained.
and recognised by the two families, bride price payment is
done. Zivave (2017) concurs with this saying that marriage

Key words involves the bridegroom paying bride price to the bride’s
family. This payment of lobola legalises the marriage.
Circumcision – the surgical removal of the male foreskin. Marriage is thus an elaborate process which is ultimately
legalised by the payment of the bride wealth and stabilised
Exogamy – marriage of a person outside one’s tribe or by the birth of children.
ethnic group.
Types of marriage
Monogamy – the practice of being married to one person.
Polygamy and monogamy
Polygamy – the practice of having more than one wife
The indigenous marriage is greatly valued and there are two
simultaneously.
institutions of marriage accepted among the indigenous
Virginity – the condition of having never engaged in any people, namely polygamy and monogamy. Polygamy
sexual activity. refers to a marriage set up where there is one husband
and several wives. Polygamy is accepted depending on the
economic status of a man. This means that polygamy is the

50 Unit 13: Marriage institution

procreation preserve, propagates and perpetuates human a dignified girl would not cross such places without being
life. As such marriage and procreation are the focus of given something. Upon arrival at the man’s homestead,
human life. Marriage and procreation are indispensable. the girl would put on a veil “kwiriti” on her face. The people
Procreation is the ultimate fulfilment of womanhood and at the homestead would be informed of the bride and the
marriage. Marriage is not valid until the first child is born. relatives of the man will give presents (kukun’a), for the girl
Accordingly, no person is allowed to remain single. Marriage to enter into the homestead. What follows was kusheedzera
is therefore the duty that everyone should undertake. and marriage process highlighted during kukumbira.
Barrenness and failure to marry is considered a curse.
Children are a blessing for obeying societal norms of 3. Child pledging (Kuzvarira)
behaviour. Child pledging (Kuzvarira) is child pledging and it was an
The indigenous marriage institution value purity. Gelfand arranged marriage usually between the poor family and the
(1973) admits that, “a fundamental and basic belief of the rich family. This kind of marriage was normally caused by
Shona marriage is that when the couple marry, the wife drought such that the poor family would not be able to feed
must be a virgin and the young man himself should not itself. They would then use the girl child so that they source
have had any previous sexual knowledge.” This is in contrast food. The father of the girl would find a go between who
popular belief that only a girl should be a virgin. The Shona would go to the rich family. A man could offer her girl child
regard virginity as purity. If the girl is a virgin at marriage, to his friend as sign of cordial relations and to cement the
the makandinzwa nani ceremony is held. This ceremony is friendship. However, this marriage arrangement is flawed
the payment of the beast to the bride’s parents as a gesture in contemporary society which is characterised by women’s
of gratitude for her being virgin. If the bride has been rights. It has been condemned, for it strips the girl child of
spoiled before marriage, a new blanket was holed and given the right to choose a partner of her own choice. It is in this
to the bride’s family and this symbolised impurity. respect that child marriages have become a topical issue
that has attracted the attention of legislators who have seen
2. Elopement (Kutiza mukumbo/kutizisa/ it fit to impose stiff penalties on perpetrators of under age
ukubalekhisa) marriages. Such a marriage arrangement can be a source
of the spread of diseases such as STIs and HIV and AIDS.
This is a type of marriage that occurred when the girl was
pregnant. The girl would want to conceal the pregnancy by 4. Male forced marriage (Musengabere)
running to the boy who had impregnated her. If the girl’s
This marriage happened when the man was not in love with
pregnancy is discovered before she is married, the boy
the girl. The man would go to the homestead of the girl and
would be required to pay a fine for engaging in sex before
hang around on places where the girls of that homestead
marriage in form of a cow. The idea of a girl going to the
spend time on. If they find the girl, they would carry her
boy for marriage is known as kutiza mukumbo, whereas
away to their homestead whilst the mouth is blocked so that
kutizisa was initiated by the boy because of such reasons as
she will not make any noise. After several days, they would
pregnancy of the girl and inadequate resources for lobola.
then send the go between to the girl’s parents to inform
During this marriage process there would be a secret deal them of the whereabouts of their child. Some parents would
between the boy and the girl, where they would meet at an turn down the marriage proposal but with time they would
appointed place which was known as “garo”. The girl would settle for it. This marriage was important in making sure
inform her aunt and the boy would also inform his sisters that each and every male marries despite the fact that he
and aunt. The parents of the girl were not supposed to was not able to propose love to women. Be that as it may,
know anything about the proceeding until an appropriate this marriage like child pledging is a violation of women’s
time. However, the mother of the girl would be aware of rights. It was sort of legalised rape of women. Such a flawed
the whereabouts of her child but would not divulge the marriage arrangement was due to the patriarchal nature
information to her husband. of the indigenous communities, for women were viewed as
Elopement was done during the night and the aunt of the having no say in their destiny which had to be determined
girl would prepare food to be used for the journey. They and shaped by men.
would meet the relatives of the man and in some cases with
5. Service marriage (Kutema ugariri)
the owner of the girl present. The aunts of the girl would
be given presents and they would be given the girl to go This was a marriage that was initiated by the poor male who
with her. During the procession, the girl would be following would want to marry a girl but do not have bride price. It
what her aunt had instructed her. The girl was not supposed was usually done by orphans who had no parents to give
to cross the river or climb the mountain before being them bride wealth. The man or boy would do some work at
given presents as these areas are considered sacred and the homestead of the prospective girl. After he had worked

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND MARRIAGE 53

the mother in-law will break her back. This means that Revision Exercise
having sexual relationship before marriage is taboo in
Indigenous Religion. As such, mombe yemavhunwa rite is Essay Questions
killed to prevent any misfortune that may come as a result
of sex before marriage between the son in-law and the 1. Explain the following terms as they are used in
married daughter of the mother whom the rite is conducted Indigenous Religion
for. This rite was done together with the first pregnancy rite (i) Monogamy
especially when the two had married through elopement (ii) Polygamy
due to pregnancy. (iii) Exogamy
(iv) Divorce
Importance of post marital rites 2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various
marriage systems in Indigenous Religion.
•• To seek protection for the unborn child.
3. “Marriage is a long process accompanied by a
•• To give blessings to the expecting mother.
variety of pre-marital rites”. Assess the validity of this
•• To ensure safe delivery of the child. First
assertion.
pregnancy ritual is a precautionary measure to
ensure that the baby is delivered safely. This is 4. “The marriage institution is a vital component of
done through the use of herbs that are given to Indigenous Religion”. Discuss.
the pregnant mother to ensure that the baby is 5. Analyse the advantages and disadvantages of different
delivered safely. types of marriages in indigenous society.
•• The mother of the pregnant woman confirms 6. Examine how various types of marriages in indigenous
to her ancestors that she is happy and appeals society violate human rights.
to them to guide her daughter in giving birth
safely. This is the reason why maternal ancestors
are valued in Indigenous Religion because they
protect living.
•• Virginity celebration rite ensures that the people
have good morals.
•• Virginity celebration rite helps in the
socialisation of the young to have moral values.

Summary of the unit

•• Marriage from an indigenous perspective is a union
between two or more parties who seek to bear rear
and promote life and extension of relations to other
interested parties.
•• Heterosexual marriage and family structures are
central to the indigenous experience.
•• Indigenous marriage is greatly valued and there
are two institutions of marriage accepted among
the indigenous people, namely polygamy and
monogamy.
•• All generations are said to be connected together
because of marriage, the past, present and
future generation are jettisoned together through
marriage.
•• A family is built around and extended through child
bearing.
•• Marriage and children produced in marriage help
in commemorating the parents when they die.
•• Premarital rites refer to ritual practice or practices
that are done before one is pronounced as
husband or wife.
•• Masungiro is a marital rite done for the first
pregnancy of the newly married woman.

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND MARRIAGE 57

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND MARRIAGE

Unit Divorce

14
Unit objectives Like marriage, divorce involves the whole family and it is the
index of family instability. Divorce is considered as a curse.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: •• Divorce is never tolerated except in some
•• explain the nature of divorce in Indigenous Religion. extreme cases of adultery because the stability
•• highlight the procedures of facilitating divorce. of the contract between the two families is
therefore their interest.
•• From a religious perspective, divorce is viewed
Introduction as a painful process which is as a result of spirits.
Divorce can thus be attributed to the anger of
Divorce is not desirable in Indigenous Religion such that
spirits. If the ancestors are angry, misfortunes
various ways of conflict resolution will be engaged at
like bareness may occur leading to divorce.
different levels to try and mend the fragile relationship. It is
•• Divorce is a prerogative of the male. A women
when the relationship has irretrievably broken that divorce
under normal circumstances cannot initiate
may become an inevitable outcome of the conflict resolution
divorce. It is only on extreme cases when the
process. It is the role of the entire family and community at
husband is impotent and cannot support the
large to preserve the institution of marriage. It is this unit’s
family that a woman could initiate divorce.
task to explain the nature of divorce in Indigenous Religion as
The woman would inform the aunt about the
well as highlighting the procedures of facilitating divorce.
problems affecting her marriage life.
•• Only chiefs had the right to sanction divorce.
Key words Causes of divorce
Conflict – a clash or disagreement between two or more The causes of divorce in Indigenous Religion includes
parties. barrenness, suspicion of witchcraft from the relatives,
failure to pay bride price, continued cruelty from the
Divorce – dissolution of a legal marriage.
husband, cheating, and dishonesty in marriage.

•• Cheating causes divorce in Indigenous Religion.

Nature of divorce This causes the relationship to crumble as there
Divorce is a legal process of dissolving a marriage or will be no trust. The person who had been
termination of a marriage contract that allows the former cheated will feel that he/she has been betrayed
spouses to remarry if they so choose to. Although divorce and so will try to find a severe punishment for
is discouraged in indigenous society, it usually involves his or her partner. This will cause too many
the return of the bride price depending on the duration conflicts in a marriage. Therefore, the partners
will choose to dissolve the marriage thereby
of the marriage and the number of children. This is one of
deciding to divorce. Cheating is therefore a
the exhibits of patriarchal power in indigenous marriage.
cause of divorce.
Divorce was (is) initiated by men. Zivave (2017) underscores
that divorce is a strong indicator of marriage failure.

58 Unit 14: Divorce

(f) Lobola reimbursement 1. Faithfulness in marriage

The husband would send a messenger to demand from the From time immemorial, faithfulness in marriage was highly
bride’s lineage to reimburse some of the bride wealth to the called for even in polygamous marriages. The married wife
groom’s lineage. In returning of bride wealth, regard is given or wives were ensured that their spouse was not cheating.
to the number of children born out of marriage. If there are If the husband decided to have another wife it was done in
many children only the first part of the bride wealth is paid openness and in agreement. This is in contrast to modern
back. It is believed that the cow for the bride’s mother was day trends where secret marriage has been arranged under
never returned as it will bring calamities to the children of the term “small house”. This has accelerated divorce cases
the marriage. in contemporary society as the cheated spouse will retaliate
through cheating also. From an African Indigenous Religion
(g) Dissolution of marriage perspective, faithfulness to one partner or official wives
The two are pronounced as divorcees and can seek can be a panacea to divorce cases. Women have to develop
remarriage somewhere else. Minor children are allowed virtues which made marriage respectable by having self-
to stay with the mother while grown up children remain at discipline and tolerance.
their father’s home.
2. Valuing of virginity
Impact of divorce Many marriages have collapsed because of lack of virginity
•• Divorce results in child headed families. Children especially on the part of the woman. Girls should not have
become orphans while their parents are existing. sexual relationships before marriage as sexual relationships
•• Increase in vices in society like stealing. This is before marriage create problems.
because children who are the major victims of
3. Giving the aunt her role to play in marriages
divorce would lack parental guidance and this
results in them engaging in social vices. Issues like adultery, loss of virginity and laziness are
•• Divorce creates conflicts between the family considered to be in the hands of aunts. These should play
of the husband and the family of the wife. The their role of teaching their niece. This is also why Zivave
family where the woman comes from may not (2017) argues that the aunt has a special religious and social
like the family which divorced their daughter
duties in marriage. This implies that she has the ability to
and may seek to settle their score through
teach children Unhu in society so as to create their better
confrontation.
tomorrow. Aunts must perform their roles in teaching
•• The families of the couple suffers psychological
women and men in marriage which ensures marriage
problems like stress on how to keep children
longevity.
who are left after the two couples are divorced.
•• It also results in the anger of spirits. For 4. Appeasing ancestors
example, ancestors get angered when the two
couple divorces. This is because marriage is The concept of pleasing spirit especially ancestral spirits
believed to be a permanent thing. Curses from should be done to avoid divorce. Families have to respect
spirits will be poured on divorced couples. the ancestors and should also avoid breaking taboos so as
to avoid curses from ancestors. Ancestors and other spirits
Positive like avenging spirits had a need to be appeased to avoid bad
•• It increases social responsibility in the family and luck or divorce in marriage.
society. For example, one of the relatives may
5. Seeking advice from elders
decide to take care of the children.
•• Peace in family when the divorced is the one A married couple must advice from elders on how to please
who has been causing family problems. each other. The boy can ask his grandfather/uncle and the
girl can ask her aunt. This helps a couple not to divorce as
Ways through which divorce cases can be
they will have knowledge on what a married couple must do
reduced in Indigenous Religion to solve conflicts.
Africans view marriage as permanent. There are ways that
are used to reduce divorce in Indigenous Religion. Activity 1

In groups, discuss the stages in both pre and post marital

rites. Present your findings to the class.

60 Unit 14: Divorce

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND GENDER RELATIONS

Status of women in
Unit

15
Indigenous Religion

Unit objectives Men in Indigenous Religion dominate women, whom society

expects to be subservient. Most indigenous women are
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: hesitant to stand up and be heard at various platforms
due to societal and cultural expectations. Chitando (2007)
•• examine the status of women in Indigenous Religion. observed that patriarchal ideologies have left women at the
•• evaluate the factors which may promote or hinder bottom of the heap and there was need for society to reflect
women’s progress in Indigenous Religion.
and review its negative attitude towards women.

Indigenous Religion has however played a positive role in

Introduction trying to uplift the status of women, especially those who
A gender role is a set of societal norms dictating what type have made great strides in society as a whole. The legendary
of behaviour is generally considered acceptable, appropriate Mbuya Nehanda has been recognised for her leadership
and desirable for a particular sex. Indigenous Religion like potential in the religio-political spheres. She played the
other religions, has contributed to the upliftment of women’s role of great leader by being both a spirit medium and a
status in society. However, it is also responsible for enhancing guide to the liberation struggle for the independence of
gender inequality in society through its patriarchal system. Zimbabwe. Many scholars therefore maintain that religion
Consequently, women have failed to make meaningful has a tremendous role and effect on the image and status
inroads into public discourses such as politics. This unit will of women.
attempt to examine the status of women in society as well as
explore the factors that undermine women’s participation in Roles of women in Indigenous Religion
politics.
1. Women have a role of child-bearing

Key words Women in Indigenous Religion are celebrated for their

motherhood. Women play an important role in pro-creation.
Gender roles – community ascribed duties based on the Every woman in Indigenous Religion is expected to marry
sex of an individual. someday and her worth is measured through motherhood.
Dube (2003) posited that women are good only when they
Mediation – the act of intervening for the purpose of become mothers and even better when they give birth to
bringing out a settlement. sons. This line of thinking is even buttressed by the Shona
proverb “Chembere mukadzi hazvienzani nekurara mugota”.
Status of women in Indigenous
When translated, this means “it is better to marry an old
Religion wife than sleeping alone in a boy’s hut”. Whilst the saying
Zimbabwean societies like any other African societies are applauds the value of women, it however has some sexist
generally patriarchal in nature. Consequently, women are overtones as it seems to suggest that women are there to
not expected to participate in the public domain unless cater for the sexual needs of man.
assuming a subordinate role.

62 Unit 15: Status of women in Indigenous Religion

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND GENDER RELATIONS

Women participation in
Unit

16
politics

Unit objectives Indigenous Religion participated in politics in pre-colonial

times. It was difficult to separate religion and politics.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Women dominated the religious spectrum and ended up
influencing politics. Mbuya Nehanda was both a religious
•• evaluate the involvement of women in politics in and political figure. Mbuya Nehanda played an influential
Indigenous Religion. role during Chimurenga/Umvukela. She motivated the
•• identify factors which may promote women’s
masses to resist colonial rule. She ordered the execution of
participation in politics.
Polland, the native commissioner of Mazowe.

In 1898, she was charged with murder and was executed

Introduction together with Sekuru Kaguvi in Harare. Mbuya Nehanda
played a role of inspiring other female combatants like
Politics has largely been regarded as the domain of man in
Joyce Mujuru and Victoria Chitepo who took arms during
indigenous religion. In most instances it has been considered
Chimurenga 2. Mbuya Nehanda’s famous oracles “Mapfupa
a taboo for women to join politics. This has been as a result
angu achamuka” meaning “My bones shall rise” inspired
of the patriarchal nature of indigenous societies. Women
the guerrillas to take arms and defeat the colonialists
are taught to be subservient to their husbands and hence
culminating in the liberation of Zimbabwe from minority
joining politics is viewed as tantamount to undermining
male authority since politics involves dominating others. rule.
It is however important to acknowledge that women in Women in Indigenous Religion appoint chiefs in their
indigenous religion have participated in politics from time capacity as spirit mediums. Some of the spirit mediums
immemorial. This unit seeks to appreciate the role of women were women and they also had the opportunity to install
in politics in Indigenous Religion as well as evaluate the chiefs in their respective communities.
factors that may hinder woman’s participation in politics.
In Indigenous Religion, anyone can become a leader
irrespective of sex. Although very few, some communities
Key words have women chiefs. This is the case with Chief Charehwa
and Chief Chimukoko of Mutoko. This implies that there
Guerrilla – a soldier in a small independent group, fighting
are no rules that restrict women from venturing into
against the government or regular forces by surprise raids.
politics. Women in Indigenous Religion fought alongside
Patriarchy – a social system or power structure where men men and some participated as female war collaborators
are dominant. (Chimbwidos) providing entertainment to the guerrillas and
Politics – the exercise of power and the conflicts which arise therefore had a valuable contribution in the politics of their
from this. day. The female war collaborators were also informers to
the guerrillas.
Women in politics
Some women play a pivotal role in offering hospitality at the
Politics can be defined as the exercise of power and the chief’s court.
conflicts which arise from this (Paul 1986). Women in

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND GENDER RELATIONS 65

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Reverence for nature and

Unit

17
kinship with nature

Unit objectives Reverence for nature in Indigenous

Religion
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
As intimated earlier in the introduction, the indigenous
•• examine the indigenous peoples’ reverence for the
people have great respect for nature. The indigenous
natural environment.
people’s attitudes towards nature are primarily about power
•• explain human kinship with nature in Indigenous
and relation with the spirits than with ecological issues in
Religion.
the scientific sense.

In their beliefs about well-being, indigenous people hold

Introduction that there is a casual connection between the moral
The natural environment refers to all living things and condition of the community and its physical environment.
non-living things that exist but were not created by men. Among the indigenous people , the real owner of the land
The Indigenous people have great reverence for the natural and all on it, is the tutelary spirit, Mwari and the various
environment. The relationship between the indigenous ancestor spirits. In fact, the environment belongs to the
people and the natural environment is more of reciprocity spirits. It is therefore sacred.
than dominance. The indigenous people seek to conserve the
Land is sanctified by its possession by the ancestor spirits
environment through kinship with it since their lives sorely
whose remains are buried in it. So it is the spirits who
depend on it. The strong beliefs in ancestral spirits, kinship,
look after their property. The indigenous people therefore
taboos and totems bear testimony to this. This unit will seek
to explain human kinship with nature as well as examine the believe that land should not be sold. It is not an economic
reverence for nature in Indigenous Religion. commodity but should be passed from one generation to
the other.

Key words Totemism is used by the Indigenous people to personify

animals. This is a religious idea around which the
Environment – refers to living things and non-living things indigenous people understand their relationship to each
that exist but were not created by man. other and the rest of the world. For instance, a clan may
adopt an animal species as its totem, for example, hippo or
Kinship – a close connection marked by community of fish. People are forbidden to eat the animal associated with
interests or similarity in nature and character. their totem as a conservation measure.

Reverence – veneration or profound awe normally of Among the indigenous people , rocks, bodies of water and
something sacred. mountains are also personified as living things. For example,
before climbing a particular mountain or entering particular
Totemism – the belief that a person has a special mystical forests, one must ritually ask its permission. Therefore,
relationship to a totem. most aspects of nature are perceived as kin, endowed with

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 67

umbilical cord is supposed to be buried in the soil at his or her homestead. At death, a person is supposed to be buried in
the soil. The indigenous people would commemorate the gathering of the first fruits through festivals. They would wait for
permission to gather the first fruits from traditional leaders.

It is also believed that the indigenous people are fed by nature. There are stories of travellers asking for food from
components of nature for example trees and rocks. For example, the nameless tree in Buhera (Mutiusinazita) was a source of
food for the indigenous people. This proves the extent of kinship between people and their natural environment.

It is evident therefore that the indigenous people have strong kinship with the natural environment because they heavily
depend on it for their social, economic, religious and political needs. Nature provides for their daily needs and is a source of
livelihood. Indigenous people therefore practice environmentally friendly practices so as to ensure a sustainable utilization
and exploitation of natural resources. The relationship between the indigenous people and the environment is mutually
beneficial rather than being premised on dominance.

Activity 1

In groups, evaluate the relationship between the indigenous people and the environment. Present your findings to the class.

Summary of the unit

•• The indigenous people have great reverence for nature.
•• The relationship between the indigenous people and the natural environment is based on kinship.
•• Indigenous people respected the environment because of its sacredness.
•• The indigenous people performed rituals which demonstrated their kinship with nature.
•• The indigenous people heavily depended on nature for their social, economic, religious and political needs.

Revision Exercise
Essay Questions
1. Explain the significance of the natural environment in Indigenous Religion.
2. ‘The relationship between the Indigenous people and their environment is that of reciprocity rather than dominance’.
Discuss.
3. Write brief notes on the importance of the following environmental aspects in Indigenous Religion.
(a) Water bodies.
(b) Forests.
(c) Trees.
(d) Animals.
(e) Land.
4. Demonstrate how people in Indigenous religion show kinship with the natural environment.

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 69

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Sacred phenomena in the

Unit

18
natural environment

Unit objectives Aspects of the natural environment

By the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Animals
•• identify the sacred phenomena in the natural Indigenous people believe that the spirits operate in the
environment. human world through animals, birds and fish. Indigenous
•• assess the significance of sacred phenomena in the communities have their own taboos and restrictions
natural environment. towards particular animals. Certain animals are considered
as totems. The Shona for example, believe that if totemic
animals are killed, mysterious diseases would attack
Introduction children. Members of the same totem are forbidden from
Indigenous people believe that some aspects of the natural eating the flesh of the animal. If one violates the taboos, it
environment are sacred. They are sacred in as far as they was believed that it would result in loss of teeth. Pongweni
are the abode of ancestral spirits and other territorial spirits. (2002) observed that the totemic animal has a taboo
The natural environment belongs to God and the ancestors. attached to it such that the bearer is forbidden to eat and
The depiction of the natural environment as sacred, in a infringement of this taboo has certain concomitant magical
way translates to a healthy environmental ethic amongst the sanctions such as loss teeth or leprosy.
indigenous people. It also engenders a sense of responsibility
Events involving certain animals are interpreted as signs
and reverence for nature. This unit seeks to identify sacred
from ancestral spirits. The Shona associate other animals
phenomena as well as assess its significance in the natural
that are not totemic animals such as the owls, tortoise and
environment.
hyena with bad omen. Killing such animals is believed to be
bad omen because they believed these animals to be used
Key words by witches.

Mermaid – a mythological creature with a woman’s head However, while some animals can be preserved for
and upper body, and a tail of a fish generations as a result of totemism, the situation is worse
for those species that fall outside. The positive attitudes are
Omen – something that portends either a good or bad more on animals that are identified as sacred.
event in the future.
2. Forests
Sacred place – an area that is exalted or consecrated by
divine sanction. Indigenous people believe in sacred forests. In most cases,
there are sacred graves and burial sites of their chiefs.
Sacred practitioner – a religious person sent on a These places are therefore the habitats of ancestral spirits.
religious mission, and often considered a messenger of the So, all aspects of nature, plants and wildlife and water
supernatural world. bodies are under the mystical tutelage of ancestral spirits

70 Unit 18: Sacred phenomena in the natural environment

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Taboos and the natural

Unit

19
environment

Objectives •• If you hunt without permission from traditional

leaders, misfortune will strike you.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: •• If you eat your own totem, you will lose your
teeth.
•• analyse taboos that protect the natural environment. •• If you defecate in a fruit forest, your excretion
will follow you.
•• If you bath in sacred pools, you will be captured
Introduction by mermaids.
Indigenous Religion employs quite a number of taboos in •• If you cut big trees, a family member will die.
a bid to preserve the natural environment. A taboo is an •• If you fetch firewood or fruits in sacred forests,
inhibition that results from social custom. This sanction is you will disappear.
accompanied by a corresponding penalty for those who •• If you hunt in sacred places, snakes will chase
violate it. These taboos protect various components of nature you.
by instilling fear in those who may decide to violate these •• If you kill a pregnant animal, misfortune will
taboos. The punishment is believed to be from the ancestors strike you and your family.
who are the owners of the natural environment. This unit
seeks to analyse the effectiveness of taboos in protecting the Effectiveness of taboos in environmental
natural environment. conservation
Taboos are a mechanism to preserve the natural
Key words environment. All components of the natural environment
including mountains, forests, rivers, land are believed to
Detergents – any non-soap cleaning agent especially a be sacred and owned by the community by both the living
synthetic surfactant. and the ancestral spirits. These components of nature are
protected by various taboos which may differ from one
Pollution – physical contamination of the natural
ethnic group to the other.
environment by harmful substances.
•• Taboos promote respect for nature and all
Sustainable – able to be produced or used for an indefinite sacred places. Taboos create around animals
period without damaging the natural environment. such as totemic animals, protected certain
animal species from wanton killing and possible
Taboos – an inhibition or ban that results from social
extinction. This is the case with taboos that
custom.
prohibit the eating of sacred animals such as the
pangolin which fall under endangered species in
Taboos which protect the natural our contemporary era.
environment in Indigenous Religion •• Cutting down trees in sacred forests, mountains
is also forbidden. This prevents over exploitation
•• If one kills a frog, there will be drought.
of forests. Certain types of trees like Muhacha,
•• If you ride a dog, you will become a witch.

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 73

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND ENTERPRISE

Indigenous Religion and

Unit

20
wealth creation

Unit objectives Herbs like Moringa, Gavakava and Mumvamaropa are a

good example. Indigenous people believe that herbs from
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: the natural environment are more effective and do not have
side effects. People buy those herbs thereby promoting
•• explain the values of wealth creation in Indigenous the enterprise. Hence, this shows that Indigenous Religion
Religion. promotes enterprise through selling herbs from the natural
•• identify the prohibited ways of wealth creation.
environment which cure different diseases.

Introduction 2. Use of spirits to create wealth

Indigenous Religion is boon in terms of wealth creation. Alien spirits in Indigenous Religion are believed to promote
It encourages wealth creation that is premised on high enterprise. Alien Spirits are spirits that confer different
ethical principles such as hardworking, altruistic, caring talents to the host. We have alien spirits like Mudzukwa or
and beneficial to all. Wealth creation refers to the ways that Sivinda which is popular in women. This alien spirit enables
are used to accumulate valuable material possessions and the host to cure or treat many diseases, some of the
money while enterprise is the practice of doing business for Western medicine cannot treat such as leprosy.
profit making and employment creation. This unit deals with
One can start an enterprise through healing people,
values on wealth creation in indigenous religion as well as
people will pay for the service provided hence promoting
exploring prohibited ways of wealth creation.
enterprise. Therefore, this shows that Indigenous Religion
supports enterprise through alien spirits.
Key words
3. Selling of religious artefacts
Enterprise – the practice of doing business for profit
making and employment creation. Indigenous instruments such as drums, mbira and gandira
are used as souvenirs thereby creating wealth for the
Goblin – a hostile supernatural creature often used in
indigenous people.
wealth creation in Indigenous Religion.
Wealth creation – the ways that are used to accumulate 4. Religious tourism
valuable material possessions and money.
It refers to the visiting of places which have religious and
Forms enterprise and wealth cultural significance. For instance, we have Great Zimbabwe
creation methods in Indigenous where indigenous people visit for religious sake. It promotes
enterprise through providing entertainment at those
Religion religious tourism centres. The entertainer can earn a living
1. Selling of herbs through entertaining tourists thereby promoting enterprise.

Indigenous people sell herbs which are used as medicine. Those people who provide entertainment are found at
tourism places like Great Zimbabwe where they can dance

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND ENTERPRISE 75

 •• Ritualised wealth creation is prohibited. For Activity 1
example, wealth creation which come as a result
of ritual murder, ritual raping like that of female
rapists who took sperms from men whom they In pairs, discuss values on wealth creation in Indigenous
had raped is prohibited because that wealth is Religion. Present your findings to the class.
against the moral values and religious values of
the indigenous people.
•• Use of goblins - these are mysterious creatures
Summary of the unit
used in witchcraft for wealth generation in •• Wealth creation refers to the ways that are used
indigenous religion. They are used to make to accumulate valuable material possessions and
wealth by desperate people who do not want to money while enterprise is the practice of doing
work. Use of goblins results in loss of innocent business for profit making and employment
life and resources of other people. creation.
•• Greediness: In indigenous society they say •• People buy herbs thereby promoting enterprise.
“usadya zvevapfupi nekureba”. This is an adage •• Alien spirits in Indigenous Religion promote
which encourages people to create wealth by enterprise.
any means which is not centered on selfishness. •• Making traditional musical instruments selling
As such corrupt activities which enrich one them to different religions like Christianity
person at the expense of other is prohibited promotes enterprise.
in Indigenous Religion because it is against •• Social values can simply be seen as those beliefs
the social and moral values of the indigenous and practices that are practised by any particular
people. society.
•• Impersonating is another way of wealth creation •• Indigenous societies like that of the Shona have
that is not allowed. This means masquerading political institutions with the heads of such
as a diviner or healer (false tsikamutandas) who institutions as respected individuals like headmen,
drives away goblins and demand people’s cattle chiefs and paramount chief.
as payment is prohibited. •• Stealing is prohibited because wealth creation
•• Corruption: Cheating people of their land/ should be based on hardworking.
materials by indigenous leaders and any other
person is not allowed as a form of wealth Revision Exercise
creation in indigenous society.
Essay Questions
Importance of enterprise and wealth creation
in Indigenous Religion 1. “Wealth creation should be centered on Ubuntu.”
Support this claim.
•• Employment creation is guaranteed as one can 2. Examine the role of African Indigenous Religion in
become an entrepreneur. For example, a diviner wealth creation and national development.
creates employment for himself or herself and 3. “Indigenous religion is the source of wealth and
others. health”. How valid is the assertion?
•• It improves the standards of living of the 4. Discuss the benefits of indigenous enterprise.
indigenous people. For example, indigenous
musicians and dancers who are led by spirits
to start business live a better lives as they get
financial resources to improve their lives.
•• It brings in foreign currency which is needed
in the national fiscas. For example, religious
tourism.
•• It results in national development as roads
to prominent healers and herbalists can be
refurbished.
•• It ensures that people’s health is maintained
since the selling of indigenous fruits, relish and
vegetables is good for the health of the people.
•• It helps in the maintenance of indigenous
people’s identity. For example, the selling of
indigenous religious artefacts.

INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND ENTERPRISE 77

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND HEALTH

Unit Concept of health

21
Unit objective of balance, an equilibrium that an individual has established
within himself and his social and physical environment.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: African culture is interwoven with its religion thereby
•• analyse the concept of health in Indigenous Religion. influencing the people’s notion of health and wholeness.
The belief of the existence of a Supreme Being, supernatural
forces, origin, meaning and the ultimate purpose and
Introduction destination of human life greatly influence the concept of
health.
The indigenous people perceive health issues in a religious
way. The health and well-being of the individual is believed Sickness in any individual in the African society affects the
to explain the relationship between the individual and the entire community because of the communal system that is
ancestors. The health of the individual is also viewed as a characteristic of African societies, thereby necessitating the
microcosm of the health of the entire community. Ill-health is healing of the community. The integrated view of health is
interpreted as a curse from the ancestors or the work of evil. based on the unitary view of reality. Good health is not a
This unit seeks to analyse the concept of health in Indigenous subjective affair (Nzejele 2008).
Religion. The causes of ill-health in Indigenous Religion will
also be explored. Healing is part of the complex religious attempt by Africans
to bring spiritual and physical aspects of the universe as
well as man who lives in it, into a harmonious unity and
Key words wholeness. Wholeness is therefore the underlying focus
of African healing. For the traditional African, health is not
Chronic – a condition that is prolonged or slow to heal.
just the proper functioning of bodily organs. Good health
Healing – to make better from a disease or wound among consists of mental, physical, spiritual and emotional stability
other malfunctions of the body. of oneself, family members and community.

Health – the state of being free from physical or Health is usually understood in terms of the relationship
psychological disease, illness or malfunction. with one’s ancestors. Health amongst the indigenous people
is not based merely on how it affects the living, because it
Holistic – relating to the study of the whole instead of a is of paramount importance that the ancestors stay healthy
separation into parts. so that they protect the living. Good health is perceived
to be the result of appropriate behaviour that is, living in
Sorcery – application of bad magic to harm people or cause
accordance with societal norms and values.
illness.
Human life in indigenous societies is viewed as essential
The concept of health and valuable. This is evidenced by the elaborate protective
measures and strict cautions among several ways
Health can be defined as the absence of disease or an
recommended for effective and happy sojourn on earth. For
impairment. It is a state that allows the individual to cope
a man to be in good health, he must control his cravings,
with all the demands of daily life. Health is therefore a state

78 Unit 21: Concept of health

 TENETS OF JUDAISM

Unit Covenant

24
Unit objectives This suffices to say a covenant can be made between God
and an individual like the Abrahamic covenant or it can be
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: made between God and a group of people like the Mosaic
covenant. A covenant therefore is a contract between
•• identify different types of covenants. God and his chosen people as individuals or collectively.
•• explain the significance of the covenants. A covenant can either be conditional or unconditional. It
has some rules attached to it. Covenants are important in
Introduction showing a special relationship between two parties.

A covenant is an agreement between two parties. The term Types of covenants in Judaism
covenant in Hebrew is berith and there are five covenants
in Judaism namely; Noahic covenant, Abrahamic covenant, 1. Parity covenant
Mosaic covenant, Davidic covenant and the New covenant.
This is a covenant between two equals. In this covenant
These covenants are very important for Jews. This unit seeks
there is no superior party over the other. The two parties
to explain different types of covenants in Judaism as well as
are equal. This covenant is not found among the covenants
explaining the significance of these covenants.
in Judaism.

Key words 2. Vassal or suzerainty covenant

This is a covenant between two unequal parties. One is

Berith – a chain that is used to bind things together.
superior over the other. The one who is superior is lord
Covenant – an agreement between two or more parties. and the one without power is the vassal. This is the case
with covenants in Judaism where Yahweh is the superior
Parity covenant – an agreement between two equal party over individuals and Israel as a whole. This covenant
parties. therefore has Yahweh as the lord and Israel as a vassal
depending on Yahweh for protection.
Suzerainty covenant – an agreement between two unequal
parties of which one will become the lord and the other the Features of covenants in Judaism
vassal.
Most covenants in Judaism are Suzerainty type of covenants
Covenant with the following key features:

A covenant in Hebrew is called berith, which means a chain (a) Preamble: this is an introduction where the Lord
used to bind things together. This means that a covenant identifies himself. For example, “I am the lord your God
is a relationship that binds two parties. In simple terms, a ….”
covenant is an agreement between two parties. In this case, (b) H
 istorical prologue: this is where the Lord gives a list of
a covenant is a sacred agreement between Yahweh and a his previous acts of kindness to the vassal, “… who took
selected person or a group of people. you out of Egyptian bondage”

TENETS OF JUDAISM 89
this covenant, Jews were promised prosperous land, divine 7. New Covenant Jeremiah (31: 31-36)
protection and blessings.
The new covenant was prophesied by Jeremiah after king
Significance of the Mosaic covenant Josiah wanted to revive adherence to the Mosaic covenant
which had been neglected. Jeremiah saw the flaws of the
•• It makes monotheism a religious obligation for
Mosaic covenant and saw the need for the new covenant.
every Jew.
This is because the Mosaic covenant had failed and it
•• It created laws which help in creating social
dwelt on external matters. The Mosaic covenant was easily
stability among Jews.
breached by the Israelites. As such the Mosaic covenant
•• It cements the promise of land that was given to
was being replaced by the new covenant that created new
Abraham.
•• It is the basis of the reason why God punished relationships since it was written at heart. The new covenant
Israel for various sins. is based on forgiveness of sins and is internalised in the
hearts of man. It is different from the Mosaic covenant
5. Palestinian covenant: (Deuteronomy 9. 1-29) which was written on the tablet and could easily be
forgotten. This new covenant is punctuated by blessings and
This was a covenant that was made between God and
protection of the chosen people of God.
the Israelites before they reached Palestine. This is why
the covenant is called the Palestinian covenant or land The general significance of the Jewish
covenant. Palestinian covenant is made after the Israelites
covenants
had completed the forty years of wandering in the
wilderness. It is conditional and it guarantees blessings •• They regulated the behaviour of the Israelites,
upon Jews as well as divine protection of the Jews. for example, The Mosaic covenant has
regulations for social conduct. Adultery and
Significance of the covenant stealing are social conducts regulated by the
Mosaic covenant.
•• It reinforces the land issue as promised heritage
•• They instilled faith. The Mosaic covenant instilled
in the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants.
the belief in the worship of one God, Yahweh.
•• It specifies the geographical boundaries of the
This is because the covenant strongly condemns
Promised Land.
the worshiping of other gods.
•• The covenant also makes Israel a chosen nation
•• They guaranteed protection of the Jews from
of God.
God. The Mosaic covenant and Davidic covenant
6. Davidic covenant (2 Samuel 7:1-6) promised protection to the people of God.
•• They give Hebrews new hope. The New
This is personal covenant between Yahweh and David which Covenant gave hope to the Jews because the Old
was facilitated by Prophet Nathan. David was instructed covenant was retributive and pessimistic.
to build a temple for God and in return David is promised •• They provided guidance for the people. The
everlasting reign through the establishment of a dynasty Palestinian covenant gives guidance on what is
that had divine security. Other promises made to David supposed to be done by each and every Jew.
include blessings and protection from his enemies. This •• They ensured stability of the society. The
covenant created a Zion theology or Davidic theology which Davidic covenant reduced conflicts in succession
later influenced the message of prophets like Isaiah. issues. The southern kingdom where the Davidic
dynasty reigned was characterised by peace as
Significance of the covenant compared with the Northern Israel were a lot of
•• The covenant helped in solving leadership coup de tats happened.
disputes in succession issues. This reduced •• They made Hebrews the chosen people of God.
conflicts. The Abrahamic covenant made Jews a covenant
•• The covenant cemented the belief in the people with circumcision as their identity.
protection from Yahweh like Isaiah during the •• They explain why God punishes people. Noahic
time of the Syro-Ephramite crises. covenant specifies that disobedience is the root
•• The covenant also led to the construction of the cause of punishment from God.
Jerusalem temple and this created a religious
identity and heritage for the Jews.
•• The covenant also instilled nationalism into the
Jews.

TENETS OF JUDAISM 91
 TENETS OF JUDAISM

Unit Law

25
Unit objectives Deuteronomy. Precisely, the Law is found in Exodus 20-31,
35-39, the book of Leviticus, Numbers 5-6, 8:1-9:14, 26-30
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: and Deuteronomy 4:44 -26:19. None is found in the book of
Genesis.
•• distinguish different types of laws in the Pentateuch.
•• interpret the Decalogue. The Law is a binding covenant between God and his people,
Israel. The law is given as a means of binding Israel to
her God in an agreement. The law provides Israel with a
Introduction standard for obedience by which the covenant relationships
The term ‘law’ is also understood as ‘statutes’, ‘ordinances’ must be preserved.
or ‘precepts’. The Hebrew name for the Pentateuch is the Life in Israel is understood as a gift from God. Furthermore,
Torah, and the law is the first part in the three separations the obedience demanded by the Law could not be satisfied
in the Hebrew canon, namely the Law, the Prophets and the by a mere legalism, for the law itself demands love for God
Writings. In the Hebrew tradition, the Sinaitic law given to and for one’s neighbour. Obedience to the law of God is an
Moses was considered to be more sanctified than the other expression of trust in God, and only those who offer God
two parts. The Law of Moses was subdivided into a total of
such were really his people.
613 commandments. Amongst this array of commandments
were the Ten Commandments (Decalogue). This unit seeks to God is the provider of the law. This implies that where
distinguish different types of laws in the Pentateuch as well violations of the law exist, these are sins against God
as interpret the Decalogue. himself. The bond between man and God is thus broken
and in need of reconstruction. If the people violate the law,
curses would befall them collectively.
Key words
National leaders are obliged to inform people about the
Apodictic – absolute and without explanation as in a divine law and it is not the preserve of only legal authorities. The
command. king and the people are responsible for keeping the law.
(Deuteronomy 29:18).
Casuistic – an attempt to solve moral dilemmas by applying
general rules. The main divisions of the Old Testament law
Law – the body of binding rules and regulations, customs There are three main divisions within the Old Testament
and standards in a community by its legislative and judicial law. The law can be categorized according to purpose. It is
authorities. classified as civil, ceremonial and moral law. The civil law
deals mainly with relationships between individuals, the
The Jewish law settling of disputes and the description of proper behaviour.
Despite the reference by Jews to the five books of Moses as The ceremonial law deals with the priesthood initiation
‘the law’, in reality, the law is only related to only four books. and the priestly procedures as they relate to the various
These four books are Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and sacrifices through which people of the Old Testament

TENETS OF JUDAISM 93
were cleansed of their sins. The moral law is based on Types of laws in the Pentateuch
the character of God. The Jewish people are expected to
emulate the character of God. The three main divisions of 1. Casuistic law
the Law are illustrated in the following table.
•• It is also called case law.
Table showing the three main divisions of the Jewish law. •• Casuistic law contains a conditional statement
and a type of punishment to be meted out.
Civil law Ceremonial Moral law
•• It is based on precedents and is usually in the
law
form of ‘If/then’ conditional statements.
•• Case laws have a three-tier structure which
Be just with the Cleansing house Idolatry (Lev 26:1-
consist of the introductory formula, narration of
poor (Lev 19:15) of a leper (Lev 13)
the offence and the consequence or result.
14:33-57)
•• The introductory formula can begin by the words
Rebellious children Festivals (Lev Love for God ‘If, Whoever or When…’
(Deut 21: 18-21) 23:1-25) (Deut 6:4) •• For instance, ‘Whoever, lies with a beast, shall be
put to death’ (Exodus 22:19) is a casuistic law.
Debt (Lev 23:34-43) Laws on Love for
- ‘Whoever’, (introductory formula)
animals for food neighbour (Lev
(Lev:1-47) 19:18) - ‘Lies with a beast’, (narration of the offence)
- ‘Shall be put to death.’ (the consequence/result).
Divorce (Deut 22:5) Law of Oppression of
atonement (Lev neighbour (Lev •• The casuistic law is subjunctive in terms of mood
16:1-28) 19:13) (cause and effect).
•• They are laws concerned with civil matters in
Inheritance (Num Offerings (Num Stealing or lying
Ancient Israel.
18:26) 29:39) (Lev 19:11)
•• Casuistry is reasoning used to resolve moral
problems.
Justice (Lev 24:17- Consecration Child sacrifices
•• Case laws had striking similarities with
23) of priests (Ex (Lev 20:1-5)
surrounding Ancient Near East nations hence
29:1-46)
were believed to have been borrowed from
Kidnapping (Ex Priestly duties Sexual sins (Lev surrounding nations.
21:16) (Lev 7:1-37) 18:20, Num 5:12- •• They are recorded in a section called the
15) Covenant Code (Ex 20:23-23-33).
Landmarks (Deut Regulations for •• Many of these laws elaborate on the Decalogue
19:4) priests (Lev 21, or provide for its interpretation in specific
22) contexts.
•• Examples of case laws include Exodus 21:2-11
Property Sin offerings
which deals with treatment of servants, Exodus
redemption (Lev 25) (Lev 1-6)
21:18-32 which deals with bodily injuries and
Murder and killing Exodus 22:1-15 which deals with property losses.
(Deut 21:1-4) •• Casuistic law in Israel is often the development
of laws for particular, personal and societal
Just scales in needs in light of God’s holy and eternal apodictic
commerce (Lev law.
19:35) •• However, casuistic law has often been criticized
for leading to situational ethics whereby people
Robbery, extortion,
may give excuses for violating a given law.
false witness (Lev
6:1-7) 2. Apodictic law
Sabbath breaking
•• It is also called ‘absolute law’ and gives laws in
(Num 15:32-36)
unconditional commands and prohibitions.
Theft (Lev 19:11) •• They issue absolute orders and allow
no exceptions, for instance the Ten.
Commandments (Ex 20:2-17, Deut 5:6-21).
Warfare (Deut 20:1- •• They can be in negative form for instance ‘Do
20) not kill’ (Ex 20:13).
•• They can also be in the positive form, for

94 Unit 25: Law

 •• Despite the reference by Jews to the five books of Moses as ‘the law’, in reality, the law was only related to only four
books.
•• The Law was a binding covenant between God and his people, Israel.
•• There are three main divisions within the Old Testament law. The law can be categorized according to purpose.
•• Casuistic law contains a conditional statement and a type of punishment to be meted out.
•• Decalogue refers to the Ten Commandments given to Moses by God on Mount Sinai.

Revision Exercise
Essay Questions
1. Analyse the different types of laws in the Pentateuch.
2. Distinguish between apodictic and casuistic laws.
3. Assess the significance of the Decalogue.
4. Evaluate the role of the Jewish law in promoting good citizenship.
5. Examine the significance of Jewish law in defending human rights.
6. To what extent does Jewish law promote good governance?

TENETS OF JUDAISM 97
 PROPHECY

Unit Prophecy and its origins

26
Unit objectives Nabi. The term Nabi is taken from the Akkadian verb
Naviyiim which means ‘one who speak in the name of God
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: or an interpreter of the will of God.’ The other Hebrew word
which means the same as prophet besides Nabi is Roeh
•• reflect on definitions of prophecy. which means having a second sight. So, a prophet in this
•• critique theories on origins of prophecy. sense is a seer who has a gift of second sight.
From the above insight, a prophet is someone who utters
Introduction the will of God and is associated with visions, dreams,
casting of lots as well as with the cult. It is because of this
The previous unit has looked at the covenant and the law
reason that B.W Anderson defines the term prophet as a
which are pillars of Judaism. This unit deals with prophecy
person who communicates the divine will while Muleinburg
which is an important pillar of Judaism. This unit will define
defines a prophet as a covenant mediator. This implies that
prophecy and reflect on prophetic terminology as well as
tracing the origins of prophecy in Israel. The unit will also a prophet is a representative of God and his covenant to the
analyse the theories on the origins of prophecy in Israel. people. Deuteronomy 18:9-22 provides a clear and concise
feature of a prophet which can be used to define who a
prophet is.
Key words Turning to the term prophecy, it should be noted that
Ancient Near East – Israel’s neighbours which included prophecy as a phenomenon does not a have single
nations like Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Syria, Assyria definition. It is a complex term to define because the Bible
and Babylon among other nations. which is a major source does not provide one. Prophecy
can be defined as an art of a prophet. It deals with the
Cult – a system of worship. message delivered by the prophet to the people. Put
differently, prophecy is an institution through which God
Seer – one who has the gift of second sight.
speaks the truth about his chosen people, Israel. This is the
Stele – stone tablet with something written on it. reason why Guthrie defines a prophet as a vehicle through
which the truth about some specific truth is conveyed.

Prophecy Origins of prophecy

For clear understanding of the term prophecy, the definition The debate on when and where prophecy in Israel started is
of a prophet becomes crucial at this stage. The term a continuous one among Religious Studies scholars. Some
prophet is etymologically derived from the Greek term believe that prophecy in Israel has external origins meaning
prophetes which literally means someone who is inspired to it originated from outside Israel while others believe that
speak out the message of God. This means that a prophet is it originated internally. Thus, two broad diverging theories
a mouth piece of God. have been put forward to explain the origins of prophecy.
The term prophetes when translated to Hebrew, it means

98 Unit 26: Prophecy and its origins

 of the classical period. This implies that not Israel as a nation. The beginning of Israel as a nation with
all Israelite prophets were ecstatic and the the patriarchs marks the beginning of prophecy in Israel
argument that Israel borrowed prophecy as a mechanism of guiding the Israelites. Thus, Abraham
because of ecstasy becomes flawed because is considered as the founder of prophecy according to this
ecstasy cannot be borrowed as it comes from theory.
God.
•• Outside Israel there was no prophecy but there Critique
was divination. According to Deuteronomy
This theory is disputed because of the following reasons:
18:9-18, prophecy outside Israel was divinatory
in nature while Israelite prophecy was not •• Abraham had no audience, he had Sarah and
divinatory. If Israel borrowed prophecy from their child only. A prophet has an audience
surrounding nations, then Israelite prophecy but Abraham does not have audience and this
ought to be divinatory. disqualifies him to be the person who started
•• Deuteronomy 18:9 says, “when you come into with prophecy in Israel.
the land which the lord your God gives you, •• A prophet must receive a call. Abraham has no
you shall not learn to follow the abominable clear call and this makes his prophetic status
practices of those nations”. Yahweh prohibited questionable.
the Israelites from borrowing foreign practices
•• Genesis 20:7 is believed to be an editorial
and this means that the idea that Israel
hand which was added by an editor to justify
borrowed prophecy from other nations becomes
the history of Israel linking it with Abraham a
flawed. However, some would argue that the
prophet type figure. This makes the foundation
Israelites were fond of breaking God’s rules and
of this theory very weak.
it is possible that they broke this commandment
•• Abraham is believed to be an eponymous figure
and borrowed prophecy.
or a legendary figure whose historical existence
It is because of the noted weaknesses that scholars argue is questionable. It is because of this reason that
that prophecy in Israel was never borrowed. Prophecy in this theory is disputed.
Israel was unique and it started in Israel by the Israelites
with Yahweh as the custodian of his covenant. Yahweh Traditional theory
appointed prophets to safeguard his covenant. Prophecy started with Moses during the period when
Yahweh made a covenant with the Israelites. B.W. Anderson
2. Prophecy as a unique phenomenon
states that prophecy in Israel originated in Israel as a basic
Welhausen believes that prophecy in Israel is unique. mechanism through which Yahweh communicated the
He is the major proponent of this theory. According to needs and demands of the covenant to his chosen people,
Welhausen, prophecy in Israel was different from other Israel. This augurs well with the definition of a prophet
nations and was never similar to the phenomenon found which defines a prophet as a person who communicates the
in Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia and Canaan. This divine will and covenant demands.
implies that prophecy in Israel was distinct and it originated
Prophets were thus covenant mediators and it is because of
in Israel. However, scholars who argue that prophecy was
this reason that prophecy started with the Sinaitic covenant
unique do not necessarily agree as to who started with
where prophets dealt with covenant relationships between
prophecy in Israel and when prophecy started in Israel.
Yahweh and Israel. The covenant was a binding mechanism
Several theories have been put forward to explain who
between Yahweh and Israel. As such a covenant makes
started with prophecy, when did prophecy start in Israel and
Israelite prophecy unique. Deuteronomy 18:18, “I will raise
under which circumstances.
up for them a prophet like you from among their brethren
Anachronistic theory …” cements the idea that Moses is the founder of prophecy
in Israel and he is the model of a prophet where all features
This theory is based on Genesis 20 vs 7 where Abraham is of a standard of a prophet are found. Moses is the modus
regarded as a prophet by God when Abimelech is told to operandi of other prophets.
return the wife of Abraham, Sarah. Abraham interceded on
behalf of Abimelech and is given a prophetic status because Critique
of his intercessory role. This theory further argues that
•• A close analysis of the Pentateuch tradition
Abraham made a covenant with Yahweh in Genesis 15:12.
reflects that there is no single covenant that can
According to this theory, prophecy started with Abraham be used to link the origins of prophecy in Israel.
and this means that prophecy in Israel is just as old as There are several covenants in the Bible.

100 Unit 26: Prophecy and its origins

there was no prophecy without ecstasy. As such there is April 2015 asserts that he was sacked from the police force
no ecstasy without prophecy. The legend of Wen-Ammon for speaking in tongues at work. It is this characteristic
has it that there was man by the name Wen-Amon from which is associated with ecstatic behaviour which led to the
Egypt who went to a Phoenician city named Babylos to look rise of Samuel Mutendi as a prophet, leader and founder of
for timber to build a temple for his own god Wen-Ammon Zion Christian Church (Z.C.C).
Reh. On arrival he forwarded his request to the prince of
Considering that Mutendi is one of the pioneers of
that city who ignored him because he was busy offering
indigenous prophecy it is without doubt that prophecy
sacrifices during a sacrificial rite to his own god. It is within
in Zimbabwe has its roots from Israelite as well as A.N.E
this sacrificial rite that a certain lad became ecstatic and
prophecy. Furthermore, prophets in Zimbabwe have been
summoned the prince and told him what Wen-Ammon
given the tag prophet because of their ability to foretell the
wanted. The prince relented and granted Wen-Ammon his
future. Zimbabweans are afraid of the unknown and as such
request. The youth should be understood as a prophet
they value the hidden secrets about the future. This makes
because he had three prophetic traits which include ecstasy,
it possible to argue that prophecy in Zimbabwe is very
ability to foretell and prophetic authority. These prophetic
much alike to Israelite prophets since the likes of Johanne
traits are what makes a prophet in Israel, and this makes
Marange predicted that the white settlers were going to
prophecy as universal phenomenon since prophets like
be defeated by blacks. This was fulfilled in 1980 when the
Moses, Samuel, Elijah and Isaiah had these traits.
whites relinquished power and gave it to the black majority.
Similarly, in Zimbabwe a prophet is noticed by these
traits. Johanne Masowe stepped on fire, an event which is What was borrowed by Zimbabwean
regarded as an ecstatic behaviour. Prophets in Zimbabwe prophecy from Israel?
are also known for predicting the future like Makandiwa
In addition to ecstasy and prediction which was borrowed
predicted the turnaround of Zimbabwean economy in 2015.
from A.N.E in general there are aspects of prophecy that
On prophetic authority it very difficult to come up with a
have been borrowed specifically from Israel. These aspects
conclusive judgement as political leaders in Zimbabwe do
include call, ethical monotheism and the messenger
not listen to what prophets say. However, congregants or
formula.
followers of Zimbabwean prophets listen to what prophets
say hence prophetic authority is applicable in Zimbabwe. 1. Call

Legend of Zimri-Lim One of the distinctive elements which marked the

distinction between A.N.E and Israelite prophecy was the
This legend is from the Mari text. Zimri-Lim is a legendary
call. Several prophets in Israel were called by Yahweh for
king of Mesopotamia. The legend has it that there was
a specific task. Moses was called for the liberation of the
a certain seer who went to Zimri with a message from
Israelites, Samuel was called for filling up the gap between
god Hadad saying, “I am the god who made you king
priesthood and prophecy as well as to support political
over Mesopotamia, if you obey me I will bless you and
office, Elijah was called to fight against idolatry, Amos was
if you disobey me I will punish you”. The seer is said to
called to fight social injustice, Hosea was called to address
have proclaimed this in an ecstatic form. There are some
the idolatrous situation through his own marriage, Isaiah
similarities which can be noted in this legend with Israelite
was called mainly to address the political situation in Judah
prophecy. Firstly, the title seer is used to refer to Israelite
and Jeremiah like Hosea was called to do away with idolatry.
prophet in as much as prophets in Zimbabwe are regarded
as seers like those of zviratidzo zvevapostori foretell the These were specific reasons why prophets were called.
future and are given a small token of appreciation like what Be that as it may, prophets had definite calls particularly
Samuel did. Even the oracular saying is very much similar in Moses, Samuel, Isaiah and Jeremiah. A call made the
content and form to that of Israelite prophets. prophecy of the prophet to be accepted. Similarly, in
Zimbabwe prophets have been called since the 1890s like
The two legendary stories have proved that there is
Johanne Masowe and Emmanuel Makandiwa. As such the
a connection between prophecy in A.N.E, Israel and
similarities of the call of prophets in Israel and claims by
Zimbabwe. A close look at these extra-biblical sources have
Zimbabwean prophets that have been called clearly shows
proven that ecstasy was common in A.N.E, Israel and even
that prophecy in Zimbabwe borrowed the aspect of call.
now in Zimbabwe. Ecstasy is thus a characteristic feature of
prophecy that enables us to argue that Zimbabwe borrowed 2. Prophetic saying “Thus says the Lord”
prophecy from outside. This is so because Samuel Mutendi
is said to have experienced some trance while working as The prophetic saying used by Israelite prophets “Thus says
police man in the then BZSP in 1913. The Sunday mail of 05 the Lord” shows a close link with Zimbabwean prophecy.
Prophets spoke the word of God not theirs. They were

PROPHECY 103
 while others believe that it originated internally.
•• The patriarchs borrowed Mesopotamian culture and if the patriarchs borrowed Mesopotamian culture, what could stop
them from borrowing Mesopotamian religion and particularly prophecy.
•• Prophecy was not a phenomenon that was limited to Israel alone but was a universal phenomenon since the title seer
could be used to refer to prophets in and outside Israel.
•• Prophecy started with Moses during the period when Yahweh made a covenant with the Israelites.
•• A cult can be defined as a system of worship and this theory is based on 1 Samuel 3.
•• Prophecy started with the rise of the monarch or kingship.

Revision Exercise
Essay Questions
1. Prophecy in Israel was borrowed from prophecy in the surrounding nations.’ How far do you agree?
2. “Prophecy was a unique Israelite phenomenon”. Discuss.
3. Critique different theories on the origins of prophecy.
4. “Prophecy was borrowed from other nations”. Assess the validity of this assertion. What is borrowed by Zimbabwe
from other nations?
5. How much does Zimbabwean prophecy owe from Ancient Near East prophecy?

PROPHECY 105
 PROPHECY

Early manifestations of
Unit

27
prophecy

Unit objectives Early forms of prophecy

By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Early forms of prophecy refer to ways in which the message
of Yahweh was revealed to the people. These ways include
•• examine early forms of prophecy. dreams, visions, Urim and Thumim as well as ecstasy.
•• compare the early forms with similar phenomena in
surrounding nations. 1. Dreams
During the infancy stages of prophecy, dreams were one
of the forms of prophecy. A dream is an event that occurs
Introduction when one is asleep. There are mental perceptions in
Prophecy in Israel in its primitive stages was characterised by imagery form. God visited his prophets when they were
dreams, visions, divination and ecstasy. Most of these forms asleep with a divine message. For example, Samuel received
of prophecy were believed to have been borrowed from the divine revelation through a dream when he was asleep
Ancient Near East nations. It should however be stressed in the temple (1 Samuel 3:1). Numbers 12:6 states that
that some of these forms although controversial in nature, dreams are a form of prophecy, “Hear my words; if there
formed an integral part in defining the era of primitive is a prophet among you, I the lord make myself known to
prophecy in Israel. Prophecy as a full-blown phenomenon as him in a vision, I speak to him in a dream …”. This is further
depicted by canonical prophets still owed much to its earliest supported by Deuteronomy 13:1 which says, “if a prophet
manifestations. This unit seeks to examine the early forms of arises among you, or a dreamer of dreams …”. These verses
prophecy in Israel as well as compare the early forms with reflect that dreams are an early form of prophecy that was
similar phenomenon in surrounding nations. acceptable as a means of prophecy.

Critique
Key words •• A dream needs any interpreter and without
an interpreter the message of Yahweh cannot
Divination – the act of predicting the future.
be transmitted to humanity. This interpreter
Dream – an imaginary event seen in the mind when one is should be a Hebrew. For example, Pharaoh’s
sleeping. dreams were interpreted by Joseph (Genesis
41:25-32). Daniel also interpreted the dreams of
Ecstasy – a state of emotion so intense that a person is Nebuchadnezzar.
carried beyond rational thought and self-control. •• The prophets would then interpret the dream
for the benefit of the people.
Lots – objects that are casted by diviners during the process
•• The method only happens when one is asleep.
of divination. In Numbers 22-24, Balaam requests to sleep
over the request and Elisha is also in a habit of
Vision – the gift of second sight.
sleeping over oracular request.

106 Unit 27: Early manifestations of prophecy

 PROPHECY

Unit Functions of prophets

28
Unit objectives This is because religion is a way of life for the Jews and
Yahweh appointed prophets to help priests in dealing with
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: some of the religious matters.

•• explain functions of prophets. 1. Advocating for monotheism

•• assess the functions of prophets.
Prophets ensured that only Yahweh was worshipped by the
Israelites. This means that they encouraged the Israelites to
Introduction worship Yahweh alone. This is exemplified by Moses who
destroyed the golden calf (Exodus 32) that had been erected
The Jewish scripture reveals several functions of prophets
by the Israelites for worshipping in the wilderness. Moses
in Israel. These functions range from social, religious and
destroyed this golden calf because he believed that only
political functions. This means that every aspect of life of
one God was supposed to be worshipped by the Israelites.
the Jewish life was characterised by involvement of prophets
who acted as the spokesperson of Yahweh on all issues that Elijah also challenged foreign gods at Mount Carmel (1 Kings
affected Jews. This unit deals with the functions of prophets 18) by destroying Baal prophets to show that only Yahweh
in Judaism. is the true God to be worshipped. Hosea used his marriage
to demonstrate undiluted monotheism that should
characterise Israel’s covenant with Yahweh (Hosea 1-3).
Key words His marriage is symbolic of Israel’s covenant with Yahweh
which was guided by the worshipping of one God which he
Intercede – to pray on behalf of someone.
regarded as faithfulness in marriage.
Intermediate – being between two extremes.
2. Messengers of Yahweh
Messenger – one who brings a communication from
another party. Prophets in Judaism also functioned as messengers of
Yahweh. They were sent with the message of Yahweh
Miracle – an event that seems inexplicable by the laws of to the people. This is the reason why prophets used the
nature and so is held to be supernatural in origin. messenger style “Thus says the lord …”. The use of the
Monotheism – the worship of one God. messenger style shows that prophets were servants of
Yahweh who were sent with a divine message as well as
Oracle – a prophetic response often enigmatic or to accomplish a divine task. For example, Moses used the
allegorical. messenger style in Exodus 5:1 while Samuel used it on 1
Samuel 10:18.
Functions of prophets
3. Interceding
Religious and cultic functions of prophets
Prophets prayed on behalf of the Israelites. They were
There are a number of religious functions performed by prayer warriors who prayed on behalf of the people. Moses
prophets in Judaism.

108 Unit 28: Functions of prophets

how the whites would be defeated. Madzibaba Wimbo in 1957, prophesied that in 1980 Zimbabwe will be led by the leader
with name of an angel “Gabriel”. The prophecy was fulfilled in 1980 when Robert Gabriel with name of an angel became the
president.

(f) Performing miracles

Miracles of exorcism are done by Zimbabwean prophets. Many people with evil spirits and who are mentally challenged
have been healed by prophets. Paul Sanyangore also claimed to have done a nature miracle when he walked on water. This
happened on 16 March and the media recorded that the controversial man walked on water after his friends invited him for
a swim in Glen Lorne. This shows that Christian leaders in Zimbabwe are performing miracles.

Healing miracles are done by contemporary prophets. According to an online radio Nehanda radio, on 16th of May 2016
Magaya hosted a miracle night at his church in Waterfalls, Harare. He performed several healing miracles. Prosperity
miracles where people have been transformed from poverty to prosperity were done. This is evidenced by the miracle
money performed by Uebert Angel. These miracles have seen many poor people in society becoming rich or better in terms
of economic status.

However, Zimbabwean prophets do not anoint Kings as well as demote any political leaders. This is because Zimbabwe is a
Republican Government and not a monarchy. The authority of prophets is limited to religious activities and does not overlap
to politics. As such this indicate that there are some differences between Israelites and Zimbabwean prophets in as far as
anointing Kings is concerned.

Activity 1

In pairs, evaluate functions of prophets in Judaism. Present your findings to the class.

Summary of the unit

•• The Jewish scripture reveals several functions of prophets in Israel.
•• Prophets ensured that only Yahweh was worshiped by the Israelites.
•• Prophets in Judaism also functioned as messengers of Yahweh.
•• Miracles were not only a method of demonstrating God’s power but also a means of communicating divine message to
the people.
•• Prophets had also a function of predicting the future or foretelling the future.
•• Being cultic functionaries is another role of prophets in Israel.
•• Prophets were social reformers as they fought for social justice in Israelite society.
•• Prophets were chief advisors of kings.

Revision Exercise
Essay Questions
1. “Prophets in Israel were more concerned with religious functions” How far true is this statement.
2. Analyse the functions of Israelite prophets in politics.
3. To what extent are roles played by Israelite prophets similar to Zimbabwean prophets?

PROPHECY 111
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Ways in which prophets

Unit

29
received their messages

Unit objectives Ways in which prophets received

messages
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•• identify ways in which prophets received their messages. 1. Visions

•• examine methods used by prophets to receive their A vision is a religious or mystical experience of a
messages. supernatural appearance. Visions were seen by individuals
gifted with second sight. Numbers 12:6 testifies to God’s
use of visions in communicating with his prophets. Amos
Introduction saw visions of locusts, fire, basket of summer fruits and
God used a variety of ways to communicate his message with plumb line. These were visions of judgement to befall Israel.
his prophets. These methods enabled the Israelite prophets Isaiah saw the vision of the Lord in the temple of Jerusalem
to claim authority as messengers of Yahweh. These methods (Isaiah 6). Jeremiah saw the vision of the boiling pot with its
include visions, dreams, theophany, angelic visitations, contents spilling towards the North (Jeremiah 1:13). Visions
audible voices, Urim and Thumim and ecstasy. It should were highly symbolic and in most cases were accompanied
however be noted that prophetic encounters with God were by their interpretation. Jeremiah’s vision of the boiling pot
personal experiences and hence it is extremely difficult to facing away from the North symbolised the enemy from the
evaluate the significance of these methods. This unit seeks to North (Babylon) whilst Amos’ vision of the basket of summer
identify as well as evaluate the effectiveness of the methods fruits symbolised that Israel was now ripe for destruction.
used by prophets to receive their messages. Isaiah’s vision of the Lord in the temple confirmed the
Temple of Jerusalem as the dwelling place of God.

Key words Critique

•• Visions were private experiences and more

Angel – a divine or supernatural messenger from a deity.
often than not, false prophets could also falsely
Dream – an imaginary event seen in the mind when one is claim to have seen visions as implied in Jeremiah
23:16.
asleep.
•• Visions were prone to various interpretations
Ecstasy – a condition by which a mental faculty is as recipients would come up with different
suspended and the spirit of God invades the host. meanings from the same vision. For
example, Amos’ vision of the plumb line can
Theophany – a manifestation of a deity to man. be interpreted to mean that God had set a
demarcation line between himself and the
Vision – a religious or mystical experience of a supernatural
Israelites. It may also mean that Israel is now
experience.
a crooked nation who needs to reform and
straighten her paths.

112 Unit 29: Ways in which prophets received their messages

Critique

•• Methods of divination such as those used by Israel’s neighbours are forbidden by Jewish law. The Israelites were
to take heed of the message of the prophets.

8. Ecstasy
Israelite prophets received God’s message in a state of trance. Ecstasy is a condition by which the mental faculty is
suspended and the spirit of God invades the host. Ecstasy is usually accompanied by inspiration. Inspiration is a supernatural
divine influence on the prophet by which one was qualified to communicate religious truth and authority. Prophets were
inspired by the spirit of God as confirmed by the prophet Ezekiel (Ezekiel 2:2).

Critique

•• Ecstasy compromised the prophet’s dignity and social standing. Prophets risked being labelled as insane
people. This is the case with the interpretation of Isaiah who walked naked around the streets of Jerusalem. The
bystanders, upon seeing Saul prophesying with the prophetic guilds were perplexed to the extent of wondering
as to when Saul had joined institutional prophets.
•• Ecstasy was also typical of false prophets such as those that clashed with Elijah during the contest at mount
Carmel (1Kings 18:20).

Activity 1

Examine the methods used by Israelite prophets to receive their messages. Present your findings to the class.

Summary of the unit

•• God used a variety of methods to communicate his message to his prophets.
•• The methods used by prophets to receive their messages include visions, dreams, theophany, signs, angelic visitations,
ecstasy, Urim and Thumim, among others.
•• These methods of communication are difficult to evaluate since they are private experiences which involve the prophet
and the supernatural being.

Revision Exercise
Essay Questions
1. Explain the methods used by prophets to receive their messages.
2. Examine the methods used by God to communicate his message with his prophets.
3. Evaluate the significance of visions as a method by which prophets received their messages from God.
4. To what extent did Israelite prophets use ecstasy as a way of receiving messages from Yahweh?

114 Unit 29: Ways in which prophets received their messages

 PROPHECY

Methods used by prophets to

Unit

30
communicate their message

Unit objectives pass the message of love, hope and doom to the Israelites.
It was also used to demonstrate God’s universal nature and
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: his strong bond with the chosen nation.

•• identify methods used by prophets to communicate 1. Songs

their message.
•• evaluate methods used by prophets to communicate Prophets used songs to communicate their messages. For
their message. example, Amos used the funeral dirge (Amos 5:2) to convey
the message of doom to the Israelites. A dirge is a song that
was sung upon the death of a beloved relative. Isaiah used
Introduction the song of a vineyard in Isaiah 5 to show how Yahweh had
protected the Israelites and blessed them but failed to live
Prophets in Israel used a plethora of ways to convey their
according to the standards as expected of them by Yahweh.
messages. Some of the methods which they used include
parables, miracles, messenger style, irony, songs among Jeremiah used lamentation songs to convey his message of
others. These methods were effective methods used to make doom to Judah. As such prophets used songs and poetry
the audience believe the message of Yahweh as well as because it is easy to memorize.
demonstrate God’s power and love for his chosen people.
Critique
This unit deals with the ways used by prophets to convey
their messages. It will also look at the methods used by Songs are an effective way of communicating with people in
Zimbabwean prophets to convey their messages. Judaism. They could be easily memorized. However, songs
can be wrongly interpreted. For example, the use of a dirge
Key words by Amos can be misunderstood as a reflection of love by
God to his chosen nation yet the song spells doom.
Letter – a written or printed communication generally
longer and more formal than a note.
2. Poetry
According to form critics, prophets used poetry because it
Parable – a short narrative illustrating a lesson by way of
was easy to memorize. They were primarily speakers and
comparison or analogy.
not writers hence their messages had to be memorized and
Poetry – literature composed in verse or language passed on from generation to generation orally. Form critics
exhibiting conscious attention to patterns and rhythms. argue that early prophets were poets.

Sermon – a lengthy speech of reproval. 3. Parables

Methods used by prophets to A parable is a short narrative illustrating a lesson by way of

communicate their message comparison or analogy. Prophets used parables to convey

their messages. For example, Nathan a court prophet used
Methods used by prophets were utilised by prophets to a parable in 2 Samuel: 12: 1-7 to rebuke David for taking

PROPHECY 115