PARAMOUNT INTEGRATED SCIENCE - NOTES

PRIMARY SIX
TERM ONE

THEME: THE WORLD OF LIVING THINGS

TOPIC: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

 This is the grouping of living things according to their characteristics and features.

Living things
 These are things that have life.

Examples of living things

 Bean plant
 Maize plant
 Orange plant
 Pomegranate plant
 Cow
 Pig
 Goat
 Sheep
 Lion
 Zebra
 Horse
 Donkey
 Hen
 Duck
 Turkey
 Kite
 Hawk
 Owl
 Egret
 Bee
 Butterfly
 Tick
 Mite

Characteristics of living things

• They feed
• They reproduce
• They excrete
• They respond to their stimuli
• They respire
• They grow

1
 • They move (locomote)
• They breathe

Growth
 This is the increase in size of organism.

Reproduction
 This is the process by which living things multiply
It prevents extinction of living things
It increases the population of living things

Movement
 Living things move to different places for some reasons.
All locomotions are movements but all movements are not locomotions

Why do animals move (locomote) from one place to another?

 To look for food
 To look for shelter
 To run away from their enemies (to escape danger)
 To look for mates
 To look for their friends
 To look for their young ones.

How do animals move from one place to another? (Forms of locomotion)

 By swimming
 By walking
 By flying
 By jumping
 By leaping (hopping)
 By crawling
 By slithering (gliding)
 By wriggling

Excretion
 This is the removal of metabolic waste products from the body.
It prevents body poisoning

Respiration
 This is the oxidation of food (glucose) in the body cells to produce energy.
It provides energy

Name the two types of respiration

 Aerobic respiration
 Anaerobic respiration

2
Sensitivity
 This is the ability of an organism to respond to external stimuli
It enables living things to detect danger

A stimulus is any change in the environment that causes an organism to react.

Examples of external stimuli

For plants
• Touch
• Light
• Gravity
• Water
• Chemicals

For animals
• Heat
• Pain
• Cold
• Smell

FEEDING
 This is the act of taking food into the body

Why do living things feed?

 To replace the worn out cells
 To be healthy
 To get energy
 To grow
 To stay alive

Modes of nutrition in living things

Living things Modes (type) of nutrition

Plants Autotrophic nutrition
Animals Heterotrophic nutrition

Modes of heterotrophic nutrition

 Parasitic e.g in leeches, ticks, lice, mites, tapeworms and hookworms
 Saprophytic e.g in mushrooms, toadstools, yeast, moulds and puffballs
 Holozoic e.g in human beings, dogs and cats

Reasons for classification of living things (Why do we classify living things?)

• For easy identification
• For easy naming
• For easy study
3
 • For conservation

Features and characteristics used to classify living things

• Body symmetry
• Body colour
• Body size
• Body shape
• Body divisions
• Number of legs
 Form of reproduction
 Type of respiration
 Mode of movement
 Mode of feeding
 Adaptation to the environment

KINGDOMS OF LIVING THINGS

• Kingdom Animalia (animal kingdom)
• Kingdom Plantae (plant kingdom)
• Kingdom Monera
• Kingdom Protista
• Kingdom Fungi

GROUPS OF LIVING THINGS

• Animals
• Plants
• Bacteria
• Fungi
• Protista

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

• Plants make their own food ( are autotrophs) while animals feed on already made
food (are heterotrophs)
• Plants have chlorophyll while animals do not have chlorophyll
• Plants respond slowly to stimuli while animals respond quickly to stimuli
• Most plants are fixed in one place while most animals can move from one place to
another freely
• Plants do not have sense organs while animals have sense organs
• Growth in plants occurs throughout life while growth in animals stops before their
death.
• Plant cells have cell walls while animal cells have cell membrane

ANIMALS
These are multicellular organisms that are mobile, have no chlorophyll and have cells with
cell membranes.
• A multicellular organism is an organism with many cells

4
GROUPS OF ANIMALS
• Vertebrates
• Invertebrates

VERTEBRATES
 These are animals with a backbone (spine or vertebral column)

Importance of a backbone
 It protects the spinal cord

Functions of a spinal cord

 It controls reflex actions
 It connects all nerves to the brain

Characteristics of vertebrates
• They have a backbone
• They have endoskeleton
• They have waterproof skin
• They have alimentary canal
• They have bilateral symmetry
• They have large brain protected by the skull
• Their backbone is made up of many small bones called vertebrae
• They have closed circulatory system

Groups of vertebrates
• Fish
• Amphibians
• Reptiles
• Mammals
• Birds

Mention the two main classes of vertebrates

• Warm blooded (homoeothermic or endothermic animals)
• Cold blooded (poikilothermic or ectothermic animals)

A FLOW CHART SHOWING CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATES

WARM-BLOODED VERTEBRATES (HOMEOTERMIC ANIMALS)

• These are animals that maintain a constant body temperature

Groups of warm-blooded vertebrates

• Mammals
• Birds

5
Examples of warm-blooded vertebrates
• Parrot
• Duck
• Emu
• Turkey
• Pigeon
• Goat
• Dog
• Cow
• Cat

COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES (POIKILOTHERMIC ANIMALS)

• These are animals which do not maintain a constant body temperature
• These are animals whose body temperature changes with the surroundings

Groups of cold-blooded animals

• Fish
• Reptiles
• Amphibians

Examples of cold-blooded vertebrates

• Tilapia
• Mudfish
• Nile perch
• Chameleon
• Gecko
• Common lizard
• Crocodile
• Turtle
• Green snake
• Frog
• Toad
• Newt

BIRDS
These are vertebrates with feathers on their bodies

Characteristics of birds
• They have feathers
• They have beaks
• They have wings
• They have streamlined bodies
• They reproduce by laying eggs
• They undergo internal fertilization
• They have scales on their legs
• They are warm blooded animals
6
 • They have a backbone
• They breathe by means of lungs
• They have three eyelids (the lower, upper and nictitating membrane)
• They care for their young

EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A BIRD

Eyes
 For sight
Beak
 For feeding
 For protection
Legs
 For walking
Wattle and comb
 For temperature regulation
Nostril
 For smelling

ADAPTATIONS OF BIRDS TO FLIGHT

• They have a streamlined body
To reduce air resistance/viscosity/friction in air
• They have hollow bones
To reduce body weight
• They have many quill (flight)feathers
For flight
• They have strong wings
To support the bird in air
To propel the bird forwards
• They have large pectoral muscles
To move the wings
• They have a keel on their breast bone
For attachment of pectoral muscles

7
 • They have no pinna that would obstruct wind
• They have air sacs attached to the lungs
To improve gaseous exchange
• They have nictitating membrane on their eyes
To protect the eyes from wind

• They have a high metabolic rate

To provide the high amount of energy needed
• They have a keen eye sight
To judge distances correctly.
• They have a quick digestive system

REASONS WHY SOME BIRDS ARE UNABLE TO FLY

• They have heavy bones with bone marrow
• They have weak and small wings
• They have few flight feathers.
• They have no keel on their breast bone

MOULTING IN BIRDS
• This is the process by which birds shed damaged feathers.
Birds moult once each year

Why do birds moult their feathers?

 To replace damaged feathers (to grow new feathers)

FEATHERS
These are the outermost covers of the bird’s body

Uses of feathers to a bird

• They help a bird to fly (for flight)
• They streamline the body of a bird (they give the bird shape)
• They keep the bird’s body warm (for warmth)
• They protect the bird’s body from injury (for protection against injury)
• They help a male to attract mates (for courtship)
• They give the bird colour for identification

Uses of feathers to people

• They are used as costumes
• They are used for decoration
• They are used to make pillows
• They are used to make mattresses
• They are used as writing materials

TYPES OF FEATHERS
• Quill (flight) feathers
• Covert (body) feathers
8
 • Down feathers
• Filoplume feathers

QUILL FEATHERS (FLIGHT FEATHERS)

They are found on the wings and tail.
They are divided into primary and secondary feathers
Primary feathers are bigger than secondary feathers

Importance of quill feathers

• For flight (they help in flying)

Shaft (rachis)
 It holds the vane (it is where the vane is attached)

COVERT FEATHERS (BODY FEATHERS)

• They are found on the neck and bases of wings and tail
• They cover most of the body
• They are smaller than the quill feathers

Importance of covert feathers

• They insulate the bird’s body
• They streamline the bird’s shape (they give the bird shape)

Structure of a body feather

9
Why are bird streamlined?
• To overcome viscosity (to reduce air resistance)

What is viscosity (fluid friction)?

• This is the friction in liquids and gases

DOWN FEATHERS
• They are found on the abdominal region
• They are the first feathers to appear on a bird
• They have no vane
• They have loose barbs

Importance of down feathers

• They insulate the bird’s body

Structure of a down feather

FILOPLUME FEATHERS
 These are the feathers that remain when a bird has been plucked
 They are found nearest to the skin between the covert feathers
 They are the tiniest (smallest) feathers
 They have no quill

A drawing of a Filoplume feather

10
REPRODUCTION IN BIRDS
 They reproduce by laying eggs (they are oviparous )
• Their eggs are fertilized internally
• Birds undergo internal fertilization
• Fertilization in birds occurs in the oviducts

STRUCTURE OF A FERTILIZED EGG OF A BIRD

FUNCTIONS OF EACH PART OF A FERTILIZED BIRD’S EGG

Egg shell
• It protects the inner parts of an egg
• It allows exchange of gases

How is the egg shell adapted to gaseous exchange?

• It is porous

How is the egg shell adapted to protection of the inner parts of an egg?
 It is hard

Why should layers be given mash (feeds) rich in calcium?

• To lay hard shelled eggs

Air space
• It keeps oxygen for the embryo

Egg yolk
• It provides fats and proteins to the embryo

Albumen (egg white)

• It provides water and proteins to the embryo

Chalaza
• It holds the yolk and embryo in position
11
 • It is the passage of oxygen to the embryo
• It is the passage of wastes from the embryo

Germinal disc
It is found in unfertilized egg
• It develops into an embryo after fertilization

Embryo
It is found in a fertilized egg
• It develops into a young bird

Functions of an egg to the embryo

• It protects the embryo
• It provides food to the embryo

Abnormalities in bird’s eggs

• Blood stained eggs
• Soft shelled eggs
• Double yolked eggs
• Yolkless eggs

FEEDING IN BIRDS
• Birds have no teeth
• They have horny beaks (bills)
• The shapes of beaks indicates the bird’s general diet

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A BIRD (HEN)

FUNCTIONS OF EACH PART OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A BIRD

Beak (bill)
• It picks food

12
Gullet (oesophagus)
• It passes food to the crop

Crop
• It stores food for a short time (for temporary storage of food)
• It moistens food
• It softens food
• It produces crop milk to feed the chicks e.g in pigeons

Things that happen to food while in the crop of the bird

• Food is moistened
• Food is softened

Examples of birds that do not have a crop

• Owl
• Goose
• Buttonquail

Stomach (proventriculus)
• It is where food is mixed with digestive juices
• It secretes digestive enzymes that begin the digestion of proteins

Gizzard
• It crushes (grinds) food

How is the gizzard adapted to its function?

 It has grit (small stones)

How is the gizzard able to withstand the grit?

• It has thick (muscular) walls

Which part of the human digestive system perform the same function as the gizzard
of a bird?
 Teeth

Grit
These are small stones found in the gizzard of birds
• They crush food into small particles

Small intestines (ileum)

• It is where food digestion ends
• It is where food absorption occurs (it absorbs digested food)

Main processes that take place in small intestines

• Food absorption
• Food digestion
13
Large intestines
• It is where water absorption occurs (it absorbs water)

Caecum
• It stores undigested food for a short time

Vent (cloaca)
• It passes out droppings

FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN GROUPING BIRDS

• Way of feeding
• Type of beak
• Type of foot
• Type of food they eat.
• Way of movement

GROUPS OF BIRDS
• Birds of prey (preying birds or raptors)
• Perching birds
• Scratching birds
• Swimming birds
• Wading birds
• Flightless (walking) birds
• Climbing birds
• Scavenger birds

BIRDS OF PREY (RAPTORS)

• These are birds that hunt and kill their prey.
A prey is an organism which is eaten by another organism

Characteristics of preying birds

• They have strong eye sight.
To spot their prey from long distances
• They have strong sharp hooked beaks
For tearing their prey (flesh)
• They have strong sharp curved (hooked) claws or talons
For gripping and killing their prey

Examples of preying birds

• Hawks
• Eagles
• Secretary birds
• Owls
• Kites
• Falcons
14
 • Osprey
• Buzzard
• Harrier
An eagle is termed as the king of all birds.

An owl
 It is a nocturnal bird of prey
 It has no crop

Why is an owl able to see at night?

 It has more rod cells than cone cells in its eyes

Food for preying birds (raptors)

• Rats
• Fish
• Mice
• Geckos
• Chicks
• Smaller birds

Diagram showing beak and foot of a preying bird

How are birds of prey (raptors) dangerous to poultry farmers?

 They eat chicks (they kill poultry)

SCAVENGER BIRDS
 These are birds that feed on carrion (leftover meat/carcasses/abandoned meat)

How are scavenger birds important in the environment?

• They clean the environment by eating carrion (dead animals)
• They prevent diarrhoeal diseases by eating rotten meat

How do scavengers clean the environment?

• By feeding on carrion (dead animals)

Examples of scavengers
• Vulture (condor)

15
 • Crows
• Marabou stork
A marabou stork has long pointed heavy beak and long legs

A drawing showing a marabou stork

Places where scavenger birds are commonly found

 Dustbins
 Abattoirs
 Rubbish heaps

Explain the meaning of the term carrion

 This is the dead, decaying meat

Of what importance is the pouch on the neck of a marabou stork?

 It is used during courtship

Name one scavenging bird of prey

 Vulture

CLIMBING BIRDS
These are birds that climb trees.

Examples of climbing birds

• Parrot
• Woodpecker

Characteristics of climbing birds

• They have two toes facing forward and two backward
For climbing trees
 They have long stiff tails
16
For support when climbing upwards
• They have long toes with claws
For holding trees
• They live in trees
• A parrot has strong short hooked beak
For cracking hard seeds (nuts)
For climbing trees
 A parrot has a small space between the upper and lower beak
To hold seeds
• A woodpecker has chisel-shaped beak
For making holes in trees (for pecking wood)

Why does a woodpecker peck trees?

• To make nesting sites
• To look for food (insects)

Why does a woodpecker drum on trees?

 To attract mates
 To communicate to other woodpeckers
 To chase away predators

Food for climbing birds

• Insects
• Seeds

Illustrations showing a beak of a parrot and a woodpecker

Illustrations showing a foot of climbing birds (parrot and woodpecker)

Parrot Woodpecker

17
SWIMMING BIRDS
These are birds that have fully webbed feet for swimming in water.

Characteristics of swimming birds

• They have fully webbed feet
For swimming (paddling in water)
• They have broad breastbone.
• They have many oil glands in their skins
To produce oil that protects the bird from cold water.
To produce oil that makes the feathers waterproof
• They have a spoon shaped beak (have a beak with small cross plates on the margins)
To strain (sieve) food from water

Examples of swimming birds

• Ducks
• Swans
• Geese
• Penguins
• Seagulls
• Pelicans
• Cormorant

Food for swimming birds

• Tadpoles
• Worms
• Pond weeds
• Insects
• Small fish

Structure of a foot and beak of a swimming bird

WADING BIRDS
• These are birds that can walk through water
18
These birds live near water bodies to get food easily

Characteristics of wading birds

• They have long flexible necks
To reach food below water surface
• They have thin long legs with half webbed feet
To prevent the bird from sinking in water
• They have long thin beaks
To catch food in water

How are the thin long legs with half webbed widely spread toes useful to a wading
bird?
• They prevent the bird from sinking in water

Examples of wading birds

• Heron
• Flamingo
• Crested crane (crane)
• Marabou stork (stork)
• Sandpiper
• Ibis
• Egret
• Kingfisher
• Plover
• Jacana
• Spoonbill
How are white egrets important to cattle farmers?
 They eat up ticks on their cattle

Food for wading birds

• Fish
• Frogs
• Worms

Structure of a beak and foot of heron

19
FLIGHTLESS BIRDS (WALKING BIRDS)
These are birds that cannot fly

Characteristics of flightless birds

• They have small weak wings.
• They have heavy bones with bone marrows
• They run very fast

Examples of flightless birds

• Kiwi
• Ostrich
• Emu Ratites
• Rhea
• Cassowary
• Penguin

Kiwi
It is the only bird with a nostril at the end of its beak

Ostrich
 It is the largest and fastest flightless bird.
 It can run faster than most horses.
 It can run at an average speed of 45 miles per hour
 It is the only bird with two toes on each foot

Illustrations showing a kiwi and an ostrich

Drawings showing feet of flightless birds

Emu, cassowary,
rhea and kiwi

Ostrich

20
Food for flightless birds
• Worms
• Insects
• Small animals

How do some flightless birds (ostrich, emu and cassowary) protect themselves?
 By kicking with their strong huge legs

Give a reason why some domestic fowls are unable to fly high
• They have heavy bones with bone marrow

PERCHING BIRDS (SONG BIRDS/PASSERINES)

These are birds that can roost (rest) on branches of trees.

A perch is a piece of wood on which a bird sleeps (rests)

Characteristics of perching birds

• They have split feet and walking legs.
• They have three toes pointing forwards and one pointing backward
For gripping the perches
• They have strong toes to grip on the trees.

A drawing showing foot of perching birds

Groups of perching birds

Perching birds are grouped according to their feeding habits
• Seed eaters
• Nectar suckers
• Insect eaters
• Fruit eaters

Seed eaters
These are perching birds that feed on seeds.
• They have strong short conical beaks;
21
For breaking up seeds

Examples of seed eaters

• Pigeon
• Dove
• Weaverbird
• Finch

A drawing showing a beak of a seed eater (e.g dove)

Insect eaters
These are perching birds that feed on insects.
 They have short narrow beaks;
For picking up insects from tree barks

Examples of insect eaters

• Swifts
• Shrikes
• Swallows
• Nightjars
• Sparrows
• Robins
• Woodcreepers
• Bee-eaters
A drawing showing an insect eater (e.g robin)

Why do swifts and swallows have short and wide open beaks?
 To catch insects while flying
22
A drawing showing a beaks of insect eaters (e.g swift)

Why shrikes are sometimes called butcher birds?

• They spear insects on thorns to eat it later

Nectar suckers (honey eaters)

These are perching birds that feed on nectar from flowers.
• They have long slender curved beaks;
For sucking nectar from flowers

Examples of nectar suckers

• Sunbird
• Hummingbird

A beak and foot of a sunbird

Fruit eaters (frugivores)

These are perching birds that feed on fruits from trees.
• They have long down curved beaks;
For collecting fruits from trees

Examples of fruit eater

• Hornbill
• Toucan
They help in fruit and seed dispersal

A drawing showing a beak of hornbill

23
SCRATCHING BIRDS
These are birds which scratch the ground for food.

Characteristics of scratching birds

• They have strong feet with blunt claws.
For scratching
• They have strong feet with blunt claws.
For scratching
• They have strong short pointed beaks
For picking up food from soil

Examples of scratching birds

• Chickens
• Turkeys
• Guinea fowls
• Pheasants
• Crested francolin

Food for scratching birds

 Seeds
 Insects

Structure of the beak and foot scratching bird

24
IMPORTANCE OF BIRDS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
• Some birds are a source of meat
• Some birds are a source of eggs
• Some birds are a source of income when sold
• Some birds attract tourists e.g flamingo birds and ostriches
• Some birds pollinate flowers e.g sunbirds and hummingbirds
• Some birds help in seed dispersal
• Some birds are used as dowry
• Some birds are used as sacrifices
• Some birds help to clean the environment by feeding on rotten meat (carrion)
• Their droppings are used as manure
• Their bones are used for making glue
• Their feathers are used for decoration
• Their feathers are used to make costumes

DISADVANTAGES (DANGERS) OF BIRDS

 Some birds are crop pests e.g weaverbirds
 Some birds cause airplane accidents. (They lead to bad strikes)
 Some birds make a lot of noise e.g weaverbirds.
 Some birds hide parasite e.g fleas and mites
 Birds of prey kill poultry

MAMMALS
 These are animals with mammary glands

Main characteristics of mammals

• They have mammary glands
• They have hair (fur) on their bodies
• They have ossicles ( they have three middle ear bones)

Other characteristics of mammals

• They are warm blooded
• They breathe by means of lungs
• They have backbone
• They undergo internal fertilization
• They care for their young
• They have four chambered heart
• Most mammals give birth to live young ones (most of them are viviparous)
• Most mammals have well developed pinnae (ear lobe)

State the importance of mammary glands to female mammals

• To produce milk for feeding their young ones
25
Importance of body hair/fur on mammals
 It keeps the body warm (for temperature regulation)
 It protects the body from injury
 For sensing

Groups of mammals
• Primates (fingered mammals)
• Ungulates (hoofed mammals)
• Carnivorous mammals (flesh eating mammals)
• Gnawing mammals (rodents and lagomorphs)
• Insectivorous(insect eating mammals)
• Pouched mammals (marsupials)
• Flying mammals (chiroptera)
• Egg laying mammals (monotremes)
• Sea mammals (cetaceans and sirenians)

PRIMATES (FINGERED MAMMALS)

• These are mammals with well-developed brain

Characteristics of primates
• They have a well-developed brain
• They have 5 fingers on each hand and 5 toes on each foot.
• They are omnivores
• They have forward facing eyes
• They have four types of teeth (incisors, canines, premolars and molars)
• They have four limbs
Fore limbs for holding and hind limbs for walking.

Why are primates regarded as the most advanced group of mammals?

• They have well developed brain

Why are mammals called omnivores?

 They feed on both meat and vegetation

Examples of primates
 Human being Human being
 Chimpanzee (bonobo)
 Gorilla Apes
 Orangutan
 Gibbons
 Monkey
 Baboon
 Bushbaby

26
What are apes?
 These are primates with no tails

DIAGRAMS SHOWING SOME PRIMATES

Gorilla Orangutan Monkey Bushbaby

EGG LAYING MAMMALS (MONOTREMES)

These are mammals that lay eggs
 They lay 1 to 3 eggs
 Monotremes have characteristics of birds, mammals and reptiles

Reasons why monotremes are the most primitive in the class of mammals
 They lay eggs
 They feed using a beak (bill)
 They have only one opening (cloaca) for reproduction and excretion

Why are monotremes regarded as mammals?

• They have hair on their bodies
• They have mammary glands (they produce milk for their young ones)
• They care for their young after hatching

Examples of egg laying mammals (monotremes)

• Duck billed platypus
• Spiny anteater (echidna)

Diagrams showing monotremes

Spiny anteater
(echidna) Duck billed platypus

27
How do monotremes locate their food?
 By electroreception

UNGULATES (HOOFED MAMMALS)

These are mammals with hooves
 All ungulates are herbivores

Groups of ungulates
• Odd toed ungulates
• Even toed ungulates

Odd toed ungulates

These are ungulates with one or three toes on each foot

Examples of odd toed ungulates

• Horse
• Donkey One toe on each foot
• Zebra
 Elephant
Three toes on each foot
 Rhino

Drawings showing toes of odd toed ungulates

Horse Elephant

Even toed ungulates

These are ungulates with two toes on each foot

Examples of even toed ungulates

• Cattle
• Goat
• Sheep
• Antelope
• Giraffe
• Camel
• Okapis
28
 • Deer
• Elk
 Pig
 Warthog
 Hippo

Drawings showing toes of odd toed ungulates

Cow Camel

Subgroups of even toed ungulates

• Ruminants
• Nonruminants

Ruminant animals
These are animals that chew cud
• They have four stomach chambers

Examples of ruminant animals

• Cattle
• Goat
• Sheep
• Giraffe
• Camel
• Deer
• Antelope
• Elk

How do most ruminants protect themselves?

• By using their horns.

Name the four stomach chambers of ruminant animals

 Rumen
 Reticulum
 Omasum
 Abomasum

A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FOUR STOMACH CHAMBERS OF RUMINANTS

Gullet (oesophagus)
29
 • It passes food to the rumen

Rumen
It is the first and largest stomach chamber
• It stores food for a short time before rumination
• It ferments and softens food

Reticulum
It is the second stomach chamber
• It retains foreign bodies.
Omasum
It is the third stomach chamber
• It absorbs water

Abomasum (true stomach)

It is the fourth stomach chamber
• It mixes food with digestive enzymes

Nonruminant animals
• These are animals that do not chew cud

Examples of nonruminant animals

• Pig
• Hippo (hippopotamus)
• Warthog
Nonruminants have well developed canines for protection

CARNIVOROUS MAMMALS (FLESH EATING MAMMALS)

These are mammals that feed on flesh/meat

Characteristics of carnivorous animals (adaptations of carnivorous mammals to

hunting)
 They have well developed canines
For tearing flesh (prey)
 They have strong sharp claws
For gripping and killing their prey
 They have very good speed
 They have good sense of smell, vision and hearing
 They have soft pads in their feet
To run after their prey silently
 They are strong animals

An illustration showing a skull of a carnivorous mammal

30
Families (sub groups) of carnivorous mammals
• Dog family
• Cat family

DOG FAMILY
These are dog-like carnivorous mammals

Examples of carnivorous mammals under the dog family

• Domestic dog
• Fox
• Jackal
• Wolf

CAT FAMILY
These are cat-like carnivorous mammals
They have retractile claws

Examples of carnivorous mammals under cat family

• Domestic cat
• Cheetah
• Lion
• Leopard
• Tiger
• Jaguar
• Mongoose
 Hyena
• Civet
• Puma/cougar/panther
• Lynx
Cheetahs can run as fast as 70 miles per hour (120kph)

Drawings of domestic dog and cat

31
NOTE
 Most carnivorous mammals are predators
 Predators are animals that hunt and kill their prey
 Some carnivorous mammals are scavengers
 Scavengers are animals that feed on carrion (abandoned meat)

Examples of scavenger mammals

• Jackal
• Hyena
• Fox

Importance of carnivorous mammals to man

 Domestic dogs are used for hunting
 Domestic dogs are used for protection at home
 Domestic cats are used to kill rats at home
 Civets produce musk used in perfumes

GNAWING MAMMALS
These are mammals that chew rapidly

Characteristics of gnawing mammals

• They have well developed incisors
• They have no canines.

Groups of gnawing mammals

 Rodents
 Lagomorphs

Rodents
These are gnawing mammals with one pair of upper incisors

Examples of rodents
• Rat
• Squirrel
• Mouse
• Mole
• Porcupine
• Guinea pig
• Beavers
• Marmot
32
 • Chipmunks
• Prairie dog
• Voles
• Lemming
• Muskrat
• Hamster

Lagomorphs
These are gnawing mammals with two pairs of upper incisors

Examples of lagomorphs
 Rabbits
 Hares
 Pikas

Drawings showing rodents (rat and squirrel) and lagomorph (rabbit)

Differences between lagomorphs and rodents

• Lagomorphs have two pairs of upper incisors while rodents have one pair of upper
incisors
• Lagomorphs are herbivores while rodents are omnivores
• Lagomorphs have short tails while rodents have long tails

INSECT EATING MAMMALS (INSECTIVORES)

• These are mammals which feed on insects.

Characteristics of insect eating mammals

• They have good sense of smell
• They are nocturnal (they are active at night)
• They live in burrows or trees
• They have sharp claws for digging out insects from soil

33
 • They have long sensitive snouts
• They have abnormal appetite for food

Examples of insect eating mammals

• Hedgehog
• Elephant shrew
• Aardvark
• Aardwolf
• Golden mole
• Solenodon

A drawing of a hedgehog

How does a hedgehog protect itself?

• It rolls into a spiny ball

FLYING MAMMALS (CHIROPTERA)

• These are mammals that can fly

An example of a flying mammal

 Bats
A bat is the only true flying mammal

How is a bat adapted to flight?

 Its fore limbs are modified into wings

Why are bats called nocturnal animals?

• They are active at night (they hunt at night)

A drawing showing a bat

34
Groups (types) of bats
 Insectivorous bats (insect eating bats)
 Frugivorous bats (fruit eating bats)
 Blood-sucking bats (vampire bats)

Insect eating bats (insectivorous bats)

These are bats that feed on insects

Fruit eating bats

These are bats which feed on fruits

Blood sucking bats/vampire bats

These are bats that feed on blood

Importance of bats in the environment

 They feed on insect vectors e.g mosquitoes and flies
 They feed on insect pests
 They help in pollination
 They help in seed dispersal
 Their guano is used as fertilizers

Dangers of bats
 They hide parasites e.g fleas
 They are disease vectors (they spread histoplasmosis)
 They make a lot of noise
 Their dung causes bad smell in houses
 Vampire bats bite farm animals
 They destroy fruits on crops
 Vampire bats suck blood from farm animals e.g cattle

How can crop farmers protect their bananas against fruit eating bats?
 By early harvesting
 By using net traps

Bats are blind, how are they able to locate food at night?
 They use echoes

How are echoes useful to bats?

• They help bats to find food at night
• They help bats to find their way at night
How?
 By dodging obstacles

POUCHED MAMMALS (MARSUPIALS)

35
These are mammals with a pouch (marsupium) to carry its young one
The young one of a marsupial is called joey

Examples of pouched mammals

• Kangaroo
• Koala
• Wallaby
• Opossum
• Quokka Opossum and its joeys
• Phalanger
• Dasyure
• Tasmanian devil
• Wombat
• Numbat
• Bandicoot
They are most common in Australia and some few in America

Why does a kangaroo carry its joey in a pouch?

• To feed its immature young (joey)

How are marsupials different from other mammals?

 They feed their immature young ones in a pouch/marsupium unlike other mammals

A diagram showing a kangaroo

Kangaroo

A joey in a pouch

MARINE MAMMALS
 These are mammals that live in seas
They are also called sea mammals or aquatic mammals

Characteristics of marine mammals

 They have blubber
 They have streamlined bodies
 They have flippers for swimming
 They have well developed brain next to primates
36
EXAMPLES OF SEA MAMMALS (MARINE MAMMALS)
• Whales (blue and sperm whales)
• Porpoise Cetaceans
• Dolphin
 Dugong
 Manatee
 Seal
 Sea lion
 Walrus
 Sea otter
A blue whale is the largest known living mammal

How do sea mammals breathe?

• By means of lungs

Blubber
This is a fatty layer under the skin of sea mammals
• It keeps them warm

How is blubber useful to sea mammals?

 It keeps the sea mammal warm in cold water

How does blubber keep the sea mammals warm in water?

• It prevents heat loss

How is a sea mammal able to survive in cold seawater?

 It has blubber

Drawings showing cetaceans (dolphin and whale)

MENTION THE THREE MAIN CLASSES OF MAMMALS

 Placental mammals

37
These are mammals that give birth to fully grown young ones
 Pouched mammals
These are mammals that give birth to immature young ones and care for them inside their
pouch
 Monotremes
These are mammals that reproduce by laying eggs

IMPORTANCE OF MAMMALS
• Some mammals are a source of food
• Some mammals are used for transport e.g horses
• Some mammals provide animal labour
• Some mammals attract tourists
• Some mammals guard our homes e.g dogs
• Some mammals are sold for money
• Some mammals provide skins to leather industries
• Some mammals eat disease vectors e.g bats
• Their wastes are used to make biogas and farmyard manure

DISADVANTAGES OF MAMMALS
• Some mammals are crop pests
• Some mammals kill people
• Some mammals are disease vectors e.g rabid dogs

AMPHIBIANS
These are cold blooded vertebrates that can live in water and on land

Characteristics of amphibians
• They can live in water and on land
• They are cold blooded/poikilothermic animals
• They reproduce by laying eggs
• They undergo external fertilization
• They have a backbone
• They have no external ears
• They breathe by means of lungs on land
• They have three chambered hearts
• They have scaleless skin/have no scales on their skins
• They lay their eggs in water
• They do not produce amniotic eggs
• They go through metamorphosis
• They spend their first life in water and later go on land
NOTE
• They have an eardrum under the skin on the head

Examples of amphibians
• Frogs
• Toads
38
 • Newts
• Salamanders (axolotl)
• Caecilians
Frogs and toads have no tails
Newts and salamanders have tails
Caecilians have no limbs (they are limbless amphibians)

A drawing of a newt and a salamander

Name the amphibian shown in the diagram below

Caecilian

External features of a toad

Importance of each part of a toad

 Mouth
39
For feeding
 Nostril
For smelling food
 Eyes
For sight
 External eardrum
For hearing
 Poison gland/paratoid gland
To produce poison keeps away predators
 Strong hind legs
For hopping/leaping
 Webbed feet
For swimming in water

Differences between a frog and a toad

 A frog lives in water while a toad lives on land.
 A frog has smooth skin while a toad has rough skin
 A frog lays eggs in clusters/bunch/big spawn while a toad lays eggs in
strings/ribbon-like spawn
 A toad has poison/paratoid gland while a frog has no poison gland
 A frog has fully webbed hind feet while a toad has half webbed feet
 A frog can breathe through its skin while a toad cannot breathe through its skin
 A frog has teeth in upper jaw while a toad has no teeth
 A frog has brown tadpoles while a toad has black tadpoles

EGGS OF FROGS AND TOADS

Their eggs are called spawn

Frog spawn Toad spawn

Importance of jelly on eggs of frogs and toads (frogspawn and toadspawn)

• It prevents eggs from drying up/it keeps the eggs moist
• It protects the eggs from predators
• It prevents bacterial infections
• It activates the sperms to fertilise the eggs

How does the jelly protect eggs of amphibians from predators?

• It has unpleasant taste
• It sticks the eggs together
40
MOVEMENT IN AMPHIBIANS
• Amphibians move in water by swimming
• Toads and frogs move on land by leaping/hopping/jumping
• Strong hind legs help the frog or toad to leap/jump
• Fore legs absorb shock on landing
• Webbed hind feet help a frog or toad to swim in water
• Newts and salamanders move by walking

FEEDING IN FROGS AND TOADS

• They are carnivorous animals
• They feed on worms and insects (e.g housefly, mosquito larva, cockroach and beetle)
• They have wide mouth and long sticky tongues
To trap their prey (insects)
• A frog has teeth in the upper jaw
To prevent the prey in mouth from escaping
• Tadpoles feed on water weeds and small water animals

How do frogs in ponds help in control of malaria?

 They eat mosquito larvae

BREATHING IN TOADS AND FROGS

Frogs and toads can breathe through the following organs
Frog
• Lungs
• Moist skin
• Buccal cavity (lining of mouth)
In water, a frog breathes through its moist skin

How is a frog able to live in water and on land?

 It can breathe through its moist skin in water and through the lungs on land

Toad
• Lungs
• Buccal cavity (lining of mouth)

Why can a frog breathe through is skin?

 Its skin is moist

Why can’t a toad breathe through its skin?

 Its skin is dry
Tadpole
This is the larva stage of a frog and toad
 Gills

41
How do amphibians protect themselves?
 Toads
By producing poison to kill small enemies, by swelling to scare away enemies
 Frog
By using their slippery skin to escape from enemies, by hiding in water, by swelling to
scare away enemies, by camouflaging

Diagram to show life cycle of a frog

Reproduction in frogs and toads

• Breeding/mating/reproduction in frogs and toads occurs in wet/rainy season
• They reproduce by laying eggs
• The spawn (eggs of amphibians) are fertilized externally
• The eggs of amphibians are called spawn
• The lay their eggs in water (ponds and stagnant water)
To prevent the eggs from drying up (desiccation)
• The frogspawn and toadspawn are covered with smelly jelly
• The eggs hatch into larvae called tadpoles
• A tadpole has gills for breathing and a tail for swimming
• As a tadpole grows, it loses the gills and develops lungs
• Tadpoles later grow into adult frogs and toads.

Why do amphibians lay very many eggs?

 To prevent extinction of their species

Why do male frogs and toads croak/make noise?

 To attract females/mates

How is sun’s heat important to spawn?

• It enables the spawn to hatch

Briefly explain how the eggs of amphibians are fertilized externally?

 The male sheds sperms over the eggs after being laid

42
Why are eggs of amphibians fertilized as they come out of the female?
• To prevent the eggs from swelling before fertilization

Toads live on land. Why do they sometimes go into water?

 To lay eggs

ADAPTATIONS OF A FROG TO ITS LIFE IN WATER

 It has streamlined body to overcome friction in water
 It has webbed hind feet for swimming in water
 It has moist skin for breathing in water
 It has slippery body to escape enemies in water

HIBERNATION AND AESTIVATION IN AMPHIBIANS

 Hibernation is the inactive state in some animals during winter
 Aestivation is the inactive state in some animals during summer/hot weather

During inactive/dormant periods:

 Frogs hide in burrows and breathe through their moist skin
 They feed on fats and glycogen stored in their body.

Why do amphibians aestivate/hibernate?

• To prevent drying up
• To maintain body temperature
• To survive during harsh weather (e.g drought and winter)

Differences between a tadpole and a frog

 A tadpole breathes through gills but a frog breathes through moist skin, lungs and
lining of mouth
 A tadpole swims by means of tail while a frog swims by means of webbed hind feet

Importance of amphibians to people

 They eat insect vectors e.g mosquitoes and cockroaches
 They eat insect pests
 They are used in science experiments
 Some amphibians are eaten by people

REPTILES
These are vertebrates that move by crawling and slithering

Characteristics of reptiles
 They have scales on their bodies
 They use lungs for breathing
 They are cold blooded animals
 They undergo internal fertilization
43
  They lay hard shelled eggs
 They have a backbone
 They have three chambered hearts
 They have waterproof skin
 Most reptiles have four limbs except snakes (they are tetrapods)
 They move by crawling and slithering
 Most reptiles reproduce by laying eggs
 Most reptiles are terrestrial animals (live on land) though some swim in water

Examples of reptiles
• Kingsnake
• Gaboon viper
• Mamba
• Chameleon
• Crocodile
• Tortoise
• Turtle
• Alligator
• Gecko
• Common lizard

Groups (classes) of reptiles

• Snakes
• Lizards
• Testudines (turtles and tortoises)
• Crocodilians (crocodiles and alligators)

TORTOISES AND TURTLES

• These are reptiles with hard bony shells

Characteristics of tortoises and turtles

 They have hard shells
To protect the animal from predators
To prevent the animal from drying up
 They have no teeth but have sharp jaws to tear food
 They breathe by means of lungs
 They lay their eggs in loose sand
 They have four limbs
 They have very long lifespan
Tortoises may live for 150 to 300 years
Turtles live for about 20 to 40 years

Examples of turtles and tortoises

• Tortoise
• Turtle
44
 • Terrapin
Terrapins are turtles that live in fresh and salty water

Drawings showing tortoise and terrapin

What do we call the upper and lower shells of turtles and tortoises?
 Upper shell is called carapace
 Lower shell is called plastron

How do turtles and tortoises protect themselves?

 By hiding in their hard shells

Differences between turtles and tortoises

 Tortoise has raised(dome shaped) shell while a turtle has flat shell
 Tortoise lives on land while turtle lives in water
 Tortoises have strong stumpy feet for walking while turtles have webbed feet
(flippers) for swimming in water
 Tortoises are herbivores while turtles are omnivores

Food for turtles and tortoises

• Insects
• Small animals
• Vegetation

SNAKES
These are limbless reptiles

Characteristics of snakes
 They have no limbs/they are limbless
 They undergo moulting
To grow/to increase in size
• They move by slithering/gliding
 They are carnivorous animals/feed on flesh
 They have a forked tongue
For smelling
For tasting
 They have Jacobson's organ
45
For tracking their prey
 Their teeth point backward
To prevent the prey in mouth from escaping
• They have no external ears

What is moulting?
This is the shedding of outer layer of the skin in some animals

Why do reptiles moult?

 To grow (to increase in size)

How do snakes detect movement?

• By feeling vibration in the ground with their jawbone

Why do snakes move while bringing out their forked tongue?

• For smelling
• For tasting

Food for snakes

• Small insects
• Eggs

GROUPS (CLASSES) OF SNAKES

• Venomous snakes
• Non-venomous snakes
• Constrictors

VENOMOUS SNAKES
These are snakes that have venom

Characteristics of venomous snakes

• They have fangs
• They have triangular heads
• They have a slit-like (elliptical) eye pupil
• They have venom

Examples of venomous snakes

• Cobra
• Mamba (green mamba/black mamba)
• Death adder
• Viper (Gaboon viper/pit viper)
• Boomslang
• Coral snakes
• Rattlesnakes
• Water moccasins
• Taipan
46
 • Sea snakes

Reasons why people greatly fear the following venomous snakes

Gaboon viper
 Its venom kills within 30 minutes
Gaboon viper is the most venomous snake on land

Black mamba
 It is always quick and ready to bite

Cobra
 It spits venom that can cause blindness
A cobra rarely bites

A diagram showing the head of a venomous snake

Venom gland Elliptical eye pupil

Venom duct

Fangs

Small hooked teeth

Forked tongue

Forked tongue
 For smelling
 For tasting

Small hooked teeth

 For preventing the prey in mouth from escaping

Venom gland
 To produce/secrete venom

Venom duct
 It passes venom to fangs

Fangs
These are the two long pointed hollow teeth of venomous snakes
• For injecting venom
• For protection
47
How are fangs adapted to injecting venom into the prey?
 They are hollow

Importance of venom to venomous snakes

• It helps to kill the prey

Dangers of snake venom to human life

• It poisons blood leading to death
• It clots blood
• It destroys nerve cells
• It leads internal bleeding
By breaking the cells and tissues
• It paralyzes the heart

Medical importance of snake venom

• It is used to make antivenin/anti-venom serum
Each venomous snake has its own antivenin

Why is it advisable to identify the colour, markings and shape of a snake in case of a
snakebite?
• To be given the right antivenin

A diagram showing a bite of a venomous snake

Signs of venomous snakebite

• Two puncture wounds/fang marks on the injured part
• Bleeding from the injured part
• Swelling of the injured part
• Excessive sweating

First aid for snakebite

• Keep the victim calm and at rest
To prevent venom from spreading in the body
48
 • Tie a bandage slightly above the bitten part
To prevent the flow of venom to the heart
• Apply a blackstone
To absorb venom from the injured part
 Rush the victim to the hospital

NON VENOMOUS SNAKES

• These are snakes that do not have venom

Characteristics of non-venomous snakes

• They have no fangs
• They have round eye pupil
• They have round heads
• They have no venom
• They swallow their prey alive

Examples of non-venomous snakes

• Grass snake
• Milk snake
• Rat snake
• Hognose snake
• Garter snake

Note
Although they sometimes bite, they do not have venom

A diagram showing a bite of a non-venomous snake

CONSTRICTORS
These are very big snakes that kill their prey by squeezing them

Characteristics of constrictors
• They have no venom
• They kill their prey by squeezing them
• They have well developed teeth
49
To prevent the prey in mouth from escaping

Why do constrictors lick their prey before swallowing?

 To make them smooth (slippery)

How does squeezing kill the prey?

 It blocks the flow of blood

Examples of constrictors
• Python
• Anaconda
• Boa constrictor
• Bull snake
• Kingsnake

DON’TS WITH A SNAKEBITE

• Don’t apply ice on the snake bite
It causes frostbite (it blocks blood circulation)
• Don’t suck the wound with mouth
To prevent swallowing the venom
• Don’t cut across the wound.
To prevent causing more pain
 Don't apply a tourniquet
It makes the cells to be rapidly destroyed by concentrated venom
It blocks blood flow completely which can lead to amputation
• Don't try to capture the snake
To prevent the snake from biting you again

What is amputation?
 This is the surgical removal of a limb.

How to prevent snake bites

• Stay away from bushes
• Wear boots and gloves when working in a bush
• If you meet a snake, give it room to move away
• Never play with any snake
• Use torchlight at night

Name any two snakes that give birth to live young ones
 Boa constrictor
 Green anaconda
 Pit viper
 Garter snake
 Rattlesnake
 Sea snake
50
LIZARDS
These are reptiles with four limbs and a tail which can grow when it breaks off

Characteristics of lizards
• They have fleshy tongue
• They have movable eyelids
• They can regenerate their tails if the old one breaks
• They have suction/adhesive pads to grip smooth surfaces
• They undergo moulting
• They have four limbs
• They move by crawling
• They breathe by means of lungs
• They reproduce by laying eggs
• They undergo internal fertilization
• Most lizards are carnivorous animas

Examples of lizards
• Sinks
• Geckos
• Chameleons
• Anoles
• Agama lizards
• Monitor lizards
• Iguana lizards
• Komodo dragon

Geckos
These are small carnivorous nocturnal lizards
They are yellowish brown in colour
Wall geckos are commonly found in houses
Geckos protect themselves by camouflaging

A diagram showing a gecko

How are wall geckos able to walk on vertical and upside-down surfaces?
• They have adhesive/suction pads in their toes

51
How are geckos useful in our houses?
• They eat insect vectors like mosquitoes and cockroaches

Skinks
• They protect themselves by breaking off their tails
The tail moves and attracts the attention of the enemy

Chameleon
This is a slow moving lizard with a large head and bulging eyes
• It protects itself by camouflaging/changing its skin colour
• It can move its bulging eyes in all direction
To look front and back at the same time
• It uses its feet and tail to hold small branches of trees
• It has a long sticky tongue for catching insects (trapping its prey)
• Most chameleons reproduce by laying eggs

Why does a chameleon camouflage/change its skin colour?

• For protection
• To trap its prey

How is a chameleon able to change colours?

 It has chromatophores in its skin

A diagram showing a chameleon trapping a housefly

Importance of chameleons in the environment

 They eat insect vectors (e.g houseflies and mosquitoes)
 They eat insect pests

CROCODILIANS (CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS)

These are the largest of reptiles
Alligators are commonly found in America
Crocodiles are commonly found in Africa

Examples of crocodilians
• Crocodile
• Alligator
• Gavial
• Caiman
52
Characteristics of crocodiles and alligators
• They have a strong tail
For swimming
For attacking their enemies
• They lay hard shelled eggs in sand
• They have strong pointed teeth
For biting their enemies
For tearing their prey
• They have strong jaws
• They have scales on their bodies
For protecting their bodies from injuries
• They have streamlined bodies
To reduce friction in water
• They reproduce by laying eggs
• They feed on prey after it had begun to rot
• They are lethargic/lazy animals

Why do crocodiles sometimes gape/open their mouth widely?

 To cool down body temperature/to cool themselves

How do crocodiles protect themselves against enemies?

• By biting using strong pointed teeth
• By attacking with its strong tail

How is sun’s heat useful to female crocodiles?

• Their eggs are hatched by sun’s heat

A diagram showing a crocodile

Importance of reptiles to man

• Some reptiles attract tourists e.g crocodiles
• Some reptiles eat insect pests e.g chameleon
• Some reptiles eat insect vectors e.g gecko
• Some reptiles are sources of food to man
• Their skins are sold for income
• They provide skins to leather industries
• They are used in biological research

53
FISH
These are cold blooded vertebrates with fins

Characteristics of fish
• They have fins
For swimming
For protection
• They have streamlined bodies
To reduce water resistance during movement
• They are cold blooded/poikilothermic animals
• They live in water/they are aquatic animals
• They breathe by means of gills
• They have a backbone
• They undergo external fertilization
• They have no eyelids
• Most fish have scales except catfish and mudfish
• They reproduce by laying eggs
• They have two chambered hearts
• They have no external ears
• Their body is divided into head, trunk and tail

Examples of fish
• Tilapia
• Nile perch
• Dogfish
• Trout
• Salmon
• Skates
• Catfish
• Sawfish
• Herring
• Cichlid
• Shark
• Stingray
• Tuna
• Codfish
• Cyprinid fish/minnow fish

EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A FISH

54
FUNCTIONS OF EACH PARTS OF A FISH

Scales
• To protect the skin from injuries

Nostrils (nares)
• For smelling food

Eyes
• For sight

Operculum (gill cover)

• It protects the gills

Gills
• For breathing

Mouth
• For feeding/for taking in food
• For taking in water with dissolved oxygen for breathing

Lateral line
• For detecting movements (vibrations) in water/for hearing
• For detecting pressure changes in water/for feeling

Pectoral fin and Pelvic/ventral fin

• For stopping/they act as brakes
• For swimming upwards or downwards in water
• For balancing
55
Dorsal fin
• For protection
It has spines
 For balancing/to prevent rolling in water

Caudal fin (tailfin)

• For increasing speed while swimming
• For swimming forward
• For turning/It acts as steering wheel

Anal fin
• For balancing/to prevent rolling in water

Anus/vent
 It passes out wastes
 It passes out the eggs

TYPES OF FINS
• Paired fins
• Median fins

Paired fins
These are fins arranged in pairs like limbs in other vertebrates

Examples of paired fins

• Pectoral fin
It acts as forelimbs/arms
• Pelvic fin/ventral fin
It acts as hind limbs/legs

Medium fins
These are single fins that run down the midline of the body of a fish

Examples of medium fins

• Caudal fin (tailfin)
• Dorsal fin
• Anal fin

WAYS THROUGH WHICH FISH PROTECT THEMSELVES

• Some fish use slippery scales to escape from enemies
• Some fish use spiny dorsal fin
• Some fish use electric organs e.g electric eel
• Some fish change colours/camouflage
• Some fish use their teeth to bite enemies

56
 • Some fish inject venom e.g stingray

BREATHING IN FISH
• Fish breathe by means of gills
• They take in water with dissolved oxygen through the mouth
• Gill filaments absorb dissolved oxygen in water
• Water is passed out through the gill cover

Give two similarities between a tilapia and a tadpole.

 Both use gills for breathing
 Both live in water

THE STRUCTURE OF FISH GILLS

Gill bar/gill arch

• It holds/supports the gill rakers and gill filaments

Gill rakers
• They trap solid materials from damaging the gills
• For filtering food from water

Gill filaments
• For gaseous exchange/to absorb dissolved oxygen in water

Adaptations of gill filaments to their function

• They are numerous/very many in number
To increase the surface area for gaseous exchange
 They have a dense network of blood capillaries
To absorb oxygen from water

Why does a fish die when removed from water?

• It lacks dissolved oxygen

TYPES (GROUPS) OF FISH

• Bony fish
• Cartilaginous fish
• Lungfish
57
Bony fish
• They have no eye lids
• Their skeleton is made up of bones
• They have swim bladder to keep the fish buoyant
• They have gill cover/operculum to protect the gills
• They have overlapping scales (so that the free ends of the scales point backwards)

Examples of bony fish

• Nile perch
• Tilapia
• Salmon
• Trout
• Catfish
• Herrings
• Tuna
• Codfish
• Sardine

Cartilaginous fish
• They have tough and shiny skin
• They have gill slits instead of gill cover
• Their skeleton is made up of cartilage instead of bones
• They have no swim bladder

Examples of cartilaginous fish

• Shark
• Skates
• Ray/stingray
• Dogfish

Lungfish
• They breathe by means of gills and swim bladder modified as lungs
• They live in dirty pools, swamps or rivers
• They have long thin pelvic and pectoral fins
• They are inactive in dry seasons

Why lungfish are called so

• It has gills and lungs

Examples of lungfish
• African lungfish/ mudfish
• South American lungfish
• Australian lungfish

Why does a lungfish take long to die when removed from water?
58
 • It can breathe using its swim bladder/its swim bladder is modified as lungs for
breathing

Why does lungfish aestivate/produce mucus that dries into cocoon around its body?
 To survive drought

THE SWIM BLADDER (AIR BLADDER)

• It is a gas filled sac near the backbone of most fish

Diagram showing a swim bladder

Uses of the swim bladder to a fish

• It keeps the fish buoyant/it helps the fish to float in water/it controls the depth of
fish in water
• It is used by some fish for breathing e.g lungfish
• It acts as sound producing organ
• It aids in hearing

REPRODUCTION IN FISH
• A fish reproduces by laying eggs
• Eggs of a fish are called roe
• Eggs of a fish (roe) are fertilized externally
• A fish undergoes external fertilization
• A young fish is called fry
• Most fish do not care for their young ones except tilapia

FEEDING IN FISH
• Fish feed on planktons (e.g wriggler, small insects and seaweeds)
Planktons are small organisms that float in water
• Some fish feed on other types of fish

CLASSES OF FOOD BASED ON THEIR FEEDING HABITS

 Carnivores
They feed on flesh e.g earthworms and wrigglers
Some carnivorous fish eat other fish/they are piscivorous

 Herbivores
They feed on plants.
They are grazed on leafy vegetables e.g spinach

 Omnivores
They feed on plants and flesh

 Limnivores
They feed on mud.

59
KEEPING FISH
• Aquaculture is the rearing of aquatic animals
• Aquarium is a transparent glass tank for keeping aquatic organisms
• Fish can be kept in ponds or aquarium
• Fish are kept in fresh water because it is not salty
• Aquaculturists in Uganda mainly keep tilapia

State one biological method of controlling the spread of malaria

• Keeping fish in ponds to feed on mosquito larvae and eggs

ADAPTATIONS OF A FISH TO ITS LIFE IN WATER

• They have fins for swimming
• They have gills for breathing in water
• They have streamlined bodies to overcome viscosity
• They have a swim bladder to make the fish float in water
• They have a lateral line to detect movements in water
• They have slippery scales for protection and to reduce viscosity

METHODS OF CATCHING (HARVESTING) FISH

• Use of basket
• Use of fishing nets (e.g trawling and purse seining)
• Use of hooks
• Use of spears
• Draining water from ponds

METHODS OF PRESERVING FISH

• Refrigeration
Modern methods
• Canning (tinning)
 Smoking
 Sundrying Local methods
 Salting

How does smoking, sundrying or salting preserve fish?

• By absorbing moisture from fish

How does refrigeration preserve fish?

 By preventing the multiplication of germs

USES (IMPORTANCE) OF FISH TO PEOPLE

• They are source of food (they are source of proteins and calcium)
• Their bones are used to make glue
• They are source of income when sold
• Fish in aquarium is used to decorate houses
• Fishing is an employment
• Fish reduce spread of malaria by feeding on mosquito larvae
• Fishing industry gives revenue to the government
60
 • Fish oil is used to make paint
• Cod liver oil from codfish is rich in vitamin A and B

NOTE:
• Oviparous animals are animals which lay eggs
• Viviparous animals are animals which produce living young ones
• Ovoviviparous animals are animals that give birth to live young ones from the eggs
that hatch inside its body
• Terrestrial animals are animals which mainly live on land
• Aquatic animals are animals that live in water
• Amphibious animals are animals that live in water and on land
• Nocturnal animals are animals that are active at night
• Diurnal animals are animals that are active during day time
• Tetrapods are animals with four limbs or descended from four limbed animals

INVERTEBRATES
• These are animals without a backbone/spine/vertebral column

Characteristics of invertebrates
 They do not have a backbone
 They are multicellular animals
 They have soft bodies

Classes (groups) of invertebrates

 Coelenterates
 Echinoderms
 Sponges
 Worms
 Molluscs
 Arthropods

COELENTERATES (CNIDARIANS)
These are soft bodied invertebrates with only one body opening.

Characteristics of coelenterates
• They live in seawater
• They have stinging cells/cnidocytes
For protection
For paralyzing their prey
• They have only one body opening
It acts as mouth and anus
• They have tentacles
For holding food
For holding stinging cells
• They reproduce by budding
61
 • They hydrostatic skeleton
• They have cylindrical bodies with two layers (e.g endoderm and ectoderm)

Examples of coelenterates
• Jellyfish
• Hydra: it moves by floating, gliding or somersaulting
• Corals
• Sea anemone
• Sea pen
• Sea fan
• Sea whip

A diagram showing coelenterate

ECHINODERMS
These are spiny skinned invertebrates with tube feet
They are exclusively marine animals

Characteristics of echinoderms
• They have no heads
• They have spiny skins
• They have water vascular system
• They have a true coelom
• Most have five arms
For holding food
• They have tube feet
For movement/locomotion

Examples of Echinoderms
 Starfish/sea star
 Sea urchin
 Sand dollar
 Sea lily
 Sea cucumber
 Brittle star

Diagrams showing echinoderms (Starfish, brittle star and sea urchin)

WORMS

62
  These are long thin soft bodied invertebrates

Characteristics of worms
 They breathe through their moist skins
 They reproduceby laying eggs
 They have hydrostatic skeleton
Some worms live in soil or water while others live inside other animals as parasites

• Parasite is an organism which depends on another organism for survival without

killing it
• Host is an organism on or in which a parasite lives

Groups (classes) of worms

• Segmented worms (annelids)
• Round worms (nematodes)
• Flatworms (platyhelminthes)

SEGMENTED WORMS (ANNELIDS)

• These are worms with segmented bodies
They are also called ringed worms
They mostly live in soil and water

Characteristics of segmented worms (annelids)

 They are segmented
 They are hermaphrodites

Examples of segmented worms

• Leech
• Earth worm
• Lugworm (it is used as bait in fishing)
• Bristle worm
• Sandworm: it lives in sand or mud

Diagram of earthworm, leech and bristle worm

EARTHWORM
• It lives in soil
• It feeds on soil or decayed vegetation

63
 • Their mouth is on anterior end and arms on the posterior end
• It reproduces by laying eggs
• It has sexual reproduction
• It breathes through its moist skin
• The skin is kept moist by the secretions from tiny glands
• It is hermaphrodite

Hermaphrodites are animals which have both male and female reproductive organs
• Earthworms undergo regeneration

REGENERATION IN WORMS
• This is the ability of segmented worms to repair their injured parts

How are chaetae important to an earthworm?

• For gripping the ground during movement

Of what importance is clitellum to an earthworm?

 It produces the fluid in which eggs are deposited.

Why do earthworms come out of the ground when it rains?

• To get oxygen

Why do earthworms die when oil is poured onto it?

• Oil cuts off oxygen supply to the moist skin
• Oil closes its breathing holes

Importance of earthworms to people

• They aerate the soil
• They improve soil drainage
• They break down organic matter
• They are used as fishing baits

How do earthworms improve soil aeration and drainage?

 By making holes in the soil (digging channels)

FLATWORMS (PLATY HELMINTHES)

• These are worms with thin flattened bodies

Characteristics of flat worms

 They have a flat body
 They are hermaphrodites
 Many of them are parasites

Examples of flat worms

• Tapeworm

64
 • Liver fluke
• Schistosome (blood fluke):causes bilharziasis or schistosomiasis
• Pond flatworm

TAPEWORM
A tapeworm is a hermaphrodite (has both male and female reproductive organs)
It reproduces by laying eggs into the host
It is an endoparasite in animals
It is an intestinal worm which stays in the small intestines
It feeds on digested food in the small intestines

How do tape worms enter (penetrate) into the body?

• Through eating infested half cooked meat or fish

Diagram showing tapeworm

Hooks and suckers

• For attachment
Porous body
• To absorb digested food
Segments
 To store eggs
Scolex
This is the head of tapeworm
• It holds the hooks and suckers

Why does a tapeworm lack the digestive system?

 It feeds on already digested food

Why can’t tapeworms be digested by the host’s digestive juices?

 They produce a substance that neutralizes the digestive juice

Why can’t tapeworms be moved during peristalsis?

 They have hooks and suckers for firm attachment.

Signs of tapeworm infestation

• Diarrhoea
65
 • Indigestion

Effects of tapeworm infestation

 It leads to hydatid disease (echinococcosis)

Control of tapeworm infestation

• Feeding on well cooked meat
• Deworming

LIVER FLUKE
It is found in the liver of infested animals
It causes liver rot in sheep

Diagram showing liver fluke

ROUNDWORMS (nematodes)
• These are unsegmented worms with a streamlined rounded body

Characteristics of roundworms
• Their body is pointed at both ends
• They have no segments
• They have a cylindrical body (rounded body)

Signs of roundworm infestation

 Loss of appetite
 Dullness

Symptoms of roundworm infestations

 General body weakness

Examples of roundworms
 Hookworm
 Eelworm (it affects plants)
 Threadworms (pinworm)
 Ascaris:
 Filaria worm: causes elephantiasis or filariasis
 Onchocerca volvulus: causes onchocerciasis or river blindness

HOOKWORM
 It lives small intestines
• It feeds on blood

A diagram showing a hookworm

66
How do hookworms enter our bodies?
• By penetrating through the bare skin

Effects of hookworm infestation

• They lead to hookworm anaemia

Prevention of hookworm infestation

• Always wear shoes
• Deworming

ASCARIS
• It is pink or white in colour
• It spreads through eating dirty fruits and vegetables which are eaten raw
• It spreads through drinking contaminated water
• It affects people and apes
Control of ascaris
• Always drink clean boiled water
• Wash fruits and vegetables before they are eaten

MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSKS)
These are soft bodied invertebrates with a mantle
They live in water and on land

Characteristics of molluscs
• They have soft bodies
• They have no segments
• They have a mantle
To produce the shell
• Most of them have a shell
For protection
 Mollusks reproduce by laying eggs.

Examples of molluscs (mollusks)

• Snail
• Slug
• Squid
• Octopus
• Clam
• Oyster
• Mussel
• Cuttlefish: it ejects dark ink for protection
• Scallop
67
 • Mussel
• Chiton
• Nautilus
• Conch
• Cowrie
Octopus has no shells

Why are octopi, squids and cuttlefish regarded as the most intelligent mollusks?
• They have well developed heads and tentacles

How do octopus and squids move?

• By jet propulsion

UNIVALVES AND BIVALVES

Univalves:
• These are molluscs with a shell having one piece
Examples of univalves
• Snail
• Conch

Bivalves:
• These are molluscs with a shell having two hinged pieces
Examples of bivalves
• Scallop
• Clam
• Mussel
• Oyster

SNAIL
• It has a soft body with a shell
• It feeds on vegetation
• It protects itself by hiding in its shell
• Its body is made up of spiral coils
• Older snails have more coils than the young ones
• It breathes through the breathing pore near the entrance of the shell
• It reproduces by laying eggs
• It is hermaphrodite (it has both male and female reproductive organs)
• Snails live on land and in water

Groups of snails
• Water snails
• Garden snails (land snails)
NOTE:
• Snails have shells while slugs have no shells

IMPORTANCE OF MOLLUSCS
68
 • Some molluscs are eaten as food (some snails and octopus are source of proteins
when eaten)

DANGERS OF MOLLUSCS
• Garden snails are crop pests
• Water snails spread bilharziasis

How are molluscs different from other invertebrates?

• They have soft bodies with a protective shell or mantle

DIAGRAM SHOWING SNAIL, SLUG AND OCTOPUS

SPONGES
These are marine invertebrates which live permanently attached to rocks at the sea floor
• They are sometimes called poriferans
• Porifera means pore bearing
• They have porous internal skeleton of silica
• They cannot move about
• They feed on tiny pieces of food in sea water
• They breathe and feed through the pores or ostia on their body (their porous
bodies)
• Sponges can reproduce sexually or asexually by fragmentation or by producing
gemmules
• Sponges can regenerate parts of its body or even the entire body from fragments

Why are sponges regarded as primitive (simplest) animals?

• They do not move (are sedentary or sessile)
• They lack nerves, muscles and internal organs
• They lack head, mouth, digestive, circulatory or nervous system.
• They have no body symmetry

Examples of sponges
• Bath sponge: its skeleton is made up of a flexible protein called spongin
• Glass sponge
• Silk cup sponge
• Calcareous sponge

Uses of sponges to people

• They are used as bath aids
• For wall painting
• For dish and car washing
• For art and craft
• They are used as cleaning tools
• They are used as drinking vessels

Why are sponges different from other invertebrates?

69
 • They do not move

ARTHROPODS
These are invertebrates with jointed legs and segmented bodies

Characteristics of arthropods
• They have jointed legs
• They have segmented bodies.
• They have exoskeleton

Importance of exoskeleton to arthropods

 It protects the body
 It gives the body shape
 It protects the body from drying out

Disadvantages of an exoskeleton
 It prevents growth
 It increases body weight

Moulting (ecdysis)
This is the shedding of the skin or exoskeleton in some animals
Arthropods undergo moulting (ecdysis)

Why do arthropods moult (undergo moulting or ecdysis)?

 To increase in size (to grow)

Disadvantage of moulting in some animals

 The animal may dry out
 The animal may be eaten by predators

Examples of arthropods
• Millipede
• Centipede
• Crab
• Lobster
• Mite
• Tick
• Spider
• Housefly
• Moth
• Butterfly
• Mosquito

Groups (classes) of arthropods

• Myriapods
70
 • Arachnids
• Crustaceans
• Insects

MYRIAPODS
These are arthropods with many legs and many segments
They have 20 or more legs
They can regrow new legs if they lose some legs

Groups of myriapods
• Centipedes (chilopoda)
• Millipedes (diplopoda)

Diagrams showing a centipede and a millipede

Centipede Millipede

Centipedes (chilopoda)
• They have one pair of legs on each segment
• Their first pair of legs is modified into poison fangs
• They are nocturnal animals (mostly active at night)
• They can move quickly
• They breathe through spiracles
• They are carnivores
• They feed on insects, worms and spiders

How do centipedes protect themselves?

• By biting using poison claws

How are poison claws useful to a centipede?

• For biting enemies
• For killing the prey

Millipedes (diplopoda)
• They have two pairs of legs on each segment
• They are herbivores
• They feed on decaying leaves
• They breathe through spiracles
• They are mostly active at night
• They are move slowly

How do millipedes protect themselves?

71
 • By curling (coiling)
• By producing bad smell

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MILLIPEDES AND CENTIPEDES

• Millipedes have two pairs of legs in each segment while centipedes have one pair of
legs on each segment
• Millipedes are herbivores while centipedes are carnivores
• Millipedes have many segments than centipedes
• Millipede protect themselves by curling while centipedes protect themselves by
biting using poison claws

Advantages of myriapods
• Millipedes help in soil aeration
• Millipedes recycle nutrients in the soil
• Centipedes eat insect vectors like flies and cockroaches

Dangers of myriapods
• Millipedes are crop pests (destroy root tubers)
• Centipedes bite people
• Millipedes produce bad smell that causes allergic reactions to some people

CRUSTACEANS
• These are arthropods with a hard crusty skin

Characteristics of crustaceans
• They have two main parts
Abdomen
Cephalothorax (fused head and thorax)
• They breathe through gills
• They live in water or wet places
• They have 10 to 14 legs
• They have 2 pairs of antennae
Some crustaceans feed on worms and insects while others feed on vegetation

Examples crustaceans
• Crab
• Prawn
• Lobster
• Shrimp
• Woodlice
• Barnacle
• Crayfish
• Water flea
• Sand flea (sandhopper)
• Krill

72
Importance of crustaceans
• They are eaten as food by people
• Some of them are used as baits in fishing
• They are source of income when sold in hotels
Diagrams showing lobster, crab and prawn

Uses of appendages to crustaceans

• For feeding
• For walking
• They act as sense organs

Uses of swimmerets to crustaceans

• For swimming
• For catching food
• Some crustaceans use them for brooding the eggs

ARACHNIDS
These are arthropods with 2 main body parts and 8 legs

Characteristics of arachnids
• They have eight legs (four pairs of legs)
• They breathe through book lungs (lung books)
• They have 2 main body parts;
Cephalothorax (prosoma)
Abdomen (opithosoma)
 They have no antennae

Examples of arachnids
• Spider
• Tick
• Scorpion
• Mite
• Harvestman

Spider
• They breathe through book lungs (lung books)
• They have two poison fangs near the mouth to kill (paralyze) the prey
• They reproduce by laying eggs
• They have spinnerets on the abdomen

A diagram showing a spider

73
How do spiders protect themselves?
 By injecting venom into their enemies

Importance of spinneret to spider

• To produce silk
• To spin spiderweb

Reasons why spiders produce silk

• To make spiderwebs
• To trap prey

Why do spiders make spiderwebs? (Importance of spiderwebs to spider)

• To trap prey
• For movement
• For protection
• To encase egg sacs

STRUCTURE OF SPIDERWEB

Importance of spiders to people

 They feed on insect vectors e.g mosquitoes and houseflies

Tick and mite

• They live as ectoparasites on animals
• They are parasites and vectors
• They obtain food by sucking blood from the host
Host is an organism on or in which a parasite lives

A diagram showing a tick

How are ticks and mites harmful to cattle keepers?

• Ticks and mites are cattle parasites

Examples of tickborne diseases

In farm animals (livestock)
• Heart water
• East coast fever
74
 • Anaplasmosis
• Red water

In people
• Lyme disease
• Relapsing fever
• Typhus fever

Scorpions
• They have a large tail with a poison sting
• Their front legs are modified into pincers
• They produce (give birth) to live young ones

A diagram showing a scorpion

How do scorpions protect themselves?

• By using its poison stinger on the tail
• By biting using its pincers

INSECTS
These are arthropods with 3 main body parts and 6 legs.

Characteristics of insects
• They have 3 main body parts (head, thorax and abdomen)
• They have 6 legs
• They breathe through spiracles
Note
They reproduce by laying eggs
They have an exoskeleton
They undergo internal fertilization

Examples of insects
• Tsetse fly
• Housefly
• Mosquito
• Grasshopper
• Butterfly
• Cockroach
• Ants (safari ants, white ants, black ants and red ants)
75
 • Sandfly
• Beetle
• Locust
• Midge
• Blowfly
• Cricket

Examples of wingless insects (insects without wings)

• Red ants
• Safari ants
• Termites
• Silverfish
• Lice
• Fleas
• Firebrats

Examples of insects with a stinger

• Worker bees
• Wasp

Examples of edible insects (insects which are eaten by people)

• Grasshoppers
• White ants
• Crickets
• Termites

Examples of dangerous insects to people

• Mosquito
• Flea
• Housefly
• Blackfly
• Bedbug
• Tsetse fly
• Locust
• Bumblebee
• Cockroach

GROUPS OF INSECTS
• Social insects
• Solitary insects

Social insects
• These are insects which live and work together
They live in a colony
Examples of social insects
• Termites
76
 • Ants
• Wasps
• Honeybees

Solitary insects
• These are insects which do not live and work together
They live alone
Examples of solitary insects
• Mosquitoes
• Houseflies
• Butterflies
• Carpenter bees
• Mining bees
• Dragon flies
• Leafcutter bees

THE THREE MAIN BODY PARTS OF AN INSECT

THE HEAD
It has the eyes, antennae and mouth parts.

Compound eyes
• For sight

Antennae (feelers)
These are sense organs for;
• Feeling
• Smelling
• Hearing
• Tasting
• Detecting change in temperature and humidity
• Finding direction

Mouth parts
Proboscis
• For sucking food (plant fluids and blood)
Insects with proboscis include; bees, moths, mosquitoes, butterflies and tsetse flies

Mandibles
• For cutting and grinding food
Insects with mandibles include; grasshoppers, locusts and cockroaches

THE THORAX
• It has the legs and wings
• It has three segments (pro, meso and metathorax)
• Each segment has two legs

77
Legs (appendages)
• For locomotion (movement)
• For capturing the prey
• For grasping the females during mating

Their feet have sticky pads to walk on smooth surfaces

Their feet have tarsal claws to grip and walk on rough surfaces

Wings
• For flight

DIPTERANS (DIPTEROUS INSECTS)

These are insects with two wings
• They have halteres
For balancing during flight
• They have proboscis
For sucking food
• Their larvae are called maggots

Examples of two winged insects (dipterans)

• Housefly
• Mosquito
• Black fly
• Sandfly
• Cranefly
• Tsetse fly

A diagram showing parts of a housefly (dipteran insect)

ABDOMEN
It is the largest main body part of an insect
• It has spiracles
For breathing
• Female insects have a reproductive organ called ovipositor
For laying eggs
• Some insects have a stinger
78
For protection (for stinging their enemies)

LIFE CYCLE (METAMORPHOSIS)

This is transformation of an organism during the stages of development

Types of life cycle (metamorphosis)

• Complete metamorphosis (complete life cycle)
•
• Incomplete metamorphosis (incomplete lifecycle)

COMPLETE LIFE CYCLE

This is a life cycle which has four stages of development
Eggs – Larva – Pupa – Adult

Examples of insects which undergo complete metamorphosis

• Houseflies
• Mosquitoes
• Butterflies
• Bees
• Moth
• Wasps
• Tsetse flies
• Fleas

HOUSEFLY
Female houseflies lay their eggs on decaying matter like;
• manure heaps
• faeces
• rubbish pits

A diagram showing the life cycle of a housefly

79
  Houseflies undergo complete life cycle
 They lay eggs which hatch into larvae
• The larvae are called maggots
• Maggots feed on decaying matter
• The larvae (maggots) turn into pupae
• The pupa is a dormant stage
It neither feeds nor moves
• The pupa grows inside a protective case called cocoon
The cocoon protects the pupa
• The pupae develop into adults
• An adult housefly is called imago
• Adult houseflies have two wings (they are dipterans)

Why do houseflies lay their eggs in decaying matter?

• For the larvae (maggots) to get food

How are maggots useful in pit latrines and sewage tanks?

• They reduce the volume of faeces

How do maggots reduce the volume of faeces?

• By feeding on faeces

Dangers (economic importance) of houseflies

 They are insect vectors (they carry germs which cause diseases)
 They help in disposal of rotting matter by feeding on it.

How is a housefly able to carry germs?

• It has a hairy body

How do houseflies spread germs?

 By spitting saliva on food (vomiting juices on food)
 By defecating on food when feeding

State the importance of glandular pads in the feet of a housefly.

 They help a housefly to walk on smooth surfaces and upside down.

Diseases transmitted by a housefly

• Diarrhoea
• Cholera
• Typhoid
• Trachoma
• Dysentery

Control of houseflies
 Spraying with insecticides

80
  Disposing faeces in latrines
 Disposing rubbish in rubbish pits
 Smoking ordinary pit latrines
 Covering dustbins
 Burying kitchen refuse

MOSQUITOES
• They lay their eggs in stagnant water
• Their larva stage is called wriggler
• The larva (wriggler) breathes through siphon
• Its pupa stage is called tumbler
• The pupa breathes through trumpet
• An adult stage is called imago

How does the wriggler (larva stage of a mosquito) move?

 By wriggling

Types of mosquitoes
• Anopheles mosquito
• Culex mosquito
• Aedes (tiger) mosquito

Diagrams showing life cycles of anopheles and culex mosquitoes

Differences between anopheles and culex mosquitoes

Anopheles mosquito Culex mosquito

81
 Lays eggs with an air floats; to enable Lays eggs in rafts
them float on water
Larva lies parallel to the water surface Larva lies at an angle to the water surface
Adult stands at an angle when at rest Adult stands flat horizontally when at rest.

Why can’t female anopheles mosquito spread HIV/AIDS yet it feeds on blood?
 HIV is destroyed by the enzymes in the digestive tract of a mosquito
OR
 HIV is destroyed in the body of a mosquito

LIFE HISTORY OF MOSQUITOES

• Mosquitoes feed on nectar and plant juices
• Male mosquitoes do not suck blood
• Female mosquitoes suck blood to develop their eggs
• Female anopheles mosquitoes spread malaria
• Malaria is caused by a protozoan germ called plasmodium
• Culex mosquitoes spread elephantiasis (filariasis)
• Elephantiasis is caused by filaria worm
• Aedes (tiger) mosquito spreads yellow fever, dengue fever, zika fever and
chikungunya fever
• Yellow fever, dengue fever and chikungunya fever are caused by a virus and can be
prevented by immunisation

WAYS OF CONTROLLING MOSQUITOES

Control of mosquitoes without using chemicals
• Drain stagnant water around homes
• Clear all bushes around homes
• Keep fish in ponds to eat mosquito larvae (wrigglers)
• Use of electric mosquito traps
• Close doors and windows early in the evening
• Use mosquito repellant plants in the compound like basil and lemon balm
• Burn broken plastic tins and bottles where mosquitoes can breed

Biological control of mosquitoes

• Keep fish in ponds to feed on mosquito larvae
• Put mosquito repellant plants in the compound

Chemical control of mosquitoes

• Pour oil on stagnant water
Oil cuts off oxygen supply to mosquito larvae
• Spray adult mosquitoes with insecticides
• Sleep under treated mosquito nets
• Apply mosquito repellant vaseline on your body
• Use of mosquito coils

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTH

82
 • Butterflies and moths protect themselves by camouflaging
• They undergo complete metamorphosis
Eggs – Larva (caterpillar) – Pupa (chrysalis) – Adult (imago)
• Female lays eggs on the surface of leaves
• Eggs hatch into larva called caterpillar
• Caterpillar feeds on leaves

Why butterflies and moths lay their eggs on leaves

• To enable their larvae get food

• Larva is protected by cocoon from which it develops into pupa

• Pupa (chrysalis) neither feeds nor moves (it is dormant)
• Adult breaks the cocoon and comes out when it is fully grown

• Moths are nocturnal insects (then are mostly active at night)

• They pollinate scented flowers at night. Other nocturnal insect pollinators are
beetles (ladybirds)

How are moths and beetles able to pollinate flowers at night?

• They have a good sense of smell

How a moth and butterfly protect themselves against enemies?

• They camouflage to confuse the predators
• Some moth have large two dots on its wings which look like eyes

How do caterpillars protect themselves?

• They use their prickly hair

Advantages of butterflies and moths

 They pollinate flowers of crops
 They eat weedy plants
 Some caterpillars are eaten as food
 They are used in advertisements to show health environment

Disadvantages of butterflies and moths

 Their larvae destroy crops (caterpillar is a crop pest)
 Caterpillars have prickly (bristle) hairs which cause itching on the skin

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BUTTERFLY AND MOTH

BUTTERFLY MOTH
Active during day time (it is diurnal) Active at night (it is nocturnal)
Has smooth body Has hairy body
Has bright colours Has dull colours
Has clubbed (long thin) antennae Has short feathery antennae
83
 Has slender body Has stout body
Has rectangular wings Has triangular wings
Rests with their wings closed Rests with their wings open

TSETSE FLIES
• They suck blood from animals and people for food
• They have a complete life cycle
• Their eggs hatch inside their body

Where do female tsetse flies lay their eggs?

• Female tsetse flies do not lay eggs but produce larvae

Why tsetse flies are called ovoviviparous insects

• Their eggs hatch inside their body and produce larvae

Why do tsetse flies produce larvae instead of laying eggs?

• Its environment does not favour laying eggs

Diseases transmitted through tsetse fly bites

• Nagana : in farm animals
• Sleeping sickness: in people

INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
This is a life cycle with three stages of development

Eggs – Nymph – Adult (imago)

Nymph is the second stage of the incomplete life cycle

Imago is an adult stage in the life cycle of an insect
After moulting, the nymph develops wings and becomes a fully adult.

Differences between nymph and adult

• Nymph has no wings (it is wingless) but adult has wings
• Nymph is always smaller than adult

Examples of insects which undergo incomplete metamorphosis

• Cockroach
• Grasshopper
• Dragonfly
• Bedbug
• White ant
• Cricket
• Locust
• Termite
• Aphid
• Praying mantis
84
 • Walking sticks
• Katydid
Cockroaches are nocturnal insects (active at night)

A diagram showing life cycle of a cockroach

 1 is the egg
 2 is the nymph
 3 is the adult

Diseases transmitted by cockroaches

 Leprosy
 Poliomyelitis (polio)
 Cholera
 Typhoid
 Diarrhoea

Why do insects moult?

• To increase in size (to grow)

IMPORTANCE OF INSECTS
• Some insects like moths and bees pollinate flowers of crops
• Some insects like white ants are edible
• Bees provide honey and wax
• Grasshoppers are sold for income

DANGERS OF INSECTS
• Some insects are vectors (spread germs)
• Some insects are crop pests (destroy crops)
• Some insects sting people
• Termites destroy wood and local houses

PROTISTA KINGDOM (single called organisms)

• This is a kingdom of simple organisms with one cell
• Members of this kingdom are unicellular organisms
85
• They have a nucleus enclosed in a membrane
• They are neither plants, fungi, bacteria nor animals.
• They live in liquids or in other organisms to prevent themselves from drying out

Examples of Protista
• Algae
• Euglena
• Protozoa

ALGAE
• They have no roots, stems and leaves
• They have chlorophyll and can make their own food
• Larger algae reproduce by means of spores.
• Smaller algae reproduce by fragmentation
• They are found in water and moist places

What is algal bloom?

• This is the dense spread of algae on water surface.

Examples of algae
• Fucus
• Spirogyra
• Seaweeds (giant kelp)
• Diatom
• Nostoc

Types of algae
• Red algae
• Green algae
• Brown algae

Importance of algae
• They act as food for aquatic animals
• They are a source of iodine when eaten
• They are used as fertilizers
• They provide oxygen to aquatic animals
• They are used to make biofuels (algal biofuel)

PROTOZOA
 These are unicellular organisms with nucleus and cytoplasm.
 Protozoa are microscopic because they can only be seen using a microscope
 Protozoa are unicellular because they have one cell
 They do not have chlorophyll
 Amoeba uses pseudopodia (false feet) for locomotion/movement and feeding
 Paramecium uses cilia for locomotion and feeding

86
  They are found in fresh water, damp places and in bodies of animals as parasites.
 They reproduce by binary fission

Examples of protozoa
 Amoeba
 Plasmodium
 Paramecium
 Trypanosome

Protozoan diseases in humans

PROTOZOA PROTOZOAN DISEASE

Plasmodium Malaria
Trypanosome Sleeping sickness
Amoeba Amoebic dysentery

DIAGRAMS SHOWING AMOEBA AND PARAMECIUM

Amoeba Paramecium

An amoeba reproduces by binary fission

Binary fission is an example of asexual reproduction
Binary fission is the process by which the cell divides into two identical daughter cells

EUGLENA
• This is a unicellular organism which has both plants and animal features.
• It has chlorophyll so makes its own food.
• It can move from one place to another very quickly for protection
• It uses flagella for locomotion (movement) and feeding
• It is microscopic and lives in ditches and ponds.

FUNGI KINGDOM
These are simple organisms that lack chlorophyll and exist as a mass of threads called
hyphae or mycelium.
They grow where there is moisture
They do not have leaves, stem and roots
87
They have saprophytic nutrition (feed on decaying organic matter)
Fungi are able to live as saprophytes or parasites
Saprophytes are organisms that feed on dead decaying matter
Parasites are organisms that depend on other host for survival
A host is an organism on which a parasite depends

EXAMPLES OF FUNGI
• Mushrooms
• Toadstools
• Yeast
• Moulds
• Mildews
• Puffballs
• Clubroot fungus
• Bracket fungus

HOW DO FUNGI FEED?

• They feed saprophytically
• Some fungi feed parasitically

HOW DO FUNGI REPRODUCE?

• Most fungi reproduce by means of spores
• Yeast reproduces by budding

A diagram showing budding in yeast

STRUCTURE OF A MUSHROOM

FUNCTIONS OF EACH PART OF A MUSHROOM

Hyphae
• They absorb digested food from decaying matter
Mycelium
• It is the vegetative part of a mushroom
Gills
• They produce and store spores
Cap
• It protects the gills
Stipe
• It holds the cap and gills

Examples of moulds
• Mucor
• Rhizopus
• Penicillium

Advantages of fungi
88
 • Moulds help in decomposition of organic matter to form humus
• Some mushrooms are eaten as food by people (mushrooms are rich in proteins and
mineral salts)
• Some fungi are used in making medicine (penicillium moulds are used to penicillin)
• Yeast help in flavouring cheese
• Yeast is used fermentation of alcohol
• Yeast is used in making breads
• Yeast is a source of vitamin B1

Disadvantages of fungi
• Toadstools are poisonous to people when eaten
• Some fungi cause food to go bad (cause food poisoning)
• Some fungi cause fungal diseases in plants and animals

Examples of fungal diseases in people

• Ringworm
• Athlete’s foot
• Jock itch
• Candidiasis
• Barbers itch

Examples of fungal diseases in plants

• Potato blight
• Maize rust
• Tomato blight

CARE FOR AND PROTECTION OF VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES

• Train trainable animals
• Treat sick animals
• Clean houses for animals
• Gazette areas as game parks and game
• Game parks protect animals from becoming extinct or endangered
• Regular vaccination of animals
• Enforce strict laws against poaching

ANIMALS’ FREEDOM
• Freedom from fear
• Freedom from pain
• Freedom from hunger
• Freedom from discomfort
• Freedom of reproduction

ENERGY
This is the ability of the body to do work.
Types of energy
• Kinetic energy
89
This is the type of energy possessed by a body in motion (moving body)
• Potential energy
This is the type of energy possessed by a body at rest (stationary body)

Forms of energy
• Sound energy
• Heat energy
• Light energy
• Mechanical energy
• Chemical energy
• Magnetism
• Electrical energy (electricity)

SOUND ENERGY
• Sound is the form of energy that enables us to hear
OR
• Sound is the form of energy produced by vibration of matter

How is sound produced?

• By vibration of matter (when an object vibrates)

Why is sound called a form of energy?

 It does work (it can do work)

Units for measuring sound

 Decibels (dB)

TERMS USED IN SOUND

Vibration
• This is the rapid movement of an object to and fro or up and down
• This is the back and forth movement of an object

A diagram showing vibration of an object

Music
• This is organized sound with regular vibration
Noise
• This is disorganized sound with irregular vibration
Pitch
• This is the highness or lowness of sound
• This is how high or low sound is
Volume
• This is the loudness or softness of sound
Frequency
• This is the number of vibrations produced per second
• It is measured in Hertz (Hz)
90
Amplitude
• This is the width of vibrations

TYPES OF SOUND
• Loud sound
• Soft sound
• High sound
• Low sound

IMPORTANCE OF SOUND
• For communication
• For entertainment
• For protection
• For evidence in courts of law
• Sound is used to show feeling

SOURCES OF SOUND
These are things that produce sound.

TYPES OF SOURCES OF SOUND

 Natural sources of sound
 Artificial sources of sound

Natural sources of sound

These are sources of sound that were created by God
• Thunder
• Earth quake
• Waterfall
• Rainfall
• Volcanic eruption
• Wind
• Animals

Artificial sources of sound

These are sources of sound that are made by people
• Airplanes (helicopters)
• Cars
• Trains
• Factories
• Radios
• Loudspeakers
• Guns
• Bombs

EXPLAIN HOW THE FOLLOWING ORGANISMS PRODUCE SOUND

91
Mammals (human beings)
 By vibration of vocal cords

Birds
 By vibration of the pessulus and walls of syrinx

Bees, mosquitoes and houseflies

 By beating (flapping) their wings rapidly

Grasshoppers
 By rubbing their hind leg on the forewings

Crickets
 By rubbing their wings together

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
 These are instruments that produce organized sound

Groups of musical instruments

• String instruments (chordophones)
• Wind instruments (aerophones)
• Percussion instruments (idiophones)

STRING INSTRUMENTS (CHORDOPHONES)

• These are instruments that produce sound by vibration of their strings when
plucked or bowed

Examples of string musical instruments

• Cello
• Viola
• Violin
• Bow harp
• Guitar
• Lyre
• Tube fiddle
• Harp
• Mandolin
 Banjo
 Double bass
 Ukulele

A diagram showing bow harp

92
Soundboard
• It amplifies sound

Soundhole
• It amplifies sound
• It resonates with the tones
• It enhances the tone quality

A diagram showing a tube fiddle

String
 It vibrates to produce sound when plucked

Knob
 For changing the tension of the string
OR
 For tightening or loosening the string

Bridge
 It supports the string
 It transmits sound vibration from the string to the soundboard

Soundboard
 It amplifies sound

CHANGING PITCH OF STRING MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

• By tightening or loosening the strings

93
 • By shortening or lengthening the strings

Increasing the pitch of string musical instruments

• By tightening the strings
• By shortening the strings

Reducing the pitch of string musical instruments

• By loosening the strings
• By lengthening the strings

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
These are instruments that produce sound by vibration of their surface when hit or struck
or shaken or beaten.

Examples of percussion instruments

 Marimba
 Xylophone (balafon)
 Vibraphone
• Drum
• Long drum
• Thumb piano
• Piano
• Shakers
• Cymbals
• Shakers
• Rattles
• Timpani
• Castanet
• Triangle
• Bell
 Maracas
 Tambourine
 Gong
 Celesta

Diagrams showing some percussion instruments.

Drum Xylophone Long drum Bell

94
How do the following percussion instruments produce sound?
Piano
 By vibration when its own hammer hits the strings

Shaker
 By vibration of the objects inside it and its skin when shaken

Drum
 By vibration of its skin when beaten or hit

Xylophone
 By vibration of its wooden keys when struck with mallets

CHANGING THE PITCH OF SOUND PRODUCED BY PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

• By reducing or increasing the size of vibrating surface
• By tightening or loosening the vibrating surface

INCREASING THE PITCH OF SOUND PRODUCED BY PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

• By reducing the size of the vibrating surface
• By tightening the vibrating surface

Of what importance are the strings on the sides of the drum?

• To keep the skin tight

WIND INSTRUMENTS (AEROPHONES)

These are instruments which produce sound by vibration of air blown inside them

Examples of wind musical instruments

• Whistle
• Oboe
• Trumpet
• Panpipes
• Flute
• Saxophone
• Bugle
• Clarinet
• Horn
• Vuvuzela
• Saxophone
• Tuba
• Trombone

Diagrams showing panpipes, horn, whistle and flute

95
How can the pitch of wind musical instruments be increased?
• By reducing the vibrating space (making the vibrating space smaller)

How can the pitch of wind musical instruments be decreased?

• By increasing the vibrating space (making the vibrating space bigger)

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND
This is the movement of sound waves from one place to another

How does sound travel?

• Through sound waves

PROPERTIES OF SOUND
• It travels in all directions from the source
• It can be reflected
• It can be refracted
• It cannot travel through vacuum

MEDIUM OF SOUND
This is a material through which sound is transmitted

MEDIA THROUGH WHICH SOUND TRAVELS

 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas

What enables sound to travel different media (states of matter)?

 Molecules

VACUUM
• This is the space without matter

Why is sound unable to travel through vacuum?

• There is no matter (molecules)

SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

96
MEDIUM (STATE OF MATTER) SPEED OF SOUND
Gas (air) 330m/s
Liquid (water) 1500m/s
Solid (iron) 5000m/s
• Sound travels slowest in gases
Molecules are farthest apart (very loosely packed)
• Sound travels faster in liquids
Molecules in liquids are close together
• Sound travels fastest in solids
Molecules are tightly packed

Why does sound travel fastest through solids?

• Molecules in solids are tightly packed (closest together)

Why does sound travel faster in water (liquids) than in air (gases)?
• Molecules in water are closer together than those in air

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPEED OF SOUND

• Temperature
• Wind
• Altitude
• Humidity
• Heat

Temperature
When temperature is low, sound waves are nearer the ground and when temperature is
high, sound waves raise above the ground.

Why is sound heard clearly at night than during day time?

 At night, temperature is low and sound waves travel nearer the ground during day
time

Wind
Sound waves travel faster when they are in the same direction with wind and sound waves
travel slowly when they are in opposite direction with wind

Altitude
Low altitude increases the speed of sound and high altitude reduces the speed of sound

Heat
Heat of the day raises sound waves higher

PITCH, FREQUENCY AND VOLUME OF SOUND

PITCH

97
This is the highness or lowness of sound

Factors that determine the pitch of sound

 Size of the vibrating surface
Small surfaces produce high pitch while big surfaces produce low pitch
 Tension of the vibrating surface
Tight surfaces produce high pitch while loose surfaces produce low pitch
 Frequency
High frequency produces high pitch while low frequency produces low pitch
 Nature of the vibrating surface
Thin surfaces produce high pitch while thick surfaces produce low pitch

 Length of the vibrating surface

Short vibrating surfaces have high pitch while long vibrating surfaces have low pitch

EXPERIMENTS ON PITCH OF DIFFERENT OBJECTS

Bottles

Bottle A will produce the highest pitch

 It has the smallest vibrating space
Bottle B will produce the higher pitch
 It has the bigger vibrating space
Bottle C will produce the lowest pitch
 It has the biggest vibrating space

Why does an empty bottle produce lower pitch than a bottle half filled with water?
It has a bigger vibrating space than a bottle half filled with water

Drums

Drum 1 will produce the lowest pitch

 It has the biggest vibrating surface
Drum 2 will produce the lower pitch
 It has the smaller vibrating surface
Drum 3 will produce the highest pitch
 It has the smallest vibrating surface

Bow harp

String X will produce the lowest pitch

 It has the longest vibrating surface
String C will produce the highest pitch
 It has the shortest vibrating surface

Flute
98
When holes A and B are closed, a flute produces the highest pitch
 The vibrating space will be very big
When holes B and C are closed, a flute produces the lowest pitch
 The vibrating space will be very small

How is a flute played?

 By opening or closing one or more holes with the fingers while blowing

FREQUENCY
This is the number of vibrations produced per second
This is the number of oscillations per second

Units for measuring frequency

 Hertz (Hz)

Factors that determine frequency (f) of sound

 Mass of the object
 Force that shakes the object

A diagram showing a sound wave

Rest point

Wave length
This is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs

Drawings showing sound waves of different frequency and pitch

Wave P

Wave Q

Sound wave P will produce sound with low frequency and low pitch
99
  It is slow
Sound wave Q will produce sound with high frequency and high pitch
 It is quick

VOLUME
This is the loudness or softness of sound
This is the magnitude or intensity of a certain sound

FACTOR AFFECTING VOLUME OF SOUND

 Amplitude
This is the height of the wave from the point of rest
This is the height of sound vibrations

Great amplitude forms loud sound while small amplitude forms soft sound

ECHO
 An echo is a reflected sound

How is an echo formed?

 By obstruction of sound waves (when sound waves hit a hard surface)

Echolocation
 This is the ability of an organism to locate objects using echoes.

Mention three animals that use echolocation

 Bats
 Dolphins
 Whales
 Porpoises

Importance of echoes
 They help bats and whales to dodge obstacles
 They help bats and whales to locate their food
 They help sailors to detect the depth of the water body
 They help fishermen to locate shoals of fish
 They help pilots to dodge tall buildings and mountains.
 They help blind people to dodge obstacles using sonar sticks
 They help doctors to detect heart beat

Disadvantages of echoes
• They turn music into noise in empty room
• They prevent people from communicating clearly

How can echoes be reduced in cinema halls, recording studios, conference halls and
theatre halls?
100
  Covering the walls with soft boards
 Covering the walls with sponge and thick blankets
 Covering the windows with thick curtains
 Covering the floor with woollen carpets

Sound absorbers
These are materials that absorb sound waves

Characteristics of sound absorbers

 They are soft
 They are porous

Examples of sound absorbers (materials that reduce echoes)

 Thick blankets
 Thick curtains
 Woollen carpets
 Soft boards
 Sponge

How do soft porous materials (e.g soft boards) prevent echoes?

 They absorb sound waves

Mention any two devices that use echoes to work

 Fathometer
It is used to measure the depth of seas and oceans
 Stethoscope
It is used to detect heart beat

Mention four groups of people who use echoes

 Pilots
 Sailors
 Doctors
 Fishermen

Why do we see lightning before thunder is heard during thunderstorm?

 Light travels faster than sound in air

CALCULATIONS ON SOUND
Speed of sound in air is 330 m/s

Examples
1. If a man heard a gunshot after four seconds, how far was he from the firing point?
(Take; speed of sound in air = 330 m/s)
D=SxT
D = 330 m/s x 4 s
101
 D = (330 x 4) m
D = 1320 m

2. Mutaawe shouted while facing a cliff and it took him 10 seconds to hear the echo of
the sound he produced. How far was he from the cliff if the speed of sound is
330m/s?
Sound moved two journeys 9Going to the cliff and coming back from the cliff to
Mutaawe)
D=SxT
2
D = 330 x 10
2
D = 3300
2
D = 1650 metres

3. It took 3 seconds to hear echo of a man chopping wood. How far was the man from a
chopping place?
There are two sets of sound waves (original waves and the reflected waves)
D = SxT
2
D = (330 x 3)
2
D = 990
2
D = 495m

4. A cliff is 660m away from where Kato is standing. If Kato blows a whistle, how long
will it take him to hear the echo if the speed of sound is 330 m/s?
Sound moves two journeys
T = ( D x 2)
S
2
T = 660 x 2
330
T=2x2
T = 4 seconds

Try this
Okello was standing 165 metres away from his father who called him by clapping. How
long did it take Okello to hear the clapping?

T = D
S
T = 165
330
102
T = 0.5 seconds

STORAGE OF SOUND
This is the act of keeping sound for future use

Reasons for storing sound (Why do people store sound?)

 For entertainment
 For communication
 For remembrance
 For evidence in courts of law

METHODS OF STORING SOUND

• Recording method
• Notation method

NOTATION METHOD
This is the act of storing sound by writing musical symbols or notes

Types of notation
Sol-fa notation
This is the use of octaves (musical notes) to store sound
Staff notation
This is the use of musical symbols marked on parallel lines to store sound

How to reproduce sound stored by notation

• Using a piano to play sound notes
• Using human voice to sing sound notes

RECORDING OF SOUND
This is the act of making an audio record

Devices used to store recorded sound

• Memory cards
• Video Compact Discs (VCDs)
• Digital Video Discs (DVDs)
• Magnetic tapes (cassette tapes)
• Computer diskettes
• Projectors
• Mobile phones
• Flash drive
• Compact discs (CDs)
• Audio tapes
• IPods
• Computer hard disks
• Records

103
Devices used to reproduce recorded sound
• record players (phonograph)
• Cassette players
• Film projectors
• DVD players
• VCD players
• Computers
• Mobile phones
• Gramophone
• Mp3 player

Ways of reproducing recorded sound

• By playing records in record players
• By playing cassette tapes in cassette players
• By playing CDs in CD players
• By playing VCDs in VCD players
• By playing DVDs in DVD players
• By playing mp3 in mp3 players
• By playing flash discs in computers
• By playing memory cards in mobile phones

THE MAMMALIAN EAR

 It is a sense organ for hearing
 It is a receptor organ for sound
 The ear belongs to the nervous system

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE MAMMALIAN EAR

• For hearing
• For body balance

Besides hearing and body balance, how else are ears useful to an elephant?
 To regulate the body temperature on hot days

How are ears important to a deaf person?

 For body balance

REGIONS (MAIN PARTS) OF THE MAMMALIAN EAR

• Outer ear
• Middle ear
• Inner ear

THE OUTER EAR

It is a hollow region

104
Parts that make up the outer ear
• Pinna
• Auditory canal (ear canal)

THE MIDDLE EAR

It is an air-filled region

Parts that make up the middle ear

• Ear drum (tympanic membrane)
• Ossicles
• Eustachian tube
• Oval window

THE INNER EAR (LABYRINTH)

It is a fluid-filled region

Parts that make up the inner ear

• Semicircular canals
• Cochlea
• Auditory nerves

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EAR

FUNCTIONS OF EACH PART OF THE HUMAN EAR

PINNA
• It traps (collects) sound waves
• it receives and concentrates sound waves

How is the pinna adapted to its function?

 It is large and broad

How is the pinna able to keep open all the time?

105
  It is made up of cartilage

AUDITORY CANAL (EAR CANAL)

• It directs sound waves to the ear drum

Components of the auditory canal

Earwax (cerumen)
• To trap foreign bodies (dust and small insects)
• To kill bacteria in the ear canal
Cilia (tiny hair)
• It traps dust

EAR DRUM (TYMPANIC MEMBRANE)

• It changes sound waves to sound vibrations
• It separates outer ear and the middle ear
An otoscope is an instrument used to examine the ear drum

How is the ear drum adapted to its function?

• It has a thin membrane which is sensitive to sound waves

OSSICLES
These are the three small bones in the middle ear.
• They amplify sound (sound vibrations)
• They transmit sound vibrations to the oval window

Name the three small bones that make up the ear ossicles
• Malleus (Hammer)
• Incus (Anvil)
• Stapes (Stirrup)
The stapes is the smallest bone in the human skeleton

OVAL WINDOW
• It transmits sound vibrations to the cochlea

ROUND WINDOW
• It balances air pressure in the cochlea

EUSTACHIAN TUBE
This is a tube that connects the middle ear to the back of the throat
• It balances air pressure on both sides of the ear drum
• It drains a fluid from the middle ear to the back of the nose (throat)

SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
 It maintains body balance/posture

Explain the meaning of the following terms:

106
Posture
 This is the position of the body in everything we do
Body balance
 This is the ability of the body to keep upright

COCHLEA
This is a snail/spiral- shaped part of the inner ear
• It changes sound vibrations to nerve signals/impulses

How is the cochlea adapted to its function?

• It has hair cells (sensory cells)

Which part of the human ear is greatly affected by alcohol?

 Cochlea

Name the two fluids in the inner ear (cochlear fluids)

• Perilymph
• Endolymph

AUDITORY NERVE (COCHLEAR NERVE)

• It transmits sound information to the brain
OR
• It transmits nerve signals to the brain

VESTIBULAR NERVE
• It transmits balance information to the brain

State the importance of the vestibulocochlear nerve in the human ear

• It transmits sound and balance information to the brain

Why do nerve (neural) signals go to the brain?

• For interpretation

Name two parts of the human ear that maintains body balance
• Semicircular canals
• Vestibule

Mention three body organs that maintain body balance

• Ears
• Brain
• Eyes

COMMON DISEASES OF THE EAR

 Otitis
 Otomycosis

107
It is a fungal disease
 Ear boils (furuncle)
It is a bacterial disease
 Barotrauma
It is due to change in altitude (air or water pressure)
 Cancer of the outer ear
It is due to excessive exposure of ears to direct sunshine

OTITIS
It is grouped into;
 Otitis externa (swimmer’s ear) due frequent moisture in ear canal
 Otitis media
 Otitis interna

SYMPTOMS OF INFECTED EARS

 Ringing in the ear (tinnitus)
 Dizziness (problems with body balance)
 Ear pain (earache)
 Mild hearing loss

SIGN OF INFECTED EARS

 Pus discharge from the ears

EAR DEFECTS (DISORDERS OF THE HUMAN EAR)

 Permanent deafness
 Partial deafness
 Sensory deafness
 Anotia

DEAFNESS (HEARING LOSS)

This is the partial or total inability to hear

TYPES OF DEAFNESS

Permanent deafness
This is the inability to hear any sound

Causes of permanent deafness

 It can be inherited from parents
 Broken (ruptured) eardrum
 Infections like German measles (Rubella)

Temporary (partial) deafness

This is the inability to hear properly

108
Causes of temporary deafness
 Excess earwax (earwax impaction)
 Exposing ears to very loud sounds
 A lot of dust in the ear canal

How does excess ear wax cause temporary deafness?

 It blocks the ear canal

Sensory deafness
This is inability to distinguish some sounds
In babies, it even affects the ability to talk normally

Causes of sensory deafness

 Damage on the auditory nerve
 Damage on the hair cells in the cochlea
 Head injury (a blow to the head)
 Ototoxic drugs
 Old age

What do we call the sensory deafness where a person is unable to hear high-pitched
sound?
 Presbycusis
It affects people above the age of 65
It occurs due to old age (aging)

Anotia
This is the congenital deformity where a person has no pinna.

METHODS USED DURING COMMUNICATION WITH DEAF PEOPLE

 Sign language
 Lip-reading
 Cued speech
 Typed conversations

CARE FOR THE EAR

 Wash the ears with clean warm water and soap
 Do not push sharp objects into the ear.
 Avoid very loud sound
 Use a clean soft cloth to clean the ears
 Treat any ear infection as soon as possible
 By immunization

Why is it not advisable to push sharp objects in our ears?

 They may damage (rupture) the eardrum.

109
What first aid can be given to a person with a small insect in the ear?
 Pour clean cold water in the ear to make the insect come out

HEARING IN DIFFERENT ORGANISMS

Mammals (people)
 By means of ears

Birds
 By means of ears covered with soft feathers

Fish
 A fish uses lateral line to detect sound vibrations in water

Insects
 By means of antennae/feelers

Snakes
 They use their skull vibration when hit by sound waves in the air
 They use their jawbone connected to the cochlea to detect ground vibrations

Earthworms
 By means of their entire body

Snails
 By means of tentacles

THEME: THE HUMAN BODY

TOPIC: THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Cell
This is the smallest unit of life
Tissue
This is ta group cells that work together to perform a specific function
Organ
This is a group of tissues that work together to perform a specific function
System
This is a group of organs that work together to perform a specific function

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 This is the body system that deals with transporting of materials in the body
OR
 This is the body system that deals with the movement of blood round the body

Materials transported in the body

110
 • Water
• Hormones
• Oxygen Useful materials
• Food nutrients
• Antibodies
 Urea
 Carbon dioxide Harmful materials
 Poison

BLOOD CIRCULATION
• This is the movement of blood round the body
Blood circulation was discovered by an English scientist known as Sir. William Harvey

Importance of blood circulation in the body

• It transports food and oxygen in the body
• It transports hormones in the body
• It transports wastes products to excretory organs

TYPES OF BLOOD CIRCULATION

 Pulmonary circulation
 Systemic circulation

Pulmonary circulation
 This is movement of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart

Systemic circulation
 This is the movement of blood from the heart to the other body parts

COMPONENTS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• Heart
• Blood vessels
• Blood

THE HEART
Heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood in the body of a vertebrate
• It is located in the chest cavity between the lungs
• It is protected by the rib cage
• It is made up of special muscles called cardiac muscles
• It is enclosed in a serous membrane called pericardium
• Pericardium produces a fluid that lubricates the heart (produces pericardial fluid)
• Pericardial fluid lubricates the heart (reduces friction during heartbeat)
• Coronary artery supplies food nutrients and oxygen to the heart muscles.

Main function of the heart

 To pump blood in the body

111
The heart pumps about 5 litres of blood per minute

PULSE
This is the number of times the heart beats per minute
 The normal heartbeat of an adult person at rest is 72 beats per minute

Heartbeat
This is the contraction and relaxation of the heart

Factors that can increase heartbeat or pulse

 Excitement
 Fright
 Physical exercises
 High temperature
 Sickness
 Increased level of adrenaline hormone
Adrenaline hormone prepares the body for a flight or fight

Why does the heart beat faster when doing a heavy body exercise?
 To pump more oxygenated blood to the body tissues

Note
Stethoscope is used to detect heartbeat/pulse
Sphygmomanometer is used to measure blood pressure

A diagram showing a stethoscope

It has a diaphragm, long rubber tube and two earpieces

PHASES OF HEART BEAT (CARDIAC CYCLE)

 Systole phase
This is contraction of the ventricles to push blood into the arteries.
During this phase, the auricles are filled with blood

 Diastole phase
This is contraction of auricles to push blood into the ventricles
During this phase, the ventricles are filled with blood

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN HEART

112
 (mitral valves)

The mammalian heart has 4 chambers

 Right auricle
 Left auricle
 Right ventricle
 Left ventricle
• The upper chambers are called atria (auricles)
• Auricles receive blood
• The lower chambers are called ventricles
• Ventricles pump blood out of the heart
• The left and right sides of the heart are separated by a thick wall called septum

FUNCTIONS OF EACH PART OF THE HEART

• Vena cava
It carries deoxygenated blood from all body parts to the heart
The vena cava is the largest vein in the body

• Right auricle
It receives deoxygenated blood from the body parts

• Right ventricle
It pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs

• Pulmonary artery
It carries deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs

Why does blood go to the lungs?

• To pick oxygen (to be oxygenated)
• To drop carbon dioxide (to get rid of carbon dioxide)

• Pulmonary vein
It carries oxygenated blood from lungs to heart

• Left auricle
It receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
113
 • Left ventricle
It pumps oxygenated blood to all body parts

• Aorta
It carries oxygenated blood from the heart to all body parts
The aorta is the largest artery in the body

• Septum
It prevents mixing of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood

• Valves
They prevent the back flow of blood

Why is the left ventricle thicker walled than the right ventricle?
 It pumps blood at a higher pressure than the right ventricle

BODY ORGANS RELATED TO BLOOD CIRCULATION

Kidneys
• They filter blood (they purify blood)

Liver
• It regulates blood sugar level
• It detoxicates blood

Lungs
• They oxygenate blood
• They remove carbon dioxide from blood

State the importance of the hepatic portal vein

 It carries blood with digested food from the ileum to the liver

THE DIAGRAM TO SHOW CIRCULATION OF BLOOD

114
BLOOD VESSELS
• These are tubes that transport blood in the body

Types of blood vessels

• Arteries
• Veins
• Capillaries

ARTERIES
These are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
• The main (largest) artery is the aorta
• Most arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery
• Blood in arteries flows at a high pressure

Characteristics of arteries
• They have thick walls
• They have a narrow lumen
• They have no valves

Function of arteries
 They carry blood away from the heart.

The structure of an artery

thick walls

narrow lumen

Adaptations of arteries to their function

• They are thick walled
To withstand the high pressure of blood that flows through them.
115
 • They are elastic
To stretch so as to accommodate the large volume of blood that flows through them

Why do arteries have thick walls?

• To withstand the high pressure of blood that flows through them.

Why do arteries lack valves?

• They carry blood at a very high pressure

VEINS
These are blood vessels that carry blood to the heart
• The main (largest) vein is the vena cava
• Most veins carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein
• Veins are seen near the skin surface
• Hepatic portal vein carries blood with digested food from the ileum to the liver

Characteristics of veins
• They have thin walls
• They have a wider lumen
• They have valves

Function of veins
 They transport blood to the heart.

The structure of a vein

thin walls

Wider lumen

A diagram showing the direction of flow of blood in a vein

Adaptations of the veins to their function

• They are thin walled
To withstand the low blood pressure in them
• They have a wider lumen
To encourage the flow of blood
• They have valves
To prevent the back flow of blood.

How are valves important in veins?

116
 • Valves prevent the back flow of blood

Why are arteries thick walled than veins?

 Blood in arteries flows at a higher pressure than veins

CAPILLARIES
These are tiny blood vessels that join arteries to veins
• Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels
• They connect arteries and veins
• Exchange of materials occurs in capillaries

Characteristics of capillaries
• They have thin walls (have porous walls)
• They have no valves

Functions of capillaries
 They allow exchange of materials
 They join arteries to veins

Structure of capillaries

Adaptations of capillaries to exchange of body materials?

• They are numerous (very many in number)
To increase the surface area for exchange of materials
• They have thin walls (porous walls)
For easy diffusion of materials

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARTERIES AND VEINS

ARTERIES VEINS

Functional difference
They carry blood away from the heart They carry blood towards the heart

Structural difference
Have no valves Have values
Have thick walls Have thin walls
Have a narrow lumen Have a wide lumen

BLOOD
This is a liquid tissue that transports materials in the body
• Blood in vertebrates is red in colour

Types of blood
 Oxygenated blood
117
It is rich in oxygen and digested food
It is bright red
 Deoxygenated blood
It is rich in carbon dioxide and waste products
It is dark red

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD (BLOOD CONSTITUENTS)

• Red blood cells ( erythrocytes )
• White blood cells (leukocytes)
• Platelets ( thrombocytes)
• Plasma

By what process are blood cells formed in the red bone marrow?
 Haemopoiesis

RED BLOOD CELLS

• They are the most numerous blood cells in the body
• They are made in the red bone marrow

Function of red blood cells

• They transport oxygen in the body

Characteristics of red blood cells (erythrocytes)

• They have no nuclei
• They have a bi-concave shape (disc shape)
• They contain haemoglobin

What is haemoglobin?
• This is the red pigment found in blood
• It is an iron compound in red blood cells that transport oxygen

Importance of haemoglobin
• It carries oxygen
• It determines the red colour of blood

NOTE
• Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
• RBCs become bright red with oxygen and dark red when they lose oxygen

In which form is oxygen transported in blood?

 Oxyhaemoglobin

Why are red blood cells red in colour?

 Due to presence of haemoglobin

118
The structure of a red blood cell

ADAPTATIONS OF RED BLOOD CELLS TO THEIR FUNCTION

• They have haemoglobin
To absorb (carry) oxygen
• They are numerous
• They have no nucleus
To provide enough room for oxygen
• They have a biconcave shape
To increase the surface area for diffusion of oxygen
 They have a thin membrane
To allow easy diffusion of gases

Why do people living at higher altitudes have more RBCs?

 There is little oxygen at higher altitudes

Why do infants have more red blood cells than adults?

 Infants have a higher metabolic rate than adults

NOTE
 Plasmodia germs (malaria parasites) destroy the red blood cells
 Sickle cell anaemia (sickle cell disease) deforms red blood cells

WHITE BLOOD CELLS

• WBCs are fewer than RBCs in number

Characteristics of white blood cells

• They have a nucleus
• They do not have a defined shape ( they have an irregular shape)
• They have no haemoglobin (so they are colourless)

In which body parts are white blood cells made?

• Bone marrow of long bones
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen

Function of white blood cells

• They defend the body against diseases (infections)
OR

119
 • They fight against pathogens (disease causing germs)

The structure of a white blood cell

nucleus

cell membrane

cytoplasm

How do white blood cells defend the body against diseases?

• They engulf and digest germs
• They produce antibodies

Adaptation of a white blood cell to its functions

• It has a nucleus to control cell activities
• It has cytoplasm to engulf germs
• It has an irregular shape to engulf germs of different shapes

Why do children have more WBCs than adults?

 They are more prone to disease attack than adults

Diagrams showing how white blood cells engulf germs

NOTE:
• HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) destroys the white blood cells
• Too much white blood cells in blood cause leukemia (blood cancer)

How is pus formed?

• When some white blood cells and germs die during the fight (decaying in the tissue)

PLATELETS
• These are small colourless disc shaped particles in blood
• They are made in the red bone marrow

Characteristics of platelets
• They have no nucleus
• They have a disc shape

Function of platelets
• They help in blood clotting in case of a cut

How do platelets stop bleeding?

 By forming blood clots on cuts and wounds
120
An illustration showing platelets

NOTE
• A hereditary disease in which a person has uncontrolled bleeding is called
haemophilia
• Haemophilia is caused by lack of clotting factor in blood
• Vitamin K helps in formation of platelets
• Lack of vitamin K in the diet leads to poor blood clotting

What health problem is a personal likely to get due to inadequate platelets in blood?
 Excessive bleeding in case a cut/poor blood clotting

Structure of platelets

BLOOD PLASMA
This is the pale liquid component of blood
• It makes up about 55% of blood
• It is where red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are suspended
• It consists of 90 percent water
• Plasma holds all the other blood cells

Constituents (components) of blood plasma

• Water
• Hormones
• Antibodies
• Digested food (glucose, amino acids, mineral salts and lipids)
• Urea
• Carbon dioxide Excretory wastes

Functions of blood plasma

• It transports hormones in the body
• It distributes heat in the body
• It transports blood cells
• It transports digested food in the body (e.g glucose, lipids and amino acids)
• It transports water and mineral salts in the body
• It transports metabolic wastes to the excretory organs
• It transports antibodies in the body

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD

Transport functions:
• It transports digested food in the body
• It transports oxygen in the body
• It transports hormones in the body
121
 • It transports metabolic wastes to excretory organs.

Protective functions:
• It protects the body against diseases
• It prevents bleeding by clotting on cuts and wounds

Regulative function:
• It distributes heat in the body

How does blood help in body temperature regulation?

 It distributes heat in the body

BLOOD GROUPS (BLOOD TYPES)

 Group A
 Group B
 Group AB
 Group O
Blood groups were discovered by a Scientist called Sir Karl Landsteiner

How are blood groups formed?

 According to the antigens in red blood cells

Blood donor
 This is a person who gives blood

Recipient
 This is a person who receives blood

RECIPIENT BLOOD DONOR

A A and O
B B and O
AB A, B, AB and O
O O

Universal recipient is a person who receives blood from all blood groups
Group AB is a universal recipient

Universal donor is a person who gives blood to all blood groups

Group O is a universal donor

WAYS OF INCREASING THE VOLUME OF BLOOD IN THE BODY

• Feeding on food rich in iron
• Taking iron tablets
• Through blood transfusion
• Drinking plenty of fruit juices

122
BLOOD TRANSFUSION
This is the transfer of screened blood from one person to another as long as blood groups
agree.

Give one reason why blood should be screened before transfusion

 To prevent the spread of diseases in infected blood

BLOOD SCREENING
This is the examining of blood under a microscope

Importance of screening blood

 It helps to discover the germs in blood
 It helps to discover blood groups
 It promotes safe blood transfusion

DISEASES OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Groups of circulatory diseases
 Diseases of blood (blood diseases)
 Diseases of the heart (heart diseases)
 Hereditary diseases

Blood diseases
These are diseases that affect blood components
• Malaria
• HIV/AIDS
• Sickle cell anaemia
• Anaemia
• Leukemia (blood cancer)

Heart diseases
• Heart attack (cardiac arrest)
• Coronary heart disease (CHD)
• Coronary thrombosis
• Hypertension ( high blood pressure)
• Hypotension (low blood pressure)

Hereditary diseases
 Haemophilia
 Sickle cell anaemia

DISORDERS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• Heart failure
• Hardening of the arteries (arteriosclerosis)
• Defective cells

123
 • Blood clot
• Cuts and wounds

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATORY DISEASES

• Feeding on a balanced diet.
• Eat very low animal fats
• Perform regular body exercises.
• Avoid much alcohol.
• Avoid smoking
• Have regular health checkups

Importance of physical exercises to the body

• It makes the heart muscles to grow stronger and larger
• It reduces body weight (it controls obesity)
• It prevents heart attack
• It makes the joints to become more flexible
• It makes the body physically fit
• It eases food digestion
• It helps the heart to pump more blood to the muscles
• It prevents sprains and strains
• It breaks fatigue (body weakness)

AIDS

AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

 Acquired means to get from

 Immune means protected against
 Deficiency means lack of/shortage of.
 Syndrome means a group of signs and symptoms of a disease.

What causes AIDS

• HIV
HIV stands for human immunodeficiency Virus

It mainly affects the circulatory system

HIV can only survive in the human body.

Why can't mosquitoes spread HIV/AIDS yet they feed on blood?

• HIV is destroyed by the enzymes in the digestive system of a mosquito

• HIV is destroyed in the body of a mosquito
124
Mode of transmission of HIV/AIDS

(how does HIV/AIDS spread)

• Through playing unprotected sex with an infected person

• Through infected blood transfusion
• Through sharing sharp instruments with an infected person
• From an infected mother to a newly born baby at birth
• From the infected mother to the baby through breast feeding

Reasons why people go for HIV test before marriage

• To know your HIV status

• To prevent the spread of AIDS
• To prevent marriage in case one person is HIV positive

HIV STATUS

HIV negative (HIV –ve)

It means that a person does not have HIV

HIV positive (HIV +ve)

It means that a person has HIV

What is the difference between HIV positive person and AIDS patient?

• HIV positive person has not yet developed signs and symptoms while AIDS
patient has developed the signs and symptoms.

Examples of body fluids in which HIV can be found

• Blood
• Semen
• Vaginal fluids
• Breast milk

Give any two ways in which AIDS virus (HIV) cannot spread:

• Normal shaking of hands with AIDS patients

• Caring for AIDS patients
125
 • Sharing cooking utensils with AIDS patients
• Touching AIDS patients
• Hugging AIDS patients
• Sitting close to AIDS patients
• Washing clothes of AIDS patients

Why can't HIV/AIDS spread through the practices mentioned above?

There is no mixing of blood.

•
Mosquito bites
•
Why?

• HIV is destroyed in the body of a mosquito

PRACTICES THAT INCREASE THE SPREAD OF AIDS

Qn. Give four bad habits that can lead to HIV transmission

• Sharing of wives
• Inheriting of wives/widows
• Massive circumcision using one knife
• Tribal tattooing
• Blood pacts
• Polygamy
• Communal jigger extraction
• Tribal tooth extraction
• Ear and nose piercing
• Infected blood transfusion
• Prostitution
• Extra marital sex
• Pre marital sex
• Having unprotected sex with untrusted partner

Groups of people at a high risk of getting AIDS

• Sex workers (prostitutes)

They have many sexual partners

They play sex with many people

• Bar maids
They can be forced into sex by drunkards

• People between 15 – 45 years

They are sexually more active

126
 • Long distance travellers e.g drivers
They play casual sex since they take long time to see their sex partners

• Medical workers who look after AIDS patients

• Night disco goers
• Regular drug abusers.
• Adolescent girls.
They are sexually attractive

Reasons why female adolescents are at a higher risk of getting AIDS than males.

• They mature faster than males

• They are more attracted by material goods (money) than males
• They are more vulnerable to rape and defilement
• They are more sexually attractive than males

Reason why women are at a high risk of getting AIDS than men?

 They are more sexually attractive than men

Signs and symptoms of HIV/AIDS

The incubation period of AIDS is between 1 to 10 years

What is incubation period of a disease?

This is the time taken from exposure to the disease causing germ until the first signs
and symptoms appear.

Both AIDS patient and HIV positive person can spread the virus.

Signs of HIV/AIDS

• Herpes zoster
• Rapid weight loss
• Skin rash
• Severe night sweats (severe sweating at night)
• Oral thrush (white coating in the mouth)
• Chronic dry cough
• Chronic diarrhoea
127
Symptoms of HIV/AIDS

• General body weakness

• Chronic fever
• Loss of appetite

Conditions mistaken for AIDS

• Alcoholism
• Malnutrition

Diseases mistaken for AIDS

• Tuberculosis
• Typhoid
• Measles
• Skin cancer

Effects of HIV/AIDS to the:

1. Individual

• Loss of immunity
• Restriction in movement to some countries
• It causes much worry
• Loss of income
• It leads to death

2. Family

• It leads to poverty in a family

• It reduces family labour force
• It leads to divorce
• It increases orphans
• Family members are isolated or stigmatized in the community

3. Community

• It reduces the population

• Loss of important/skilled people
• Reduction in labour force
• Increased child headed families
128
Prevention and control of HIV/AIDS

• Having one faithful sexual partner

• Abstain from sex until marriage
• Avoid sharing skin piercing objects like needles with an infected person.
• Use of condoms during sex
• Women having HIV should avoid getting pregnant
• Screening blood before transfusion
• Sterilizing medical instruments before use.
NOTE:

P.M.T.C.T means Prevention of mother to Child Transmission of AIDS

How to prevent mother to child transmission of HIV

• Taking ARVs during pregnancy

• Giving birth from hospitals
• Practising bottle feeding

How can we care and support AIDS patients

• Feeding them on a balanced diet

• Counselling them
• Advising them to promote personal hygiene
• Advising them to take their drugs
• Giving them company

COUNSELLING

This is the special communication given to patients.

Importance of counselling AIDS patients.

 It prevents suicide
 It prevents patients from spreading the disease knowingly.
 It enables patients to live longer and useful.
 Itenables patients to overcome fear

Types of counselling

129
 • Pre-HIV antibody test counselling
• Post-HIV antibody test counselling
• Counselling AIDS patients
• Counselling children with AIDS

Note:

ARVs stand for Antiretroviral drugs

Organisations in Uganda that offer counselling services

• TASO (The AIDS Support Organisation): It provides food supplements for AIDS
patients.
• AIC (AIDS Information Centre)
• ACP (AIDS Control Programme): It also provides HIV testing.
• Uganda Cares

AIDS does not kill. What kills?

 The opportunistic infections

SECONDARY INFECTIONS (OPPORTUNISTIC INOFECTIONS)

These are infections a person gets due to weakened immune system.

Examples of opportunistic (secondary) infections

• Tuberculosis
• Pneumonia
• Meningitis

Ways of controlling the spread of secondary infections

• Abstain from sex until marriage

• Be faithful to your sexual partner
• Use condoms to play sex with untrusted partner
• Avoid sharing sharp skin cutting objects with infected person
• Avoid extra marital sex
• Learning more facts about HIV
• Avoid practices that can lead to easy spread of AIDS

URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS (UTIs)

These are diseases which affect the passage of urine

130
Examples of Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)

• Genital warts
• Genital herpes
• Gonorrhoea
• Candidiasis
• Trichomoniasis
• Chlamydia

Signs of UTIs

• Blocked urethra
• Pus discharge from penis and vagina
• Swelling of the genital parts
• Bleeding from the genital parts

Symptoms of UTIs

• Painful urination
• Itching of genital parts

PID

Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases

They affect the abdominal and pelvic areas

Signs of PID in females

• Pain in the lower abdomen

• Fever

Dangers of PIDs (effects of untreated STDs in females)

• Painful menstruation
• Sterility (barrenness)
• Blocked oviducts
• Wounds in the uterus

GENERAL PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF STDs/STIs/VDs

131
 • Abstain from sex until marriage
• Be faithful to your sexual partner
• Use condoms in case of having sex with untrusted partner
• Keep the reproductive organs clean
• Keep latrines clean

LIFE SKILLS TO SAFEGUARD AGAINST STDS

• Peer resistance
• Self awareness
• Self esteem
• Assertiveness
• Critical and creative thinking
• Decision making

PIASCY MESSAGES ABOUT ADOLESCENCE AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

PIASCY

This is a programme that promotes AIDS awareness to the youths

What does “PIASCY” stand for?

• Presidential Initiative on AIDS Strategy for Communication to Youth

Founder of PIASCY

• H.E Yoweri Kaguta Museveni (in 2002)

Reason

• To improve communication on AIDS to youth

• To help the youths stay safe from AIDS
• To promote AIDS awareness among youth

Importance of PIASCY messages

• They control the spread of AIDS

• They promote care for AIDS patients
• They prevent early marriages
• They prevent teenage pregnancy.
• They promote AIDS awareness among youths

132
 • They help children to keep their reproductive systems healthy

PIASCY messages about adolescence

• Stay Virgin
• Follow your religion to stay safe
• Say no to sex (abstain from sex)
• Say no to early marriage
• Avoid gifts for sex
• Have few sex partners to stay safe
• Be faithful to your sex partner
• Condom use by adults prevents AIDS
• Avoid bad touches
• Choose to delay sex
• Using violence to get sex is wrong
• Virginity is healthy
• Early sex affects my reproductive system
• AIDS kills
• AIDS has no cure
• Choose to delay sex
• HIV damages the body’s immune system
• Avoid risks to stay safe
• Testing for HIV
• Body changes at puberty are not signs to start sex
• Learn how AIDS is transmitted
• Say no to gifts for sex
• Using violence to get sex is wrong
• Avoid dark corners
• Premarital sex is risky
• People with HIV need care and support

TOPIC: ALCOHOL, SMOKING AND DRUGS IN THE SOCIETY

ALCOHOL
Alcohol is a liquid substance that makes people drunk if taken in the body in excess.

TYPES OF ALCOHOL
 Methanol (Methyl alcohol)
 Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol)

METHANOL
Methanol is made by distillation
 It is found mostly in home distilled alcohol.
 It is very dangerous and poisonous because it can cause blindness or death.
 It is always used in hospitals and industries

133
  It is used as fuel in cars and boats
 It is used to kill germs on (sterilize) medical instruments.
 It is used to clean wounds
 It is used to mix some drugs
 It is used to make paint remover

ETHANOL
It is the main alcohol present in alcoholic beverages
It is an addictive content in alcoholic drinks/beverages

METHODS OF MAKING/PRODUCING ALCOHOL

• Fermentation
• Distillation

FERMENTATION
This is the use of yeast to turn sugary juice into alcohol
• Fermented juice of fruits is used to make wine
• Fermented cereal grains are used to make beer

Products during fermentation of alcohol

 Ethanol
 Carbon dioxide

Name the catalyst used during fermentation of alcohol

• Yeast

State the importance of yeast during fermentation

• Yeast contains an enzyme that speeds up fermentation of alcohol.

Name the enzyme in yeast that speeds up (catalyzes) fermentation

• Zymase enzyme

Besides yeast, name other organisms that help in fermentation

• Bacteria (e.g in fermentation of milk)

RAW MATERIALS USED TO MAKE FERMENTED ALCOHOLIC DRINKS

FERMENTED ALCOHOLIC DRINKS RAW MATERIALS

Beer Barley, water
Wine Grapes, gooseberry
Tonto Ripe bananas
Hard cider Apple juice
Kwete Sorghum, millet, maize, malt and boiled water
Malwa Maize flour, millet, sorghum, water
Omuramba Sorghum, water
134
Wineries ferment grapes to make wine
Breweries ferment barley, wheat and other grains to make beer

Why do most fermented drinks contain low level of alcohol?

 They have a lot of water

Distillation
This is the process of evaporating crude alcohol and condensing its vapour to obtain pure
alcohol

Physical processes involved in distillation

 Evaporation
 Condensation

Besides evaporation and condensation, name other process involved in distillation

 Heating

Name the type of alcohol made by distillation

 Methanol (methyl alcohol)

A DIAGRAM SHOWING DISTILLATION METHOD OF MAKING ALCOHOL (METHANOL)

M Alcohol vapour

Name the physical processes M and P

 M is evaporation
 P is condensation

State the importance of the cold water and heat in the process above

Cold water
135
  To condense alcohol vapour

Heat (fire)
 To cause evaporation

Name the natural process that is similar to distillation

 Water cycle

In which way is distillation similar to water cycle?

 Both involve heating, evaporation and condensation

Name two materials always used to make the delivery tube

 Copper
 Aluminium

Why is the delivery tube always made out of copper and aluminium?
 They do not rust

Why is the delivery tube passed through cold water?

 To condense alcohol vapour

Why is the delivery tube coiled as it is passed in cold water?

 To increase the surface area for condensation of alcohol vapour

What scientific name is given to the liquid substance collected by distillation?

 Distillate

Why does the first drop of drink collected contain more alcohol than water?
• Alcohol has lower boiling point than water

Give two medical uses of the distillate

 It is used to clean wounds
 It is used to kill germs on (sterilize) medical instruments
 It is used to clean the skin before an injection

NOTE
The boiling point of alcohol is 780C
The boiling point of alcohol is 1000C

EXAMPLES OF DISTILLED ALCOHOLIC DRINKS

• Gin
• Whisky
• Waragi
• Vodka
• Brandy
136
 • Rum
• Tequila

Advantage of distillation
• Alcohol collected is very concentrated

Disadvantages of distillation
• It can lead to burns and scalds.
• It needs much attention.

Why is alcohol collected by distillation very concentrated?

 It does not contain water

USES OF ALCOHOL
• It is used as fuel in cars and boats
• It is used to disinfect (clean) wounds.
• It is sold for money
• It is used to mix some paints
• It is used as a drink on parties.
• It is used to sterilize medical instruments (e.g clinical thermometers and surgical
blades)
• It is used in six’s thermometers.
• It is used to pay dowry.
• It is used to make paint remover
• It is used to light pressure lamps.
• It is used to make some drugs in hospitals

State the importance of alcohol in six’s thermometer

 It is used to measure the lowest temperature of the day

Why is alcohol used in six’s thermometer?

 It has a very low freezing point

REASONS WHY PEOPLE DRINK ALCOHOL

• To pass time.
• To quench thirst
• To fit in peer groups of alcoholics
• To celebrate their success.
• To break boredom
• To show that they are rich.
• To be brave
• Young people drink to show that they are mature

Misconceptions (myths) about alcohol

 Alcohol improves mental performance

137
  Alcohol solves social problems

Alcoholism
Alcoholism is a condition where a person totally depends on alcohol.
OR.
Alcoholism is a condition that results from prolonged use of alcohol.

Who is an alcoholic?
This is a person addicted to alcohol.

Addiction
Addiction is a condition in which a person has a very strong desire to take alcohol every
day.

A drawing showing alcoholics

Factors that lead to alcoholism

 Peer pressure
 Frustration
 Family back ground
 Seductive advertisements
 Social environment

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM TO AN INDIVIDUAL

• It leads to brain damage.
• Loss of appetite for food
• Loss of jobs
• Self-neglect
• It leads liver cirrhosis (damages the liver)
• It worsens stomach ulcers.

Body organs affected by alcohol

• Brain.
• Liver
• Stomach

138
 • Pancreas
• Kidney
• Heart

How does alcohol damage the liver?

 It causes liver cirrhosis

How does alcohol worsen stomach ulcers?

 It leads to loss of appetite for food

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM TO A FAMILY

• Family neglect
• It leads to poverty in a family
• It leads to sex deviation like incest
• It leads to domestic violence (child and spouse abuse)
• It leads to broken marriages.
• It leads to antisocial behaviour among children

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM ON THE COMMUNITY

• It leads to truancy
• It leads to high crime rates (e.g rape, defilement and robbery)
• It increases road accidents.
• Ii increases the spread of HIV/AIDS
• It leads to loss of important people
• It leads to verbal and physical abuse (e.g quarrels and disagreements)
• Alcoholics become public nuisance.

WAYS THROUGH WHICH THE BODY CAN REMOVE (GET RID) OF ALCOHOL
• Through urinating
• Through sweating
• It can be burnt up by the liver.

Give three effects of alcohol to pregnant women

 Low birth weight
 Mental retardation of the baby
 Stunted growth of the baby
 Babies have small heads

Immediate effects of alcohol on people

• Slows down the action of the brain.
• Mumbling
• Double vision
• Forgetfulness
• Loss of respect for laws.
• Loss of body balance

139
Long term effects of alcohol
• Loss of appetite
• Stomach ulcers
• Liver cirrhosis
• Self-neglect
• Loss of jobs
• Swollen pancreas.
• Hand tremors (Shaking hands)

WAYS OF AVOIDING ALCOHOLISM/HEALTH LIFESTYLES TO AVOID ALCOHOLISM

• Avoid peer groups alcoholics
• Decide never to drink alcohol.
• Never believe in adverts that praise alcohol
• Join good social clubs (e.g sports clubs and church choir)
• Never drink alcohol to solve a problem.
• Learn more facts about dangers of alcohol.
• Take warnings about the dangers of alcohol seriously.

LIFE SKILLS TO SAFE GUARD AGAINST ALCOHOL

• Self-awareness
• Self esteem
• Assertiveness
• Peer resistance
• Proper decision making
• Critical thinking

LAWS GOVERNING ALCOHOL IN UGANDA

• All people below 18 years of age are not allowed to drink or sell alcohol in public
places
• Drivers are not allowed to drink and drive: This is the traffic law on alcohol
To prevent road accidents
• All bars must be licensed
• Home distillation of alcohol is not allowed
It produces methanol which is poisonous (toxic)
• No one is allowed to transport or sell home distilled alcohol.

SMOKING
This is the inhaling of tobacco smoke

A smoker is a person who smokes tobacco frequently.

Types of smoking
Active smoking
This is where a person inhales smoke directly from burning cigarette or smoking pipe.
Passive smoking
140
This is where a person inhales tobacco smoke from an active smoker.
Note
• Active smoker is a person who inhales smoke directly from burning cigarette or
smoking pipe.
• Passive Smoker is a person who inhales tobacco smoke from an active smoker.
Dangerous drugs contained in tobacco
• Nicotine
• Tar
Poisonous chemicals contained in tobacco
• Tar
Addictive drug (substance) found in tobacco smoke
• Nicotine
Poisonous gases in tobacco smoke
• Carbon monoxide
• Hydrogen cyanide
Body organs damaged by smoking
• Lungs
• Brain
• Mouth
• Throat

How does nicotine affect human health?

 It rises blood pressure
 It constricts blood vessels

How does tar affect human health?

 It causes lung cancer
 It makes stains on the teeth
 It causes cancer of mouth lips and throat

Reasons why people smoke

• To pass time/ to relax
• To concentrate on work
• To feel warm
• To fit in groups of smokers (peer influence)
• To feel confident
• To look mature
• To look attractive
• Due to attractive advertisements on radios and televisions.
Conditions which may lead to smoking and alcoholism
• Boredom
• Stress
• Being idle
Factors which lead to smoking and alcoholism
• Ignorance

141
 • Advertisements made as regards a certain type of cigarette.
• Family background
• Peer pressure
Effects of smoking to an individual (to the human body)
 It causes some respiratory diseases
 It causes cancer of the mouth (lips) and throat
 It increases the risk of getting some circulatory diseases (heart attack and
hypertension)
 It worsens some respiratory diseases
 It spoils the colour of teeth
 It worsens stomach ulcers
 It shortens one’s lifespan

Respiratory diseases caused by smoking

 Lung cancer
 Emphysema ( leads to rupture of the alveolar)
 Chronic bronchitis ( leads to difficulty in breathing and chronic cough)

Respiratory diseases not caused by smoking

 Asthma
 Pneumonia
 Tuberculosis

Effects of smoking to pregnant women

• Leads to premature births
• Leads to low birth weights
• Leads to miscarriages
• Leads to stillbirths

Effects of smoking to the family

• Leads to family neglect
• Family members may become passive smokers
• Leads to poverty at home
• Children may copy the habit
• Careless smokers can burn house property

Effects of smoking to the community

• Tobacco smoke causes discomfort to other people
• It leads to truancy among school children
• It leads to death of skilled people
• It leads to respiratory diseases among people

How to avoid smoking

• Do not believe in advertisements which praise cigarette smoking.
• Know that there is no good reason for smoking
• Keep away from smokers.
142
 • Decide never to be an active smoker.
• Join good social groups like sports clubs.
• Keep yourself busy for example by reading novels.
• Destroy all things connected to smoking like cigarettes, lighter and ash trays.

How the ministry of health helps to reduce the increased number of smokers
• Putting a high tax on the sale of cigarettes
• Enforcing strict laws against smoking in public places
• Putting health warnings on cigarette packets.

Lifestyles to safeguard against smoking

• Keep away from people who smoke
• Never allow any body to convince you to smoke.
• Gather more information on dangers of smoking from health workers.
• Report your friends who smoke to the teachers or their parents for advice.
• Like games and sports during your free time.
• Never use your money to buy cigarettes.

Withdrawal effects of nicotine (smoking)

Qn. Mention two symptoms of an ex-smoker.
• Depression
• Severe sweating
• Convulsions
• Anxiety
• Restless
• Poor concentration on work
• Irritability
Note. The irritant substance in cigarettes is called Carcinogen.

Ways through which people use tobacco.

• By active smoking
• By passive smoking
• By sniffing tobacco powder in the nose
• By chewing tobacco leaves.

DRUGS
A drug is a chemical substance which can affect physical and mental state of the body
when taken.
• It can either help or harm the body system.
Types of drugs
• Essential drugs
• Drugs of dependence
ESSENTIAL DRUGS
These are drug which satisfy people’s health needs when used properly.

Examples of people’s health needs

143
 • Relieving pain
• Preventing diseases
• Stopping conception
• Adding substances in the body
• Curing diseases
Qualities/characteristics of essential drugs
• Should be cheap
• Should be safe to use
• Should be effective
• Should be affordable
• Should be accessible
• Should be easy to administer
• Should have important curative value

Examples of essential drugs

• Aspirin
• Panadol
• Iodine; for wounds
• Paracetamol; for pain and headache
• Hedex
• Coartum
• Mexaquin
• Chloroquine; for malaria fever
• Mabendazole; for deworming
• Fancida
• BCG; for tuberculosis
• ORS; for dehydration
• Cough mixtures; for cough
• Tetracycline; for bacterial infections in eyes
• Penicillin; for fungal infections
• Iodine; for wounds
• Measles vaccine
• Paracetamol
• Mululuuza
• Lweza
• Nnalongo
• Enkejje

Groups or types of essential drugs

• Laboratory manufactured drugs
• Traditional (herbal) drugs
1. Laboratory manufactured drugs
These are drugs which are manufactured and tested in laboratories.

Characteristics of laboratory manufactured drugs

• They are well tested.
144
 • Their strength, stability and purity are known.
• They are the same for each quantity.
• Their effect on human health is known,
• They are well packaged.
• They are well sealed in water or air proof containers
• They are well labeled
• They have expiry and manufactured dates.

Examples of laboratory manufactured drugs

• Aspirin
• Chloroquine
• Quinine
• Fancida
• Hedex
• Panadol
• Coartem
• Mabendazole

Groups of laboratory manufactured drugs

• Preventive drugs
• Curative drugs
• Pain killer drugs
• Contraceptive drugs
• Preventive drugs are drugs which prevent diseases.
• BCG vaccine
• Measles vaccine
• Polio vaccine
Note: All vaccines are preventive drugs.
• Curative drugs are drugs which cure diseases
• Chloroquine
• Quinine
• Mabendazole
• Pain killers are drugs which reduce or remove pain from the body.
• Panadol
• Hedex
• Action
• Curamol
• Paracetamol
• Contraceptive drugs are drugs which are used in family planning to avoid getting
pregnancy.
• Depo-Provera
2. Traditional drugs
These are drugs which are locally made from raw plant and animal materials
Characteristics /qualities of traditional drugs
• They are made of raw plants and animals.
• Their strength, purity and stability changes
145
 • They are of different quantities.
• Their effects on human health are not known.
• They are not well labeled.
• They are not well packaged.

Examples of traditional drugs

• Mululuuza
• Kigagi
• Bombo
• Kakubasujja
• Kiffumufumu
• Enkejje

Storage of drugs
Drugs should be stored properly to keep them safe.
Conditions under which drugs should be stored
• In a cool dry place
A cool place prevents the drug from being spoilt
A dry place protects the drug from dampness
• In a dust free place
To prevent contamination
• Away from reach of children
To prevent drug poisoning
• Should not be exposed to direct sunlight
To prevent contamination
• Should be kept in well-sealed containers
To prevent contamination

DANGERS OF BUYING DRUGS FROM LOCAL SHOPS

• Drugs may be expired
• Drugs may be fake
• Drugs may not be prescribed
• Drugs may be contaminated

DRUG PRESCRIPTION
This is the information written by a medical worker on how to use a drug.

Factors considered when prescribing drugs.

• Age of the patient
• Weight of the patient
• Type of the sickness
• Kind of previous drug
• Duration of sickness

Content of drug prescription

• Name of the drug
146
 • Dosage
This is the amount of drug to take.
• Duration of treatment
This is the period we should take the drug
Hedex
2X3

• Hedex shows the name of the drug

• ‘2’ shows the dosage
• ‘3’ shows the duration of treatment
2 x 3 means "take 2 tablets every after 8 hours

Advantages of drug prescriptions

 It prevents wrong dose (under dose and over dose).
 It prevents drug misuse
 It prevents poisoning
 It helps the patient to know the correct drug to use.

OVERDOSE
This is when a person takes more amount of drug than is required.

Causes of overdose
 Much fear of the disease
 Self-medication
 Drug misuse

Disadvantages of overdose
• It leads to poisoning
• It can lead to death.
• It damages body organs

UNDERDOSE
This is when a person takes fewer amounts of drugs than what is required.

Causes of underdose
 Drug misuse
 Self-medication
 Much fear of the drugs

Disadvantages of underdose
147
 • The germs become more resistant to drugs.
• The disease is not likely to be cured.

INFORMATION MANUFACTURERS PUT ON A DRUG DURING PACKAGING AND BEFORE

SELLING IT.
• Name of a drug
• Disease cured by a drug
• Dosage
• Duration of treatment
• Expiry date
• Manufactory date
• Method of taking a drug e.g injection, swallowing or ointment
• Composition of the drug

MANUFACTORY DATE OF A DRUG

This is the date at which a drug was made.

EXPIRY DATE OF A DRUG

This is the final date at which a drug is safe to use.

Dangers of taking expired drugs

• It leads to body poisoning
• It leads to death
• It damages body organs

Medical consultation
This is when a patient goes to the medical worker to seek for help and advice.

Importance of medical consultation

• A patient gets prescribed drugs
• A patient knows the disease he/she is suffering from
• A patient gets counseling
• A patient gets advice on which drug to use.
• It prevents self-medication

Self-medication
This is the self-use of a drug without prescription

Dangers of self medication

• It leads to drug misuse
• It leads to wrong dose
• It leads to poisoning

DRUG MISUSE
This is the use of a drug without health worker’s advice.

148
Factors that lead to drug misuse
• Lack of money to buy a full dose of a drug
• Buying drugs from local shops
• Keeping drugs in children's reach
• Failure to follow drug prescription
• Self medication
• Ignorance

How do people misuse drugs?

• Taking a drug when not sick
• Taking wrong dose (over dose or under dose)
• Sharing drugs for one patient

Forms of wrong dose

 Over dose
 Under dose

DRUGS OF DEPENDENCE
These are drugs which cause addiction after prolonged use.

An addiction to a drug is a strong desire that makes a person feels uncomfortable when
he or she does not use the drug.

Drug dependence
This is the condition when the human body cannot function well without a particular drug.
Drug dependence results from drug abuse

Common drugs of dependence

• Marijuana (cannabis or bhang)
• Khat (miraa or mirungi)
• Cocaine
• Caffeine
• Glue
• Aviation fuel
• Heroin
• Opium
• Hashish
• Alcohol
• Nicotine (tobacco)
Groups or classes of drugs of dependence
• Narcotic drugs (Narcotics)
• Stimulants
• Sedative drugs (depressants)
• Hallucinogens
1. Sedative drugs (depressants) are drugs which slow down the activity of the brain.
They make a person feel drowsy and sleepy
149
 • Alcohol
• Tranquilizers (calming drugs)
• Piriton
2. Narcotic drugs are drugs that dull the senses and relieve pain.
• Opium
• Morphine
• Heroin
• Codeine
3. Hallucinogens are drugs which make a person see, hear, feel or smell something which
does not exist.
• Cocaine
• Heroin
• Marijuana
• Peyote
• Mescaline
4. Stimulants are drugs which makes the brain more active.
They make a person feel lively.
• Caffeine
• Amphetamines
• Cocaine
• Nicotine

How do people abuse drugs? (How the drugs of dependence are taken in the body)?
• By sniffing e.g cocaine, heroin, glue and petrol
• By drinking e.g caffeine, alcohol
• By smoking e.g tobacco, opium, marijuana
• By chewing the leaves e.g heroine, miraa, tobacco
• By injecting into the body e.g heroin
• By swallowing e.g heroin

DRUG ABUSE
This is the use of a drug in a way that is harmful to the body

Factors (conditions) that lead drug abuse

• Peer pressure
• Family back ground
• Ignorance
• Stress
• Frustration (many problems)
• To keep awake
• Much fear of the illness

Reasons why people abuse drugs/ take drugs of dependence

• To overcome fear
• To fit in peer groups of drug abusers
• To keep awake
150
 • To reduce stress
• To forget problems
• Due to good advertisement
• To pass time
• To get sleep
• To get energy
• To concentrate on work

EFFECTS OF DRUGS OF DEPENDENCE/DRUG ABUSE TO;

1. An individual
• Brain damage
• Loss of appetite
• Insomnia (inability to sleep)
• Job neglect
• Self-neglect
• Low body immunity
• Imprisonment

2. The family
• Family neglect
• Child abuse
• Spouse abuse
• Broken homes
• Poverty in the family
• Children may become delinquents

3. The community
• It leads to increased accidents
• Criminal acts like rape.
• Poor job performance
• Truancy: is the act of being absent from school without permission.
• Violence
• Impaired school performance

How can a school child avoid drugs of dependence/drug abuse?

• Avoid bad peer groups
• Learn more about dangers of drug abuse
• Join good social clubs like church choir
• Engage in games and sports during free time

LIFE SKILLS TO SAFE GUARD AGAINST ALCOHOL, SMOKING AND DRUG DEPENDENCE
What are life skills?
These are abilities that help a person to effectively deal with the challenges of daily life.
• Self-awareness
• Self esteem
151
 • Assertiveness
• Peer resistance
• Decision making
• Critical thinking
• Focus and self-control
For more information
Call +256701593711

152