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Eng506 Handouts
Eng506 Handouts
World Englishes
(ENG506)
Lesson-01
The course gives an engaging overview of the development and concept of World Englishes. The course
discusses the role of English as a single global language all over the world and its advantages for the world as
well as the dangers for the minor languages. The course also describes various political, social and historical
contexts which led to the spread of English throughout the world and eventually caused it to become a lingua
franca.
World Englishes is a term coined by BrajKachru (an Indian-American linguist) initially to refer to the
institutionalized varieties of English. Now the term refers to various varieties of English across the world. The
pluralization of World English in the title refers to the large number of varieties that English is accrued as a result
of its contact with sociolinguistic context. It means that English is no longer used by native English speakers in
native English speaking countries like America, Australia, New Zealand, etc. Now English is also used by non-
native English speakers in non-native English speaking countries for various professional, official and
educational purposes. These countries include Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Hong Kong, etc. These distinct
varieties are grouped together under the heading of World Englishes.
Globalization refers to a great number of things taking place in the world and their interconnectedness. It
is a process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments of different nations. This
interaction can take various forms, e.g. political cooperation among countries with the hope that this kind of co-
operation will help prevent disputes or in case of a dispute will help resolve such disputes. Some examples are
SAARC, European Union and NATO. Another form that this interaction can take is through sharing of ideas and
information. In today’s world sharing of information takes place through social media and internet. This can also
take place with the help of TV programs, films and books.
Trade and exchange of resources greatly enhances this interaction. Countries like America sell their
finished products and technologies to countries which lack them. Similarly, developing countries sell their
natural resources to the developed countries which need them.
Globalization is not a new phenomenon. For thousands of years countries and later corporation have been selling
and buying things from far off lands. Similarly, for centuries, countries have been investing in enterprises in
foreign countries. It increased as result of technological development. Globalization has also led to cultural
exchange among different countries and this cultural exchange may lead to harmonization of world cultures with
the result that one day all the people of the world maybe eating the same food, listening to the same music and
speaking the same language.
A language achieves a global status when it develops a special role recognized in every country. Now the
question arises what determines a special role? If the mother tongue status of a language makes it global then
Spanish should be the global language as it is the mother tongue of over 20 countries around the world. If the
speakers’ number determines it then English is spoken by millions of people around the world.
However, it is neither the mother tongue status nor the number of speakers which determine the global
status of a language. It is, in fact, identities of the speakers which determine the global status of a language.
Millions of people around the world speak English as a first language. Even a great number of speakers speak it
as their second language. Today, total 1.5 billion speakers of English exist around the world. No other language
can match this degree of growth and development.
A global language essentially refers to a language that is learned and spoken internationally, and is
characterized not only by the number of its native and second language speakers, but also by its geographical
distribution, and its use in international organizations and in diplomatic relations.
A global language is a language taken up by people in countries in which it is not the mother tongue. It can be
done in two ways:
By making it the official language of the country (second language)
By making it a priority in foreign-language teaching e.g. Russian is popular in former Soviet Union
countries
There is an urgent need for global language but this need is not new. Linguistically mixed communities
have been communicating with each other for thousands of years. Communication in the past was through
translators and interpreters. Monarchs, kings and ambassadors met with each other in the presence of
interpreters. However, this kind of communication has its own problems. It was restricted and incomplete
information because intensity and mildness of feelings cannot be communicated through translation. Having a
common language (lingua franca) is the solution to this problem. Lingua franca can be defined in the follow
words:
A lingua franca is a language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native
languages are different.
Global lingua franca is comparatively a newer idea. It emerged in the twentieth century (in particular
since 1950s after World War II). There are two separate factors which are responsible for the growth in contacts
among countries:
Increased Interaction among countries at international forums. After 2nd world war, several international organizat
Increased contacts among countries because of technological developments, especially advancement in
communication technology and technology for transportation.
Need for a common language at international forums
UN has a membership of 190 countries at the moment. It started with five official languagesbut there
was a need to reduce the number of official languages in order to save the cost of translation and interpretation.
However, language choice is a sensitive issue as no country would like the official status of its language to be
changed or lowered at international levels. The solution is the voluntary use of a common language as a working
language. English has proved to be such a language due to the increase of general competence in it or its
popularity to be learnt as a foreign language.
Another need for a global language is on business and academic front. Collaboration among scientists
and scholars from different countries is possible only through a lingua franca, e.g. a scientist from Sweden and a
scientist from India want to work together on a research project, they will not be able to do so without using a
common language.Similarly, a common language provides a lot of facilitation in international business. A
businessman from Japan and a businessman from America cannot work together on a business project unless
they use a common language.
In the following, some misunderstandings about the popularity of English have been provided.
Ease of learning
Few inflectional endings,
a word changes form in the end, e.g., adopt, adopted (V), word, words (Noun)
Gender neutral
English makes no distinction of gender in the use of nouns, verbs and adjectives.
Appealing properties of a language
Familiar vocabulary because thousands of words are borrowed from various languages.
Democratic nature of the language (English grammar does not distinguish between social classes)
Cosmopolitan (multicultural) character because of a large number of borrowed words
Cultural power
Economic Power
Now-a-days, along with politics and military power, economics is also the chief driving force behind the
world events. If the military power establishes a language in a region, it is the economic powerwhich spreads
and maintains it.
The following question arises in the minds of the people about the global status of English:
Is the reversal of status of English possible? The answer is yes it is possible.
Possibility of change in the status of English
• A change in the existing balance of power
• An alternative method of communication
Change in the balance of power
• Political power
• Economic influence
Change in the balance of power
A large scale change in the current balance of power may lead to a change in the status of
English. A small change cannot reverse the status of English as the popularity and use of
English has spread to countess nations; therefore, its ownership belongs to many nations.
An alternative method ofcommunication
• Using machine translations
Lesson-02
Having a single global language for the whole world may have its advantages; e.g. it may facilitate interaction
among countries thus promoting trade and business among them. It may also open new avenues for education,
research and scholarship. A single global language may also contribute to bringing countries closer by enabling
them to share books, music and movies thus promoting peace and harmony in the world. But we cannot
overlook the fact that a global language also has its disadvantages. It can unduly empower its native speakers as
well as eliminate minor languages entirely from the face of the world.
Due to the hegemonic presence of English, an elite monolingual class comes into existence which is overly self-
satisfied due to the fact that it has access to the global languageand the people belonging to this class look down
upon other languages. Therefore a gap betweensocial classes is created.
Users have an advantage over non-users of English in:
• Business
• Employment
• Academics
• Computers
• Entertainment
Unpopularity of other languages
• Lack of interest in learning other languages
• Reduced opportunities for learning other languages
One of the most important disadvantages of a single global language is the advantaged position of mother tongue
users as compared to the non-native users. As language as an instrument of action and power, the mother tongue
speakers of English get empowerment in professional fields such as
• Science and technology
• Business
• Academics
The solution to this problem is powerful bilingualism. To maintain powerful bilingualism, proper attention
should be paid to language teaching/ learning of the global language in educational contexts. The global
language should be introduced early in schools to improve students’ skills.
• Financial implications
Only those countries are able to achieve powerful bilingualism which are financially better off e.g. Germany,
Sweden, etc. This type of bilingualism is not available to the citizens of the developing countries e.g. Pakistan,
Bangladesh, etc.
Linguistic Complacency means being satisfied with one’s language and lack of motivation for learning
other languages. The following factors in involved in linguistic complacency.
• Lack of money
• Lack of opportunity
• Lack of interest
A change of attitude is needed to save the minor languages from elimination.
• Breakaway from monolingual bias
• Sensitivity to business partner’s language
• Respect of other cultures
• Readiness for language learning
The phenomenon of language death is an occurrence throughout the history. There are 7, 099 languages in the
world these days out of which fifty percent are at risk.
The following international organizations have been formed for conservation of endangered languages.
• The International Clearing House for Endangered Languages, Tokyo
• The Foundation for Endangered Languages
• The Endangered Language Fund, USA
English has affected minority languages only in the areas where it was the dominant first language, e.g.
North American, Australia, etc. Therefore, it only had a limited effect on disappearance of languages
Language is a major means(some would say the chief means) of showing where we belong,and of
distinguishing one social group from another, and allover the world we can see evidence of linguistic
divergencerather than convergence. For decades, many people in thecountries of former Yugoslavia
made use of a common language,Serbo-Croatian. But since the civil wars of the early 1990s, theSerbs
have referred to their language as Serbian, the Bosnians totheirs as Bosnian, and the Croats to theirs as
Croatian, with eachcommunity drawing attention to the linguistic features whichare distinctive. A
similar situation exists in Scandinavia, whereSwedish, Norwegian, and Danish are largely mutually
intelligible,but are none the less considered to be different languages.
Arguments about the need for national or cultural identity areoften seen as being opposed to those
about the need for mutualintelligibility. But this is misleading. It is perfectly possible todevelop a
situation in which intelligibility and identity happilyco-exist. This situation is the familiar one of
bilingualism – buta bilingualism where one of the languages within a speaker isthe global language,
providing access to the world community,and the other is a well-resourced regional language,
providingaccess to a local community.
Lesson-03
Origins of English
• Was spoken in the north-west corner of Europe
• Then called Teutish, or Teutsch, or Deutsch
• Brought to Britain by settlers like Jutes, Angles and Saxons in 449
Arrival of English in Britain
• An invading army or uncoordinated bands?
• Ruling minority or large group of settlers?
• Pushed the inhabitants of the island – the Britons – to the north and west (Scotland, Wales, Cornwall and
Ireland)
Arrival of English in Britain
• The settlers had more power and prestige e.g. Wealh = Britons,foreigners/slaves
• Germanic became the dominant language
• These groups were closely related in language and culture.
• The word Engle ‘the Angles’ was applied to all the settlers.
• The related adjective Engliscwas applied to all these people and their language.
Spread of English over Britain
•The Jutes who came from Juteland (Jutland) settled in Kent
•The Saxons settled in the south and western parts of England.
Settlement history
Expeditions to America
1584
•First expedition ending in failure
1607
• (Chesapeake Bay): First permanent settlement
Expeditions to America
1640
•Successful settlement
•Number of immigrants increased (twenty-five thousand more immigrants arrived)
Dialectical diffusion
• Diverse group: different regional, social, occupational and linguistic backgrounds
Tidewater accent
•Southern settlement included settlers from England’s ‘West Country’
•Brought their characteristic accent
•z voicing of s sounds
•r strongly pronounced after vowels
Dialectical diffusion
•Northern colonists came from the east of England lacked r sound after vowels
•Later population movements preserved this dialect distinction
•Blurred dialect picture because of frequent movements
Increase in population
Seventeenth century
• A large number of immigrants from Midlands and northern England
1720s
• New wave of immigrants from Ireland
Increase in population
Nineteenth Century
• Increase in immigration due to poverty
Topic 18: Spread of English Through Migrations and Settlements: Australia and New Zealand
Settlement history
1770
• James Cook discovered and charted New Zealand and Australia
1788
• Australia was colonized by the British
1840
• New Zealand was colonized by the British
Settlement history of Australia
• Australia was made a penal colony.
• Housed 130, 000 prisoners between 1788 and 1808
• Other settlers also entered the country but in small numbers
Increase in Population
• Rate of immigration increased rapidly in mid nineteenth century
• Population grew from 400, 000 to 4 million in 50 years
• In 2002, it was nearly 19 million
• In 2016, 24.13 million
Influences on Australian English
• Settlers included convicts from London and Ireland
• Cockney accent of London and brogue of Ireland
• Aboriginal languages
• American English
• Immigrants
Settlement history of New Zealand
1790
• European settlements began
1814
• Christian missionary work
Settlement history of New Zealand
1840
• Treaty of Waitangi between Maori chiefs and the Crown
• Official establishment of a British colony
Increase in immigrant population
Lesson-04
Slave trade gave rise to a distinctive kind of English in West Indies and mainland America.
America established its sovereignty over Philippines in 1898. Strong influence of American English in
Philippines persists. It includes the largest population of the English speaking states in the region (90 million in
2016). British colonial empire in Southeast Asia was begun by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (British statesman).
After that, several British settlements took place in Penang, Malacca and most notable Singapore (1786 - 1824). By 1867, E
•Hong Kong island (1842) Kowloon (1860)
• The New Territories, which form the largest part of the colony, were leased from China in 1898 for
ninety-nine years.
Introduction of a British educational system:
•English medium schools began in Penang (now Malaysia’s leading port)in 1816.
•Teaching staff routinely brought in from Britain.
•Standard British English model
•English became the language of professional advancement and the language of higher education
•Became a prestigious lingua franca among those who had received an English education
Southeast Asian Englishes: Singapore
• 1950s: a bilingual educational system with English alongside Chinese, Malay, and Tamil.
• English remained the language of government, legal system, education and the media.
•Popular among population in family settings
•Development of Singlish
Southeast Asian Englishes: Malaysia
•Bahasa Malaysia was adopted as the national language after the independence in 1957
•Role of English became restricted.
•Malay-medium education was introduced, with English as a compulsory subject
Contemporary situation
•Eleven national languages
•Afrikaans is the first language of the whites of Dutch origin.
•Symbol of identity for Afrikaners
• First language of most of the coloured population
•English enjoys more prestige than any other language
Contemporary situation
•English belongs to two of the three concentric circles in Kachru’s model of world Englishes:
•Inner
•Outer
• Expanding
Contemporary situation
•English used by the whites of British background ( 4.9 million, 9.6%)
•Increasingly used by black population
•Taken up by Afrikaners due to its value for upward mobility
•Roughly 11 million users of English as a second language
South African Varieties of English
A continuum of accents exists:
•Influenced by Afrikaans
Colonial rules
• Dutch from 1652 to 1795
• British from 1795 to 1948
• Dutch (by now called Afrikaners) 1948 – 1994
• Several British settlements were established in 1840s and1850s.
Immigrations
• Witwatersrand gold rush attracted a large number of immigrants in the 1870s
• Arrival of half a million English speaking immigrants towards the end of nineteenth century
• The Bantu Education Act had the opposite effect than desired for it.
Colonial Africa
• Cape of Good Hope: the only colonial settlement until 1794
• By 1914 several colonial territories had emerged.
Colonial Africa
• Repartitioning after the two World Wars
• Liberation of African countries towards the second half of the 20th century
• Formation of Organization of African Unity
Spread of English in Africa
• Increase in commerce
• Anti-slave activities facilitated the spread of English.
Spread of English in Africa
• In 1807, the British Parliament passed an Act for the abolition of the slave trade.
• Royal Navy’s West Indies squadron seized thousands of ships and slaves were freed.
Spread of English in Africa
• Settlements made for freed slaves
• Served as bases for the anti-slave trade squadrons
• Later became crown colonies
• Visited by missionaries
• India
• Pakistan
• Bangladesh
• Sri Lanka
• Nepal
• Bhutan
Arrival of English in South Asia
• Formation of the East India Company in 1600
• The decline in the powers of the Mughal emperors
• Trading transformed into dominance over India
Role and status of English during the Empire
• Became the language of administration
• English education system was introduced in 1835
• Became the medium of instruction in higher education
• Increased the growth and status of English
Role and status of English during the Empire
• Two systems of education: English medium and vernacular medium
• English became language of empowerment
Role and Status of English in Pakistan
• Inherited the dual system of education from the British
• Urdu was declared the national and English the official language in 1947.
• The government continued to support English medium schools.
Use of English
A number of functions in important domains
• The courts
• Government administration
• Higher education
• The armed forces
• The media
• Business and tourism
• In-group communication
Use of English
• Associated official language in Pakistan and India
• Emergence of an official indigenized variety
• Majority showing a leaning towards British English followed by American English
Users of English
• Pakistan: 17,000,000
• India: 200,350,000
English in South Asia
• Outnumbers the speakers in USA and UK combined
• It is due to the number of speakers in India.
• Twenty percent of one billion people speak English.
• Used as a lingua franca in the south of India
Use of English in other South Asian countries
• No official status in other South Asian countries
• Medium of international communication
• Sign of cultural modernity
Lesson-05
Britain’s industrialization
• Population growth
• Economic growth
• Production growth
Production growth
• Massive changes in technology and organization
• Large scale production of manufactured goods
• Britain becoming the workshop of the world
USA’s industrialization
• USA over took Britain
• Many American inventers came to fame
Linguistic consequences
• Most research being done by English speaking countries or by their collaboration
• Between 1700 – 1900 most of the scientific research had been documented in English
Linguistic consequences of industrialization
• Addition in the English lexicon
Economic imperialism
• London and New York became the investment capitals of the world.
• £4,500 thousand million investment abroad
Lesson-06
Pidgin
It is the product of a multilingual contact situation in which those who wish to communicate must find or
improvise a simple language system that will enable them to do so.
Language contact
• A linguistic and social phenomenon
• Speakers of different languages interact with one another
• This results in transfer of linguistic features
Pidgin
• A reduced variety of a language
• Results from extended contact between groups of people with no language in common
• Arises to fulfill the restricted communication needs of such people
Origin of the term pidgin
• A Chinese corruption of the English word ‘business’
gospidgin man = God’s businessman (priest)
chowchow pidgin = cooking
• Portuguese ocupaçao meaning ‘trade, job, occupation’.
Origin of the term pidgin
• A form from the South American language Yayo ‘pidian’ meaning ‘people’
• Hebrew word ‘pidjom’ meaning ‘barter’
Creole
• A pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers.
• Creoles arise when pidgins become mother tongues
Topic-032:Process of Pidginization-I
Background
• A result of European colonization into Africa and Asia
• New World slavery
Background
• Slaves were deliberately drawn from a variety of language backgrounds.
• The reason was to avoid rebellion against their masters.
Background
Communication was needed between:
• Slave master and slave
• Slave and slave
Process of pidginization
The simplification of a language used by groups of speakers separated from each other by different
languages.
Process of pidginization
Contact between speakers of:
• A dominant European language
• Mutually unintelligible African and Asian languages
"Fantom, em i go we?"
Process of creolization
"Saposyukaikaiplantipinat, baiyukamap strong olsem phantom."
"Fantom, em i go we?"
“If you eat plenty of peanuts, you will come up strong like the phantom.”
“Phantom, you are a true friend of mine. Are you able to help me now?”
“Where did he go?”
Common view about creoles
• Speakers range from a low of 6–7 million to as many as 10–17
• Often regarded as lesser languages
• Speakers feel a great sense of inferiority about their languages
Topic-035: Process of Creolization-II
Process of Creolization
• Most pidgins are lingua francas, existing to meet temporary local needs.
• Very few pidgins undergo the process of creolisation.
• Pidgins are spoken by those who also use another language.
• the Caribbean
• around the north and east coasts of South America
• around the coasts of Africa, particularly the west coast
• across the Indian and Pacific Oceans
• Hancock (cited in Wardaugh, 2006) lists 127 pidgins and creoles, out of which 35 are English-based.
There are countries or areas that are almost exclusively Spanish-speaking and have no surviving pidgins or
creoles as a result of their settlement histories, e.g., the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.
• Some countries have only English-based creoles, e.g., Antigua, Barbados, Grenada, Jamaica, and
Guyana.
• Still others have only French-based ones, e.g., Martinique, Guadeloupe, St Lucia, and Haiti.
• Sierra Leone has both pidginized and creolized Englishes.
• The pidgin is indigenous West African Pidgin English used as a trading language.
• The creole, Krio, is found in and around the capital, Freetown.
• It may have originated among the returning slaves from Jamaica and Britain.
• The language distribution reflects the social and political history of these regions.
Lesson-07
• The lingua franca not a pidginized standard language was used on trading routes
• Was passed on to the Asians and Africans the sailors came in contact with
• Served as the origin for various pidgins
Characteristics
• Consisted of a core vocabulary of nautical items and a simplified grammar
• Evidence is the presence of nautical elements in many pidgins and creoles
Examples:
hivim = heave
kapsite = capsize
haisim = hoist
Evidence against the theory
• There are only a few sea-based terms in different pidgins
• Structural similarities among existing pidgins and creoles that arose from different European languages
Origin
• Proposed in 1876 by Charles Leland
• Considered the earliest pidgin generation theory
• Compares pidgin speakers to young children first learning to speak
Rationale
• Similarities identified between early speech of children and certain pidgins:
• Use of a high proportion of content
• Lack of structural words
• Lack of morphological change
• Approximation of standard pronunciation
Use of the baby-talk
• The subordinate class perceived as unable to master the dominant class’s language
• Masters try to imitate their servants’ incorrect speech patterns
• Results from intentional simplification of speech
Use of the baby-talk
• Deprives the learners the opportunity to learn the correct model
• Their only option is to learn the new “baby-talk" pidgin.
• Simplified forms provide pidgins with their basic structures and lexicon
Evidence against the theory
• Pidgins are far more frequently used among non-Europeans than between Europeans and non-Europeans
Topic-041:Theory of Relexification
Theory of relexification
• All European-language-based pidgins derive from a single source: A pidgin called Sabir
Theory of relexification
• Sabir was used as a lingua franca by traders on trade routes in the Mediterranean Sea in the Middle Ages
• Portuguese relexifiedSabir
What is relexification?
• A a mechanism of language change
• One language changes its vocabulary with the vocabulary of another language
• Not much change occurs in the relexified language's grammar
Process of relexification
• This pidgin was relexified into pidginized French, English, and Spanish
• Vocabulary was replaced
• Grammar remained intact
Sabir
Portuguese Pidgin
AtlanticIndian-Pacific
Portuguese Portuguese
Pidgin Pidgin
Classification
Lesson-08
Source
• Dominant language: the source of lexis
• Usually a European language
• The dominant language is called the lexifier
Pidgin lexis
• Is systematic
• Uses rules
• Rules move from simpler to more complicated
Rules of pidgin lexis
Lengthy coding of concepts
Example:
Bilong (of) = Belong
Papa bilong me = my father
Hausbilong you = your house
Rules of pidgin lexis
Reduplication
• To intensify meaning
Example:
tok= talk
toktok = chatter
look = look
looklook = stare
Hausbilong you = your house
Rules of pidgin lexis
Reduplication
• To avoid confusion
Example:
sip = ship
sipsip = sheep
was = watch
waswas = wash
Topic-044:Phonology
Reduction of sounds
Vowels
• Have fewer sounds than the corresponding standard languages
• Pacific pidgins have only five vowel sounds
• Some Caribbean pidgins have 12
• Compared to American English’s 17 and British English’s 20 Vowels
Examples
Topic-045:Grammar I
Morphology
Number
Example:
• Lexical item indicating plurality
OlopisabilongMelanesinEnvairomenFaundesen
Morphology
Gender
• Gender distinctions are missing
• A single pronoun stands for both male and female referents:
• em = 'he' and 'him‘
‘she’ and ‘her’
Prepositions
• Only two proper prepositions:
• bilon = means "of" or "for“
• long (means everything else)
Tense
• Verbs not inflected to mark tense
• Tense is marked externally to the verb by a lexical item
Example:
Bung i bin stat long Mande
Topic-046:Grammar II
Grammar
Sentence structure
• Negative formed with a negative particle ‘no’
Jan no waan go
John no want go
John does not want to go
Clause structure is not complicated
• There are no embedded clauses
Sentence structure
• There are no complex sentences (e.g. sentences with relative clauses)
Upi lo pikaninyenafunaskafu?
Topic-047:Social Functions
• Education
• Literature
• Mass media
• Advertising
• Leads to overall structural elaboration of the pidgin in both vocabulary and grammar
• Its initial structural simplicity becomes much more complex in the process
Examples of expanded social functions of pidgins and creoles
Literature
Pren man bilong Rom, Wantok, harimnau.
Mikamtasol long plantimKaesar.Minokenbeitinlongen
Examples
Literature (English version)
Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your ears.
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him
Examples
Advertising
Colgate i save strongim tit bilongyu
Lukaut: plantiswitpelakaikainaloli i savibagarapim tit hariap
Examples
Advertising (English version)
Colgate strengthens your teeth
Take care. Lots of sugary foods and sweets rot your teeth fast
Examples
News headline
Olmeri gat bikpelawari yet
All women got big fellow worry yet
Women still have big worries
London Jamaican
(Patios/Patwa)
• Originated from the Atlantic creoles of West Africa and Caribbean
• A combination of creole and a form of non-standard English
• Also called:
• Black talk
• Nation language
• Black slang
Symbol of group identity
Used as a symbol of group identity by:
• British Black children
• British Black adolescents
• White adolescents
Recreolization
The movement of a creole language towards the more-creole end of the continuum
Recreolization of Jamaican Creole
Post-creole continuum
• A situation where a creole language consists of a spectrum of varieties arranged on a continuum according to level
Post-Creole Continuum
Features of London Jamaican Creole
• Interchangeable use of pronouns
• ‘i’ and ‘me’ both used for I and me
• ‘im’ and ‘i’ both used for he, she, it , him, her, its, his, hers
• Use of present tense for both present and past
• ‘an I se’ (and I said)
Features of London Jamaican Creole
• Elimination of tense suffixes and of participle endings: - es, -ed, -t, - ing, -ed, -en,
• Yu bret stink (Your breath stinks)
• Expressing negation with ‘no’ with phonological changes
• ‘no bret stink’ (my breath doesn’t stink)
Ebonics (African American Vernacular English)
• A blend of words ‘ebony’ (black) and ‘phonics’ (sound)
• Considered improper speech by many Americans
• Symbol of linguistic and social identity among African Americans
Linguistic Features of Ebonics
• Habitual be for intermitten activity
• Sometimes my ears be itching
• Absence of copula in contracted forms of ‘is’ and ‘are’
• She nice
• Present tense third person – s absence
• She walk
Linguistic Features of Ebonics
• Ain’t for didn’t
• He ain’t do it
• Use of ‘f’ and ‘v’ for final ‘th’
• Smoov for smooth and toof for tooth
Ebonics controversy (1996)
• Oakland (CA) School Board recognized it as the 'primary' language of its majority African American
students
• Resolved to use it for teaching them standard or academic English and subsequently other subjects
Ebonics controversy (1996)
Was considered by many as:
• A separatist move
• An action that stigmatized the English varieties of disenfranchised
• Labelling African Americans as foreigners
• Encouraging a dialect that is likely to to increase their alienation
Lesson-09
Native speakerism
• The monolingual tenet was central to the colonial agenda
• It marginalizes the English language learners and privileges native speakers
• Extends the colonial agenda of economic exploitation and cultural domination
• Mid 20th century brought the realization that all English language learning situations were not
the same
English English as
as a Second a Foreign
Language Language
(ESL) (EFL)
• The teacher may be the only English speaker students have exposure to
• Few opportunities to use English outside the classroom
• Students have limited exposure to English-speaking culture
• Users are not expected to be able to speak the language
• Lower proficiency level expected
• Perceived as less than ESL
• creative literature
• officially designated functions
• social interaction
• IE refers to particular variety of English e.g. Australian English, Singaporean English, Chinese English
etc.
Difference between EIL and International English (IE)
• EIL paradigm overlooks the symbolic markers of the politicized construct of native speaker
• It focuses on communication instead of the speakers’ nationality or race
English as an International Language
• Does not refer to a particular variety of English
• Rejects the idea of selecting a particular variety as a lingua franca for international communication
EIL and the paradigm shift
• Refers to a paradigm shift in response to the complexities emerging from the rapid global spread of
English
• Suggests a revisiting of the notions, analytical tools, approaches and methodologies within the
established disciplines of English studies
English as an International Language
• Recognizes English as a language of international and intercultural communication
EIL and the paradigm shift
• In EIL context, English is used between speakers from different cultural and national backgrounds
• Recognizes world Englishes irrespective of its origin
Speech Community
• Speech communities are groups that share values and attitudes about language use, varieties and
practices
Speech Community
Speech:
• A form of social identity
• Is used as an indication of membership of different social groups and speech communities
Membership of a speech community
People who speak the same language are not always members of the same speech community
Speech community and speech fellowship
The current state English require us to make a distinction between speech community and speech fellowship
Speech community and speech fellowship
Speech community
• A wide-ranging ‘association’ of different varieties
• Subsumable as ‘sub-varieties’ under a broad label
Speech fellowship
Refers to the:
• Real world of English users
• Their underlying distinct differences and characteristics
• Sub varieties
Speech fellowship
The distinction suggests fellowship to be narrow and close and community to be wider
Speech fellowship
• The distinctions and dichotomies between NS/NNS or ESL/EFL on the basis of forms an functions are
not very useful
• Grouping together different varieties under the concept of Englishes functional characteristics is more
desirable
Lesson-10
Strevens’ Model
• Provides historical overview of the development of globalized English
• Presents all English varieties as having either British or American standards as their origin
Strevens’ Model
• American English accounts for Canada, the US, Puerto Rico and the Philippines
• British English accounts for the rest of the world
Weakness of Strevens’ Model
• Overlooks the varieties that developed through contact with local vernaculars
• Developed without any direct association with either British or American Standard English (e.g.
China)
• Mainly influenced by other culturally relevant sources that are available through the global
media
• McArthur’s Model
• Gorlarch’s Model
• Kachru’s Model
• Concentric circles reflect the cline of intelligibility that all varieties of English (native and non-
native) demonstrate
• The distance from the center of the circle decreases the mutual intelligibility of the variety
1. Regional and national standards (e.g. (African, British Canadian, Caribbean, South Asian, US)
2. Sub/Semi-regional standards (e.g. s Indian, Irish, Kenyan, Papua New Guinean)
3. Non-standard Englishes
dialect)
andTokPisin)
• The adjective “centripetal” suggests the movement of high proficiency users of English towards the core
of the global English-speaking population
Lesson-11
English diaspora
First diaspora
• English speakers from Britain carried the language to Australia, New Zealand, and North America
• They established substantial settlements and displaced the indigenous population
Features of the inner circle
• Traditional monolingual native speakers of English are found
• English is the first and sometimes the only language
• Dominant culture is based around English
Topic-062: The Outer Circle
Countries in the outer circle
Some of the countries included in the outer circle are the following:
• India
• Pakistan
• Philippines
• Singapore
• Nigeria
• Gambia
Spread of English in the outer circle
Second diaspora
• The second diaspora spread the language through colonization in Asia and Africa
• Settlements were fewer
• Maintained the indigenous population in subjugation
English diaspora
Second diaspora
• Allowed a section of population to learn English as a second language
• English continued to be used even after the departure of the British
The outer circle
• Became an official language in many former colonies
• This brought about new varieties of English called the ‘second language varieties’
Features of the outer circle
• English is only one of two or more languages in the linguistic repertoire
• English enjoys an important status in the language policies
• It is either the official or a major government language e.g. India, Pakistan, Singapore, Zambia, Nigeria
Features of the outer circle
• English performs a range of functions in a variety of social, educational, administrative, and literary
domains:
• Medium of higher education
• Literature
• Courts
• Media and broadcast
Topic-063: The Expanding Circle
Expanding circle countries
Includes the following countries:
• China
• Indonesia
• Russia
• Saudi Arabia
• Japan
• Korea
English Diaspora
Third Diaspora
• Distinct manner of dispersal of English from the other two Diasporas
• Has a more recent history
• English was not transplanted through speaker migration
English Diaspora
Third Diaspora
• The political and economic influence of Britain and the USA in East Asia, Middle East and Latin
America and Europe
• Spread by individuals acquiring it as an additional language for international or intranational
communication
Features of expanding circle
• English has limited roles in the public life
• Has very restricted functions in the personal domain
• Dependent on the norms of native English
Features of expanding circle
• Situation is likely to change
• More and more Asians and European countries introducing English at early stages of schooling
• Learning of English to benefit from technological developments
Topic-064: Status and Functions of English in the Outer and Expanding Circles
Range
English performs a wide range of functions:
Formal
• Education at all levels
• Business
• Legal system
• Administration
Social
• Family
• Social networks
Range of varieties
• Use of a range of varieties in or across utterances
• The choice of variety is linked with identity
Depth
Variety of people with access to English:
• Different educational levels
• socioeconomic levels
• Different jobs and professions
Depth
• Differing degrees of proficiency
• A cline of proficiency
• Basilect: Speakers with little contact with the standard variety
• Acrolect: Speaker with higher socioeconomic class
Topic-065: Norm Providing, Norm Developing and Norm Dependent
Lesson-12
Europe
• Emergence of Euro-English variety
• English is working language of the European Union along with French
• English is used for communication in meetings
• Fluency in English is a prerequisite for EU employees
Europe
• English has a very high profile in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries
• Ninety percent of all EU students learn English as their first foreign language
• The nativeness principle was the dominant paradigm in second language teaching before the 1960s
• A binary classification of speakers: native and non-native
Nativeness Paradigm
• Exerts a powerful impact on society:
• Native speakers are ‘the best’ teachers of English
Nativeness Paradigm
• Serves important practical functions:
• It serves as a model and an inspiration for English language learning
Criticism
• Determination of identity as native or non-native speaker depends on social factors rather than linguistic
• Restrictive social and professional identities
Criticism
• Proficiency is determined by the order of acquisition of languages
• Overlooks the fact that English is used as the home and official language in many outer circle countries
• Promotes the English of the ethnic Anglo speaker
Criticism
• Implies a unidirectional power relationship: the innovations of the outer and expanding circle are not
readily accepted
Criticism
• Native speakers are considered fit to design teaching methodologies and strategies
• Causes deficiencies in the testing of English
• Causes negative perceptions of non-native speakers, teachers and researchers
Lesson-13
‘new’ Englishes
• Resulting from the first diaspora
• Comprising North America (USA and Canada), Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
• Developing independently of the British English
‘New’ Englishes
• Resulting from the second diaspora
• Being used as second languages by bilingual or multilingual people
• Comprising Pakistani English, Indian English, Nigerian English, Singapore English
Independent status of ‘new’ and‘New’ Englishes
• Should be considered in their own right
• Should not be compared with other varieties of Englishes
Independent status of ‘new’ and‘New’ Englishes
• Acceptance of American English
• Reluctance to accept other varieties
‘New’ Englishes
• Includes a large number of varieties
• Dissimilar in characteristics and use
Characteristics of ‘New’ Englishes
Learning
• Learned in schools
• Used as a medium of instruction
• Additional to some other first language
Characteristics of ‘New’ Englishes
Contact with native variety
• Developed in regions where a native variety was not the main language of the population
Characteristics of ‘New’ Englishes
Functions and speakers
• Used for a range of functions
• Used among the speakers of the region where it developed
Characteristics of ‘New’ Englishes
Nativization/Localization
• Have adopted some language features (sounds, intonation patterns, sentence structures, words and expressions)
‘New’ Englishes’ norms and innovations
Factors determining the status of an innovation
i. Demographic factor
ii. Geographical factor
iii. Authoritative factor
iv. Codification
v. Acceptability factor
Bamgbose, cited in Jenkins, 2000
Topic-075:Nativization-I
Nativization
• A process in which a language gains native speakers
• This happens when a second language used by adult parents becomes the native language of their
children
Nativization
• Acculturization
• Indigenization
• Hybridization
Nativization of English
Changes English has undergone as a result of contact with other languages in diverse cultural and geographical
settings in the outer circle
Nativization
Is triggered when users in a second language environment inevitably mould the language to express facts, ideas
and concepts relevant to their own particular context
Nativization
The process of nativization is due to the:
• Transfer from local languages to English
• Transfer of English to the new cultural environment and communicative needs
Factors prompting nativization
• English’s assuming of functions in the outer circle that relate to the expression of typically local ideas
• English needs to adapt itself to its new environment to be able to express local concepts
Factors prompting nativization
• Absence of native speakers
• Inadequate teaching
• Acquisitional limitations
Topic-076:Nativization-II
Functional nativization
• Functional nativeness is determined by the range and depth of a language in a society
• Range: domains of function
• Depth: the degree of social penetration of the language
Functional nativization
• Deep social penetration
• Extended range of functions of English in diverse sociolinguistic contexts
• Emergence of several varieties, localized registers and genres for expressing local social, cultural and religious iden
Functional nativization
• English is nativized in South Asia as Indian English and Pakistani English
• Range of functional domains:
• Corporate trade
• Media
• Development
• Government
• Higher education
• Science and technology
• Creative writing
Functional nativization
• Social depth of English use:
• an estimated 333 milion users of English in India
• the highest number of (non-creole) English speakers in the world after the US and UK
Topic-077:Nativization-III
• Processes of borrowing
• Coinage of new words and expressions
• Semantic shifts
• Informations
• Researches
• Hairs
Lesson-14
Topic-079:Contact Literature-I
Contact Literature
Contact with non-Western cultures and languages enables English to express new linguistic and cultural
functions
Contact Literature
• Nativized varieties of English are produced through contact of English with new cultures and
surrounding languages
• The literature written in distinctive varieties of English is often called contact literature
Contact Literature
• As English becomes institutionalized in nations that do not share its Western cultural traditions, the
language is broadening
Beliefs of contact literature writers
• Some aspects of non-English culture is inexpressible in English
• Cultural material in contact literature stretches or reshapes the expressive qualities of English
Beliefs of contact literature writers
• Provides an exposure to the the literary effort of international writers
• Provides an opportunity to observe the process of language change
Topic-080:Contact Literature-II
Implicitly or explicitly, native English has been the criteria for description of language varieties and for
literatures written in them
Choice of variety
• The spread and the institutionalization of English has resulted in the pluricentricity of English
• The users of English more or less consciously choose which model of English to follow and develop
Choice of variety
Many successful writers do not follow Inner-Circle models
Choice of variety
Depending on the cultural and social context, varieties differ in:
• Formal characteristics
• Thought patterns
• Discoursal features
Choice of variety
• Most creative writers from Africa and Asia show a preference for a local variety of English to be able to
present the true spirit, traditions and values of their own cultures
• English should be decolonized to be made in other images
• Rushdie cited in Kachru& Nelson, 2006
Multilingual’s repertoire
• Multilinguals possess a range of languages with distinct grammars and functions in their linguistic
repertoire
• They can choose resources from this repertoire of languages to present the complexity of the local
situational contexts
Mixing of discoursal and stylistic strategies
• Texts are nativised by using multiple styles and strategies
Limiting nature of nativization of texts
• The readers from a different cultural context must actively participate to understand the text
• If they cannot do this, the text becomes limiting
Extending nature of nativization of texts
• Attention to the reading is rewarded with improved understanding of:
• context
• characterizations
• innovations
• The acceptance of such a use of English strengthens the concept of world Englishes
“….Coomar took Raman in and seated him on the carpet and offered him five hundred rupees tucked amidst
green betel leaves, two coconuts and a bunch of bananas on a tray.”
“…. Goddess Lakshmi has been kind,’ was all that Coomar was to say.”
Discourse markers
• Items that have no independent meaning but that signal solidarity with interlocutors and are considered
polite
Examples
• eh particle in Australian and New Zealand English
• la(h) particle Malaysian-Singapore English
• ji particle in Pakistani English
Rhetorical strategies
• Ways used by writers to effectively, efficiently and coherently present their points of view on a topic.
• Methods that allow writers to convey their thoughts most convincingly
Rhetorical strategies
Figures of speech
• A rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using words in a distinctive way.
• A word or phrase that has a meaning other than the literal meaning.
Rhetorical strategies
Figures of speech
• Evoke the local concepts traditions
Examples:
‘Pythons as big as coconut trunks’
Authentication by cultural history and tradition
Supporting the text by cultural history and tradition through such phrases:
‘our people have a saying’
‘the elders have said’
Transcreating proverbs and idioms
Transcreation: The process of adapting a message from one language to another, while maintaining its intent,
style, tone and context
Transcreating proverbs and idioms
Indigenization of English proverbs:
English: to spread like wild fire
African: Okonkwo’s fame “had grown like a bush-fire in the harmattan.”
‘the palm oil with which words are eaten.’
Culturally dependent speech style
These include:
• Sentence initial conjunctions
• Asking direct questions
• Asking rhetorical questions
Lesson-15
Topic-085:Phonology-I
Topic-086:Phonology-II
Topic-087:Phonology-III
Sound
Simplification of final consonant clusters
It may lead to the lossof past tense endings of plural markers on nouns
Examples
lef for left
Pick for picked
Climb for climbed
bag for bags
Sound
Consequences
• Some of these differences may not be noticeable e.g. lef
• Loss of inflections may affect comprehension
Voiced and unvoiced sounds in English
• All vowels are voiced
• Consonants can be voiced or unvoiced
• Voiced consonants are caused by vocal chords moving
Voiced and unvoiced sounds in English
• Unvoiced consonants are made just with air
p t s k f th
• Voiced conants are caused by vocal chords moving
b d g z v th
Clear and dark l sound
• The light l comes at the beginning, near the beginning or before a consonant sound in a word.
like love please English
Clear and dark l sound
• The dark l comes at the end of the word or before a vowel sound
feel peel pull full sail
No distinction between r and l sound
rate = late
feeling = fearing
Cutter = cuddle
Topic-088:Lexis-I
Topic-089:Lexis-II
Topic-090:Lexis-III
Lesson-16
Topic-091:Grammar-I
Nouns
• Specific or non-specific
• Countable or uncountable
• Singular or plural
Nouns
Specific and non-specific
• Use of articles (a, an, the) and determiners (this, that, any, some) to show whether a noun is specific or
non-specific.
Nouns
Functions and rules for the use of articles
• A singular countable noun must be preceded by an article
• a/an: with a singular countable noun indicates the generic nature of the noun
• A horse runs very fast.
Nouns
Functions and rules for the use of articles
• The: with both singular and plural countable nouns indicate the specific nature of the noun
• The boys are naughty.
• They boys is tall.
• With mass nouns to indicate the specific nature of the noun
Nouns
Specific and non-specific
• Many languages do not have a grammatical element comparable with the English article
• A singular countable noun never occurs without an article or determiner preceding it
Nouns
Specific and non-specific
• The choice of articles may vary depending on the context
• He owns a car.
• He owns the car.
• The: with a singular word indicates generic nature of an item when the word refers to a whole group
• We must be kind to the poor.
Nouns
Specific and non-specific
variation examples
• Everyone owns car.
• Girls look very pretty today.
• I’m staying in one house with black gate.
Topic-092:Grammar-II
Nouns
Quantifiers
• We use quantifiers (much, little, few, a lot, little etc.) to talk about quanitities, amounts and degrees.
Topic-093:Grammar-III
Verbs
Stative verbs
• Verbs that express a state rather than an action
• Relate to thoughts, opinions, feelings and emotions
• These verbs are usually not used in the progressive tenses
Verbs
Stative verbs
Examples
• Understand
• Doubt
• Like
• Want
• Hate
Verbs
Stative verbs
The Outer and Expanding Circle varieties of English most often do not make a distinction between stative and
dynamic verbs
Verbs
Stative verbs
- He is having two cars.
- I was not knowing him
then.
- She is not recognizing
you.
- What are you wanting
now?
Verbs
Inflections
• In many Asian languages, verbs are not inflected for tense.
• The distinction in time reference is expressed by adverbs or some other linguistic element
• The multilingual users of English base their systems on theirfsirst language
Verbs
Limited past tense marking
- Mandarin, I learn it
privately.
- My wife, she pass her
Cambridge.
- I talk to her yesterday.
Verbs
Inflections
There is a great deal of variation in the use of the tense-aspect markers of English across its varieties.
Verbs
Use of aspect instead of tense
I eat = I’m eating
Topic-094:Grammar-IV
Question-answering system
Types of questioning-answering systems:
• Positive-negative system
• Agreement-disagreement
system
Question-answering system
Examples:
• Positive-negative system
Q: Isn’t he coming?
A: No, he isn’t.
• Agreement-disagreement
system
Q: Isn’t he coming?
A: Yes, he is.
Question-answering system
• Outer and expanding circle Englishes follows the agreement-disagreement system.
• Causes difficulty in interpreting the answer
Q: Didn’t you complete your
work?
A: Yes, that’s right.
Use of general question tags
Question tag:
Tags are used
with question intonation following statements
He is coming to the party,
isn’t he?
Sara has arrived, hasn’t she?
Use of general question tags
In the Outer- and Expanding-Circle varieties, a general tag, isn’t, is it, no is used universally:
Hira will come next month, isn’t it?
He didn’t pass the test, isn’t it?
Topic-095:Discourse Style-I
Topic 95:
Variations in aspects of discourse
• More formal character than the Inner Circle English
• More complex vocabulary and grammar
• Lengthy constructions
Variations in aspects of discourse
Redundancy of expression
• Expressions of thanks
• Lengthy constructions
• Deferential vocabulary
• Use of blessings
Redundancy of expressions
Examples
• I’m bubbling with zeal and enthusiasm to serve as a research assistant
• I offer myself as a candidate for the post of Research Assistant
• With due respect I beg to state
• Your obedient servant
Greetings and leave taking
Direct translations from indigenous languages:
- So how? (Sri Lankan
English)
- You’re enjoying? (Nigerian
English)
- Have you eaten already?
(Malaysian/Singaporean
English)
Greetings and leave taking
Direct translations from indigenous languages:
- How? How now? (West
African English)
- Are you alright? (East
African English)
Topic-096:Discourse Style-II
textual organization
structure of information
grammatical structure
Thematic information
• Difference in the organization of information
• Different devices used for expressing focus and theme
Topic-097:Intelligibility
A frequently discussed topic today is whether various english varieties will be intelligible outside their locality
or not.
What is intelligibility?
• Understanding
• Making sense
Intelligibility
• Lack of intelligibility is a natural phenomenon when a language becomes widespread
• Intelligibility is considered in both productive and receptive skills-you show concern abtintell in
spglgrgwg etc.
• Mostly causes concerns in listening speaking
Intelligibility
• Variations may cause issues of intelligibility and frustration to speakers of different varieties
• Two reactions:
• Change the situation
• Accept the situation and learn to deal with it-world englishes supporters say that variations in English
will be there . It should not be changed rather we should devise ways to deal with this situation.
Topic-098:Components of Intelligibility
Components of intelligibility
The holistic notion of intelligibility is divided into three components:
• Intelligibility
• Comprehensibility
• Interpretability
Topic-099:Comprehensibility
Comprehensibility
• The next level in Smith’s complexity continuum of intelligibility
• Involves:
• assigning meaning to utterances
• Recognizing an utterance’s referents
Comprehensibility
Example:
Table
- Please put the package
on the table.
- Invite guests of the
committee to the table.
- Table a motion.
- Insert data into cells in a
table.
Difficulty in comprehensibility
• Unfamiliar vocabulary
• Unfamiliar expressions
• Borrowed lexical items
• Nativized vocabulary
Difficulty in comprehensibility
Example:
‘Correspondence invited, preferably for mutual alliance … . ’
• Kachru cited in Kachru& Nelson, 2006
• ‘Mutual alliance’ is a culturally significant collocation with respect to marriage arrangements
Topic-100:Interpretability
Topic-101:Intercultural competence
• Focusing on only one culture leads students (or some teachers) to see only a unified and monolithic
culture
Differences caused by cultural contexts
People use different strategies for interaction depending on their:
Gender
Age
Ethnicity
Intercultural competence
Research on different varieties of English show that there are differences in the following aspects:
• Use of standard and non-standard English with respect to age and gender
• Performance of different speech acts
Use of ‘yes’ in different cultures
• In Burundi: the addressee may say: ‘Yes, I definitely agree’, and then proceed to state their opinion
which is contradictory to what the first speaker had said.
Use of ‘yes’ in different cultures
Example:
In American English (women): ‘yeah’ to mean they are following what the speaker is saying
In American English (men): ‘yeah’ to mean they agree with the speaker
In Japanese: ‘I am paying attention to what you are saying’.
Findings of research
Language teaching needs to take into account:
• Properties of extended discourse in context
• Teacher education to consider the conventions of culture that determine context-dependent language use
Findings of research
Language teaching needs to take into account:
• awareness raising about shared and non-shared features of world Englishes
• Teacher awareness about their own attitudes
• Recognition of the status and depth of world Englishes
Findings of research
Language teaching needs to take into account:
• Projection of ethnic, gender, national and other identities through world Englishes
Lesson-18
Topic-105:Standard language
Language ideology
• Social, cultural and economic factors
• Undue importance given to the variety selected as the standard
Topic-106:Language Standards
Language standards
• Prescriptive language rules which together constitute the standard
• Formally taught and conformed to
• These rules may change over time
Criticism of language standards
• Create discrimination
• Work against the poor, women and minorities
• Need to be broadened
Process of standardization
Comprises four stages
• Selection
• Codification
• Elaboration of functions
• Acceptance
Selection
• The most critical stage
• Involves selection of one variety as the standard
• Led by the politically and socially powerful
• Protects and promotes the interests of the same
Selection
Involves the selection of:
• An existing variety with a high degree of political and social acceptance
• Different features from several varieties
Codification
• Involves the writing and development of:
• grammar textbooks
• style and use guides
• Dictionaries
• Allows people access to the standard forms
Elaboration of functions
• Capability of performing a wide range of functions in government and education domains
• New vocabulary and conventions are added
Acceptance
• The selected variety has to be accepted by the relevant population
Paradox of standardization
• A symbol of a state’s independence
• A strong unifying force
• A symbol of inferior status of the poor who use a regional, social or ethnic dialect
Paradox of standardization
• Standardization of a language may be challenged or questioned e.g. the standard English
Topic-107:Non-Standard Englishes
Lesson-19
5. Acceptance
Locally defined standards need the approval and support of:
• Experts and professionals
• General population
• Institutions
Topic 111: Constructs of Standards and Codification-I
Randolph Quirk’s approach
• Three models of spread of English:
1. Demographic model
2. Econocultural model
3. Imperial model
Quirk’s view
Spread of English nowadays
• Can be compared with the econocultural model
• English being spread nowadays as the medium of science, technology and business
• Issues of standards
• General
• Restricted
Quirk’s view
• General issues of standards: educational concerns
• Restricted issues of standards: special uses of English
Quirk’s view
General issues of standards
• Unwillingness to adopt American or British English as models
• False assumptions about the varieties of English by linguists
Quirk’s view
Restricted issues of standards
• International standards for global use of English:
• English for transnational corporation
• Maritime English
Quirk’s view
Restricted issues of standards
• Varieties are deficient in this context
• Standard English is required to ensure better communication by using the same language
Quirk’s view
Restricted issues of standards
• Varieties exemplify an incomplete command of English
• Standard English is required to ensure better communication by using the same language
Quirk’s view
Need for a local standard
• Required only in the imperial model
• The local norms should be based on acrolectal variety which is as close as possible to the externally
established norm of Standard English
Topic 112: Two Constructs of Standards and Codification-II
Kachru’s view
Sociolinguistic reality of English in global context
• Multicultural varieties of English at various societal levels (penetration)
• Similarity between educated varieties in outer and expanding circle and standard British or American English
• Adequacy of available models for restricted purposes
Arguments for external models
Inseparability of English and American/British culture
• Creativity of the inner circle speakers is considered more valid
• Outer and expanding circle literature is considered secondary to inner circle
• British and American literatures determine the literary standards
Topic 114: Internal Models in Expanding and Outer Circles
Arguments for internal models
Unavoidability of acculturation of English
• Sociocultural context of outer and expanding circle countries
Arguments for internal models
Research on internal models
• Features of different varieties have been recorded by researchers
• Dictionaries and grammar reference books are being compiled
• International Corpus of English (ICE) is being developed
Arguments for internal models
Breaking away from British and American culture
• Increase in range and depth of English
• Acculturation and emergence of new varieties
• Need to contextualize English
Arguments for internal models
Language standard and ideology
• Social identity
• Sociolinguistic reality
Lesson-20
Acculturation
• Borrowing
• Reconstruing old words
Global language
• Creates new functions
• Produces new meanings
• Increases its meaning potential.
Topic 116: Speaking and Writing in World Englishes
Conventions of language use across cultures
The need to understand the following:
• Interactions
• Sociocultural values
• Conventions of language use
• Linguistic structure
Speech Act
An act that a speaker performs making an utterance, such as:
• Requesting
• Promising
• Asking
• Demanding
• Apologizing
Conventions of politeness
• People oriented to negative politeness may be perceived as aloof or cold
• People oriented to positive politeness may be perceived as unsophisticated
Conventions of politeness
Negative politeness
The strategies that avoid offence by showing deference.
Examples
• Use of honorific terms: "Dr.", "Mr.“
• Indirect requests: Would not you mind if we shut the door?
Conventions of politeness
Positive politeness
The strategies that avoid offence by highlighting friendliness.
Examples:
Use of nicknames
Exaggerated approvals: You look terrific
Request: You look cold, Sam. Should we shut the window?’
Conventions of politeness
Show of negative politeness: where interactions between strangers are conventionally oriented more to deference
Show of positive politeness: where interactions between strangers are expected to be more personable and
friendly
Topic 117: Speaking and Writing in World Englishes
Sociocultural conventions of language use across cultures
Politeness
Asian languages
• Grammatical devices at the phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels
• Discourse strategies, to signal respectful and polite verbal behavior
Politeness
Asian languages
Indicating respect for specific
addressees or referents:
• honorific pronouns
• verbal endings
• lexical sets
Politeness
Asian languages
Indicating respect for specific
addressees or referents:
• Sets of honorific pronouns
• Verbal endings
• lexical sets
Choice from one set is constrained by the choice from another set
Politeness
Asian languages
Grammatical choices: Hindi
Lexical choices: Korean (Hwang, 1990)
Honorific Plain Gloss
Cinci pap ‘meal’
Senghamilum ‘name’
Expression of politeness in English
English language does not
have systemic choices but only strategies based on politeness considerations
Assimilation and change of conventions
• Assimilation of cultural conventions of language use in new varieties of English
• Under the influence of English in some section of societies these systems are undergoing change
Conventions of use in world Englishes
Expression of partial agreement-disagreement
Yes, but…
In Hindi: No . . . but yeah
Example
A: Do you think it [wife abuse] is common?
B: In India? In rural families this is common.
C: No, it’s common. Very much common even in very literate families
Topic 118: Speaking and Writing in World Englishes
Rhetorical strategies
Strategies used to produce appropriate and effective language in any situation
Rhetorical strategies
• Different varieties of English show a considerable difference in the use of rhetorical strategies in writing
• Selection of a rhetorical strategy is motivated by considerations of sociocultural appropriateness
Features of outer and expanding circle writing
• High sounding style
• Indirectness
• Presenting all sides of an argument
• Extensive quotation from
previous work
Lesson-21
Topic 129: Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theories and World Englishes
SLA Theory Construction
• Immigrants or foreign students in universities are used as sources of data
• Learners of English in the outer and expanding circles are overlooked
SLA Theory Construction
• Little awareness of the factors relevant to English language learning in these contexts
• Lack of relevance between SLA theories and world Englishes
Assumptions of SLA
1. Learning goal is to attain native-like competence to communicate with native speakers
2. Input comprises the entire range and depth of British and American English
3. Learners ought to have integrative motivation for language learning
Assumptions of SLA
4. Primary languages considered sources of negative and positive transfer
5. Difference from standard British or American English amount to failure – fossilization or pragmatic failure
Success in SLA
• Five percent of learners are expected to achieve native competence in L2
• The others are consigned to the category of interlanguage users
Topic 130: Realities of Second Language Learning in World Englishes Context
Realities of outer and expanding circle context
• Non-native interlocutors
• Native English norms may be viewed unfavourably
Realities of outer and circle context
• Input available in indigenized variety of English:
• Teachers
• Peers
• Materials
Realities of outer and circle context
• Several languages in the linguistic repertoire
• Each language with a distinct function
• Irrelevance of ideal bilingualism
Realities of outer and circle context
• Functions of English unique to the context
• Serves as a high variety in a diglossic situation
• Used in administration, higher courts of law, tertiary education
• Overlaps with other languages in informal situations
Topic 131: Acquisition of English in Outer and Expanding Circles
Inapplicability of SLA to world Englishes
• Gap between classical SLA paradigm and learning of English in outer and expanding circle
• Inapplicability of SLA concepts and methods to the world Englishes context
Outer and expanding circle contexts
Multilingual users
• Include different domains of use and require different levels of proficiency
• Multilinguals are not deficient but proficient users of English and other languages
• Employ code mixing
Outer and expanding circle contexts
Local input
• Bilingual teaching methods
Lesson-23
Topic 133:
Code switching
Code switching is a well-recognized phenomenon in the speech of bilingual or multilingual people.
Multilingualism
Code Mixing
Examples:
• Meraypaas time nahinhai
• Can I have some chutney please?
• I ate a samosa with tea.
Topic 135: Pragmatics of Code Switching
Constraints on code switching
Free morpheme constraint
Equivalence constraint
Constraints on code switching
Free morpheme
A morpheme (or word element) that can stand alone as a word. Also called an unbound morpheme or a free-
standing morpheme
Free morpheme
Examples:
I need to go now.
• Are
• This
• Eat
• Let
• Want
Bound morpheme
A word element that cannot stand alone as a word, including both prefixes and suffixes.
Bound morpheme
Attaching a bound morpheme to a free morpheme creates a new word or new form of a word.
Example:
re + start = restart
re + join = rejoin
dis + content = discontent
Constraints on code switching
Free morpheme constraint
An intra-sentential switch may be made by any bilingual speaker only if a constituent is not a bound morpheme
Constraints on code switching
Free morpheme constraint
Example:
- Idherhum shop (free morpheme) main jaty
haintou …
- Dil o dimagh nature ki
khamoshdilawezyon say
halkyhalkylutfandozhon
gey
Constraints on code switching
Free morpheme constraint
Counter example:
- Hamaray ball- roomoonaurclubonkakya ho ga?
- (oon-Urdu bound morpheme e.gkitaboon-room-English free morpheme)
- Boxonkiziyadtibtarahethikehsafrkiaadatnahin
- Singaporean kuning
Hokkein: kun + ing
kunning
Topic 136: Pragmatics of Code Switching
Constraints on code switching
Free morpheme constraint (switching is possible only if we have a free morpheme)
Equivalence constraint (if grammars coincide)
Constraints on code switching
Equivalence constraint
Code switching occurs at a point where the surface structures or grammars of two languages coincide because
they have the same word order or constituents.
Constraints on code switching
Equivalence constraint
Code switches are allowed within constituents as long as the word order requirements of both languages are met
in the sentence structure.
Constraints on code switching
Equivalence constraint
Switches occur only:
• At points where the surface structures of the languages coincide, or
• Between sentence elements that are normally ordered in the same way by each individual grammar
Equivalence constraint
Example:
Casa blanca = Spanish
N A
White house = English
A N
Blanca house X
Casa white X
Equivalence constraint
Example:
I like you porqueeressimpático
I like you because you are nice
Constraints on code switching
Counter Example:
Jamil gave a pen eklarakiiko
John gave a book to a girl
Topic 137: Code Switching as a Communicative Strategy-I
Communicative functions
Quotations tend to occur in the language that the original speaker used
Addressee specification directs the message to one of several possible addressees
Communicative functions
Interjections the numerous and frequently used particles which occur no matter which language is dominant
Communicative functions
• Reiteration clarifies amplifies or emphasizes a part of a message
• Personalization versus Objectivization indicates the degree of speaker involvement or distance from a
message
Communicative functions
• Textualization cue gives hints to the listeners about the interpretation of the upcoming discourse
Topic 138: Code Switching as a Communicative Strategy
Pragmatic functions
Speakers make choices from different codes that will serve the following needs:
• Politeness
• Face-saving
• Increasing or decreasing distance from interlocutors
Considerations in code selection
• Colourfulness
• Expressiveness
• Economy
Considerations in code selection
Expressiveness
Two languages exploited in popular media such as newspapers, songs and films
Considerations in code selection
Expressiveness
- Pepsi: ‘Yehdil mange more’
- doctorskee number one choice
- Shampoo: Three months mein long, no waiting saal a saal
Considerations in code selection
Colourfulness
- What is mobile number,
Kerunkya dial number
- Lovely ho gaiyannaam
tera
- Pretty woman dekhodkho
na pretty woman
Considerations in code selection
Economy
Replacing a longer English phrase with its equivalent in the local language
Lesson-24
Takes for granted that the colonizing nation possesses the power to impose its will on the subjugated population.
Bottom up language policy
• Speech communities as active contributors to the shaping of the language policy
• Codetermine the context
• Seize the initiative from the institutional planners
Bottom up language policy
• Not a unilateral process
• Policy is an outcome of interplay between conflicting aims
Global spread of English and language policy
• Conventional notions of language policy and planning lack any critical perspective
• Global spread of English is attributed to the West and its imperialistic policies
Topic 140: Colonial Language Policy-I
Lasting effects of colonization
• Subjugation of the colonized people to the ideological control of the colonizers even after freedom
• Power rests with those exercising imperial power
Colonial language policy
• Role of speech communities in language planning during the height of modern colonialism
• Exclusion of the aspect of indigenous self determination by top down models of language policy
Colonial language policy
• Role of the indigenous population in the development of world Englishes
English and anticolonialism
• Imperial language policy was not unidirectional
• Was a response to the actions of the local populations who made demands on the colonial administration
English and anticolonialism
• English as part of the anticolonial struggle
• Spread of English as a result of struggle against imperialism
English and anticolonialism
• Containment policy - a response to the inclusion of English to the anticolonial struggle
Topic 141: Colonial Language Policy-II
Aim of colonial language policy
• To maintain British rule
• Fulfill the economic purpose of the colonies
• Avoidance of disruption to the empire
Anticolonial movements
• Emergence of large-scale anticolonial movements
• Well organized, popular and aggressive
Anticolonial movements
• Educational language policy as a means of stopping the anticolonial movement
• Language policy and the maintenance of empire became linked
English: a language of anticolonial movements
• English from a means of exploitation to a means of resistance
• Empowerment of indigenous populations by learning English to oppose the empire
English: a language of anticolonial movements
• English as an instrument of liberation
• Societal acquisition of English
Imperial language policy
• A language policy to safeguard the British political and economic agenda
• A safety measure to prevent liberation movements from using the language as a weapon in the anticolonial struggle
Imperial language policy
• Not initiative but reactive
• Result of the appropriation of English by the indigenous populations
Topic 142: Colonial Language Policy in Africa
Language policy and economic structure
The history of British colonization in Africa and Asian colonies demonstrates how language policy served the
economic ends of empire
Language policy and economic structure
• The connection between language policy and economic and class structure of the British empire
• Promotion of the socioeconomic stratification of the population
Language policy and economic concerns
• South African mines provided the economic mainstay of British Southern Africa
• It determined colonial policy throughout Africa
Language policy and economic concerns
• Economic concerns controlled the educational philosophy of the colonial administrators of Southern
Africa
• The goal of the imperial functionaries was to ensure secure labor for the mines
• Education was kept highly restricted
Aim of colonial language policy
• Aim of the education policy was to confine the subjects to their current environments
• Keeping the rural population on the land in Asian colonies and in ‘local reserves’ in Africa
Aim of colonial language policy
Colonial administrators have been quoted as saying:
• “book learning . . . Lowered [Africans’] usefulness for work,” and made them “uppish” and “conceited.”
• The education of all Africans in South Africa “would mean ruin to South Africa”
Aim of colonial language policy
Two fold purpose of education:
1. To make them more useful to their white masters
2. To limit their chances of leaving their environment
Aim of colonial language policy
elementary industrial education served the purpose:
To limit their chances of leaving their environment
Topic 143: Colonial Language Policy in Asia
Imperial language policy
• Agriculture constituted the dominant factor in the economy in Asian colonies
• The principal goal of the education policy of British Asia was the maintenance of the agricultural basis
of production.
Lesson-25
A want or a need?
• For several jobs English is a requirement not an advantage
• Better job prospects
• Upward social mobility
Constraints on choice of English
Struggle between change and continuity
• Several post-colonial countries perpetuate the colonial language policy
• In many countries colonized by Britain, English remains an official or co-official language
Constraints on choice of English
Struggle between change and continuity
• Attempts to promote other languages have ended in failure
• In many countries colonized by Britain, English remains an official or co-official language
Constraints on choice of English
Economic power of language
• Prospect of a good job or social advancement
• Usefulness for international business relations and communication
• The hope of expected economic prospects and rewards
Role of bureaucracy in language policy
• Policy decisions are taken by government bodies
• Implementation regulations are framed by bureaucrats
• Decision-makers are from the elite with vested interest in maintaining the role and status of English
Role of bureaucracy in language policy
• The elite make policies oriented toward English
• These policies further the hegemony of English
Topic 147: Effects of Hegemony of English
Effects of hegemony of English
Beneficial
• Communicative and instrumental function
• Role as lingua franca
• Global reach
Effects of hegemony of English
Detrimental
• Social stratification
• Exclusion
• Problems associated with education and literacy
• Status of languages other than English
English causing exclusion
• Effect on the viability and stability of other languages
• Inability to use the official language
• Lack of proficiency in English
English causing exclusion
• Lack of opportunity for formal education
• Lack of opportunity for attending an English medium school
• Inability to use the official language
• Lack of proficiency in English
English causing exclusion
• In multilingual contexts, students lagging behind due to English as medium of instruction
Topic 148: Hegemony of English: Implications for Language Policy and Planning
Extending the Scope of English
Need for a policy to make English:
• Inclusive
• equitable
• Vehicle for the promotion of cultural and economic development of a country
A policy without English’s negative effects
Following measures can eliminate the negative effects of language policy:
1. Take into consideration social, economic and political factors while designing the policy
A policy without English’s negative effects
2. Cater to the whole population and not just the elite by designing a multilingual policy
3. Minimize exclusion
A policy without English’s negative effects
4. Ensure that it contributes to the overall cultural, human, and socio-economic
development of a country
Topic149 : Language Policy and Planning in Pakistan
Pre-partition language policies
• Colonial language policies were imperialistic
• Colonists imposed their languages on the nations they ruled
• This created a native elite to serve their needs for low level functionaries
Pre-partition language policies
• The British displayed some tolerance to the indigenous languages
• The tolerance was a part of political policies
Pre-partition language policies
Appeasement policy
• Warren Hastings, Governor of India from 1774 to 1785, used indigenization as a means of governance
• Supported the cultivation of Indian classical languages as a strategy to appease the established
indigenous elites
Political motives
• Encouraged the learning of Indian vernaculars by the British to control the ‘natives’ more efficiently
• Madrassas and colleges were established all over India
Introduction of English
• The suggestion to teach English was made in 1792 by one of the directors of the East India Company
Reservations about English
• Fear that Indians learning English will lead to the learning of British political values
• Desire fo ‘English liberty and the English form of government’
• Hope to make them anglicized as English literature undermined their beliefs
Introduction of English
• Demand for instilling ‘the ideas and feelings of civilized Europe’ increased
Learning of English by Indians
• Realization among Indians that that traditional ways of exercising power and obtaining wealth would
change
• Power could be obtained by becoming junior partners of the British and for this English was a great
advantage.
• Rahman, 1993
Learning of English by Indians
• In 1832 recommendations were made about employing Indians in the civil service and teaching them
English.
• Initially confined only to the Bengali Hindus
• Introduction of modernity and the new forms of power distribution
Learning of English by Indians
• The Indian middle class considered English to be directly related to social and economic prestige
• They demanded an English language education
• English became the language of the elite, press, and administration
Learning of English by Indians
• Common people received education in their own language
• The elite preferred an English education
Topic 150: Language Policy and Planning in Pakistan
Post-partition language policy
The 1973 constitution includes the following two clauses:
1. The English language may be used for official purposes until arrangements are made for its replacement by
Urdu.
Post partition language policy
2. A Provincial Assembly may by law prescribe measures for the teaching, promotion and use of a provincial
language in addition to the national language
- Rahman, 2003
Language policy for Urdu
• Urdu, the national language is the mother tongue of only 7.57 per cent of the population
• English is Pakistan’s official language
• Urdu was made the language of instruction for the primary level
Rationale for privileging of Urdu
• Widely spread and is almost like the first language of all Pakistanis
• Most jobs available through Urdu
• A symbol of unity
• Serves the political purpose of resisting ethnicity
The policy for English
• Civil Service of Pakistan (CSP) and Army were two Anglicized bodies
• Continuation of English favouredthis elite
• English medium of instruction was also maintained in elite and cadet schools and college
Privileging of the elite
• The armed forces created cadet colleges on the lines of British elitist schools
• The schools were subsidized by the state
• These schools were believed to produce suitable candidates for filling elitist positions in the military and
civil services
Consequences of the privileging policy
Promotes the hegemony of English as it:
• Weakens the local languages and lowers their status
• Eliminates linguistic and cultural diversity
• Increases poverty by favouring English-using elite
Consequences of the privileging policy
• Continuation of two parallel systems in education was a reflection of the British policies before partition
• Created two media of instruction resulting in two classes: common and the elite
• Discrimination in job opportunities
General Zia’s Urduization policy
• Implementation of Urdu as the medium of instruction in all government schools from class one.
• Political influence led to the continuation of the elite English medium schools
General Musharraf’s policy
• English language was made compulsory from class one onwards
• Introduction of English as medium of instruction for science, Mathematics, Computer sciences and other
selected subjects
• The policy faced a deadlock due to the unavailability of English teachers
Dichotomies
• The choice of language- in- education in our country is a result of political expediency rather than of
educational effectiveness
• Ambivalence towards English
Lesson-26
New Englishes
Settlement history
• Eighteenth-century immigrants selected Appalachian mountains
• Rooted their culture and linguistic features
• In the nineteenth century immigrants from Europe and Britain spread to the west
Settlement history
• Transcontinental movement advanced by the building of transcontinental railway
• The immigration and movement led to a process of mixing and blending of accentspeople
Koineization
• Dialect contact resulted in koinéization
• Koineization: the emergence of a new variety or dialect of a language from the mixing, leveling, and
simplifying of different dialects of mutually intelligible languages
• American English perceived to be fairly homogeneous
Koineization
• Involves continuity
• Speakers do not need to abandon their own linguistic varieties
• American English perceived to be fairly homogeneous
Topic 153: Varieties of American English-I
Regional dialects
• Regional dialect differences are based on different pronunciation patterns and lexical choices
• The inland northern region comes closest to an “unmarked” accent globally perceived as “typically
American”
Regional dialects
• The Midlands are a transition region
• A small number of features of their own and an increasing number of northern or southern features
Regional dialects
• Regional differences include differences in pronunciation and lexis
Regional dialects
Examples:
• Some dialects are characterized by the lack of a postvocalic /r/
• Lengthening and breaking of vowels:
[Iə] in bit
Regional dialects
Examples:
Lexis
mosquito hawk = dragonfly
granny woman =midwife
jackleg = unprofessional, dishonest
Topic 154: Varieties of American English-II
Social dialects
• Variations based on location
• Variations based on social status
• Acceptability of the use of regional words and regional accents
• Unacceptability of non-standard grammatical use (like multiple negation, the use of ain’t)
Ethnic varieties
• A result of immigration
• Produced by language contact
• Involves language shift on by a minority group from an ethnic language to English
Ethnic varieties
• Involve modification of the dominant language
• Example: African American English (AAE),
Ethnic varieties
• Perceived as homogeneous
• A strong degree of mixing, mutual accommodation, and koinéization
• Dialect studies show a great deal of phonetic, lexical, and grammatical variability
Ethnic varieties
• No nationally uniform standard accent of American English
• Diversity has replaced homogeneity
Topic 155: Canadian English-I
Colonization and immigration
• Large scale colonization started in the second half of the twentieth century
• An influx of British immigrants during and after the American revolution
• Has retained strong cultural and political ties with Britain
Colonization and immigration
• A large proportion of Canada’s settlers has come from the USA
• Canadian English is traditionally described as a mix of British and American features
Influences on Canadian English
• The influence of British or American English varies by:
• Region
• Generation (an ongoing Americanization of the youth)
• Language level
Influences on Canadian English
• Pronunciation shows American base
• Vocabulary items and some spellings show a tendency towards British English
Influences on Canadian English
• The growth of a distinct Canadian identity after WWII reflected in uniquely Canadian features
• These include:
• the word chesterfield ‘couch’
• the particle eh (inviting approval)
Influences on Canadian English
• The most noticeable feature of Canadian English: Canadian Raising i.e., the pronunciation of / eɪ / and /a
ʊ/with a raised, central onset before voiceless consonants, so that:
• out sounds like cold [əʊ]
• bite sound like bait [eɪ]
Topic 156:Canadian English-II
Lesson-27
Topic 157: English in Australia and New Zealand: Origin and Development-I
Similarities
• Geographical proximity
• Frequent migration and travel between Australia and New Zealand
• Similar stages of development
Origin and development
• Colonial varieties
• Related to different varieties of English used by settlers from all over England
• Influence of Australian English on New Zealand English
Periods of development
Australian settlement and development (1788-1820)
• Colonized as a penal colony in 1788
• Demonstrated powerful “founder effect”
Periods of development
Australian settlement and development (1788-1820)
• Influence of southeast England variety
• Settlers from the southeast of England in majority
• Relative prestige of southeast variety
Topic 158: English in Australia and New Zealand: Origin and Development
Expansion and establishment of new colonies
• 1820: stabilization of the Sydney colony
• In 1831: founding of the Port Philip (Melbourne) colony
• Movement of settlers from Sydney to Port Philip
• 1840: Establishment of New Zealand colony
Expansion and establishment of new colonies (1820 -1850)
• 1840: Establishment of New Zealand colony
• Influence of southeast variety
• Comprised several multiple settlements including a mix of varieties
• Influence of the Australian English on early NZE
Gold rushes and new migration (1850 -1900)
• Increase in migration caused by:
• Gold rushes
• British policies resulting in increased migration
De facto independence (1900 -1960)
• Establishment of de facto nations
• Development of further changes
• Considering (RP) standard of England as the norm to compare the local Englishes
• Rising of national and linguistic identity
Awareness about national standards (1960-present)
• Awareness about the two Englishes being national varieties
• Need for having their own standards
• Serious scholarly work conducted
Awareness about national standards (1960-present)
• The development of dictionaries (the Macquarie Dictionary in Australia)
• Codification of the local varieties as standards
• Expansion of the linguistic diversity due to migration from all over the world
Topic 159: English in Australia and New Zealand: Linguistic Features
Distinguishing features: pronunciation
The pronunciation of vowels:
The vowel /ɪ/ as in bit
In Australia, / ɪ / has been
raised and fronted
It now appears to the front of /i/
sit = seat
Distinguishing features: Pronunciation
The New Zealand / ɪ / has gone in the opposite direction, centralizing to / ʌ /
sit = sut
The merger of the vowels
/eə / and / ɪə / in NZE
ear = air
Distinguishing features
Use of Hypocoristics in AusE:
• Tendency to use a diminutive form of a name
• Tendency to generally modify names and other terms
Barry = Bazza or Bazz
afternoon = arvo
Distinguishing features: Lexicon in NZE
Thank you = no worries
bach = a holiday home
Egg = mild insult (fool)
Waka = any means of transport
Barbie = shortened version
of barbecue
Distinguishing features: Discourse
• In Australia, the service provider will name the total due followed by thanks:
That’ll be two dollars, thanks
• In most other Englishes thanks is postponed until the customer offers the money and/or change is given.
Topic 160: English in Australia and New Zealand: Sociolinguistic Variations
Sociolinguistic variations in NZE and AusE
Social class
• Lower classes tend to use the distinguishing features
• Upper classes tend to use the RP standard
• Younger speakers demonstrate more distinguishing features than older speakers
Sociolinguistic variations in NZE and AusE
Age
• Younger speakers demonstrate more distinguishing features than older speakers
Sociolinguistic variations in NZE and AusE
Gender
• Women use more new variants in changes from below
• Women will use more of the distinguishing properties than men of similar ages and classes
Sociolinguistic variations in NZE and AusE
Variation in AusE
• Broad
• General
• Cultivated
Sociolinguistic variations in NZE and AusE
Variation in AusE
General
• The most common type of English spoken in Australia.
Broad
1. Maori English
2. Southland Dialect
Maori English
Use new or vernacular features studied more frequently
Examples:
• Use of HRT
• Merging of ear-air sound
• Use of New Zealand tag eh
Reasons for variations
• Contact with Maori language
• Social factors: gender
The Southland dialect
• Based on the early settlement patterns of settlers of Scottish background
• Has a rhotic /r/
• Variable use of rhoticizing
• Strongly retained in sounds like:
nurse, curse
The Southland dialect
• Non-rhotic pronunciation was not the norm in the past
• The difference may represent a change taking place in Southland dialect
Lesson-28
Lesson-29
African Englishes
Omission of articles
• African languages lack a comparable syntactic category
• Is observed in the language users from all educational levels
• An African feature and not an educational failure
Omission of articles
Examples
- Let strong … team be
organized.
- He gave me tough time.
- I am going to cinema.
Generic use of nouns and pronouns
- He is a real/whole person (i.e. an adult).
- You are a sociable
somebody (i.e. a sociable
person).
Pluralization of uncountable nouns
- all my furnitures and …
properties’
- noises of laughter and
chats’
- the respects they deserve
Redundant Insertion of pronouns
Also found in informal registers in Inner-Circle varieties:
- My daughter she is
attending …
- Robert he is currently
employed by …
- Me I am going to sleep
Generic use of nouns and pronouns
In African English, the resumptivepronouns occurs in non-subject positions:
- … in a country where you
have never been there
before.
- The guests whom I invited
them have arrived.
- Thank you for the letter
which you wrote it.
Comparative construction Inner circle English:
- It is the youths who are
more skillful than adults
- I am more hard working -
than my siblings
African English:
- It is the youths who are -----skillful … than the adults.
- I am ------ hard working than my siblings
Topic 171: African English: Innovations-II
Semantic characteristics
Semantic extension
Adds meanings to English lexical items:
- Some ‘amount’ means ‘money’ or ‘cash’
- ‘an arrangement man’ is someone who usually gets his way’.
- someone who bluffs may be dressed ‘ornately or fashionably’.
Semantic shifts
Change meanings and functions of the existing words:
- machine may mean specifically sewing machine
- minerals — soft drinks
- serviceable — ‘willing to serve’
- guested ‘to have a guest’
Coinage
Shows the rich derivational morphology that is characteristic of African languages
- facing a lot of hardcap
(‘hardship’).
- … he has given nothing
coinable (‘no money’).
Compounding
- ‘These been-to boys’
(those who have travelled
abroad, specifically to
Britain or America)
- ‘a me and- my-darling’ (a
small sofa )
- chicken-parlour
‘commercial place where
chicken, fish and drinks are
sold’.
Reverse compunding
- knife bread for “bread knife”
- sheet bed for “bed sheet”
Innovations used by African English writers
• Transmit the various
cultures in English
• Render in English the
speech of monolingual
characters
Topic 172: Black South African English
Use of English
• knowledge of English as a second language has increased twice as rapidly as knowledge of Afrikaans
• According to 1991 census, approximately 45% of the South African population have a speaking
knowledge of English
• English is one option in a wide-ranging repertoire of languages
Education context
• One of the most important criteria related to knowledge of English
• Learned in school for virtually all black users
Education context
• No one variety constitutes the specific each variety of all AAVE users
Phonological features
Consonant cluster simplification
• The third person singular verb morpheme is absent from 80–95 percent of its possible occurrences
Phonological features
Frequently cited features include those that are:
1. part of GE, but are more frequent in AAVE
2. part of old fashioned Southern White speech
3. unique to AAVE
Phonological features
part of GE but are more frequent in AAVE
• Deletion of the last of a word-final sequence of consonants:
hand → han
• Deletion of an unstressed syllable
about → bout
government → gov’ment
Phonological features
Found GE but more frequent in AAVE
• Deletion of one of two identical syllables Mississippi → Missi’ppi
Phonological features
Found in South White speech and AAVE
• Reversal of word-final s + a stop consonant:
desk → deks
• Glide reduction:
tied → [ta:d]
Phonological features
Features unique to AAVE
Reduction of final nasal to vowel nasality
man → mɑ̃/ ~ loss of final consonants, principally affecting nasals
five → [fa:]
fine → [fa:]
Topic 175: Features of African American Vernacular English
Morphosyntactic features
Non finite ‘be’
• Non-finite be is a social marker for AAVE
• Indicator of habitual state
or activity
- When June come, I be
outta school … .
- When my son was young,
the women be givin’ him
money
Morphosyntactic features
Perfect ‘done’
• Used with content verbs to indicate completion (perfectivity)
- You don’t have it ’cause you
done used it.
Lesson-30
Emerging Englishes
Functions of English
• Christian proselytization, politicization, modernization, and internationalization
• used intra-nationally in such domains as medical, engineering and media
Topic 178: Characteristics of Chinese English
Sound system
No distinction is made between tense and lax vowels
heat hit
mood hood
The fricatives θ and ð are replaced by s and z
thin sin
theze
Vocabulary
Semantic shifts in single and compound lexical items:
intellectual a class rather than
an academic
big pot egalitarianism
running dog a lackey
Colocations with political significance
• Growth of productive forces, strength of the socialist state and rise in living standards together are the
three favourables.
• A situation where there is no capital, no plant and no administrative structure is indicated by the three-
no-enterprises
Grammar
• Deletion of articles, especially the definite article.
• No distinction is made between adjectives and adverbs
• Lack of the third-singular ending with verbs
Discourse
• Greeting:
- Have you eaten already?
• Goodbye:
- Walk slowly slowly ho.
- Slow slow walk aunty.
• Use of uncle and aunt for people of an older generation:
- I fell off my bike and two
kind aunts [ladies] helped
me to the hospital
Discourse
Distinct Chinese idiomatic expressions:
- When you have free time,
come to play (visit)
- Welcome Back to Zhuhai
(sign at the airport
meaning ‘Goodbye and
you are welcome to visit
again’)
Topic 179: Emerging Englishes: Japanese
History of English in Japan
• Demand from the President of the USA for initiation of trade relations between the two countries
• Commodore Perry’s entrance into Tokyo Bay in 1853
• The arrival of American missionaries in 1868
History of English in Japan
• Attempts to banish English due to nationalistic sentiments before and during WWII
• Replacing of usual words as anaunsâ ‘announcer’ with ‘the esoteric hôsô-in
• Comeback of English
Status of English in Japan
• No internal reason for its promotion and use
• Japanese is the medium of instruction in all public institutions and
• Language of all government business is Japanese
Status of English in Japan
• A cline of proficiency in English in Japan from people who ‘know a few words’ to a relatively small
segment who are fluent in the language
• The new government policy of ‘cultivating “Japanese with English Abilities” ’
Nativization
• Elements of English have been made an integral part of the Japanese language
• A large number of borrowings from English
• English has become nativized in various respects
Characteristics: Sounds
• Insertion of a vowel to simplify consonant clusters
• Addition of –u as a final syllabic in all other cases;
Stool sutuuru
• Addition of –o and –i as a final
gray zone gureezoon
Characteristics: Sounds
The realization of:
θ as s, z, t or ts,
ð as z or
l as r
Final r as a: and v as b
thoughtsooto
thiszisu
colourkaraa
Characteristics: Vocabulary
Compounding
Involves loans and elements from both languages:
- merikenko American
powder
- denkisutando electric
stand
Characteristics: Semantic shift
furonto hotel reception
desk
-BaikinguVikig (buffet)
- ek-o (cho) acoustics
- Manshon upscale
(mansion) apartment
Topic 180: Role of English in Europe
Emerging role of English in Europe
• Three dominant languages of EU: French, German and English
• English: the biggest de facto European lingua franca by the end of the 20th centry
• Linked with material success
English as a lingua franca in Europe
• All EU members should learn each others’ languages (Phillipson and Cheshire)
• EU should opt officially for English as its language for communication (House)
English and social identity
• Can English express the social identities of its European speakers?
• Code switching and code mixing indication of widening scope of English
Examples:
telefon junkie, Metallfan, drogenfreak
Brexit and status of English
• Possible effects of the Brexit process on the status and functions of English in the Europe
• Role of English in the EU apparatus and in formal education
• Functions of the language among the population at large
Brexit& development of English
• Will clear the sociolinguistic space for the emergence of an authentic European English
• Used by members of the EU as a second language
• Serve the needs of the European Union as the common link language between member state
Nativization of English
• Three roles of English in Europe: native, foreign and international language
• Adaptations and innovations that show the European influence
European English
• European English:
• Intra-European communication
• Distinctly European uses of English
• Distinguish European English speakers from speakers of other varieties
• Influence on the spread of English
Lesson-31
Historical background
• 1600: Britain’s official expansion policy to India began
• 1689: Establishment of the three administrative districts in Bengal, Mombay and Chennai
• 1715: Establishing of missionary schools began with a school in Chennai
Historical background
• 1773: Establishment of the Governor Generalship in India
• 1784: Establishment of a department to manage Indian Affairs by the India Act of 1784
• 1858: Assuming of responsibility by British government of governing India by “the Act for the Better
Government of India”
Historical background
• Attention to English in missionary schools in India and Sri Lanka
• Influential Indians considered English the way out of backwardness
• English and English culture considered superior by the policy makers
• Resistance to the teaching of local languages
Historical background
Lord Macaulay’s minutes
• Lord Macaulay’s minutes declared English better worth knowing than Sanskrit or Arabic
“….form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons,
Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect”.
Historical background
Lord Macaulay’s minutes
• The local languages to be refined and enriched with the terms from Western nomenclature
• Made fit to by degrees conveying knowledge to the masses
Historical background
Consequences of Lord Macaulay’s minutes
• Absolute primacy given to teaching English
• English-medium universities established in Chennai, Kolkata and Mumbai, Allahabad and Lahore
• A majority of Indian primary schools were English medium
Topic 182: English of the Sub-Continent: Status
Modern South Asian English
• Educated variety with varieties within
• Comparable to educated British or American variety
Status
• Treated as a foreign language for the next several decades
• Use became more prevalent in the post-independence social and political climate
Status
• Has attained a noticeable place in the languages of the Sub-Continent
• English has the following uses:
• Lingua franca
• Government
• Education
• Literature
• Influence
• Development
Agent of religious neutralization
• Not used in religious domains
• Sanskrit is the language of religion for Hinduism and Arabic for Islam
• Lack of religious identification is a regional advantage
• Neutral affective associations adds to the value of English
Status of English in India
A government Act in 1967 made English co-equal with Hindi for:
• All official purposes of the union
• Parliament
• Communications between the union and the states
Topic 183: English of the Sub-Continent: Status in Pakistan
Language policy
• Pakistan is a multilingual country with six major and 58 minor languages
• At independence, Urdu was declared the national and English the official language
• English to continue as the official language till such time that Urdu replaced it
Dual system of education
• Pakistan inherited a dual system of education from the British
• The British introduced two systems of education in India: English medium and vernacular medium
Lesson-32
Issues of selection
• Conflict between local needs and international intelligibility and acceptability
• Need to combine local features performing functions needed by intranational community with
modifications for acceptance for international communication
Conflict between local and international needs
A codified English will need to combine the following:
• Local features performing functions required by intranational community
• Modifications introduced for intelligibility and acceptance for international communication
Conflict between local and international needs
• Need for the acceptance of local innovations
• Standardizing in the English lexicon of non-English words
• Inclusion of code-mixing and code-switching in grammars and dictionaries of Asian Englishes
Attempts at codifying IVEs
• Macquarie Regional Asian English Dictionary co-published as the Grolier International Dictionary:
World English in an Asian Context
• Documents the English of South Asia and Southeast Asia
Attempts at codifying IVEs
• Aims to meet the needs of the English speakers in the region
• Includes items of international currency along with local words which have never appeared in a
dictionary before
• Recognizes inter and intra national needs of IVE speakers
Topic 191 External vs. Internal Models
Primacy of internal models
• Non-inner circle Englishes considered deficient
• Historical primacy and precedence of native speaker norms
World-wide standard English
• The assumption that US or UK English will be selected as the one world-wide standard English
• Faulty belief that learning and using any English in any context involves users from inner-circle
Case for selecting internal models
• Pragmatic
• Not enough native English teachers
Case for selecting internal models
• Regional variations in grammar, pronunciation and lexis within inner-circle varieties
• All are considered speakers of the standard inner-circle variety
Case for selecting internal models
• Englishes from regions in the outer circle should be considered as using a form of the standard English
with regional variations
• Acceptance of IVE justifies selecting an internal model for codification
Topic 192 Future Scenarios
English Language Complex
• The term introduced by Mc Arthur
• Comprises all sub-types based on their history, status form and function
Sub-types in English Language Complex
• Metropolitan standards: formal models provided by radio and TV networks
• Colonial standards: exterritorial Englishes developed in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa
Zimbabwe
• Regional dialects: based on regional variations within the previous types
Lesson-33
• A policy to substitute English as the medium of acquiring knowledge at the cost of other languages.
Anglicism and orientalism
• Anglicism displaced Orientalism is a misconception
• The two co-existed
• Manipulated by the colonial powers
• Produced an English-educated elite and vernacular-educated masses to serve a colonial economy’
Use of English to promote policy
• Ethical imperative to teach English
• Limited resources
• English made available to a small minority
• Served as interpreters and clerks
Use of English to promote policy
• Difficulties inherent in teaching English widely
• Unavailability of people to do manual labour
• Creation of a discontented class
• Source of anxiety
Topic 196 Consequence of Imperialist Language Policy
Language as a dividing force
• The language was treated as a commodity
• Wide availability would reduce its value
• Division of the local peoples into English haves and have-nots
• Further deepened the existing social divisions
Language as a dividing force
• Cultural and economic disconnection of the English educated elite from their own background
Expansion of English
• The expansion of the discourse of English as an international language
• English was regulated by its colonial owners by using linguistics for description and standardization of
the language
Linguistics and language politics
• Dichotomy between finer language and common language
• Standardization served to make it easy identify one’s place in social hierarchies
Linguistics and language politics
• National language and the notion of a homogeneous speech community
• Meaning has a relationship with an objective world
• An assumed connection between language and the best representation of the world
Linguistics and language politics
• Meaning is dependent on internal structural relationships in language
• An assumed linguistic system from within which meanings are defined
Linguistics and language politics
• Linguistics distances itself from questions concerning society, culture and politics
• Prescribes a particular view and form of language
Linguistics and language politics
• The spread of English as natural, neutral and beneficial
• Concentration only on a notion of abstract system at the expense of social, cultural or political
understandings of language
Linguistics and language politics
‘….language is a simple
representation of reality, that the world as described by English is the world as it really is and thus to learn English is essen
• Pennycook as cited in Kachru and Nelson, 2006, p. 310
Topic 197: Linguistic Imperialism Revisited I
Linguistic imperialism
• Link between World English and imperialist domination of the world by the US and UK
• Emergence of a linguistic form of imperialism or political, economical and cultural subjugation of some
people
Linguistic imperialism
• A separate type of imperialism that includes a conscious language policy by the imperial power to
impose its language
• The spread of English represents a culturally imperialistic policy of enforcing English language culture
on its second language learners
"The fact that… no uniform British empire-wide language policy developed tends to disconfirm the hypothesis
of linguistic imperialism as responsible for the spread of English…"
(Brutt-Griffler, 2002, p. 7)
Linguistic imperialism
• No evidence of a distinctive ideology concerned with spreading English in the colonial dependencies for
cultural or linguistic reasons
• There is evidence of the existence of advocacy of a linguistic imperialist policy
Linguistic imperialism
A linguistic imperialist policy should display to at least some extent the following features:
i. Universal and exclusive education in English
ii. Replacement of the indigenous languages with English
Lesson-34
code switching
Sociolinguistic dimension
• Multilingual English users manipulating their linguistic resources in language use
• Generate new meanings to capture the bilingual and bicultural competences
• Develop new linguistic forms and functions in both spoken and written discourse
Politeness and gender identities
• Politeness lays a role in constructing gender identities
• English is viewed as being more polite and respectful
• Females use English more than males do
• Women seek to be more polite by using English
Women and English
• Bilingual women make language choices to:
• meet the needs of their speech community
• Ensure better future for themselves and their familites
• Strengthen the status of English in world communities
Women and English
• English-speaking bilingual women are considered as innovators of language change
• Advancing the progress of English
• Help it to gain acceptance and importance along with regional dialects
Women and English
• Play a key role in the transmission of English in world contexts and in constructing new identities
Topic 203 Gender and Bilingual’s Writing
Gender differences in world Englishes
• Gender functioning as a means of shaping linguistic pluralism and diversity
• Gender specific discourse studies illustrate the expanding sociocultural dimensions of English use
• Gender emerges as a factor impacting the spread of English
Gender differences in world Englishes
• Differences in the use of speech acts by women and men are observable among varieties of world
Englishes
• Bilinguals’ creativity includes gender as an essential exponent of world Englishes
Nativization of gender in bilingual’s writing
Aspects of English language use most demonstrating nativizing of gender:
• Forms of address and reference
• Abuses and insults
• Indirectness
• Politeness patterns
Nativization of gender in bilingual’s writing
• The authors of outer circle varieties of English transfer the social context of gender
• The local sociocultural patterns, notions, and ideas are reflected in an indigenized variety of English
Nativization of gender in bilingual’s writing
• The outer circle writers adapt the English language to local needs
• Language variation produces culturally distinctive writing in multilinguistic societies
Marginalization of bilingual female writers
• Women writers are marginalized by gender and by their choice of writing in English
• Choice of English and cultural oppressiveness
Topic 204 Gender and Language Use
Difference in language use across genders
• A second-language learner is already equipped with the knowledge of his/her mother tongue
• Monolingual fallacy
Use of L2 in classroom
• Several language teaching methods favour the use of mother tongue for second language learning
• Mother tongue considered a useful tool in the English language classroom
Topic 216 L2 in the Classroom and Non-Native Educators II
Bilingualism as the goal
• Usefulness of a bilingual approach for learning English as a second language in outer and expanding
circles
• Bilingualism as the goal
Use of mother tongue in classroom
• Appeals from the inner circle English language teaching establishment for more use of the mother
tongue in the classroom
• The use of the mother tongue in the classroom considered one dimension of linguistic human rights
Native vs. non-native educators
• Native speaker fallacy
• Native speakers of English inevitably considered the best teachers of English.
• Non-native teachers are only second-best for teaching English
Advantages of a non-native English language teacher
• Knowledge of the mother tongue advantageous for teachers
• Experience of having learned a second language
• More effective English language teachers
Doubts about the effectiveness of native teacher
• Need to realize the goal of second language acquisition in world Englishes classrooms
• Need to re-define the concept of the native speaker
Lesson-37
• Existence of a range of models for English rather than one best model
• The local innovations in English are based on the needs of the users
• English belongs to all those who use it
World Englishes theoretic perspective
• Lack of awareness of this perspective among practitioners and teacher educators
• Rarely given prominence in English language teacher training programmes
English as an international language
• Need for intelligibility
• Focus on the domains for which the language is needed
• Need for cross-cultural pragmatic competence to ensure friendly relations among users
English as an international language
• Need for respect for local culture
• Need for teacher flexibility in choice of methods
• Need for attention to local cultures of learning
Lesson-38
• Expanding and outer circle countries seeking the professional expertise of countries located in the inner circle
• Prevalent imperialism of major international tests of English (TOEFL, IELTS)
Linguistic imperialism and testing
• International tests support and serve the variety of English prevalent in their source countries
Linguistic imperialism and testing
• Use of international language tests in making high-stakes decisions
• Increasing demand for TOEFL preparation material and courses
• High profits yielded to publishers of test preparation material
Linguistic imperialism and testing
• The purpose of EIL is to facilitate communication amongst native and non-native English speaking
countries
• Irrelevance of tests based on one or two varieties of English
• International tests should be based on evidence from EIL interaction
Lesson-39
Lecture 39
Topic 229 English Language in Higher Education (HE)
Mutual effect of globalization of English and HE
• The role of English language in the globalization of education:
• High rating of universities in English speaking countries
• English facilitating international students and faculty
Mutual effect of globalization of English and of HE
• Role of higher education in globalization of English
• Traditional universities
• Contemporary universities
Mutual effect of globalization of English and of HE
• Domination of universities by native English speaking countries
• High ranking universities located in English speaking countries
• Increasing use of English as medium of instruction in HE
Mutual effect of globalization of English and of HE
Universities’ need to:
• attract teachers and researchers from around the world
• encourage international students to enrol on their courses enriching
Topic 230 The Globalization of Universities
Globalization of universities and use of English
• Need of English to operate in an international market place
• English facilitates the international mobility of researchers, faculty and students
Bologna Process
• Signed in 1999
• Aimed at standardizing higher education by:
• harmonizing university education in Europe along the lines of the British model
• using a common approach to levels and length of courses
Bologna Process
The standardisation of higher education is likely to:
e-learning ventures
• Improvement in broadband infrastructure
• Blending of e-learning with face to face learning
• E-learning as a significant strand in world education
Adaptation of
e-learning ventures
• ELearning and the management of human interaction
• Adaptation of traditional pedagogical values
Topic 233 Transnational Education
Joint ventures and overseas campuses
• International joint ventures and overseas branch campuses to attract students
• Student’s home countries as the target market for universities in English speaking countries
Joint ventures and overseas campuses
US universities with offshore campuses:
• New York University (Shanghai, Abu Dhabi)
• University of Northern Virginia (Cyprus)
• Webster University (Thailand)
Joint ventures and overseas campuses
Universities from non-English speaking countries with offshore campuses:
• ShaheedZulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology(Dubai)
• Manipal University of India (Dubai)
• Islamic Azad University of Iran (Dubai)
Joint ventures and overseas campuses
Australian universities with offshore campuses:
• University of Southern Queensland (Dubai)
• University of Wollongong (Dubai)
Joint ventures and overseas campuses
UK universities with offshore campuses:
• University of Nottingham (Malaysia and Ningbo in China)
• Middlesex university (Dubai)
• University College, London (Qatar)
Joint ventures and overseas campuses
Joint ventures with US universities
• University of Michigan – Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute
• New York Institute of Technology-Nanjing Campus
Joint ventures and overseas campuses
• Likely to attract students from countries other than the host country in the region
• Promoting the globalization of HE
• Building an international intellectual environment
Topic 234 Higher Education Trends
Consequences of globalization of HE
• Creation of a divide between global elite institutions and those serving local students
• Slowing down of international student mobility
• Declining market share of international students in English speaking countries
Consequences of globalization of HE
• Availability of more economical local and regional options
• Cultural appropriateness of locally available programmes
Consequences of globalization of HE
• Use of English medium courses to attract international students by global institutions located in non-
English-speaking countries
Consequences of globalization of HE
• Major sources of international students sending fewer student to the UK universities (e.g. Malaysia and
China)
• Receivers of international HE now becoming providers of international education
Lesson-40
• Need to balance the linguist’s purity with the sociolinguistic reality of the dictionary user
Methods used by lexicographers
• Guidance on usage
• Users’ identity
• Need to communicate depends on mutual intelligibility and codification
Topic 240 Compiling a Regional Dictionary
Aims
• To serve the average educated speaker of English
• To present all the material (both old and new entries) from a regional point of view
Pronunciation
Phonemic pronunciation system may be used to enable users to read entry words as their varieties lead them to
Vowel keywords and their symbols in The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary (NZOD)
Sources of items to be included
Published materials including:
• Fiction
• Non-fiction
• Newspaper writing
Criterion for selection of entries
• Must be genuinely representative of the varieties from which they are drawn
• Should not be modifications made for broader international use
Criterion for selection of entries
• Frequency of occurrence of an item
• Use of published material
• Confirmation of familiarity by native speakers
Criterion for selection of entries
Occurrence of a word in a specific text is not evidene enough for inclusion in the dictionary
Validity of the dictionary
• The authority of the English language communities in the region
• Users should acknowledge and have confidence in their language
• Users should accept the dictionary as representative of their region’s English
Validity of the dictionary
The dictionary has the power to reveal to people something that they already know but do not acknowledge that
they have an English of their own
• Butler cited in Kacru& Nelson, 2006, p. 245
Lesson-41
• Recording industry was another new addition to the entertainment world through technology
• The availability of mass-produced first gramophone records and then CDs and DVDs allow music to
travel around the world
Spread of English through pop music
• Dominance of English in the popular music scene
• Many people make their first contact with English through music
English in popular music
• The pop groups of two chief English-speaking countries dominated the recording world:
• Bill Haley and the Comets and Elvis Presley in the USA
• The Beatles and the Rolling Stones in the UK
Varieties of English in popular music
• Large number of varieties of English given exposure through music on:
• the radio
• television
• internet
• CDs
• DVDs
• music videos
Lesson-42
Lesson-43
Lesson-44
Types of difficulties
• Orthographic
• Phonological
• Grammatical
Inherent difficulties of English language
Can you pronounce this word?
Ghoti
Fish
Gh = f (tough)
O = I (women)
Ti = sh (initiate)
Inherent difficulties of English language
Orthography
• Different ways of pronouncing the sequence ‘ea’
bead, head, bear, fear, pearl
• Different ways of pronouncing the sequence ‘ough’
cough, bough, dough, through, thorough
Inherent difficulties of English language
• Silent letters at the beginning of words
psychology, pneumonia, knife, know
• Silent letters at the end of words:
thumb, limb, climb, bomb
• Silent medial letters
Muscle, fasten, castle, whistle
Inherent difficulties of English language
Pronunciation
• A large number of vowel phonemes: (Twenty)
• Extensive use of the central vowel schwa regardless of the spelling in prepositions, auxiliaries and
pronouns:
• To, of, from, her, them, was, are, has
Inherent difficulties of English language
Grammar
• Verb forms and functions
• Link with time reference
• Modal verbs: may, might, can, could, will, would
Topic 261 Linguistic Shift
Spanish as an emerging global language
• Total number of Spanish speakers: 470-500 million
• Increasing importance in America and Europe
Spanish as an emerging global language
• Increase in demand in Europe with increasing number of travellers
• Spanish speaking countries becoming popular tourist destination: Mexico, Cuba, Dominical Republic
Spanish as an emerging global language
• Increase in teaching/learning of Spanish as a foreign language
• Spanish government trying to promote a pan-Hispanic community across the world
Spanish as an emerging global language
• 41 million native and 11 million second language users
Lesson-45
Variation study
British English
Until also functions as a preposition:
We will stay in New York until next week.
Variation study
British English
The action signalled by the main clause ceases when the action signalled by the until-clause or phrase occurs.
Variation study
- We will guard the building until the statue is safely shipped back.
- Dad will be busy until the book is out.
Variation study
Singapore English
The action of the main verb does not end at the point where the action in the until-phrase occurs:
- I waited until I (was) angry; luckily my turn came ten minutes later.
- I ate until I (was) sick, but I didn’t want to stop because I already paid for the food.
Variation study
Semantic extension in Singapore English
Until has a ‘result’ or ‘to the extent’ meaning in Singaporean English
- Don’t talk until (your) saliva flies all over.
- Look at you, laugh until (your) face (is) red.
Variation study
Nativization of the linguistic item
Singapore English combine two features of dao – a comparable linguistic item from Chinese:
• Its semantics (degree/result meaning)
• The subtle difference in indicating non-terminal temporality
Topic 270 Variation Study
Variation study
Morphology and syntax
There is substantial research on the morphology and syntax of different varieties:
• Indian English
• Pakistani English
• Malaysian English
Variation study
The use of progressive with completed actions
BSE: I do it often.
IE: I am doing it often (with habitual action).
BSE: Where have you come from?
IE: Where are you coming from? (with completed action).
Variation study
Use of the progressive aspect with stative verbs
• Stative verbs are those which ‘refer to relatively permanent physical or psychological states or mental
perceptions
• Verbs relating to actions, such as run, eat, walk, are non-stative
Variation study
Use of the progressive aspect with stative verbs
Verbs considered stative in standard English but used in the progressive in outer circle varieties:
• see, hear, think, feel, believe, know, understand, remember, forget, doubt, want, wish, cost, weigh,