Cell Biology

Cell biology is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves around the concept that the
cell is the fundamental unit of life. Focusing on the cell permits a detailed understanding of the
tissues and organisms that cells compose. Some organisms have only one cell, while others are
organized into cooperative groups with huge numbers of cells. On the whole, cell biology focuses
on the structure and function of a cell, from the most general properties shared by all cells, to the
unique, highly intricate functions particular to specialized cells.
The starting point for this discipline might be considered the 1830s. Though scientists had been
using microscopes for centuries, they were not always sure what they were looking at. Robert
Hooke's initial observation in 1665 of plant-cell walls in slices of cork was followed shortly by
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's first descriptions of live cells with visibly moving parts. In the 1830s
two scientists who were colleagues — Schleiden, looking at plant cells, and Schwann, looking first
at animal cells — provided the first clearly stated definition of the cell. Their definition stated that
that all living creatures, both simple and complex, are made out of one or more cells, and the cell is
the structural and functional unit of life — a concept that became known as cell theory.
As microscopes and staining techniques improved over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
scientists were able to see more and more internal detail within cells. The microscopes used by van
Leeuwenhoek probably magnified specimens a few hundredfold. Today high-powered electron
microscopes can magnify specimens more than a million times and can reveal the shapes of
organelles at the scale of a micrometer and below. With confocal microscopy a series of images can
be combined, allowing researchers to generate detailed three-dimensional representations of cells.
These improved imaging techniques have helped us better understand the wonderful complexity of
cells and the structures they form.
There are several main subfields within cell biology. One is the study of cell energy and the
biochemical mechanisms that support cell metabolism. As cells are machines unto themselves, the
focus on cell energy overlaps with the pursuit of questions of how energy first arose in original
primordial cells, billions of years ago. Another subfield of cell biology concerns the genetics of the
cell and its tight interconnection with the proteins controlling the release of genetic
information from the nucleus to the cell cytoplasm. Yet another subfield focuses on the structure of
cell components, known as subcellular compartments. Cutting across many biological disciplines is
the additional subfield of cell biology, concerned with cell communication and signaling,
concentrating on the messages that cells give to and receive from other cells and themselves. And
finally, there is the subfield primarily concerned with the cell cycle, the rotation of phases
beginning and ending with cell division and focused on different periods of growth and DNA
replication. Many cell biologists dwell at the intersection of two or more of these subfields as our
ability to analyze cells in more complex ways expands.
In line with continually increasing interdisciplinary study, the recent emergence of systems
biology has affected many biological disciplines; it is a methodology that encourages the analysis of
living systems within the context of other systems. In the field of cell biology, systems biology has
enabled the asking and answering of more complex questions, such as the interrelationships of gene
regulatory networks, evolutionary relationships between genomes, and the interactions between
intracellular signaling networks. Ultimately, the broader a lens we take on our discoveries in cell
biology, the more likely we can decipher the complexities of all living systems, large and small.

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History
Cells were first seen in 17th century Europe with the invention of the compound microscope. In
1665, Robert Hooke termed the building block of all living organisms as "cells" (published
in Micrographia) after looking at a piece of cork and observing a cell-like structure, however, the
cells were dead and gave no indication to the actual overall components of a cell. A few years later,
in 1674, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to analyze live cells in his examination of algae. All
of this preceded the cell theory which states that all living things are made up of cells and that cells
are the functional and structural unit of organisms. This was ultimately concluded by plant
scientist, Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist Theodor Schwann in 1838, who viewed live cells
in plant and animal tissue, respectively. 19 years later, Rudolf Virchow further contributed to the
cell theory, adding that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells. [5] Viruses are not
considered in cell biology – they lack the characteristics of a living cell, and instead are studied in
the microbiology subclass of virology.

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Techniques
Cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living
body to further research in human anatomy and physiology, and to derive medications. The
techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Due to advancements in microscopy,
techniques and technology have allowed for scientists to hold a better understanding of the structure
and function of cells. Many techniques commonly used to study cell biology are listed below:

 Cell culture: Utilizes rapidly growing cells on media which allows for a large amount of a
specific cell type and an efficient way to study cells Cell culture is one of the major tools
used in cellular and molecular biology, providing excellent model systems for studying the
normal physiology and biochemistry of cells (e.g., metabolic studies, aging), the effects of
drugs and toxic compounds on the cells, and mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. It is also used
in drug screening and development, and large scale manufacturing of biological compounds
(e.g., vaccines, therapeutic proteins).

 Fluorescence microscopy: Fluorescent markers such as GFP, are used to label a specific
component of the cell. Afterwards, a certain light wavelength is used to excite the
fluorescent marker which can then be visualized.

 Phase-contrast microscopy: Uses the optical aspect of light to represent the solid, liquid, and
gas phase changes as brightness differences.

 Confocal microscopy: Combines fluorescence microscopy with imaging by focusing light

and snap shooting instances to form a 3-D image.

 Transmission electron microscopy: Involves metal staining and the passing of electrons
through the cells, which will be deflected upon interaction with metal. This ultimately forms
an image of the components being studied.

 Cytometry: The cells are placed in the machine which uses a beam to scatter the cells based
on different aspects and can therefore separate them based on size and content. Cells may
also be tagged with GFP-fluorescence and can be separated that way as well.

 Cell fractionation: This process requires bre

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Cell types
There are two fundamental classifications of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are
distinguished from eukaryotic cells by the absence of a cell nucleus or other membrane-
bound organelle. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, making them the smallest
form of life. Prokaryotic cells include Bacteria and Archaea, and lack an enclosed cell nucleus.
Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They range from 10–100 μm in
diameter, and their DNA is contained within a membrane-bound nucleus. Eukaryotes are organisms
containing eukaryotic cells. The four eukaryotic kingdoms are animalia, plantae, fungi, and protista.

They both reproduce through binary fission. Bacteria, the most prominent type, have
several different shapes, although most are spherical or rod-shaped. Bacteria can be classed as
either gram-positive or gram-negative depending on the cell wall composition. Gram-positive
bacteria have a thicker peptidoglycan layer than gram-negative bacteria. Bacterial structural features
include a flagellum that helps the cell to move, ribosomes for the translation of RNA to protein, and
a nucleoid that holds all the genetic material in a circular structure. There are many process that
occur in prokaryotic cells that allow them to survive. In prokaryotes, mRNA synthesis is initiated at
a promoter sequence on the DNA template comprising two consensus sequences that recruit RNA
polymerase. The prokaryotic polymerase consists of a core enzyme of four protein subunits and a σ
protein that assists only with initiation. For instance, in a process termed conjugation, fertility factor
allows the bacteria to possess a pilus which allows it to transmit DNA to another bacteria which
lacks the F factor, permitting the transmittance of resistance allowing it to survive in certain
environments

Structure of eukaryotic cells

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Eukaryotic cells are composed of the following organelles:

 Nucleus: The nucleus of the cell functions as the genome and genetic information storage
for the cell, containing all the DNA organized in the form of chromosomes. It is surrounded
by a nuclear envelope, which includes nuclear pores allowing for transportation of proteins
between the inside and outside of the nucleus. This is also the site for replication of DNA as
well as transcription of DNA to RNA. Afterwards, the RNA is modified and transported out
to the cytosol to be translated to protein.
 Nucleolus: This structure is within the nucleus, usually dense and spherical in shape. It is the
site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is needed for ribosomal assembly.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): This functions to synthesize, store, and secrete proteins to the
Golgi apparatus. Structurally, the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes found
throughout the cell and connected to the nucleus. The membranes are slightly different from
cell to cell and a cell's function determines the size and structure of the ER.
 Mitochondria: Commonly known as powerhouse of the cell. This functions for the
production of energy or ATP within the cell. Specifically, this is the place where the Krebs
cycle or TCA cycle for the production of NADH and FADH occurs. Afterwards, these
products are used within the electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation
for the final production of ATP.
 Golgi apparatus: This functions to further process, package, and secrete the proteins to their
destination. The proteins contain a signal sequence which allows the golgi apparatus to
recognize and direct it to the correct place.
 Lysosome: The lysosome functions to degrade material brought in from the outside of the
cell or old organelles. This contains many acid hydrolases, proteases, nucleases, and lipases,
which break down the various molecules. Autophagy is the process of degradation through
lysosomes which occurs when a vesicle buds off from the ER and engulfs the material, then,
attaches and fuses with the lysosome to allow the material to be degraded.

 Ribosomes: Functions to translate RNA to protein. it serves as a site of protein synthesis.

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  Cytoskeleton: Cytoskeleton is a structure that helps maintain their shape and general
organization of cytoplasm. It anchors organelles within the cells and makes up the structure
and stability of the cell. The cytoskeleton is composed of three principal types of protein
filaments: actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, which are held together
and linked to subcellular organelles and the plasma membrane by a variety of accessory
proteins.
 Cell membrane: The cell membrane can be described as a phospholipid bilayer and is also
consisted of lipids and proteins. Because the inside of the bilayer is hydrophobic and in
order for molecules to participate in reactions within the cell, they need to be able to cross
this membrane layer to get into cell via osmotic pressure, diffusion, concentration gradients,
and membrane channels.
 Centrioles: Function to produce spindle fibers which are used to separate chromosomes
during cell division.

Eukaryotic cells may also be composed of the following molecular components:

 Chromatin: This makes up chromosomes and is a mixture of DNA with various proteins.
 Cilia: They help to propel substances and can also be used for sensory purposes.

Cell cycle checkpoints and DNA damage repair system

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The cell cycle is composed of a number of well-ordered, consecutive stages that result in cellular
division. The fact that cells do not begin the next stage until the last one is finished, is a significant
element of cell cycle regulation. Cell cycle checkpoints are characteristics that constitute an
excellent monitoring strategy for accurate cell cycle and divisions. Cdks, associated cyclin
counterparts, protein kinases, and phosphatases regulate cell growth and division from one stage to
another. The cell cycle is controlled by the temporal activation of Cdks, which is governed by
cyclin partner interaction, phosphorylation by particular protein kinases, and de-phosphorylation by
Cdc25 family phosphatases. In response to DNA damage, a cell's DNA repair reaction is a cascade
of signaling pathways that leads to checkpoint engagement, regulates, the repairing mechanism in
DNA, cell cycle alterations, and apoptosis. Numerous biochemical structures, as well as processes
that detect damage in DNA, are ATM and ATR, which induce the DNA repair checkpoints

The cell cycle is a sequence of activities in which cell organelles are duplicated and subsequently
separated into daughter cells with precision. There are major events that happen during a cell cycle.
The processes that happen in the cell cycle include cell development, replication and segregation of
chromosomes. The cell cycle checkpoints are surveillance systems that keep track of the cell
cycle's integrity, accuracy, and chronology. Each checkpoint serves as an alternative cell cycle
endpoint, wherein the cell's parameters are examined and only when desirable characteristics are
fulfilled does the cell cycle advance through the distinct steps.The cell cycle's goal is to precisely
copy each organism's DNA and afterwards equally split the cell and its components between the
two new cells. Four main stages occur in the eukaryotes. In G1, the cell is usually active and
continues to grow rapidly, while in G2, the cell growth continues while protein molecules become
ready for separation. These are not dormant times; they are when cells gain mass, integrate growth
factor receptors, establish a replicated genome, and prepare for chromosome segregation. DNA
replication is restricted to a separate Synthesis in eukaryotes, which is also known as the S-phase.
During mitosis, which is also known as the M-phase, the segregation of the chromosomes occur.
[35]
DNA, like every other molecule, is capable of undergoing a wide range of chemical reactions.
Modifications in DNA's sequence, on the other hand, have a considerably bigger impact than
modifications in other cellular constituents like RNAs or proteins because DNA acts as a permanent
copy of the cell genome. When erroneous nucleotides are incorporated during DNA replication,
mutations can occur. The majority of DNA damage is fixed by removing the defective bases and
then re-synthesizing the excised area. On the other hand, some DNA lesions can be mended by
reversing the damage, which may be a more effective method of coping with common types of
DNA damage. Only a few forms of DNA damage are mended in this fashion, including pyrimidine
dimers caused by ultraviolet (UV) light changed by the insertion of methyl or ethyl groups at the
purine ring's O6 position.

Mitochondrial membrane dynamics

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Mitochondria are commonly referred to as the cell's "powerhouses" because of their capacity to
effectively produce ATP which is essential to maintain cellular homeostasis and metabolism.
Moreover, researchers have gained a better knowledge of mitochondria's significance in cell
biology because of the discovery of cell signaling pathways by mitochondria which are crucial
platforms for cell function regulation such as apoptosis. Its physiological adaptability is strongly
linked to the cell mitochondrial channel's ongoing reconfiguration through a range of mechanisms
known as mitochondrial membrane dynamics, which include endomembrane fusion and
fragmentation (separation) as well as ultrastructural membrane remodeling. As a result,
mitochondrial dynamics regulate and frequently choreograph not only metabolic but also
complicated cell signaling processes such as cell pluripotent stem cells, proliferation, maturation,
aging, and mortality. Mutually, post-translational alterations of mitochondrial apparatus and the
development of transmembrane contact sites among mitochondria and other structures, which both
have the potential to link signals from diverse routes that affect mitochondrial membrane dynamics
substantially,[35] Mitochondria are wrapped by two membranes: an inner mitochondrial membrane
(IMM) and an outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), each with a distinctive function and
structure, which parallels their dual role as cellular powerhouses and signaling organelles. The inner
mitochondrial membrane divides the mitochondrial lumen into two parts: the inner border
membrane, which runs parallel to the OMM, and the cristae, which are deeply twisted,
multinucleated invaginations that give room for surface area enlargement and house the
mitochondrial respiration apparatus. The outer mitochondrial membrane, on the other hand, is soft
and permeable. It, therefore, acts as a foundation for cell signaling pathways to congregate, be
deciphered, and be transported into mitochondria. Furthermore, the OMM connects to other cellular
organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), lysosomes, endosomes, and the plasma
membrane. Mitochondria play a wide range of roles in cell biology, which is reflected in their
morphological diversity. Ever since the beginning of the mitochondrial study, it has been well
documented that mitochondria can have a variety of forms, with both their general and ultra-
structural morphology varying greatly among cells, during the cell cycle, and in response to
metabolic or cellular cues. Mitochondria can exist as independent organelles or as part of larger
systems; they can also be unequally distributed in the cytosol through regulated mitochondrial
transport and placement to meet the cell's localized energy requirements. Mitochondrial dynamics
refers to the adaptive and variable aspect of mitochondria, including their shape and subcellular
distribution.

Autophagy
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Autophagy is a self-degradative mechanism that regulates energy sources during growth and
reaction to dietary stress. Autophagy also cleans up after itself, clearing aggregated proteins,
cleaning damaged structures including mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum and eradicating
intracellular infections. Additionally, autophagy has antiviral and antibacterial roles within the cell,
and it is involved at the beginning of distinctive and adaptive immune responses to viral and
bacterial contamination. Some viruses include virulence proteins that prevent autophagy, while
others utilize autophagy elements for intracellular development or cellular splitting. Macro
autophagy, micro autophagy, and chaperon-mediated autophagy are the three basic types of
autophagy. When macro autophagy is triggered, an exclusion membrane incorporates a section of
the cytoplasm, generating the autophagosome, a distinctive double-membraned organelle. The
autophagosome then joins the lysosome to create an autolysosome, with lysosomal enzymes
degrading the components. In micro autophagy, the lysosome or vacuole engulfs a piece of the
cytoplasm by invaginating or protruding the lysosomal membrane to enclose the cytosol or
organelles. The chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) protein quality assurance by digesting
oxidized and altered proteins under stressful circumstances and supplying amino acids through
protein denaturation. Autophagy is the primary intrinsic degradative system for peptides, fats,
carbohydrates, and other cellular structures. In both physiologic and stressful situations, this cellular
progression is vital for upholding the correct cellular balance. Autophagy instability leads to a
variety of illness symptoms, including inflammation, biochemical disturbances, aging, and
neurodegenerative, due to its involvement in controlling cell integrity. The modification of the
autophagy-lysosomal networks is a typical hallmark of many neurological and muscular illnesses.
As a result, autophagy has been identified as a potential strategy for the prevention and treatment of
various disorders. Many of these disorders are prevented or improved by consuming polyphenol in
the meal. As a result, natural compounds with the ability to modify the autophagy mechanism are
seen as a potential therapeutic option. The creation of the double membrane (phagophore), which
would be known as nucleation, is the first step in macro-autophagy. The phagophore approach
indicates dysregulated polypeptides or defective organelles that come from the cell membrane,
Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. With the conclusion of the
autophagocyte, the phagophore's enlargement comes to an end. The auto-phagosome combines with
the lysosomal vesicles to formulate an auto-lysosome that degrades the encapsulated substances,
referred to as phagocytosis.

Notable cell biologists

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 Jean Baptiste Carnoy
 Peter Agre
 Günter Blobel
 Robert Brown
 Geoffrey M. Cooper
 Christian de Duve
 Robert Hooke
 H. Robert Horvitz
 Marc Kirschner
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
 Ira Mellman
 Peter D. Mitchell
 Rudolf Virchow
 Paul Nurse
 George Emil Palade
 Keith R. Porter
 Ray Rappaport
 Michael Swann
 Roger Tsien
 Edmund Beecher Wilson
 Kenneth R. Miller
 Matthias Jakob Schleiden
 Theodor Schwann
 Yoshinori Ohsumi
 Jan Evangelista

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