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AGARD-CP-237

REACLLE 9220 ERo-cSUeSINEFRNC

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C.2 AGARD CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS No. 237

C Seal Technology in Gas Turbine Engines

DDC

TT____ F OCT 25 1978

tifor public releasel T 7r rr--L1L

Distribution Unlimited

DISTRIBUTION AND AVAILABILITY

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 AGARD-CP-237

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

(ORGANISATION DUJ TRAITE DE L'ATLANTIQUE NORD)

oceedingo23
Conference
AGA
6 JEAL TECHNOLOGY IN 9AS TURBINE ENGINES.*

TUTION
r. STA'rEMNT A

DD

ff1
Papers presented at the Propulsion and Energetics Panel's 5 1st (B) Specialists' Meeting
In London, United Klngdozn 6-7 April 1978.
 TIlE MISSION OF AGARD

The mission of AGARD is to bring together the leading personalities of the NATO nations in the fields of
science and technology relating to aerospace for the following purposes:

- Exchanging of scientific and technical information;

- Continuously stimulating advances in the aerospace sciences relevant to strengthening the common defence
posture;

- Improving the co-operation among member nations in aerospace research and development;

- Providing scientific and technical advice and assistance to the North Atlantic Military Committee In the
field of aerospace research and development;
- Rendering scientific and technical assistance, as requested, to other NA4TO bodies and to member nations
in connection with research and development problems in the aerospace field;

- Providing assistance to menmber nations for the purpose of increasing their scientific and technical potential;

* - Recommending effective ways for the member nations to use their research and development capabilities
for the common benefit of the NATO community.

'The highest authority within AGARD is the National Delegates Board consisting of officially appointed senior
representatives from each member nation. The mi•ion of AGARD Is carried out through the Panels which are
composed Of experts appointed by the National Delegates, the Consultant and Exchange Program and the Aerospace
Applications Studies Program. The results of AGARD work are reported to the member nations and the NATO
Authorities thzuugh the AGARD series of publications of which this is one.

Participation In AGARD activities is by Invitation only and is normally limited to citizens of the NATO nations.

The content of this publication has been reproduced

directly from material supplied by AGARD or the authors,

Publied August 1978

Copyright 0 AGARD 1978
All Rights Reserved
ISBN 92-835-0218-3

Prlnted by TtchnicalEditing and Reproduction Ltd

Harford Howse, 7-9 Charlotte St. London, WIP IlN)

ii
 PROPULSION AND ENERGETICS PANEL

Chairman: Prof. Dr Ing.G.Winterfeld, DFVLR, Institut tMr Antrlebstechnlk, Postfach 90 60 58, 5000 K61n 90, Germany
Deputy Chairman: Dr J.Dunham, National Gas Turbine Establishment, Pyestock, Farnborough GUI4 OLS,
Hants, UK

PROGRAM COMMITTEE

Prof. E.E.Covert (Chairman), MIT, U.S.

Prof. J.Chauvin, Institut do Micanlque des Fluides, France
Prof. D.Dini, Universita di Pit, Italy
Mr A.J.B.Jackson, Rolls Royce Ltd, U.K.
Ing. Gen. AJourneau, DRME, France
Prof. FWazelt, Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, Germany

HOST NATION COORDINATOR

Mr J.S.Price, MOD, Procurement Executive, U.K.

PANEL EXECUTIVE
Dipl-Ing. J.H.Krengel, D.I.C.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

V The Propulsion and Energetics Panel wishes to express its thanks to the UK National
Delegatzs to AGARD for the Invitation to hold Its 51st Meeting at the Church House, London,
UK, and for the facilitics and personnel made available for this meeting.

i , . .. . ,. .. . ..........

•:''!i:'•I................................."•:'...................
.. ............ •'......i"......... i ... " "... : •:
 PREFACE
This meeting was one of a series in the gas turbine engine field sponsored and arranged
by the Propulsion and Energetics Panel of AGARD to stimulate discussion and information
transfer between specialists.
The purpose of the meeting was to provide a forum to discuss technology of gas turbine
engine seals. The discussion was limited to cases where relative motion exists between parts
of the seals. Both gas path and oil path seals were covered.
The initial presentation was a comprehensive survey showing the effect of engine
operation on seal performance and the effect of seal performance on engine performance,
This survey was followed by presentations on new developmants inmaterial technology that
influences seal design and operation, The user's'view of seals focussed on operational perfor-
mance, Its impact on airline operations, maintainability of seals Including repair techniques,
and maintenance costs.
Engine producers contributed discussions based on their experience in the development
of seals for large and small engines,

tinThe program included presentations upon laboratory measurements and other Investiga-
tosof seal behaviour as well as the development of suitable test facilities.
Methods of design and performance computations were presented and applied to some
particular seal configurations,

Cette rdunion falsalt: partie d'une s~rie consacri~e au domaine des turbines Agaz at italt
organis6e sous 1'6gide du Panel Energdtique et Propulsion de I'AGARD, dans Ie but d'encourager
lea discussions et Iea 6changes d'lnformations entre spdclalistes de cette discipline,
Elie avalt pour objet de constituer un forum ou fut itudise la teclanologio des Joints de
turbines Agiz. L'6tude flat llmitde aux cia oil intervient un mouvement relatif entre let divergse
partle des Joints, et couvrit i Iafois lea circuits de gaz et Ies circuits d'huile,
Au court du premnier expoad, il fut procddd Aun tour d'horizon exhaustif des effets du
fonctionnement du moteur sur lea performances des Joints, et r~ciproquarnent. Las
communications sulvantes furent consacrdes sux ddvaloppements ricents en matibre do
technologie des matdriaux et Alour impact sur Isconception et Ie fonctionnement des Joints.
Le point de vue de N'uagger fiat esqlentiellement centr6 sur les performances ophrationnelles,
leur influence sur 1'exploltation des tignes adriennes, Iamaintenabffitd des Joints, y compris lea
techniques do rdparatlon, et les coC~ts de maintenance.
Les motoristes rendirent compta de lour expdriance dana [a domains du ddveloppement
des Joints pour moteurs de petites et de grandes dimensions.
Le programme coomprit 6galenient des exposols mar lea mesures en laboratoire et autres
eocherches our Ie comportement des Joints, ainsi qua our Iedivoloppement d'installatlons
demba addquates. Las mndthodes de conception at de calcul des performances flarent Egalement
prdsentdes, et appliqudes Acertalnes configuprations particulibres de Joints.

IV
 CONTENTS

Page

PROPULSION AND ENERGETICS PANEL wi

PREFACE Iv

TECHNICAL EVALUATION MEMORANDUM

by B.Wrlisey vil

TECHNICAL EVALUATION REPORT

by B.Wrgey ix

Reference

SESSION I - SURVEY

GAS PATH SEALING IN TURBINE ENGINES

by L.P.Ludwis I

SESSION II - MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY

USE OF COATINGS IN TURBOMACHINERY GAS PATH SEALS

by J.G.Fergumon 2

ABRASIVE COATINGS AS SELF CLEANING GAS TURBINE COMPRESSOR VANE TIP SEALS
by A.R.Stetson, J.W.Voan and W.A.Compton 3

APPLICATION DES FEUTRES METALLIQUES OHP AUX JOINTS D'ETANCHEITE DE

TURBOMACHINES
par E.Genleys et A.Hivert 4

SESSION III - USER'S VIEWS OF SEAL TECHNOLOGY

AMERICAN AIRLINES' OPERATIONAL AND MAINTENANCE EXPERIENCE WITH AERODYNAMIC

SEALS AND OIL SEALS IN TURBOFAN ENGINES
by C.R.Smlth $

Paper cance.ied 6

OIL SEALING OF AERO ENGINE BEARING COMPARTMENTS

by D.CWhitlock 7

SESSION IV - MEASUREMENTS OF SEAL BEHAVIOUR

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA IN LABYRINTH-SEALS OF TURBOMACHINES

by T.Boyman and P.Suter 8

STUDIES ON VIBRATIONS STIMULATED BY LATERAL FORCES IN SEALING GAPS

by H.Denckert and J.W&adter 9

THE CONTRIBUTION OF DYNAMIC X-RAY TO GAS TURBINE AIR SEALING TECHNOLOGY

by P.AE.Stewart and KA.Bmaett 10

SESSION V - LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON HIGH SPEED DOUBLE MECHANICAL SEALS

Sby E.Boilins, C.Cmcl and E.Macchi 11

SYSTEMS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF ROTOR IV CLEARANCE AND DISPLACEMENT IN A

GAS TURBINE
by C.R.Amsbury and J.W.H.Chlvet 12
 Reference

DETERMINING AND IMPROVING LABYRINTH SEAL PERFORMANCE IN CURRENT AND

ADVANCED HIGH PERFORMANCE GAS TURBINES
by H.L.Stocker 13

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH RUB TOLERANCE OF COMPRESSOR TIP SEALS

by C.W.Elrod 14

Paper cancelled is

SELF-ACTING SHAFT SEALS

by LP.Ludwig 16

SELF ACTIVE PAD SEAL APPLICATION FOR HIGH PRESSURE ENGINES

by D.Dlin 17

SESSION VI - DESIGN AIDS

GAS TURBINE DISC SEALING SYSTEM DESIGN

by D.A.Campbeil 18

A COMPUTATIONAL TOOL FOR MECHANICAL SEAL DESIGN

by B.S.Nau and R.T.Rowles 19

SESSION VII

ROUND TABLE DISCUSSION RTD

I,!,
 ..SCIHICAL EVALUATION MEMORANDUM

by

D. Wrigley

CONCLUSIONS

In-service performance detariovat',on is a serious problem for Cosmarcial Operators and Air Forceso
particularly in view of the developing fuel situation.

0 goal veer is a major factor in performance deterioration and there is therefor, a significant
6 financial incentive to Ilprove sealing technology.

* Uiieful research is in progress particularly for advenced seal design, but in the field of rubbing
and erosion research has been insufficiently systematic and has generally had to wait for the
initiative given by service problemas.

e Useful measurement techniques already seLst.

* The conference was clearly necessary, in fact over-due. The quality of papers and participation
was of a high standard. The general awareness of the problems and the relevance of the papers
is In itself remarkable.

RIGCOWN1ATON8

0 Slade tip and labyrinth seal rubbinS phenomena need further study.
e Ingine demonstration of advanced "eling concepts should be encouraged.

0 Relevant heat transfer phenomena should be incorporated in future discussion.

0 If4aurement techniques need to be improvedg further.

e Resources should be provided to deal with the above recomsendations.

It should be noted that In this field the resources that need to be committed are such smalser then
in, for axmsptlthe primary turbomachinery fields.
0 Sealing design must be integrated into the engine mechenical design and coqponont Marodynamic

design processes.

a A follow-on activity of PEP Working Group 08 which had dealt with engine deterioration in Air Force Service, is deemed
necessary. It should be invited to provide date on the influence of sealing as experienced by military users,

e Solutions must he developed for existing engines and their derivatives, as these engines will
consum most of the fuel up to the and of the century.

vi

'ii
 TECHNICAL EVALUATION REPORT

by

B. Wrigley

1. INTRODUCTION

The 51st meating of the Propulsion and Energetics Panel on Seal Technology in Gas Turbine Engines
was hald at Church House, Westminister, England an 6th and 7th April 1978. The meeting was arranged
tinder five main hadingst

e material technology, particularly as applied to main flow path blade tip meals.

* uaerts view of seal technology.

0 measurements of sea]. behaviour.

- laboratory experimonts.

* a design aids.

The meeting was held in four sessions, the lost one incorporating a round table discussion.

The presentations were relevant, timely and well received, covering both aircraft and industrial
gas turbines.

Wide ranging coment indicated the value of the meting and suggested the need for a continuing
comitment in this field.

i 2. SOUieY

There are two major issues forcing the pace of sealing technologyi

* • the quest for itproved online efficiency, in a period of rising fuel prices.

a poor in-service reliability of seals and engine performance deterioration in the most recent
generation of subsonic jet engines.

The meeting also identified the following issuesa-

e A significant factor in performance deterioration is the increased clearance and aerofoil

distortion caused by abrasion and erosion.

0 The influence of thermal and mechanical forces on seal clearances.

Theae forces ark usually of a transient nature.

Suitable techniques for measuring these effects were described.

0 Current high bypass ratio engine designs have included features detrimental to achieving low
seal leakage.

0 A wide range of experisents has shown the potential of advanced sealLng techniques for leakage
reduction but this work hbs not yet been taken through to engine demonstration to any substantial
_* extent, nor has the wear characteristic of such seals been adequately established.

3. 1UOOMINDATI(OIS
e Further study is required on blade tip and labyrinth sal rubbing phenomena and should include
fully representative experimentol work and the development of theoretical understanding. Consider-
ation should be given to establishing more formal relationships with machining research.

* seal deslgn sho"ld be thoroughly integrated into the engine dosign process. The mechanical designer
must ensure from the preliminary design phase onwards that the engine is structurally and thermally
beneficial to good seal design. The aerodynaicist must integrate sealing quality into his judgeutl
concerning direction of research and engine design.

0 Opportunity should be provided for the demonstration of advanced seals in representative engineel
"mufficientconfidence will only be established in such seals if reliability end integrity can be
demonstrated.
. User experience represented in the conference was mainly that of a major US trunk operator. Further
infcrmation is Voquired, reflecting other geographical locations, matler operators, industrial users
and pasticulady from miUtay asevices. Referring to the successa work of PEP Working Group 08 which dealt with Aro Hunge
Deterioration in Air Force Service, a follow-on activity should be invited to report on experionce with sals by military uers.

Wl
 a Compressor and turbine aerodynamicists should work towards a better understanding of clearance
sensitivi ty.

he commercial field present engines and derivatives of these engines will account for nearly
.kJv ital fuel consumption up to 2000 AD (Ref.B.). Research should, be directed therefore to
im..ceing the present engines and not just the so-called g3 enginese which may not enter service
until after 1990.

a Further discussion on associated heat transfer phenome~s should be organised. Future engine
improvements will depend greatly on tuning the heat transfer process to reduce clearance.

4. DISCUSSION

The papers have been slightly tegrouped, to allow development of the different subjects starting
from the views expressed by urx;s.

4.1 us811 VIEw or sEAL TzoColmWy

Paper No.1 by L.P. Ludwig identified tha effect of rising fuel price on the significance of the
fuel term in DOC. Recent development to high overall pressure ratios was cited as the significant
factor in causing gas turbines to be more sensitive to sealing standard. Large values f'or in-service
performance deterioration were described, references being given for consmrcial. and military operation.

Paper No.5 by C.R. Smith enlarged on these themes, particularly emphasising the engine suppliers'
responsibility to ensure the operator gets a good return on investment. Fuel consumption was the largest
factor in DOC and deterioration of specific fuel consumption therefore particularly critical, both for
its direct effect and the consequences on shop loading and overhaul costs of trying to maintain the fleet
at the best average level of performance. Primary gas flow path sealing was the major source of perfor.
mance deterioration, slthough secondary flow system sealing could not be ignored. Primary flow path
"dateriurations were caused by tip abrasion (unshrouded liP turbine blades) and excessive erosion of staLic
shrouds. Wear of bearing chamber carbon face seals were associated with high temperatures and long time
between overhauls. The need for closer control of oil cooling of the rubbing elements was identified to
prevent the coking which often occurs at long lives. The financial incentive for improvement of sealing
technology was stated to be the current cost to the operator arising from sealing problem e.g. for a
large US operatort 014m annually. The 'Sealing' cost might eventually reach 70% of the engine mainte-
nasce bill. An appropriate economic climt•e therefore exists in which to promote ths necessary research,
design and development e*ffort.

4.2 SEAL 4ANUFACTURRI RUBBING AND EROSION

The significant causes of performance deterioration identified in 4.1 are cstegorised in paper No.1
by L.P. Ludwig, which surveyed the available seal lining materials and their limitations particularly with
respect to environmsntal temperature and rub eneigy. Blade tips and labyrinth seal knives have required
abradable static liners. Choice of liner has usually been an uncertain process not helped by ianorance
of penetration rate. The balance between good abradability and erosion of the liner has been difficult
to achieve. A cine-film illustrated short and repeated hot rubs, a similar phenomenon being described
in ref.A with low rub penetration rates. Greater certainty was indicated for the coating of a drum
rotor, usually a hard oxide abrasive. The potential benefits of ceramic or ceramic/metal shrouds for
HP turbine blade tips was indicated, further research being required owing to the very high local heat
transfer coefficients present.

Paper No.2 by J.Q. Ferguson described testing techniques of differing sophistication for abradeble
linings. The debris removal mechanism was cited as a possible cause of discrepancy between rubbing tests,
highlighting the requirement for truly representative testing including airflow. Method of application
as well as the composition of the abradable lining have been significant factors in determining quality.
Experimental technique* for testing abradablos have not allowed confident selection of mateorial for ongine
seals. A.R. Stetson in Paper No.3 dealt specifically with compressor van tip abrasion. The value of
en extremely sharp abrasive in mininiaing vane metal loss, tip distortion and cemperature was clearly
established. By Implication increase of clearance above the pra-determLned penetration was also miniaLsed.
Ploim spraying was shown to reduce the abrasiveness seriously mad it was necessary to use a low temperature
bond to avoid this. The coating could be easily sprayed to isa" and required curing. It was cleared
for use at up to 700 K.

I Another amnaufacturing technique, for an abradeblo felt, was described In Paper No,4 by A. Rtvert. An

with the taabrasive nmterial of the previous paper low thermal conductivity wasl a characteristic, s
manufacturing process for the fibres and the moulding technique for the felt were described. A soluble
bond for easier repair wae available for temperatures up to 611K. Brasing wee necessary at higher
temperature s.

The lack of consistency between rig and engine tests of abradable tip seals noted by J.G. Ferguson
is also brought out in Paper No.14 by C.a. Ilrod. In order to tackle this deficiency in engine represent-
ative rig has been designed and is currently being commissioned. A specific feature of testing will cover
titanium ignition phenomena. complementary testing with laser ignition of representative titanium alloy
staples was described. The effect of air velocity, pressure and taemtrature on burning raft and psope&-
ation to other 'larofoilst was examined. Fires could be extinguished by a high @onoemrauLon of Arton.

*B - C55F5• ,m•.snt enine

IX
 4.3 ADVANCED SEALS AND LABORATORY EXPURII6TS

The introductory survey by L.P. Ludwig described the use of sliding face seals for bearing chamber
sealing in a high pressure environment. An example showing substantial SF0 improvement compared with
labyrinth seals was given.

Paper No.11 presented by u. mollins described a range of tests undertaken on small, low rubbing
speed, hydraulic face seals. Data were presented which showed the effect of rotational speed on pumping
between the sliding contact faces. (The cooling flow rates appear to be generous for the siss of seal
and similar values for oil as the cooling medium could present difficulties with oil fead and scavenge
in mall gas turbines). An approach to the design of such a seal is provided by Dr B.S. Kau in Paper
No.19. The interface loading in the gap between the sliding surfaces is considered and a computational
model presented which allows for cavitation in the interface. When program testing is complete correl-
ation with the results of Paper No.11 should be considered.

L.P. Ludwig's second paper (No.16) showed that some important aspects of gas turbine secondary flow
system leakage can be tackled with a fair chance of success. The examination provided for pneumatic
"self-actingseals, showed that high enough values of pressure, rubbing speed, face run-out and temperature
have already been dmonstratod to allow consideration for arduous gas turbine application. Furthermore
heat generation was such less than conventional carbon contact seals. Methods for dealing with steady
and dynamic (seal face runout) situations were described and performance and wear characteristics in tests
up to 500 hours duration were discussed. With further effort to prove reliability and in particular low
wear rates over a long period, it should be possible to provide a feasible alternative to the present
methods of sealing bearing chambers in high pressure environments.

Paper No.17 by Professor D. Dini again identified the advantages of the self-acting pneumatic seal
as one of a range of advanced seal types proposed for modern high performance gae turbines. Inexpensive
laboratory testing but at engine representative conditions has shown the low leakage potential but with
some variations, which may be due to unanticipated local distortions. The paper showed the need to
understand accurately the force mechanisms in such seals, if consistency and long life are to be achieved.
An oil slinger seal was mentioned, which was also covered by D.C. Whitlock in Paper No.7. This type of
seal is quite positive and has no rubbing parts.

Paper No.13 by H.L. Stocker considered performance development of labyrinth seals. Results were
presented which showed gains from refinement of seal knife configuration and the effect of the material
and construction of the static member. At 0.51 mm cleasrance and seal pressure ratio of 2.0 (conditions
for which stepped seals are generally considered), a leakage flow range of greater than 2#1 was indicated
for the full range of seals tested.

At the larger clearances the value of a honeycomb lining on a straight-through seal,and knife in-
clination for a stepped seal was highlighted. The data are particularly important for demonstrating the
affect of rotation. it is clear that the engine designer has bean provided with good labyrinth seal
performance data, from which seal configurations can be selected, providing of course consideration for
the mechanical and rubbing behaviour is given.
Integrity rather than engine performance was the motivation of the remaining two papers in this

section. T. boyman in paper No.8 presented data relevant to bearing chambers sealed by low pressure
drop labyrinths. More accurate prediction of the failure point, defined by oil leaking from the bearing
chamber through the labyrinth, should be possible from the relationship established between oil outward
diffusion rate and Inward airflow. H. Benckert in Paper No.9 described the theoretical and experimental
examination of the pneumatic forces present with swirling flow through a labyrinth. For machines opar-
sting with high density flow the forces can be significant. Further work is in progress covering
changes to the labyrinth proportions.

4.4 SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMUSURIZtNT TRCHIIQUWS

Integration of bearing chamber seals into the design of the oil system, with particular reference to
venting and scavenging arrangements, was described in paper No.7 by D.C. Whitlock. seal performance was
described and assessed against the background of system integrity. Designs ranged from labyrinth saled
chambers of varying degrees of sophistication, to carbon face seals and positive hydraulic seals using
the strong centrifugal fields present. Principlsi and criteria for chamber design, of value to the unsine
designer, were established.

D.A. Campbell in Paper No.18 presented an approach to the design of disc sealing and cooling systems,
an Important topic owing to the large disc entrained air flows on present and future high rim speed disca.
Minlmising the cooling air supplied to disc cavities is dependent on associated seal performance. It is
Important in the design of these systems that secondary flows are not reduced at the expense of disc
Integrity. A benefit of 0.5%SF0 was quoted for halving disc sealing flows on a large transport engine.

PB.A. Stewart and K.A. brasnett in Paper No.10 on X-ray moasurement techniques described a powerful
diagnostic tooL, which does not require special engine preparation other than installation in a medically
safe, test bad Transient surveys have generally been made to define the timing for instantaneous X-ray
photographs, of high accuracy for a wide range of metal thicknesses. Complementary methods, which can
provide continuous output of clearance but which require an engine to be specially instrumented , were
described in Paper No.12 by 0.3. Amabury and J.V.t. Ohivers. The value of the existing techniques in
understanding seal clearance behaviour was stressed. Even so the need for further development of measure-
mrnt techniques was indicated.

i . . .. . ... . ..
 5. ROUND TABLE DISCUSSIOI

lMmberst Hr A.J.B. Jackson (Moderator), UK

Ing Gen A. Journeau, France
Hr L.P. LIdwig, U.S.A.
Prof F. Wazelt, Germany
Mr B. Wrigley, UK 4

Each of the members gave their comments after which there wee general discussion.

Several speakers emphasised the need to increase research and development activity. In no way was
the effort thought to be equivalent to that in the primary turbo machinery areas, particularly when allow-
ance was made for the possible return on iovestment. F. Mahler drew attention to the increased depend.
once on good sealing of the future energy efficient engines and suggested that component ne=odynamic
design could be dictated by sealing technology.

Attention was also drawn to the necessity for engine designs which maintain roundness and concent-
ricity. It was suggested that positive evidence was available from the most recent large subsonic trais-
port engines, that attention, particularly in the conceptual phase of design, to rotor mid casing rigidity,
will substantially reduce in-service deterioration rate.

The importance of good measurement techniques was again emphasised. Although the terms of reference
of the conference were limited to seals with relative movemsnt, some speakers used this discussion to
identify leakage potential between adjacent stationary parts. The value of the conference was stressed 4
as was the need for further meetings.

In his resame Mr Jackson again emphasised the powerful incentive for advancing sealing technology.
He thought that the technology was considerably behind turbotachinery and posed a question for operators.
Taking the analogy of hot end life extension by adopting 'flexible' thrust ratings, were there operating
techniques which would extend seal lives?
I
6. CONCLUSOiNS

0 In-service performance deterioration is serious in its direct financial impact and also due to
its effect on the maintenance and repair burden.

* Beal deterioration, particularly in the primary flowpath, contributes substantially to the

performance deterioration. Although the majority of fresh evidence was from commercial operation,
it is well known that the Air Forces suffer similar problems .

0 Although such research In Lhis field is in hand, the coamitment of resources and money is not
commnsurate with either the need to fix current engines or the potential return in future energy
efficient engines. It appears from an assessment of the papers, against the background of service
problems, that the majority of the current research work is of a Ifire-fightingl nature. This
seems to apply particularly in the fields of rubbing and erosion, where only slowly is a systematic
campaign, aimed at providing a sound base for future designs, being mounted.

0 An abrasive coating should be fiercely abrasive to minimise wear beyond the .,Inetration depth and
to minisise heat generation. Such coatings are feasible. Plasma spraying seriously reduces
abrasiveness.
0 ThQ relationship between labyrinth seal flow resistance and clearance and lining material, has been
established for a range of labyrinth configurations. towaever there is scope for further correlation
of eristing test data.

0 Sealing problems generally require an understanding of clearance variation mad measurement techniques
are vital. Useful techniques, including X-ray measurements, have been described but the need for
much more compact probes, which can provide a continuous signal, was identified.

9 It appears that there is considerable variation of opinion regarding the sensitivity of compressor
efficiency to tip clearance,

* e Different engine companies adopt a traditional, perhaps even reactionary approach to bearing chamber
"sealinS. This caution is a consequence of the necessity for extremly high standards of Integrity
in this context and the failure to provide engine demonstration of alternative approaches. The
NASA work on pnematsic self-acting seals is encouraging, particularly for high pressure environments,
and has the potential for overcoming sow of the draw-backs of current low leakage seals.

a Heat transfer phenomena associated with clearance control was not covered adequately. The following
areas are clearly important$.

a thermal respon"se of rotating discs

• casing thermal response, particularly the heat transfer mechanism over blade tips

a heat distribution during a rub

2 e local effects in labyrinth seals

a Future enargy efficient engines are likely to prove more demanding with respect to the standard
of sealing required.

xii
I. Ludwig, L.P. Gas Poth Sealing Zn Turbine Engines.

2. Ferguson, J.G. Use of Coatings in Turbomachinery Gas Path Seals.

3. Stetson, A.&. Abrasive Coatings as Self-Clearing Gas Turbine Compressor

Vogan, J.V. Vane Tip Seals.
Compton, W.A.

4. Oustey , g. Application des Feutres M6talliques OHP aux Joints

HLvert, A. d'EtanchditO de Turbomachines
S. ledth. G.R. smricin ALrlines? Operational and Maintenance Experience with
Asrodynamic Seals and oil Seals in Turbofan Engines.

7. Whitlock, D.C. oil Sealing of Asro Engine 3earing Compartments.

. lBoyan, T. Transport Phenomena in Labyrinth-Seals of Turbomiahines.

utier. P.

9. Seackart, H. Studies on Vibrations Stimulated by Lateral Fcrces in Sealing

Wethter, J. Gaps.

10. Stewart, P.A.o. The Contribution of Dynmic X-Ray to Gas Turbine Air Sealing
&rasnett, KLA* Technology.

I1. sollins, E. Experimental Results on High Speed Double Mechanicel Seals.

Casci, C.

12. Aneabfry, G.R. Systems for the Ilsasurarant of Rotor Tip Clearance end Displacement
Chivers, J.W,.H in a Gas Turbine

13. Stocker, M.L. Determining end Improving Labyrinth Seal Performance in Current
end Advanced High Performance Gas Turbines.

14. lirod, C.W. Factors As.toceted with Rub Tolerance of Compressor Tip Seals.

16. Ludwig. L.P. Self-Acting ShAft Seale.

17. DiniL, D. Self-Active Lift Seal Application for High Pressure Engines

18. Gcambell, D.A. Gas Turbine Disc Sealing System Design.

19. Mau, B.S. A Computational Tool for Mechanical Seal Design.

Rowles, I.T.

1o Papers 6 end 15 were cancelled.

A NASA Tech laper 1128 - 'friction and wear of several Compressor Gas Path Materia4s8.
E.C. Bill nd D.W. Wisander.

B ASHN ýaper 78.GT-192 - $Advanced Turbofan Engines for Low Fuel Consumption',
W. Sans

xWi
 GAS PATH SEALING INTURBINE ENGINES

by
Lawrence P. Ludwig
National Aeronautics and Space Admnisltration
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio 44135

SUMMARY
A survey of gan path neal. is presented with partlc'iiar attention given to sealing clearance effects on engine
component efficiency. The effects on compressor pressure ratio and stall margin are pointed out. Various case-
rotor relative displaoemners, which affect gas path seal clearances, are identified. Forces produced by nonuniform
sealing clearances tnd their effect on rotor stability are discussed qualitatively, and reoent work on turbine-blade-
tip sealing for high temperatures is described. The need for active clearance control and for engine structural
analysis is discussed. The fuanctions of the Internal-flow aystem and its seal are reviewed.

1. INTIK)DUCTJ)N
Aircraft gas turbine enginea have many sealing locations: along the shaft, over rotor blade tips, and between
stages. A large engine may have over 50 (Fig. 1), and the cumulative effect of leakage on engine power, thrust, and
aircraft range can be significant. Reference 1 characteriless gas path sealing as a fundamental and continuing prob-
Iem, which worsens "s gas turbine enginie, advance to higher cycle pressures and temperatures. Of particular in-
terest is the effect of sealing on ongine efficiency, which hia taken on added interest becaund of the pending petroleum
scaxcity and attendant higher prics..
* The airline Industry in the United Sates consumes only 10% of the total petroleum demand in the United State..
By 1965 consumption may reach 15% (Fig. 2 from Hef. 2), but fuel coat may markedly impact the aircraft industry,

Reference 3 emphasizes the need for low fuel consumption noyw and In the near future becauve of fuel price., with
fuel reaching 53.5% of the direct operating coat (DO0C) when the price 13 50 cents per gallon (see Table 1). In the long
term, when demand for oil exceeds productive capacity (We. 4), a sharp price inoreaae is anticipated by acme Josee
Fig. 3). in general, anticipated fuel scarcity and prices mean that new engines, In addition to the four basic require-
ment. of reliability, durability, low maintenance, and increased power, must also be fuel efficient.

Reference 5 givesa edltloal. Information an the relative Impact of various parameters on DOC and this is shown
in Fig. 4, which reveal. that DOC in much more sonaitive to change. in "odciic fuel consumption (SVC) than engine
weight. Increased fuel scarcity and price. also focus attention on engine performance deterioration, which for high
pressure ratio engine. is due mainly to the opening up of sealing clearanoces by erosion and wear.
Engines of the 1950 design era operate at relattively low pressure ratios, and clearance. over tU. blade tips were
large enough to avoid rubbing. Modern engines have pressure ratios in the nange of 25:1, and to praservc efficiency
the sealing olearances were reduced. Theme cimaller clearances made rubbing contact; at sealing locations inevitable
and brought about the introduction of "abradable" material, which are designed to wear sacriflocaally.
Abradable material. which can solve only part of the sealing clearance problem, have not beezi fully succesaful
because of the erosion and wear of blades. Evidence of thin INin airline reports, which note on engine overhaul,
that them modern engine. deteriorate faster than earlier ones. Typically, high bypass ratio engine, have a specifio
fueloonsunlpion (SFC) 1oreaso of Ito1J %per year (Ref. 6)1 periodic overhauls donot fully recover thisefficiency
*loss (Fig. 5). The final result Is an engine with a fuel consumption which ias3 to 10% higher than that of a now engine;
* Ref. 2 places the average fuel consumption increase at 7 %. For a military turbofan Rdf. 7 places the SF0 Increase
at near 2J% In 250 hours and indicate, that much of this Is due to Increases in seal leakage. In addition to the sedfc
on efficiency, the sealing clearances also hae" a aignifican effect on the compressor stall margin and arm directly
responsible for 'thrust droop" which can be as high as 12% (1W. 7).
The objective of this stUdy was to inarvy the present etate-of-the-ert of turbine engine sealing with attention
given to (1)the sensitivity of oomponent efficiency to sealing; (2) the mechanical anW thermal effects which control
the sealing clearances; and (3)technology needs..

OTAX Categor 07
 1-2

2. SEALING LOCATIONS AND SEAL TYPES

Primary Gas Path, Compressor and Turbine

In general, primary guo path seals perform two functions: t

(1) To minimize gas recirculation
(2) To minimize gas leakage out of the primary gas path.
88a11ng to minimize gas recirculation is folind at the following compressor (Fig. 6) and turbine (Fig. 7) locations:

(1) Rotor stapes

to) For unahzrouded rotors between blade tips arnd the case inner wall (Fig.. 6(a) and 7 (a)) und for shrouded
rotors between blade shroud and the came (Figs. 6() snd 7(b))
(b) Blade roots and platforms.
(2) Stator stages - For cantilevered vanes between compressor vane tips and rotor (Fig. 6(b)), and for shrouded
vanes between the inner shroud and the rotor labyrinth teeth (Figs. 6(a) and 7 (b)).

(3) Cavities. - Rim sealing (FIg. 7(b)) to prevent hot gas Ingestion into the turbine cavities.
Sealing to limit gas loss from the primary gas path occurs at the following locations:

(1) Flawgs

* (2) Vane pivos (Fig. 6(c)) - Compressor leakage at the vane pivots can be an high as 0,3~% of engine airflow per
age O1w. 8).
* (3) Compressor and seal (Fig. 6(d) from Rotf. 9) - Controls cooling and purging flows and rotor tlhrust balance.

* returned to the primary flow In a lower pressure region.

Prsuizdar which is bled off the primary flow, enters the internal-flow system and Ii used to purge
.1cavliles (prevent hot gas Ingestion), pressurize bearing compartments, aot as a sweep gas to prevent lubricant leok-%
F age, cool parts, and balance the rotor thrust. The internal-flow is largely controlled by labyrinth sealml although
rubi~bng carbon seals are sometimes used at the mainshaft sealing locations. Problems arise because wear to these
* ~internal-flow system me~.s changes the amount of air delivered.
Reference 10 points out that increases in pressure ratios, bypass ratio., and turbine temperatures tend to in-
crease the thermodynamic loss chargeable to the Internal-flow systems this trend ts indicated in Fig. 8, in which
the SFC penalty for an increase internal-flow to plotted as a function of bypass ratio. According to those data
the SIC penalty increases when either bypass ratio or pressure ratio is increased, In addition, with the continuing
trend to high temperatures there is an associated requirement for more cooling and purging flow,
The marked effect of internal-flow system in also indicated by the study of Hef. 11 on the leakage effects in a
snall engine having a oomprossor flow of 2.3 kg/sec (6 lbi/sec). The perfurnianýe of this engine was calculated
for zero clearance and for typlWa seal clearances assigned to each position. The results (Fig. 9) show that the moat
Fsignificant losses arein the labyrinth meals for which the calculated penalty in a17% loss in power and a7j% In-
crease in OFC.
As mentioned previously, the Internal flows are largely controlled by labyrinth seals at various locations such
me at the compressor discharge (Fig. 6(d)), high pressure turbine (Fig. 10), and bearing sumps. Labyrinth seals
are atractive becauac of their mechanical simplicity, reliability, and freedom from limitations on axial displ*aYe-
mezts. Common configurations are the straight and stepped designs (Fig. 11). Both are reasonably effective when
clearances are small, But both lose performance fast with wear. When large clearances are dictated by transient
thermal cond*itins, the performance tends to be poor. But the stepped seals ase less sensitive to clearance changes,
and, in general, have significantly less leakage than the straight design.
To obtain close olearance*, the labyrinth seals must be designed to tolerate rubs. and the general practice in
aircraft gas turbines ts to place labyrinth teeth on the rotor and IWoally have all of the wear, due to lInterference,
take place on the Moator rub surfae. The reasons for attempting to have all of the wear occur in the tAtor rub our-

face am
 (1) In loouationm in which the rubs tend to be local (accommodation of ecoentricity, out-of-roundnuso, etc.), wear
to the msttor is a letser Increase in leakage area. Otan the 360c of area Increase which courc. with k'otor wear.

(2) in some locations the realtive displacement of the tstaor and rotor Includes axdal and radial components that
hae" a correspondenoe with an engine operating condition. As illustrated in Fig. 12Qal,. it i. possible tn accommodate
interferences produced by theme displacements and yet maintain an acceptable sealing clearance, On the other hand.
U the rotor labyrinth teeth wear Inatead of the stator, the final leakage clearance toiIncreased by the Interference
depth of the rub.
(3) Sastor wear introduces the possibility of designing to obtain stator/rotor interlocking operation in acme ao-
pLications (Fig. 12(b)).

Labyrinth teethr are generally thin In order to (a) promote aharp edge orifice flow oharacterlistcs, (b) limit the
into the rotor precludes a rotor thermal response, which could aggravate the rubbing and lead to a ostiLArophio
failure.

as Illustrated in Fig. 13. Figure 14 shows several shaft seal schematic. far the turbine bearing sump location.

Here the basic problam is the protection of the bearing sump from the turbine cooling gas. in early engines the
'I ~~cooling gas pressure and temperature was relatively low and a singl labyrinth seal, which restriaWe turbine cooling
gas leakage Into the sump, was adequate. Single labyrinth meals hve" been used to pressure differentials of 34 N/am
* ~(50 pal). At the"e pressures the efficiency loan due to seal leakage was generally inslignff ad. However, a disad-
vantage of the labyrinth seal. as compared with the olose-clearence seals (circumaferential and face). in easier pa*-
sage of airborne water and dirt into the sump. In addition, for labyrinth seals, reverse pressure drops must be
avoided to preclude high oil loss. In fact, a slight positive pressure differential should be maintained to prevent oil
leakage.

* When high-pressure air is required for turbine cooling, the multIple-labyrinth system (Fig. 140b)) to often used
(in large engines). In this system low-pressure compressor bleed surrounds the sump, and hence, provides thermal
protectionj leakage Into the sump provides the required sump pressurization. The multIple-labyrinth seal system
2
has higher'operating temperature and speed ospebility, than rubbing contact seals and has been used to 280 N/cm,
(400 psi) and 922 X (12000 F). However, as engine alas decreases, the multiple labyrinths becomes difficult to apply
because of space restrictions (vents, bleeds, lines, etc.). Small engines therefore, require other solutions.

Conventional face seal technology (Fig. 14(c)) can be used to replace the multiple labyrinths up topress.rs of
90 N/cm2 (130 psi) and to sliding speeds of 122 rn/sec (400 ft/sec). In another arrangement, which Is used in some
modern large engines, the labyrinth seal next to the bearing Is replaced by a face seal (see Figs. 10 and 14(d)); this
buffered face seal systemn has the advantage of relatively low leakage into the bearing sump. Also, bearing sum re-
verse pressure differentials#are more readily tolerated. Further, according to the analysis of Ref. 12, the buffered
face meal can signficantly lower the efficiency penalty below that of the mutitllibyrlnth seal system. This analysis,
which was mae&for a large transport engine with a 25:1 prefadre ratio, showed a leakage loss of 0. 88% of engine
airflow for the multllsbyrinth seal system, in contrast, the buffered-lace seal system bleeds less air fromn the
* compressor, and the seal system pressures permit recovery of the bleed loss in the low-pressure turbine. The net
result of the analysis was a predicted 0.6% SFC gain.
In addition to face and labyrinth seals, ring seals are also used for mainsbaft sealing. The simplest is the
"floating" ring (Fig. 15(a)) which is so named because it Is not restrained from moving in a radial direction and,
therefore, can operate with loes leakiage gap clearance than the conventional labyrinth smals (Ref. 13).
Rubbing, circumferential masid operate with very low gas leakages and aria therefore attractive, hI:PAthe pros-
sure differential capability i. generally low because of the rubbing contsac. The aimplest circumferentisl rubbing
seallIscompoeod of a Samentedocarbon ring (thr!e 120 0 segments) hold together bya sorter spring onthe outaids
diameter (Fig. 15(b)). The gaps between the adjaceont ends of the segments are a source of air leakage Into the
bearing cavit.

Other circumferential meal designs incorporate multiple rings with overlapping: Joints to eliminate the leakage
at the gaps between the segments. Pressure balancing of the segments maximizes the pressure and speed capability
2
(Fig. 15(c)). Reference 14 reports aucceasful operation of a pressure balanced cirrcumferential seal to 58 N/cm
(85 psI) and '73 rn/sec (240 ft/see).

In partial summary of this asect~on masln"f seailing ait th6 turbine bearing locations is accomplished by
several different designs; (a) multilabyrinth seals, (b) rubbing contact seals, or (a)a combined mystem, of a rubbing
cnact and labyrinth seals, Labyrinth seals have high leakage, which ceak be a perormaunce penalty, end in small
ognswith rostricte space the high leakage rates are difficult to accommodate. Onr the other hawd, contact seods
 1-4

have low leakage but have limited pressure and speed capabilities. A need, therefore, exists for malnshaft seals
which have low leakage yet are able to function at the pressures and speods expected in advanced engines (pressure
ratioe iu the range of 45:1 (Ref. 15) and seal slding speed could reach 183 to 244 m/sec (600 to 800 ft/oec)).

S. LEAKAGE FLOWS

Blade and Vane Tips Leakage Flows

Leakage flow between the blade (or vane) tip and the adjacent wall is due to

(1) The pressure difference between the suction and pressure side of the blade

(2) The relative wall movement.

The velocity gradient of the flow relative to the blade in represented by the classical Couefte flow profile indioated
in Fig. 16. And the velocity profile produced by the pressure difference in probably similar to that of a si type of
orifice; that In, the classical fully developed profile it not obtained because the ratio of blade thioknees to clearance
iso mall.

In the case of a compressor blade or vane tip, the pressure difference and the relative wall movement both act
to cause leakage in the same direction, in a turbine thes two effects oppose each other. In generil. the loekalg
over the tps flows in a direction tending toward a normal to the main flow, and the resulting interaction of thes two
flows it described by some (Refs. 16 and 17) a a tip vortex such as that depicted in Fig. 17. Reference 17 gives a
detailed description of the tip leakage interaction with the boundary layer. Figure 18 shows that tip leakage flow of
relatively high energy tends to turn back the lower energy secondary-flow and form a core of low energy flul•d this
Score is pushed further toward the blade pressure side as the tip leakage increases. Observations made by the author
of Ref. 18 using a multistage axial flow hydraulic pump confirm that this slot discharge rolls up Into a vortex.
Losses are considered to arise because the velocity component normal to the chord Is not recovered,

Reference 19 presents a method for predicting tip clearanOe effects in turbomachinery, and a semiempirical
expression is formulated using a model in which the lift is uniform along the span and only a part of the bound vortex
is she Iulong the tip. 1kWundary conditions are satisfied through use of image vortioes, and the associated flow is
used to predlct J toed drag. The semiempirical expression for efficienny drop An from the analysis by Ref. 19 Is

in which
An -
005
--

(Prern
+10 (111

A c/o, tip clearance/blade height ratio

2T 2(AP 0 )1i)tn
-blade loading - 2c A - (A

- mean airanglo,

A - aspect ratio of blade

9 flow ooefficient - fluid exit velocity

U blade speed
The preceding formula Is for a cascade and does not include rotation effects. Also, the formula's applicability
needs to be established over a wide range of design parameters. This sugests a need for a better mathematical
model which would accurately reflect the effects of the various parameters. The ocmplex*ty of the flow and the
interaction of the many parameters (such ua chord length, blade loading, aspect ratio, Maeh number, rotational
speed, etc.) suggests that the expression will continue to be aemlempirical.

labyrinth Seal Flows

Two basic approaches are used to predict labyrinth seal leakages: one io based on a pipe friction model, and
Sother, which seems to have wider acceptance, is based on a series of throtlingo. The physics of the flow to
Ilustrated Iin Figs. 19 ad 20. ideally, the kinhtic energy increase across each annular orifice (•tatious I to 2 in
Fig. 19) in oompletely dissipated in the cavity (stations 2 to 3). In atuality, the kineto enewr dissipation is not
complete, and Egli (Hof. 20) introduced the concept of "carry-over" (see fluid dynarmic model In Fig. 20) in order
to account for the incomplete dissipation of kinetic energy in straight labyrinth seals. Reference 21 gives the follow-
Ing cookvolient form of an Egli equation for calculating leakage, W:

W = A(ay VgpPu (2)

where A In the leakage area; 9 is the flow function and a function of N, Pd/Pu; a is the discharge coefficient and
a function of t, c/t; v As the carry-over factor and a function of N, c/a; Pu In the upstream pressure; Pu is the
upstream density; N Is the number of labyrinth teeth; o Is the clearance; t is the tooth thioknemas; a is the tooth
spacing, and Isadthe downstream pressure. The values of p, a, and y are obtained from the graphs in Fig. 21
from Ref. 22.

From the flow function curve (Fig. 21) it in aeen that inoreasng the number of thmrtlings decreases flow but
that the gain beyond six teeth is small. This is one reason why labyrinth geals in aircraft engines generally have
aix or fewer teeth.

The discharge coefficient a is affected by tooth ahape, tip thickness to clearance ratio, pressure ratio across
the tooth, and eccentricity. Extensive experiments (Ref. 1) have shown more complexity than indicated in Fig. 21(b).
For example, the effects of tooth sha on discharge coefficient Is given In Fig. 22; thea data ahow a lignificant
menmsitivity to tooth ahape. Sharp corners provide the lowest disoharge coefficient; however, from a practical view-
point, labyrinth meals generally rub, and rounded corners are common, particularly If the stator rub material is not
easily abraded. Thus the discharge coefficient may approach that of a noamle. (Please read Ref. 1 for a more com-
plete coverage of diacharg coefficient.)

Experimental data are often expresmed in term, of an overall flow parameter 0, which includes the flow funo-
tion V, diacharge coefficient a, and the carry-over factor y. Therefore, equation (2) can be expremsed am

W-V A Pu (3)

An example of experimental data for a labyrinth geal with four teeth Is shown in Fig. 23, in which the flow parameter
*is plotted as a function of pressure ratio. Theme data indicate choking above a pressure ratio of about 2.5. Most
engine manufacturers have considerable labyrinth meal experimental data, and their memiempirical analytical tech-
niques based on them data (e.g., Figs. 22 and 23) permit accurate prediction of the leakage. The major error prob-
ably comee in clearance estimation.

The potential payoff of reduced leakage validates the continuing mearch for Improved labyrinth meals. Potential
reductions may result from the following:

(1) Slator rub materials that increase dissipation (data in Re, 23 show that a honeycomb stator rub surface is
most promising)

(2) Tooth edges that retain corner aharpmesm under rubbing and erosion conditions

(3) Geometries tha reduco carry-over effects

(4) Theoretical studies for added insight with leoo depndence on empirical data (provide optimum dsigns)

(6) Closer running clearances.

4. SEAIANG CLEAANCE SENSIT[VITY

Compressor System Sealing

Many parameters are assoiated with blade tip clearance leakage, some are blade loading, tip thicimess, aspect
ratio, wall relative speed, and Mach number. Bit the one favored as the moat significant by many investigators is
the rtio of clearance a to blade height a. Refeiences 1, 24, ad 25 contain experimental data on relatively largo
diameter fan and compressor efficiency as a function of either clearanoe or c/o ratio. The data of Re. 1 are In
term, of a penalty on a baseline efficiency at near aero clearance (Fig. 24); the absolute levels of efficiency are not
given. On the other hand, data In Refs. 24 and 25 are in terms of efficiency levels, and the ponalty on an efficiency
level at near taro clearance can bo obtained through extrapolation. This, however, requires pome knowledge of the
behavior of the efficiency curve at small c/s ratios.
 Inspection of the relationship between efficiency penalty and c/o ratio in Fig. 24 reveals these general features:

(1) The initial slope of the curve at very low c/s ratios (PiO. 0005) has about a 10% efficiency penalty for eajh
0. 01-Increment in c/s ratio.

(2) The final elope of the curve is constant beyond a c/s ratio of about 0.008 and has a magnitude of about 2%
efficiency penalty for each 0. 01-increment in c/s ratio.
I
(3) There Is no indication of an optimum finite olesaranoe from an efficiency standpoint (although Ref. 19 presents
a heuristic argument for the exstance of an optimum clearance).

Reference 25 shows experimental multistage compressor efficiency as a function of five different clearances
(am Fig. 25). nh closest clearance provided a 0/a ratio of 0.011. This compressor, referred to in Ref. 25 as
"Alice, " had eight stoges and ran at a mean blade speed of 93.9 m/sec (308 ft/seo). With reference to Fig. 25 the
slope of the curve is constant over a wide range of c/o and has a magnitude of 1. 95. This is added evidence that
the final slope of the sensitivity curve shown In Fig. 24 may have general applicability.

Data on clearance effects of slngle-stage fans (Ref. 24) ranges between a c/s of 0.0014 to 0.0118, Thus the
data, which are shown In Fig. 26, span a region in which the slope of the sensitivity curve is rapidly changing,
whereas the data for the "Alice" compressor Is entirely within the final constant slope region. When drawing the
curve In Fig. 26, It was assumed that the Initial and final elopes would be the same as those in Fig. 24. These as-
sumptions seemed to agree with the general trends of the curve and permitted a ahort extrapolation to obtain a base-
line efficiency at a c/s of 0.0005. This extrapolation permits the data to be expressed in terms of efficiency penalty
from a baseline. A comparison with that from Wef. 1is given in Fig, 27. Data from Ref. 24 indicate a greater pen-
alty, and the variances suggest additional studies are needed. In particular, data are needed at small c/o ratios.
Generally, the effect of leakage Is more significant in the small engines because, the leakage flow area is rela-

tively larger. However, a significant problem in large engines is blade tip rubbing from case bending (Hef. 26) and
out-of-roundness. (This to discussed in a later section.) Even though small engines tead to be stiff and hold round-
ness, small engine compressor efficiency tends to be about 5% less than that for large engines (Ref. 27). This faut
*i places increased emphasis on reducing penalties caused by clearance effects.

For a small axial compressor with a diameter of 11.770 cm (4.634 in.), Ref. 28 shows a maximum stage effi-
ciency at design speed of 83.3%; the running tip clearance was 0.78% of the rotor blade mean span, And when the
rotor diameter was machined down to increase the clearance to 2. 14% of blade span, the efficiency decreased by
5.5 points. Additional data on small axial compressors are found in Ref. 27, which contains a compilation of various
sources. There are variances between the sets of data, but all data indicate a serious degradation of efficiency due
to clearances. A typical rate is a 1. 5-peroentage-point loss in efficiency for each increase of 0.01 in clearance to
open ratio.

Clearance effect data for centrifugal compressors ^re given by Refs. 27, 29, and 301 typical data are shown in
Fig. 28. For axial clearance changes at the tip, data from Ref. 27 show a 1.00-percentage-point loss for each 0.01
iw)rease in c/s ratio (a Is the axial depth of the blade at the tip). In contrast, Refs. 29 and 30 indicate a 0.37 to
0. 49 percentage point loss.

As with the larger diameter compressors, the data for small-diameter compressors (axial and radial) show
considerable effect on efficiency however the variances suggest that additional studies ae needed. Since data for
the small compressors are for c/s ratios above 0. 02, there remains the question of how efficiency chanes with

clearance below a c/a ratio of 0.02.

In some engine designs the compreasor stator vanes are cantilevered (see Fig. 6(b)), and the clearance effects
are somewhat similar to those of the blade tips. Reference 1 gives data on efficiency penalty as functions of clear-
ance to blade height ratio, and these data are shown i• Fig. 29. In comparison with the blade tip data of Fig. 27,
Whe penalties are not nearly a severe.

The other te of construction used in stater vane seav~i, is the inner diameter shroud depicted in Fig. 6(s).
Compared with the cantilevered oor struotions, the inner shroud and avisoolated labyrinth seal form annular passages
underneath the primary flow path, and these passages allow circumferential flowl the net result Is detrimental effect
on stall margin.

F4ire 30 (from Rd. 1%shows efficiency penalty for clearances in the stator vane/inner shroud type of con-
struction, The data in Fig. 30 are for labyrinth seals having two knife eftes with no owrry-over blockage (no
steps). A comparison of the pezalties in Fig. 30 with those for cantilevored stator vanes shows that the inner
ahroud construction ha less affect on compressor efficiency.

MENO
 1-7

In regard to the preferred type of vane sealing, the inner shroud construction produces undesirable annular pas-
sages which allow circumferential flow; on the other hand, inner shroud construction provides greater structural
integrity. This is important from an F.O.D. and aeroelastio stability standpoint. Further, in cantilevered construc-
tion, the clearance between the vane tips and rotor must be selected to avoid hard rubs, and therefore is generally
larger than for the inner shroud conatruction. Vane tip rubbing has, in some caes, triggered a rotor thermal re-
sponse feedback which increased the rubbing severity until catastrophic failure. However, an additional factor which
favors the cantilevered construction is the significantly lower boundary-layer temperature (at the inner gas path) than
with the shrouded stator vanes (Ref. 10).

In addition to the effect on efficiency, blade tip clearances also affect the stall margin and the pressure ratio.
Reference 24 supplies valuable data in this regard, and some are shown in Fig. 31. The steep slope of both curves.
as clearances are decreased, suggests a large potential improvement If close running clearances could be obtained.
Reference 28 also provides data on stall margin as affooted by clearance for a single stage fan with a relatively low
tip speed of 68.1 rm/sec (223.4 ft/see), Tip clearances of 0.3, 0.6, and 1.2 mm (0.012, 0.024, and 0.047 in.) were
used, and these gave c/s values of 0.0033, 0.0067, and 0.0133. Using the largest olearance as abasia, the stall
margin improved by 4.7 % when the clearance was reduced to 0.6 mm (0.024 in.) and improved 7.1% for the 0.3 mm
(0.012 In.) clearance.

Turbine System Sealing

The decrease in turbine efficiency associated with an increase in clearance is due, in part, to unloading of the
blade by leakage over the tip, and to the increase in flow area over the blade tips. In addition, when the increase in
clearance occurs because of blade wear, an added loss Is associated with the decrease in active blade area. In this
regard, it is preferable to have the case wear Instead of the blade, This in also true of compressors. Thee two
idealized extremes, wear to the blade with none to the case, and vice versa, are illustrated in Fig. 32. Interference
between the blades and case, which leads to wear, is usually caused by transient thermal differences between the
rotor and the case. This is discussed In a later section.
Data from Ref. 31, which Is repeated in Fig, 33, reveals thut changes in clearances aru accompanied by signifl-
cant changes in both exit flow angle and local efficiencies over the entire blade height. These data are for different
clearances (up to 8% of flow passage height), which were obtained by machining down the blade tips, Near the tip the
exit flow angles ohowed a large change, nearly 400. In addition, the average flow angle across the flow passage
changgs. This indicates that underturning acoompanies increases in leakage through the clearances. Also, Fig,
33(b) reveals a large variation in local efficiency across the entire blade height with the greatest change occurring
between the mean radius and the tip. Thus, clearance can affect the flow across the entire blade span.

References 32 to 34 contain experimental data on the effect of tip clearances on turbine efficiency, and Ref. 34
contains a comparison of these data, which is shown in Fig. 34. Thes comparisons, which are expressed as frao-
tions of zero-tip-clearance efficiency, were obtained by linear extrapolation to tero clearance. hispection of Fig. 34
reveals, in general, a significant impact of tip clearance on turbine efficiency, and the data show that a greater loss
Is associated with reaction turbines,than with impulse types, apparently because of the higher pressure difference
across the blade. In this regard, the reaction turbine used in studies of Rof. 3Nhad an efficiency loss of 2.0% for
a clearance change of 1%of blade height when the clearance change was produced by machining down the blade tips.
But when the clearance was obtained by machining out the case, and with the blade tip diameter equal to the casing
inside diameter (see Fig. 35(m)), the efficiency slope for a reaction turbine was 1, 5% for a clearance change of 1%
* of blade height.
For these machined case configurations the optimum efficiency occurred when the blade tip diameter was equal
to the case inside diameter (Fig. 35(a)), when the blade tip was below the case inside diameter or when the blade
protruded into the machined recess (Fig. 35(b)), the looses were greatur. For example, the data of Rel, 34 show
that for a clearance of 2% of the blade height, the efficiency drops from 97 % for zero blade extension Into the recess
(Fig. 35(a)) to 96% for a blade extension into the recess of 3.5% of blade height (Fig. 35(b)).
Radial-inflow turbine c1narance data are reported in Roe. 35. Studies included the effect of axial oleaanoes at
the entrance and s"lt and the effect of radial clearances. The data reveal sensitivity to radial clearance comparable
with that for the axial flow turbines.

Influence Coefficients

The real measure of the effect of seal leakages tin Its effect on specific fuel consumption (SFC) which is in-
*_" versely proportional to the product of cycle and propulsive efficiencies (Ref. 15). The cycle efficiency is limited
mainly by gas generator component efficiency and by airbleed requirements for hot-section cooling, For a high by-
pass engine the propulsive efficiency depends, to a great extent, on the efficiencies of the components acting on the
 bypass stream, thus the fan and low-pressure turbine offlciencles are a major Influence.

Reference IS provides data on the Influence of various high bypass engine component efflolenoles on the specific
fuel consumption and these data are repeated in Fig. 36. It Is noteworthy that for a high bypass engine a low-pressure
turbine (LPT) efficiency change causes the greatest change in SFC0 a 0.86% Improvement in EFC for each percentage
point increase in turbine efficiency. The high pressure compressor (HPC) and turbine (HPT) each provide about 0.86%
SFC change for each 1% change In component efficiency.
Referenoe 6 provides influence coefficient type data, In terms of fuel consumption senaitivity to component date-
rioration, for the JT3D--3B and JTSD-9 engines. These data were determined by mathematical models of engine per-
formance and show, for example, the following fuel flow increases for a 1% deterioration in each of the following
component eftfloenoies;

Component Fuel flow Increase,

%
Fan 0.20
HPC .51
HPT .88
LPT .69

Interestingly, a 1% increase in HPT flange leakage resulted in a predicted increase in fuel flow of 1,22%,. This
points up not only the significance of flange sealing but also the large Influence of any high pressure air loss from
the cycle. In this regard, vane pivot leakage and HPC flange leakage have a similar influence, Also, It suggests
that variable vanes for HPT of advanced engines be given close design study in regard to sealing effectiveness.

5. SEAU•IN CLEARANCES

In previous sections the need for close clearances In modern gas turbine engines wa stressed. A basic problem
is that the radial displacements of the case and rotor are, in general, much greater than the desired operating clear-
ances. An approximate ordering of the more significant transient and nontranalent displacements which affect clear-
ance are

(1) Thermal response of the case and rotor

(2) Centrifugal and gyroriopic loads

(3) Surge/stall displaoement.

(4) Thrust, saeodynamic, maneuver, gust, and landing loads

(8) Ovalizatlon sad out-of-roundness due to nonaxisymmetric structures, loads, and temperatures

(6) Cane/rotor vibration and shoft thermal bow

(7) Assembly oocentroities

(8) Machining tolerance variations.

Abradablo materials In labyrinth seals and over compressor blade tips can make accommodations (or allow cor-
rections) for assembly eccentricities, machining tolerance variation between assembliea, and out-of-roundnass.
However, the other effecta listed must be controlled through the integrated mechanical design of the whole rotor-case.

The troinslent thermal response of the case and the rotor is of major concern, aid this response, along with the
centrifugal loadng, is one of the most Important factors In setting the final cruise clearance. In general, the thor-
mal response of the case and rotor are not the same because of differences in mass, oooling-air circulation, heat

transfer, and material. Figure 37 illustrates the general problem of relative oase/rotor displacements an It is af-
fected by thermal response and centrifugal loading. The case tends to have a much faster thermal response to the
gas path stream temperature than the rotor. The rotor growth is Initially due to centrifugal force during acoelera-
tion, and If assembly clearances are too small, a rub will occur in the early part of the acceleration. On decelora-
tion, the case, a relatively fast thermal response will cause rubs If full power is demanded after a period of low
power (such as in an aborted landing). This is also illustrod in Fig. 87 in which the relatively fast caaem eopnso
has reduoed the clearance to a magnitude Ios than the rotor displacement due to centrifugal force. The problem
can be mitgated by closer thermal matching of the case and rotor, but not completely solved. If very close cruise
clearances are going to be obtained then some type of activs clearance control in needed to eliminate the rub poten-
tWl. In tils regard, Ref. 38 desoribes a case cooling system, now being used in current commercial engines,
which reduces the cruise clearances li the high pressure turbine. This cooling system is automatically shut off to

-I
 '-9

increase the clearance during potential rub situations.

As mentioned previously, a problem in some engines is a loss in thrust on engine acceleration. This Is thought
to be duo to the opening up of certain critical sealing clearances and has been attributed to the fast sealing case ther-
mal response. Magnitudes of thrust loss in the range of 12% have been reported (Ref. 7) for conditions in which
throttle advance Is made on a "cold" engine, for example, when the engine is started, taxied to the end of the runway,
and then accelerated for takeoff.

Typical transient clearances for a high bypass engine are given in Ref. 37 for a first-stage high-pressure tur-
bine, these data (shown in Fig, 38) show blade tip olearance changes of about 0,76 mm. (0.030 In.) over a period of
400 seconds.

As mentioned previously, large engines have relatively flexible cases and rotors* these are inherent in large-
diameter, flight weight structures. As a result, various thrust, aerodynamic, and gyroscopic loads cause approci-
able relative displacements at certain sealing locations. An example pointed out in Ref. 26 is the engine case bending
(lanre high bypass engine) resulting from aerodynamic loads on the inlet cowl (see illustration in Fig. 39) and from
the thrust loading. These inlet lift and thrust loads, which are large during climb-out after takeoff, cause rubbing
at the 12 o'clock position in the high-pressure compressor and at the 6 o'clock position in the fan.

Reference 26 also points out that vibration characteristics (response to gust, takeoff, turbulence and maneuver
loads) are of fundamental importance in propulsion system design and that a piecemeal, component-by-oomponent
analysis is not sufficient because of coupling effects. The analytical method described in Ref. 26 covers the engine
and airframe related components and has these two main procedural steps:

(1) The use of static models of installed propulsion system and steady-state loads to calculate prelininary mag-
nitudes of stresses and deflections

(2) The refinement of the analysis through the use of a dynamic model of an installed propulsion system with
transient flight loads, gyrobcopic forces, and rotor tuibalance to calculate stresses, deflections, and
frequencies,

The analytical model (Ref, 38) includes the probability of exceeding a flight load, which will cause a blade tip rub;
this is expressed in terms of "oxceodanoes" (rubs) per 1000 flight., The data in Mdf. 38 show that exceedanoes are
a function of engine position, and show moat of the change in clearance due to rube occurring during the first 10
flights. This agrees with a conclusion from the study in Ref. 6 that the deterioration consisted of two portions, an
initial rapid rate (wear In), which opens up the clearances, and then a slower rate, which is dependent on erosion
rate and the number of adverse events (compressor stalls, hard landings, severe gusts, etc.).

in small and large engines a major consideration is the roundness of the case. For example, there could be
transient effects such as the response of a horizontally split compressor case to a thermal change. In general,
horizontal flanges at the split line have a different thermal response from the rest of the case, and the flange also
causes the case stiffness to be nonaxisymmetrio. In the hot section out-of-roundness is caused by (1) nonuniform
* ;temperatures, (2) nonaxlsymmetrlc structures, (3) localized flange leakage, (4) nonuniform distribution of oooling
* air, and (5) localized flow pith gaps (hot-gus recroulation). Engine operation data Indicate that hot section out-of-
roundness may be in the range of0. 001 cm (0.0004 in,) per centimeter of diameter. Thus, the out-of-roundness
may be greater than the desired operating tip gap. And as turbine temperatures and pressures increase, both the
out-of-roundness tendency and performance penalty will increase, A partial solution to out-of-roundness, of course,
is in obttining more axisymmetrio temperature distribution, Also, it should be noted that out-of-roundness can be
caused by strains in adjacent cases; that is, a maldistribution of temperature in one case section can influence the
rouadness of adjacent case sections.

Clearances can be affected k rotor and stator vibrations. Shaft dynamics motions due to rigid rotor and flexible
rotor unbalance (see Table U) have received considerable attention and are amenable to analysis (TWs. 39 and 40),
F Modern analytical methods and shaft balancing techniques generally insure a trouble free design from a rigid rotor
critical speed standpoint. Large engines generally operate above the rigid rotor critical and below the flexible rotor
"mode, and typical radial displacements at operating speed due to rotor unbalance ax, reported to be in the range of
o0.010 om (0,004 in.) in Iarge engines. Thus in a well designed system, radial displacement due to critical speed is
usually not A major factor in sealing clearances. Some small engines run above a flexible rotor mode, and recent
advances in muitiplane balancing techniques (Ref. 41) promise small operational displacements, However, there
remain questions on reoponse of fleonble rotor under adverse conditions such as surge/stall or blade out operation,

There is concern that nonsynchronous whirl (see Table I) could be the source of clearance changes, espeolally
in high-pressure systems. Figure 40 llustrate.s the general principle for a labyrinth seal, The pressure field
within the labyrinth seal will, in general, not be symmetric about a plane (rection A-A in Fig. 40) passing through
the direction of eccentricity because of preswirl and the nonuniform clearances. (A complicating factor in labyrinth
 seal is axial clearance variation due to convergence, divergence, or axial misalignment.) Since the pressure field
is not symmetric about section A-A (Fig. 40), a force component will exist which is transverse to the eccentricity
direction, which will tend to produce a self-excited whirl.

A similar principle applies to the cae of blade whivIl forces; because of nonuniform clearances and associated
leakage., blade loading it not uniform (lower loading where the tip gap is larger) and the net result is an aerodynamic
force transverse to the eccentricity direction,

An additional potential source of vibration Is rubbing friction induced whirl. This is a complex case/rotor inter-
action which ham not been well investigated.

The necessary use of thin sections and light-weight construction has introduced potential vibratory motions of the
labyrinth seal structure, especially in larger sizes, Although fatigue cracking of the labyrinth structure is usually
the final result, clearance changes with associated wear can also be produced, InstabiUtlies are reported to have oc-
curred when the wave speed of vibration of the rotating labyrinth component was in resonance with the flexural wave
speed of the stutor shroud. To preclude failure due to resonance with a flexural mode In the stator, Ref. 9 recom-
mends stalrs that have a minimum angular velocity for all flexural modes at least 25% higher than the rotor speed
at 100% operation. This may require experimental verification of the predicted frequencies since some stator struc-
tures are quite complex.

In addition Ref, 9 makes the interesting observation that labyrinth stator and rotor components do not have fa-
tigue failures when supported on the discharge end. (See Fig. 41.)

Clearance management in the various seals presents a difficult engineering problem, which involves the entire
rotor/case assembly, airframe integration, and operational flight loads. In modern engines knowledge of the oper-
ating clearances is inferred from rub wear patterns and engine operating history. Direct clearance measurement
comes from various types of probes (capacitance, mechanical touch, laser) and from high energy X-radiography,
which is capable of measuring sealing clearances within an accuracy of A0.07 mm (,).,003 in.) (H1f. 42). In this re-
gard Ref. 42 claIms both ateady-state and transient clearance can be measured and useful data obtained on

(1) Axial and radial clearances of labyrinth seals

"(2) Radial blade tip clearances

(3) Rotor/stator axial clearances

(t) Component deflections.

Reference 43 describes a unique laser optical probe, which to capable of measuring blade tip clearances in
compressors and tuyines, (•For turbine applications a small cooling flow of nitrogen gas is used to keep probe in-
ternal parts ol.m) The principal of operation in based on reflected light triangulation an/rgdoated In Fig. 42 from
Ref. 43, Light from a point ource is reflected from each blade tip as it passes by the probe, and the clearance
reading is an vo~rse of all the blades (current remearch looks at individual blade clearances). A change In olear-
-'Lne causes m shift of the refleted ight such that it falls on k different section of the output fiber optic bundle. Av-
ouradles of A0,025 -- (0.001 In,) are claimed, and a probe temperature environment of 1311 K (19000 F) can be
tolerated. A significant feature Is that the hifh response of the system (0.440-6 *eo)permits transiaent clearance
measurements.

6. I•A" PATH SEALING MATERIALA

If gas path sealing clearances are going to be reduced to a practical minimum, some rubbing contact must be
(1 oweeryru ow-ene~rgmy r bs
bandsvrlwy.Oei hog h s farde maet eras
tolerated in order to compensate for eccentricities, machining tolerances, out-of-roundness, vibrations, etc.
Ideally these rubbing contacts may be classified I the following two types:
-- •, (1) Low energy rub - LA~w-ener1y rutbs obtained several wsys, One is through the use of Abredoble materials,
which are designed to wear instead of producing wear in the blade or libyrlnth tooth (thUs approaches are di.-
eussed later).

(2) Abrasive - Drum rotors generally have bonded abralveu coatings which protect the rotor from wear and
promote *awe tip wear in aeme of interference. Then coatings, which are usually hard oxides, also mitigate ther-
maily intucad expasious of the rotor, which would aggravate the rub and, therefore, induce thermal feedback which
could end in a cstastrophie failure,

-- '---and A major
low factor
pressure @prayedrub
that conlrola
tob~) sazdmaterial
molded polymer is the operating
selection systems temperature.
are suitsl~s. the colder sections
But In theInhipt-pressure (fan
oomrsmiIIor,

the higher temporatures require metal systems such as sprayed nikeml/graphite. The high-pressure turbine

Si -•' -- T • T-•i ii i
 requires very high temperature oxidation resistant materials which, in general, are not abradable and do not provide
low energy rubs. Finally, the low-pressure turbine can use some of the materials suitable for the high preosure
compressor but honeycomb shrouds are the most popular.

Rub material for over fan blade tip should be abradable or have a low-energy rub property to prevent blade wear.
In addition, the fan rub material is usually configured to enhance aerodynamic stability (Improve fan stall margin)
and acoustical damping. One common shroud material used in aluminum honeycomb, which Is readily deformed by
fan blade penetration, However, wear to blade tips can be a problem; further, the honeycomb material, which is a
rough surface from an aerodynamic standpoint, has an asaociated efficiency penalty as compared with smooth rub
material. Reference 44 reports a 2.5 percentage point loss for honeycomb rub material as compared to a fan with a
smooth shroud. The stall margin, however, improved 12% ("e Fig. 43).

Other types of fan shroud rub material are elastomer and polymer base composites, which sometimes contain
fillers of hollow glass spheres to improve shradability. These rub shrouds usually contain grooves or slots, which
improve the stall margin by stabilizing the fan flow near the tip. Considerable data have been published (see Refs,
45 to 47) on the effectiveness of various geometric patterns in the fan shroud. A potential problem with use of some
polymeric type materials in the low-pressure compression system is the considerable amount of rub material dust
created during a very hard rub under an adverse operating condition. This dust has, on occasion, exploded in the
high-pressure compressor.

In the high-pressure compressor higher temperature shroud materials (metal, graphite, etc,) are required be-I
cause the discharge temperatureis are near 922 K (12000 r) in some modern engines, and will be even higher in ad-
vncsed engines. Currently used rub materials over blade tips (outer air sealing) are designed to mitigate blade wear
by serving as low-enorgy rub or sacrificial material. Three different types of low-energy rub materials are used
(Fig. 44), The sintored metal system (density 30 to 40%) of Fig. 44(a) is representative of an abradable type mate-
rial, since blade (or labyrinth tooth) penetration breaks off sintered particles. The material effectiveness Is often
measured by the ratio of material wear to blade wear; a ratio of 10:1 being considered a satisfactory abradabflity
property, Abradability can be readily achieved by lowering density, but this increases the susceptibility to erosion,
Thus, a basic difficulty Is obtaining acceptable abradability yet maitaining adequate erosion resistence.

"The aintered metal fibers depicted in Fig. 44(b) are plastically deformable rather than abradable and are usually
about 20% dense. Blade (or labyrinth tooth) penetration may densify the material (as indicated schematically) and
this increases the rub Intensity.

A third type used in outer air sealing in the low-shear-strength 100% dense material (Fig. 44(c)); sprayed
aluminum is an example, Blade penetration readily machines away the easily sheared material without excessive
wear to the blades. However, the machining debris tends to stick on downstream airfoils and cause aerodynamic
looss,

Studies of Rat. 48 indicate a tendency for blade wear when the penetration rate is low (typical blade penetration
rates range between 0, 00025 to 0.028 am/see (0,0001 to 0. 01 in/see), As yet, a fully satimsactory material has
not been developed for outer gas path sealing. Blade wear, erosion or aerodynamic loss remain consistent
problems. None have all the desirable properties, which are:

(1) No blade wear g

(2) Low energy rub general problem

(3) Innocuous debris (a problem in sprayed aluminum and some polymers)

(4) Erosion resistance

(5) Impermeability a problem in porous materials

•-ii(6) 1oot ouriace m.
•( (7l) Easy repair (a problem In brazed assemblies)
Labyrinth shroud for compressor innergas path sealing an depicted in Fig. 45; all are designed to produce

alwenergy rub as compared with a 100% dense metal shroud. In the high speed rube, which take place between
the shrouds and rotor, the rub mechanisms andassociated wear are nt well characterized for currently used
material couples. Theoretical studies (1Wf. 49) on rotor/shroud interaction predict the formation of "thermal.
bumps" or hot spot. which apparently govern the wear process, These hot spots are the result of thermal-elastic
murface Instabilities produced by contact, For example, experimental data show that when a labyrinth knife od
rubs agains a shroud segment, the rbbing ca take place over just a small segment (-e arn) of the 3600 of tooth
edge (see Fig. 46). Thus, the beat bipuL is highly localized, and a local thermal bump Is generated whith expands,

Atewhc
1-12

rubs harder, and finally wears away. This is then followed by rubbing over a second small segment which grows and
thon wears, cto. Evidence of localized rubbing Is indicated by the heat discoloration of the tooth edge, This typo of
local rub interaction has been investigated from a fundamental standpoint, and a considerable body of data exist, for
example, see Refs. 50 and 51.

Thermal elastic instabilities apparently ooour on the blade tips as well as on the casing rub material. The most
adverse operating environment from a sealing viewpoint is in the high-pressure turbine. Here the gas temperatures
in some modern engines are in the range of 1700 K (26000 F), in addition to the losses due to blade tip clearances,
which were previously pointed out, there is a oonslderable efficiency penalty associated with cooling of the turbine
came rub shroud material (outer air seal). In small engines this rub shroud is a single ring; in large engines It is
constructed of segments. Typically each segment is impingement cooled and is held in place by a cooler cuter case
structure. Figure 7(a) shows, in croon-section, a typical segment and assoolated attachment structure.

Turbine rub shroud materials used are generally not abradable and turbine blade tip wear Is a general problem.
Transfer of the blade material to the rub shroud surface can pronipitate a buildup of material which causes blade
wear. This mechanism is not fully understood.

Commonly used rub materials are a cast high-temperature cobalt base alloy, and sintered NiAI and NiCrAlY
powders (Ref. 1). For long-term operation these materials must be cooled, by impingement and film cooling tech-
niques, to temperatures in the range of 1311 K (19000 F), Nevertheless, thermal stress cracking, loss of dimen-
siunal stobility, and erosion remain current problems. The cooling requirement in terms of engine airflow can be
m igh as 1% to 2%, depending on the turbine-inot temperature. This high cooling penalty is one reason why
ceramic rub materials, which require less cooling, are being developed.

The use of ceramic material allows higher rub shroud surface temperature.. Further, ceramics require less
cooling air, The potential cooling airflow reduction Is indicated in Fig. 47, which shows for a .1811 K (28000 F)
turbine-inlet temperature and a surface temperature of 1700 K (26000 F), that the cooling air requirement is signifi-
oantly less than when the surface temperature must be held to 1366 K (20000 F)i Fig. 47 indicates a reduction from
2:1% to 0.3% of engine flow (fef, 52).

An advanced ceramic/metal shroud being developed (Hef. 63) is shown in Fig. 48. It is produced by thermal
spraying ceramic/metal layers on a metal substraLe of a heat resistant metal alloy. The first step in the process is
to spray a 0. 127-mm (0.008-in.) coating of NiCrAlY on the metal substrate. This is followed by a layer composed
of 60% CoCrAIY and 40% yttria stabiliaed zirconla (ZrO 2 ), Next come successive layers of 30% CoCrAIY/t0% ZrO 2 ,
aed 15% CoCrAIY/88% ZrO2 . Finally, the last layer, the one exposed directly to the turbine gas, Is 100% Zro
2

This graded layer system provides a gradual change in thermal expansion coefficient and mitigates the large
tiermal expansion difference between the metal substrate and the ceramic layer next to the hot gas stream. Experi-
mental studies (Ref. 53) show that graded layer ceramic material has adequate erosion resistance at 1588 K (24000 F)
surface temperature. Encouraging thermal fatigue improvement is also reported but this remains the major problem.
In this regard, an analytical study of the thermal stresses during engine acceleration (takeoff) by Ref. 54 indicates
that the ceramic layer Is probably subjected to excessive tensile stresses under this transient operating condition.

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Modern gas turbines contain a multiplicity of sealing locations; a large engine may have over 50 major dynamic
sealing locationsi in addition, sealing is necessary at vane pivots, flanges, duct joints, and blade roots, As pointed
out in the discussion, sealing can have a marked effect on engine efficiency, performance retention, thrust, coren-
presser pressure ratio, and compressor stall margin, Much of the performance retention problem in modern
engines is caused by increases in sealing clearances, with blade tip wear in the compressor and turbine being a
major contributor. Improved sealing significantly increase air superiority mission radius and maximum dash dis-.
tanoe. Also maximum thrust can be improved significantly, The performance deterioration trends suggest a sealing
problem that will worsen as engine designs advance to even higher pressures and temperatures. Small engines re-
main a particularly challenging problem because leakage is inherently more detrimental to efficiency.

There are three general approaches to increasing sealing effectiveness, these are:

(1) Improved clearance control (reducing clearances and minimizing the amount of rubbing)

(2) Improved "abradable" materials

(3) Increasmed flow enerv dissipation in labyrinth seals.

Of the three approaches, clearance control holds the most potential for improvement, To achieve clearance
control Improvements, we must know more about the relative displacement of the case and rotor, particularly under
transient conditions, in modern engines. In advanced engines more attention must be given to engine stiffness, case
roundness, case bending and to case/rotor dynamics of the total assembly. In this regard, more data are needed on
various external and internal aerodynamic loads such as compressor surges. Accurate prediction of case/rotor dis-
placements will require a large computational capability to treat the total assembly. Also, new approaches and con-
cepts, such as active clearance control (by case cooling), will be needed to mitigate effects of case/rotor differential
expansion. Improved "sbradable" materials will provide some accommodation for eccentricity and out-of-roundness,
but the clearance problem will probably not be solved solely with improvements in rub materials. In fact, the La-
proved clearance control approach can be used to minimize rubbing and this, then, ieduces the rub material problem,

The literature contains much data about blade clearance effects in compressors and turbines. Although there are
variances between the published data, there is agreement that clearance changes cause a marked change in compressor
and turbine efficiency. In particular, as fan and compressor clearances approach zero, the reported data indicate
a very significant improvement in component efficiency. On the other hand, operation at very close clearances
introduces a potential for high deterioration rates. Thus the solution requires maintaining close clearances for the
time between normal overhauls. in the turbines the data show the clearance loss increasing with reaction rate; this
trend suggests that advanced highly loaded turbines will have even greater losses than indicated in the current data.
Thus advanced turbines will need to run with close clearances to avoid high losses.

Mathematical models for prediction of leakage over compressor and turbine blade tips are semleunpirical exprea-
alone derived from cascade data rotation effecto are not included, There is a need for improved capability to predict
clearance effecto and for clearer insight regarding the significance of the many parameter which apparently affect tip
leakage. A•

The ability of various engine companies to predict labyrinth seal leakage is very good; the methods are sami-
empirical and involve a correlatitou with a large number of experiments. However, the large number and the Impact
of labyrinth seals on engine performance suggest studies should be made to identify unique labyrinth geometries which
would reduce leakage& the potential gain is significant even if the leakage reduction is nominal, In regard to labyrinth
seal theory, the thermodynamic process is well understood, but analysis from a fluid dynamic standpoint ma shed
light on means to increase the kinetic energy dissipation in the labyrinth cavities.

Experience Indicates the need for an improved compressor "abradable'" material, The wear debris from thi
material should not stick on downstream air foils and should not pose a dust explosion problem in the high-pressure
compressor. This "sbradable" material also should producu little blade wear, be erosion resistant, and have an
impermeable aerodynamically smooth surface.

Sealing over the tips of the high-pressure-turbine blade is a current problem, which will become most critical in
advanced engines. Ceramic rub materials for the case are needed to reduce ocoling requirements and permit higher
operating temperatures. These ceramic rub materials must be abradable (because close clearances will lead to rubs)
and dimensionally stable to mitigate out-of-roundness and eccentricity effects.

As with the sealkig of the primary-gas flow, sealing of the Internal-gas flow Is becoming more critical as
engine's pressures and temperatures increase. There Is a need for improved technology in the internal-flow sys-
tem in regard to purging, heat transfer, and cooling flow control. In addition to Improved labyrinth seals in the
internal-flow system, mainuhaft sealing with lower leakage and high pressure aind speed capability would provide
efficiency Improvement.

REFERENCES

1. Mahler, F. ii., Advanced Seal Technology. PWA-4372, 1972 (AD-739922).

2. Dusan, J.- F., McAulay, J. E., Reynolds, T. W., and Strack, W. C., Fuel-Conservative Engine Technology.
NASA SP-381, Aeronautical Propulsion, pp. 157-190, 1975.

3. Stern, J. A., Aircraft Fropulslon. A Key to Fuel Conservation: An Aircraft Manufacturer's View. SAE Pap•r
760538, May 1976.

4. Lngasete, R. W. A., and Ordway, F. I., A Quick Look at the National Energy Plan. Attronatitloo &Aeronautios,
Vol. 15, No. 11, Nov. 1977, pp. 28-35.

5. Grayson, K., Improved Maintenance Practices - The Airlinesa Contribution to ILwer Ownership Coats. SAE
per 760504, May 1976,

6. Sallee, G, P., Kruckenberg, H. D., and Toomey, E. H., Analysis of Turboft "r Engiaw Porforiua,.* Deteriora-
tion &adProposed Follow-on Tests. NASA 011-134769, 1975,

7. Csavins, 1 . L., Performaneo Depreciation of Some Military Turbofan Engines. AWAA Paier 76-649, July 1976,
 1-14

8. JFewkina, R. M. and McKlkbln, A. H., Development of Cconpressor End Seals Stator Interstage Seals, and
Stator Pivot Seals In Advanced Air Breathing Proptusion Systems, Part I: Screfining Studies and Analysis.
NASA CR-72819, 1970.

9. Alford, J. $,, Labyrinth Seal Designs Have Benefitted from Development and Service Experience. SAE Paper
710435, 1971.

10. Moore, A., Gas Turbine Ergine internal Air Systems - A Review of the Requirements and the Problems. ASME
Paper 75-WA/GT-1, Nov. 1975.

11. Palaeini, W., Static and Rltatsing Air/Gas Seal Evaluation. CW-WR-70-124F, 1971 (AD-730361).

12, Povinelli, Valectine P., Jr., Current Seal Designs and Future Requirements for Turbine Engine Scala and Bear-
ings. Journal d Aircraft, Vol. 12, no. 4, April 1976, pp. 266-273.

13. L4nwander, P., Development of Helicopter Engine Seals. LYC-73-48, Nov. 1973. NASA CR.-134647l 1973.

14. Sohwlgor, F. A., The Performanoe of Jet Engine Contact Seals. Lubrication Engineering, Vol. 19, June 1963,
pp. 232-238.

15. Gray, D, E., and Dugan, J. F., An Early Glimpse at Long Term Subsonic Commercial Turbofan Technology
Requirements - Fuel Conservation. AIAA Paper 75-1207, Sep. 1975.

16. Lakabmlnarayana, B. and Horlock, J. H,, Tip-Clearance Flow and Losses for an Isolated Compressor Blade.
Univer=fty of Liverpool, R & M No. 3316, 1963.

17. Dean, R. C., Jr., Seceondary Flow in Axial Compressors, MIT Theals, 1954. Also MIT Report W4-10-T, 1954.

18. Rains, D. A., Tip Clearance Flows In Axial Flow Compressors and Pumps, California Institute of Technology
Report No, 5,1964.

19. Laksainnarsyana, B., Methods of Predicting the Tip Clearance Effects in Axial Flow Turbormachinery. ASMdE
Paper 69-WA/FE-26, Nov. 1969,

* 20. Egli, A,, Tb' leakage of Steam Through Labyrinth Seals, ASME Trans., Vol. 57, No. 3, Apr, 1935, pp. 115-
122.

21, Dobek, L. J., Labyrinth Seal Testing For LAft Fan Engines, NASA CR-121131, 1973.

22, Zuk, J., Dynamic Sealing Principles, NASA TMl X-71851, 1976.

23. Stocker, ii. L., Cox, D. M., and Holle, G. F., Aerodynamic Performance of Conventional and Advanced
SDesign Labyrinth Seals With Solid-Smooth, Abradablo, and Honeycomb Lands, Detroit Diesel Allison, EDR
93!9, NASA CR-135307, Dec. 1977. (To be published.)

24. Moore, R, D. @Md Osborn, W. M., Effects of Tip Clearance on Overall Periormance of Transonic Fan Stage
With and Without Casing Treatment. NASA TM X-3479, 1977,

25, Jefferson, J. L. and Turner, R, C., Some Shrouding and Tip Clearance Effects in Axial Flow Compressors.
International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 5, No. 42, Feb. 1988, pp. 78-101,

26. Wlte, J. L. and Bests, D. L., Nastran Applications to Aircraft Propulsion Systems. NASA TM X-3278,
* NASTRAN. USER'S EXPERIENCES, pp. 91-104, 1976.

27, Denstoin, E. H., Small Flying Engines Are Different - Aircraft Gas Turbine Design. AIAA Paper 74-1185,
Oct. 1974.

28. Holman, F. F., Kidwoll, J. R.., and Ware, T. C., Small Axial Compressor Technology Program.. NASA
CR-134827, Vol. 1, 1978.

29. Klassen, H. A., Wood, J. R., ardSchumann, L. F., Experimental Perfoimanoe ofa 13.65 Centtmeter-Tlp-
Diameter Tandem-Bladed Sweptback Centrifugal Compressor Designed for a Pressure Ratio of 6. NASA
TP-1091, 1977.

30. Klasaen, H. A., Wood, J. R., and Schumann, L. F., Experimental Performance of a 16.10-Contineter-Tip-
Diameter Sweptback Centrilugal Compressor Designed For a 6:1 Pressure Ratio. NASA TM X-3552, 1977.

31. Holoold, D. E. and Futral, S, M., Jr,, Effect of Rotor Tip Clearanoe on the Performance of a 5-Inch Single-
Stage Axial-Flow Turbine. NASA TM X-1757, 1069,
32. Kofakey, M. G., Experimental Investigation of Three Tip-Clearance Configurations Over a Range of Tip Clear-
ance Using a Single-Stage Turbine of High Hub-to Tip-Radius Ratio, NASA TM X-472, 1961.

33. Szanca, E. M., Behnlng, F. P., and Schum, H. J., Research Turbine for High-Temperature Core Engine
Application, Il - Effect of Rotor Tip Clearance on Overall Performance. NASA TN D-7639, Apr. 1974.

34. Hai, J. E. and Kofakey, M. G., Cold-Air Performance of a 12.766-Centimeter-Tip-Diameter Axial-Flow

Cooled Turbine. Ill - Effect of Rotor Tip Clearance on Overall Performance of a Solid Blade Configuration.
NASA TP-1032, 1977.

35. Futral, S. M., Jr. and Holeaki, D. E., Experimental Results of Varying the Blade Shroud Clearance in a 6.02-
inch Radial-Inflow Turbine. NASA TN D-5513, 1970.

36. Beyerly, W. R. and Sweeney, J. G., Life Cycle Fuel Consumption of Commeroial Turbofan Engines. AIAA
Paper 76-645, July 1976.

37. Adamson, G. P., Development Progress-New Transport Engines, JT9D. SAE Paper 710419, May 1971.

38. Aarnes, M. N. and White, J. L., Propulsion System and Airframe Structural Integration Analysis. AIAA Paper
75-1310, Sep. 1975.

39. Gunter, E. J.. Jr., Dynamic Stability of Rotor-Bearing Syatems. NASA SP-113, 1966.

40. Kirk, R. G. and Gunter, E. J., Effect of Support Flexibility and Damping on the Dynamic Response of a Single
Mama Flexible Rotor in Elastic Bearings. NASA CR-2083, 1972.

41. Tessarik, J. M., Flexible Rotor Balancing by Influence Coefficient Method - Multiple Critical Speeds with Rigid
or Flexible Supporta. NAEIA CR-2653, 1975.
42, Alwang, W, 0. and Kinohen, B., Internal Running Clearance Measurements in Gas Turbines Using High Energy

X-Radiography. In "Advances in Test Measurement, Vol. 12; Ed. by B. Washburn, Instrument Society of
America, 1975, pp. 339-348.

43. Ford. M. J., Hildebrand, J. R., and Prosser, J. C., Design, Fabrication and Demonstration of a Miniaturized
Tip Clearance Measuring Device. PWA-FR-6447, 1974.

44. Osborn, W. M., Lewis, G. W., Jr., and Heidelberg, L. J., Effect of Several Porous Casing Treatments on
Stall Limit and on Overall Performance of an Axial-Flow Comprensor Rotor. NASA TN D-6537, 1971.

45. Bailey, E. E. and Volt, C. H., Some Observation& of Effects of Porous Casings on Operating Range of a Single
Axial-Flow Compressor Rotor. NASA TM X-2120, 1970.

46. Prince, D. C., Jr., Wisler, D. C., and Hilvers, D. E., Study of Casing Treatment Stall Margin Improvement
Phenomena - For Compressor Rotor Blade Tips Compreesor Blades Rotating Stalls. NASA CR-134552, 1974.

47. Bailey, X. E., Effects of Grooved Casing Treatment on the Flow Range Capability of Single-Stage Axial-Flow
Compressor. NASA TM X-2459, 1972.

48. Bill, R. C. and Sliambob, L. T., Friction and Wear of Sintered Fiber-Metal Abradable Seal Materials. NASA
TM X-73650, 1977.

49. Thurton, R. A., Kilaparti, S. R., and Heohmann, S. R., Modeling of Turbine Blade Tip Contact. ASME Paper
75-WA/GT-14, Nov. 1975.

50. Barber, J. R., Thormoelastic Instabilities in the Sliding of Conforming Solids. Proceedings of the Royal Society,
Series A, Vol. 312, No. 1510, Sep. 1969, pp. 38.1-394.
51. Burton, R. A., Nerlikar, V., and Kilaparti, S. R., Thermoelastio Instability in a Seal-Like Configuration.
Wear, Vol. 24, 1973, pp. 177-188.

5z. schllke, P. W., Advanced Ceramic Seal Program (Phase I) PWA 6635, 19%, (AD 781004).

53, Shiambob, L. T., Development of a Plasma Sprayed Ceramic Gas Path Seal for High Pressure Turbine Applica-
tions. NASA CR-135)e3, 1977,

54. Taylor, C. U., Thermal Stress Analysis of a Graded Zircofna/Metal G"a Path al S$stem for Aircraft Gas
Turbim Engines. NASA TM X-73668, 1977.
 1-16

TABLE 1. - TYPICAL DIWrCT OPXRATU40

COST (FROM REF. 3)

aI&t Fuel price

Direct operating coat, %

Fuel 31.6 44.6 53.5

Depreciation 25.5 20.6 17.3
Maintonamee 19.0 15.4 12.9
Crew 18.2 14.1 12.3
Inaurance 5.8 4.7 4.0
Chugs in DOC - 23.6 47.2

TABLE U. - VIBRATIDN6 AFFECTLIN CLEARANCE

Tp Exciting foroe Comment

1. RW "l~ whirl Motor unbalance Critical spe generally loewr

tand enginmeoeatin speed

typicaLly all
2. Flexible saft lotor unbalnoe Muhiplane balancing technolog
ie avlimblo - implementation
needed
3, Labrinth smal whirl forces NonaxidymmlInric presaure in Studils an needed
(Up abrouded blades and labyrinth meal which caha.
labyrinth mals with non- a force traenverse to eoan-
umWorm clearances) trlicy direction
4. Blade whirl forces aoalqymtl
blade lod- Studies are needed
mblade with nonunormn cauese a fr .o trawyers
Clearances) to ocoentrluly direction
5. IRb
Induced whirl Frictional force of lubyrinth Studies ae needed
teeth or of blades rubbing
agalntuaae_ __ -

-I
 1k
11

*al
 1-18

NEW HIGH
u', BYPASS--%

S• ~ CURRENT HIGH1
1 $- BYPASS

•i•CURRENT LOW BYp;'l~i'IIII/ASS

CURRENT TURBOJE.S

1970 19'i5 1980 1985 1990

YEAR
Fia.2 US aildine fuel consumption by enaine type (from Reforence 2)

SOURCE CENTRAL INTELLGENCE AGENCY

OPEC PRO6UCTIVE SHORT
CAPACITY-.". FALL

EXCESS CAPACITY
:3D-

DEMAND FOR OPEC OIL

1976 77 78 79
: 81 82 83 84 85 86
YEAR

Fis.3 OPEC oil, supply/demand gap (from Reference 4)

VV
C
.05-

SPECIFIC FUEL POWER PLANT ENGINE ENGINE

CONSUMPTION MAINTENANCE WEIGHT PRICE

INls,4 Direct operating costeowntlvity to propuluion system variable (from Reference 5)

- I
 1-19

14A

N~S ONISV383NI
1-20

44I

ini
 BYASRA11O

flg.s lHftft of one permstaus point Increase in engine bleed on SFC

for various bypam ratios and for two pressure ratios (Ref. 10)

6- A. LEAKAGE OVERBOARD
__B, LEAKAGE BYPASSING
5- COMPRESSOR-DRIVE TURBINE
MMC. LEAKAGE BYPASSING COM-

41)SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION.

* 14
12
10

4
2

LABYRINTH CARBON CASE TURBINE

SEALS LINES GEOMETRY
(FLANGES) (PIVOT)
0) POWER,

Fig.9 Calculated effects of seal lekage In a 2.3 kg per second

(5 lbkn par sec) s mAese (Rsati1)
1-22

CARBON SEAL- CARBON SEAL-

aU~ TURBINE
COMPRESS
R SEAL

COOPRESSOOR
DISHAGECHARGEBIE IS
LLAKAGEGE

TURBINE LABYRINTH
FOR COOLING FLOW
CONTROL
Fig. 10 Mainshaft and high prouswe turbine labyrinth seal (from Reference 1)

RUB
MATERIAL - __________

(a)STRAIGHT.

RUB
MATERIAL C'N. -R

10) STEPPED.

Fi.I I1lLAbydinth meg typet

 MAERA 9 STAYR CRUISE CLEAR ANCE
RUBINTERFERENCE

STA-UP I CRUISE
POSITION I PSTO

OF 700fl4
(0)RADIAL AND AXIAL MOTION.

T )RADSIALMTONNTALITRLCI

F)RADAONTBAION, IDA REARRLOEARIN.

Pig,13 Engyineh
sodhemati aeshforigomalIntseafernc wealtoat
ostao
1-24

TURBINE
COOLING GAS~
(COMPRESSOR
HOUSING LEEK) Pi
sum
PRESSURE,

-' ROLLER BEARIN G'

(a)Single labyrinth, early engines.
COMPRESSOR BLEED
(LOW -PRESSIU E
GAS (COMPRESSOR
~b
VENT, BLEED, HIGH PRES-
PO SURE STAGESI, PI

ighpresur turbine
for ightemeraure

TURBINE COOLING GAS (COM-

c)Conventional face seal. I

(d)Conventional1 face seal with labyrinth seal for high -temperature,

high-pressure cooling gas.

Fig.14 Seal systems

 1.25

HOUSING-
- '~"'~~FLOATING RING

AIRUNNE
IDE OILJETOIL SIDE

(a)FLOATING RING SEAL

~ *..-ANTI-ROTATION PIN

WAV SPRING

(b)UNBALANCED CIRCUMFERENTIAL SEGMENTED-RING SEAL

- P(COMPRESSOR BLEED,

AIR SIDE OIL SIDE

10 PRESSURE BALANCED CIRCUMFERENTIAL

SEAL. SEGMENTED-RING.

FllS.1dCose claawioe hAMt meal, circmferontisi typos

A .w_ . . ..
1-26

-,RELATIVE WALL MOTION

BLADE BLADE

(a)COUITE FLOW VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION 10)OR IFICE TYPE FLOW DUE TO

DUE TO RELATIVE WALL MOTION. PRESSURE DIFFEENCE.

Fig, 16 Flow velocity profle~s

TIP LEAKAGE
VORTEX

PRESSURE
SIDE

ROTATnION

Fig. 17 Vor Lox formed hy loakage over blade tip

CASE I. D.

JJ~JSJiSJSAJ~l.AS~SJAJ~A~diiJ~=JHIGH

- Z ENERGY
SECONDARY FLOW
(LOW EPIERCY)

PRESSURE SUCTION
SIDE SIDE

Fig. 18 Interaction of lakag, nd secondary flow

 UU

NL

5V N N 4

t.I z

I-4

C~ ýC.- L

WOW
 3' 1-2 t$

~.i5 6
2
S.70-

-- - , ENZGINE SE..AL R,,AGE

.65 I , ' 1 ,1 1!' =
.1 .2 .4 .6 .81.0 2.0 4.0
TIP THICKNESS TO CLEARANCE RATIO- tVC

Fig.22 Effect of knifm-edgo tooth shape on discharge coefficient (from Reference 1)

.5-

S.4-e0. 02) CLEARANCE

.; 0. 010 CLEARANCE
.'2

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 10 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

SEAL PRESSURE RATIO (Pul~d

FIa.23 Flow parameter as a function of pressure ratio; 4 tooth straight goal (Ref.23)

I ± . ... ..m.
.. ..im... .,.. .. .... . . K..
 1.29

0 HIGH BYPASS RATIO FAN

10- S•a ~COMPR•SR[
100 RESEARCH ESSOR AC
COMPRESSOR C '-
0 MULTISTAGE COMPRESSOR

I1
I 2-n

0 .005 .01 .015 .02 .02 .03

CLLARANCEIBLADE HEIHT, ds RATIO

FIg.24 Axial flow compresor polytropic efficioncy penalty,

effect of clearance to blade height ratio (Ref. I)

.76

.74-

•2, .72
.70 I I I I I-
0 ,01 .02 .03 .04 .0 .06
CLEARANCEIBLADE HEIGHT RATIO. ds

FlS,25 Compresur omciency as a function of c/o atio (Ref.25)

.84-

.76-

0 .002 .004 .006 .0 .10

MO ,012 .M4 .016
CLEARANCBIIADE HEIGHT, ds

Fig.26 Single stage fan blade tip clearance senstivlty, transtion region (data from Referenm 24)
"* 1-30

10t EXTRAPOLATE!)
* F FAN DATA FROM REF. 24--...-000

6-I

4- D F I I

0 .01 .02 .03

CLEARANCE/BLADE HEIGHT. c/s

PFi.27 Fan and compremor blAde tip clearance enalttvity

-90

,024 86 ACA 8 O
AXIAL TIP CLEARANCE. PERCENT OF BLADE HEIGHT

i. lH.28 Variation of impeller peak efficiency with axial tip clearance for vaneleas diffuser test.
Ratio of specific heat 7-1.4 (from Raference 30)

0 .005 .01 .015 .02 .025 .03

CtEARANCE/VANE HEIGHT, c/s

Fig.29 Efficiency penalty a a function of clearance to vane height ratio,

canilevered vane and drum rotor (Rof.l)
 -2. lEST
CURRENT FIGHTER
(CALCULATED)

S1.- CURRENT TRANSPORT

"(CALCULATED)

0 .01 .02 .03

cis RATIO

FI1,30 Comptemor efflviency penalty ua ftnotion of labyrinth cleaance

to vane height ratio (Ref. 1)

1.I 100% DESIGN SPEED

0 HIGHEST EFF. POINT
0 STALL POINT

1.,3 I
20

I J-
11

0 . .015 .020
RUNNING CLEARANCEIBLADE HEIGHT. cls

PIg.31 Sngle stap fan, effect of blade cearance on

preume ratio and stall mugin (Ref.24)
CASE WEAR-N CASE

BLADE NOMINAL BLADE

STEADY
STA•E
CLEARANCE

to) TOTAL INTERFERENCE b)TOTAL INTERFERENCE

APPEARS AS BLADE APPEARS AS CASE
WEAR. WEAR.

Fls.32 Illustration of two idealized extremes In wear caused by

blade/cue interfernce during transient operation

60-

40I

~20-

0) VARIATION OF EXIT FLOW ANGLE WITH RADIUS RATIO.

-,-.80-0

K-INNER WALL OUTER WAL

.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
RADIUS RATIO. r/oue wall
(1)VARIATION OF EXTAL EFFICIENCY WITH RADIUS RATIO.

Pi1.33 Sukvvey results at rotor exit at design equivalent

speed and pressure ratio, (Ref.31)
 1-33

SOURCE TUR~BINE RX -(h

0 ixO
%tipclearance
REF. 32 IMPULSE 0 0.8 _____Z

REF. 34 REACTION .890 Lý CMLD

REF. 32 IMPULSE 0 1. 6j gASE j
REF. 33 REACTION .805 L8l~1 (
REF. 34 REACTION .890 2 .ol II, FBLADE

.9-

2 4 6
ROTOR TIP CLEARANCE. PERCENT OF STATOR BLADE HEIGHT

Fig.34 Effect of rotor tip clearance on performance for

various turbines (from Reference 34)

CASE CASE

mX
I.) BLADE TIP DIAA1! EQUAL TO 1)) BLADE TIP DIAMETER LARGER
CASE INSIDE DIAMETER IDP- THAN CASE INSIDE DIAMEMR
TIMLIM GEQM&WY).

Pig.35 Rtoeuod cms configuration

 IP
FA N

2
I HP1TURBINE
com-
PRESSOR

Sf

0 1 2 3 4 5
ADIABATIC EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT
PERCENTAGE POINTS
FIZ.36 Relation of SPC to component efficiency (Influence coefficients)
* in a high bypass englini (from Reference 15)

r POTENTIAL RUB ON
RADIUS IACCELERATION
i-THERMAL POTENTIAL
kRESPOSE-1 RUB WIT

IDLEACCLERAION
IGHDECEERAIONFULL. POWER
POERDEMVANIDr
P~.7flutASlno v r~al~
ncet oo laac uige~n prto

1.A
CA
' IF- Orm~5Or
ASEILIfFOC

Turbine
bld Ip F-aac ie(fo
eeec 7
1-36

POINT UGHT *1COHERENT FIBER

SNPUROTPU OPTIC BUNDLE

SHROUD SURFACE .- J
TIP CLEARANCE A
BLADE TIP
(4GHT RnELCTED ROM THE BLADE TIP 1s r0CUSiD ThROUGH TlIE OLITPUT
LENS AND ISINCIDENT ON THE COHERENT flIER OPTIC BUNDLE. AS THE
BLADE 71P CLEARANCE INCREASES, THE OUTPUT BEAM MOVES FROM
POSITION Al TO POSITION 81.
Fil.42 Laser optic clearance~probe (Ra.43)

1.0-

.6 2
"'IREF9RENCE STALL -- STALL-UMJT/ -
LIMIT UNE- 00 LINE-

-
1.4 / I ~LREFER..
- - CE
00 00 STALL-
1.2 - 'LIMIT
LINE
30 403 w 6 70 30 40 s0 -0 -10
EQUIVALENT WEIGHT FLW., Wý114 Ibnisec
10)SMOOTH CASING. 0) HONEYCOMB CASING.
Fig.43 Fan perfomnanoe asa function of casin type, 100% design spoed
 1-37

W)ABRADABL£ tSINTERtED • COMPUANT !OUS 10 LOW SHEAR STRENGTH

OR SPRAYED POROUS MATERAL) (SPRAYED ALUMINUM)
MATERIALS).

FIX.44 Illustration of typeo of compressor rub materials for outer air selling

LABYRINTIJ
SAIRFLOW
A
0) STRIATED. I) HONEYCOMB. 0) POROUS MATERIAL
JABRADABLEOO
COMPUACIA)

FIg.45 Inner shrouds for compressor intorstage labyrinths

FIV.46 LabyrInth disk and knilo edge showing laat discoloration duo to thermal bumps genersted.
in rubbing contact against a shrouc i;elm•,•n. RubbAng speed, I13 m/s (600 ,t/,cc)
 1-38 .,
•L

•.• •_
3--

•. TURBINE iNLET

2"•TEMPI•ATURE

_ • • MINIMUM

1-- .• • CASE COOLING

1701 I(• • REI•OIREMENTS-7 •.

1400 1500 1(:00 1700 1800 :•

K .
I i I • ,I
' MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE RUB STRIP TEMPERATURE, OF

i Fig.4? Coolins air flow n•quimment for hillh peeuure turbine

Souter tit seal (data from Reference 52)
J
Jl SPRAYED LAYERED

YP2" ZrO•CoCrAIY
CERAMIC COATING
PER DETAIL (•)

...
4.._216 mm • 166 !n_) - • ",,
,|
[ I
O,615 mrn 10. 025 In,)
"•;7•-'r__ • mm ,• •.. •
NlCrklY J' 0,,076 mm 10.003 In. )
*Z/M, ZrO2/CoCrAIY •'=:,

F111.48 Typical enllL•e hal taln•rlt (Ref.S3) .•-

i
 1-39

DISCUSSION

A.R.Stetson, US
Dr Ludwig mentioned the ceramic seal, the one which has been developeG with Pratt & Whitney under the navy
sponsorship,
How has that performed, has it been actually tested in the engine?

Author's Reply
Data on the ceramic segment for high pressure turbine outer air sealing, which was developed by Pratt & Whitney,
is given in Reference 52 of the paper. To my knowledge, the seal has not been developed to the point where it is a
bill-of-material component for an engine. The purpose of the discussion in the paper on the ceramic segment was
to point out current areas of work and to show the potential gains associated with ceramic outer air seals.

D.K.Henndcke, Germany
In one of your last slides you show a photograph (not contained in the printed paper) of liner segments which
appear to be perforated in order to facilitate full coverage film cooling or effusion cooling. Are the liner segments
indeed perforated by such holes and, if so, don't these holes get clogged when the rotor blades rub into the liner
segments?

Author's Reply
The photograph of the turbine seal liner segments shows a sintered material with a honeycomb supporting structure,
There are no cooling holes. Cooling is achieved by impingement jets against the back of the supporting structure
and by film cooling which originates further upstream,

F. Wlkop, Germany
In your Figure 34 one can se0 that you have achieved the best efficiency when tho blade is running in a pocket of
the casing Now your picture shows this blade running in a very narrow pocket, but in practice we have an axial
movement between case and rotor and you need an elongated pocket, We have met contrary results to this,
Could you comment on your experience in the case you have axial movement of the rotor?

Author's Reply
We would agree that elongation to accommodate axial movement will act to decrease any benefit. Thus, this
recessed configuration Ihonly useful In those locations where axial motion Is small. For example, turbines In
certain small engines, and in the compressor.

D,A.Campboll, UK
The clearance of certain seals is much affected by shaft whiAl, and the prediction of whirl amplitudes is therefore
Important, It is suggested that these amplitudes are significantly affected by the mechanical damping produced by
features of the normal engine consatruction and also most particularly by special devices such as squeeze film
bearings. It is therefore very desirable to include these effects In dynamic models of shaft behavioui.

Author's Reply
We agree with your statement that squeeze film dampers ave particularly useful in mitigating whirl amplitudes, but
in regard to the mechanical damping produced by the normal engine construction features, it Is known that spline
friction (Coulomb damping) when operating above the bending critical can be detrimental, In general, nonrotating
damping features, both viscous and Coulomb, ore beneficial below and above the bonding critical, and rotating
damping features are detrimental above the bending critical but beneficial below the critical.

AMoore, UK
Figure 45 shows various types of abradable systems. Can you please comment on the losses associated with using
these types of abr'dables, i.e. the loss above that of a solid liner when running at the same clearance,

Author's Reply
l am familiar with the work being reported on in Paper No. 13 on labyrinth seoals and can say that your question is
answered in detail in this paper. But, In general, two effects show up in porous ubradables as compared to a smooth
solid surface, First, the jorosity allows a certain leakage in excess of that wheu using solid surfaces; this poro.ity
effect being a greater percentage of the total leakage and, therefore, more pronounced at low clearances. The
second effect is due to surface roughness. Poros materials may have very rough surfaces from an aerodynamic
viewpoint. In labyrinth seals, this la beneficial since surface roughness promotes turbulence and increases the
dissipation between labyrinth teeth. However, whum obradable materials are used ovee compressor blade tips, the
surface roughness Introduces an aerodynamic penalty,
1.40

B.Wrigley. UK
Can Dr Ludwig comment on the significance of lining materials on the thermal time constant of the static member
and is any particular material shown to be advantageous7

Author's Reply
I have no quantitative data on the significance of the thermal time constant of various lining materials. Since in
general, the case responds faster to changes in gas stream timperature than the rotor, it is desirable to slow down
the case response, Therefore, casing lining materials with low thermal conductivity should be beneficial. This
suggests that from a thermal time constant standpoint, the porous materials would be preferred over, say, sprayed
aluminum. So the general comment can be made that those lining materials which are made porous (sintered felt
metals etc.) for rub reasons have an added advantage of low thermal conductivity which tends to slow down the
stator's thermal response to the gas stream temperature. Also, it has occurred to some that an Insulation coating
(such as ZrO 2 ) applied, for example, to the inside of a titanium compressor case would slow down the thermal
response and in addition would provide rub protection of the titanium case in the event of an extreme rotor
imbalance. However, coating adherence needs to be demonstrated.

DG.Ainloy, UK
I agree the author's conclusion that a major problem is to achieve better control of clearance. Does the author
have any news whether in relation to current engine design, the major gains to be won will arise from greater
attention to reducing elastic flexibility of rotor system throughout the operating speeds or from greater attention
to closer thermal matching between rotor and stator components?
Author's Reply
In regard to which approach (reduced system flegibility or better thermal match) will provide the most gains, I
think that both hold much potential for Improvement, especially In large engines, Of course, in the fan and low
pressure compressor the system flexibility isimore Important than the thermal matching, But in the high com-
pressor and in the turbine, both thermal matching and system flexibility are critical.

Gl•alk, UK
I was interested to hear you talk about the situation with seals where the heat generated in the rub can cause added
expansion and lead on to catastrophic failure,
I wonder If you would go into more details about the Important parameterp, of that mqchanism and in particular I
am interested to know whether the size of the fin is important because it provides extra surfitoe from which heat
is lost by convection rather than conduction Is effective. Do you have a prediction method for determining
whether this happens or do you know that one exists?
Author's Reply
At NASA, wo have made only a few analyses on failure due to the thermal effect of rubbing, In ona particular case,
the labyrinth teeth were carried by a rotating spacer (spacer between stagus) and the relative mass of tie spacer was
1/3 that of the stator mass. Therefore, the spacer mass heated up faster, and the analysis Indicated that a catastrophic
fallure (loss of strength with increasing temperature) could be initiated by two seconds of hard rubbiing.
We did not consider heat convection as related to the fin size; I do not recall anyone suggesting that it is an important
factor, although it may be very significant.
arc (see Flgum 46 of
It is Important to rote that rubbing can take place, on a labyrinth to6th, over a very ehort
Paper No. 1). Thi is a complication from a heat transfer calculation standpoint and the practical importance of the
formation of the short arc length thermal bump has not been determined.
The factors which determine whether a labyrinth seal, when experiencing a rub, will easter into a cotastrophic failure
are. (1) rub severity (ftinction of tooth width, rubbing velocity, penetration raie and material properties); (2) heat
conduction into the rotor (functions of tooth width, circumferential extent of the rub, thermal conductivity, thermal
diffusivity, rotor mass and length of time of rubbing); (3) relative expansion of the rotor and (4) wear rates of votor
and stator.
In regard to a prediction method for assessing various designs for a nib induced catastrophic failure, I am not aware
of %nypublished methods.

PSuter, Switzerland
I think that one major problem area concerning control of clearance between stator and moving blades Is represented
by the non.uniformity of the temperature profil3 caused by the combustion chamber pertfrmance, eventually more
important then rotor dynamics or stator/rotor inertia difference effect.

Author's Reply
Dr Suter's comment is correct and I agree that the non-uniformity of the temperature p.cofile caused by the com-
bustor Is the major factor In the clearance problem or high temperature turbines, This non-axisymmetric effect Is
 1-41

aggravated by non-uniform cooling and by tion-axisymmetric structures. The resulting out-of-roundness in large
engines is estimated to be as high as 0.05 to 0.10 cm (based on seal and blade wear data). However, there are other
important clearance factors such as the transient response of the case/rotor which require that the assembled
clearance be large enough to avoid rubbing on engine acceleration or deceleration (see Figure 37 in Paper No.)).
Thus cruise clearance is set by transient rub considerations and not by the steady state thermal condition at cruise.
To decrease this large cruise clearance, some large engines have active clearance control which shrinks the turbine
case by use of cooling air once the aircraft is In a cruise condition.
I agree that thermal out-of-roundness is probably a larger factor than transient thermal response; but both are
significant and each requires a different solution. Thermal out-of-roundness reduction means more attention must
be given to'axisymmetric structures and to temperature distribution; also abradable materials would help to solve
this problem.

AM.Campling, UK
Regarding the multilayer metallic/ceramic abradable seal element under development.
Was the coating designed to be abradable or abrasive? If abradable, what degree of erosion was experienced?
If abrasive, what degree of wear was experienced? Has any difficulty been found in controlling the hardness of the
final ceramic deposit?

Author's Reply
The ceramic coating is desiSned to be abradable. Tests have shown that the ceramic coating has a higher erosion
resistance than currently used metal systems, Basically, this improved erosion resistance Isdue to the fact that
ceramics generally have good erosion resistance when the particle impingement angle is small; and in an engine the
impingement angle is about 200. Also, tests have shown that the blade wear is less than that for metal systems when
"'the incursion rate is about 0.0025 cm/sec. In regard to th, hardness of the final ceramic deposit, this depends on
control of many parameters In the spray process and these controls need to be improved.

"1I III I I I
 USE OF COATINGS IN TURB(KMACHINERY GAS ,ATH SE'ALS
hy
J.G. Ferguson
Manager Advanced Research Group
Mechanical Research Department
ROLLS.-ROYCE LIMITED
P.Q.PJox 3
Filton
Bristol
BS12 7QE
England

SUI-14ARY
The 1-Vzovements in ex.gine performance, to be gained by maintaining close
clexrances in various rotating seals with~n a gas turbine, are sesential to its
economic operation. In many cases, therefore, thismakea the use of coatings in
these seals mbndatory.

Abrasive coatiigs are used in some applications and in general are satisfactory.
However abradable coatings are most widely used, and these are found in many seals
throughout a gas turbine enginc from the fan to the turbine. Theme coatings therefore
have to cope with a temperature range from a little above ambient to 1 250 K. Test
methods exist for laboratory and rig evaluetion of coatings, and these are discussed,
but improved methods for evaluation of erosion and abradability are required.
To ov-rcome shortcomings in current abradable coating materials, many are at
preasnt Laing tailored specially to meet the conditions in particular seals within
an engine. This means that there are several different coatings, within any given
engine, each having a limited range of use.

New coatings are still required which can be used in a wide range of applications
throughout an engine. There is, in particular, an urgent need for abrad8ble materials
which can be used in turbine seals covering a temperature range from 870 K to 1 250 K.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The maintenance of close clearances at the v%rious rotating seals ;.s essential to
the economic operation of a gas turbine. It is now common practice to apply coatings
to one or bth sealing surfaces to permit them to cone into rubbing contact without
incurring significant damage and with the minimum of wear, The seals can then operate
safely with a minimum theoretical clearance of zero. The designers Can therefore
specify closir operating clearances than would otherwise be possible.
In the compreesc', blade tip clearances affect both the efficiency and tba
handling of the engine. Excessive clearance at maximum r.p.m. results in a power loss
and an increased specific fuel consumption (s.f~c.). Excessive clearance during
acceleration can reduce the surge margin and limit the permissible amount of
overfuelling thus reducing the acceleration rate.

Turbine tip clearance, also have a significant effect on s.f.c. On some small
modern high pressure turbines an increase in the clearance over the blade shrouds of
,127 am (0,005 in.) may .:eault in an increase in s.f.c. of 0,50.
The higher rim speeds and higher top cycle temperature needed for increased
power-to-weight ratios have led to the adoption of unshrouded H.P. turbino rotor blades.
This has lent new importance to turbine blade tip clearance, and highlighted tho need
for coatings over the blade tips.

Clearance in the main airstream labyrinth seals is equally important particularly

wliere high pressure air is involved. On a typical medium size high pressure ratio
engine for inMtance, an increase In the radial cle"rance of the compressor delivery
seal of only ,076 mm (0,003 in.) can mean an increase of 1% in specific fuel consumption.

Prom the foregoing, it can be seen that the subject of coatings for gas path seals
is taken seriously by gas turbine engine manufacturers. Despite this however there is
still a long way to go before completely satisfac-,ory coatings are found. Many coatings
are currently used in nervice but wost, if not all, have shortcromings e.g. poor erorion
resistance, to' little abradability, difficult to apply or rep•4r, too expensive, etc.
It becomor obvious that the requirements for suitable abradable coat-ngs are very
stringent and difficult to meet and it is hoped that this paper will serve to explain
*hese requirements,and mome of thi difficulties, involved in the hope that better coatings
will become available in tht future,
2-2

2.0 APPLICATION OF COATINGS IN EN1INES

There are two basic seals in which coatings are used in gas turbine engines i.e.
blade path seals and finned labyrinth seal bores. A gereral philosophy has in the past,
certainly in Rolls-Royce Bristol engines, dictated the type of coating chosen for the
various locations within the engine. This was determined by the need to maintain the
balance of the rotating assemblies, and thus avoid unnecessary increases in clearances
caused by orbitting associated with rotor unbalance. In effect, this meant that soft
abradable coatings were applied to static parts, or alternatively abrasive coatings
were applied to rotating parts; in either case the result was wear of the static part.
In general, this ineans abrasive coatings applied to compressor spacer rings and
abradable coatings elsewhere. This philosophy is still generally adopted, except where
the coating is required to perform other duties which conflict with the rubbing
requirements.

Temperature is an important parameter to consider when dealing with seal coatings.

These coatings are applied throughout the engine from front to rear and therefore cover
a large temperature range. The temperatures within a gas turbine can generally be
split up as follows$-
Fans and L.P. Compressors a 280 0 K to 400°K
0
Front end H.P.Compressors 1 3300 K to 580 0 K
Rear end H.P.Compressors 1 700 K to 840°K
H.P. Turbine Tip Seals 9 Up to 1 250°K
The complete range of temperatures is therefore from about 280°K to 1 250°K.
Although the ideal, which may one day be achieved, would be to have one common coat_ýng
applied throughout the engine, currently a rang- of materials is used starting with
rubbers and RpoxV resins at the low temperature end, and working through to filled
honeycomb at the high temperature end.
Fig.l is a section through a typical fan engine showing some areas where coatings
are applied.

3.0 BASIC RBQUZR3MRNTS OF MX..TflGS

3.1 Abrasive Coatings
Abrasive coatings should ideally machine away the opposing membox cleanly, without
smearing, and with the minimur of heat generation.
Aluminium oxide coatinf7- are used widely on comuressor spacer rings to prevent
damage to the spacer ring, which may be a structural member, in the event of a rub
occurring on stator blade tips. Although soft coatings are noLimally used over rotor
blade tips, where there is a possibi'lity of a titanium fire, X,.'rconia has been applied
to the casing bore with t'-e dual function of roviding a protective surface to machine
away the rotor blade tips cleanly and an effective barrier against penetration of the
casing by burning titanium, shou'1 a severe s schanical xailure occur. Aluminium oxide
is also -toed to minimise the wei- on labyrinth seal fins used in conjunction with
soft coatings.
Experience with these abr. ive c.-tings has been very good Cring a vast number of
in-service engine hours. It is inteided therefore to confine the remainder of this
paper to abrac-.ble paj rials only.
3.2 Abradable Coatings
AbLadable coatings are used in oasing bores over the blade tips, and in labyrxnth
seal bores.
Ideally, an abradable coating ie one which can bw freely machined away without
causing wsz'or significant heating of the mating part, and yet is hard enough to
r-sist erosion. These are contraaictory requirements and much of tho work on soft
coatings has been aimok oxtgetting the best compromise. A really successful compromise
has not yet been succestfully achieved.
The labyrinth seal application is probably the most difficult to meet. When the
thin fins on the labyrinth runner cut into the coating, the heat gennrated by friction
on the thin nurfaces rapidly heats the small volume of metal in the fins. This may
cause softening and rapid wear of the tips. One paliative is to spray coat the fins
with alumiAium oxide. This given a rougher surface which cuts more efficiently and
generates less frictional heat. Even so; unlems the Abradable material is very easily
machined, fin wear will occur.

Severe erosion of the soft coating is another feature of labyrinth seal applications.
Obviously, a certain amount of erosion is caused by air-borne dust passing through
the seal but the major cause is thought to be the debris generated by a seal rub.
 2-3

When interforence occurs between the finned rotor and the soft coath-ig, fhe debris
genŽr.ted by the rub is effectively trapped between adjacent fins, see Fig.2. This
geo
trappc:d debris is then carried around at high speed and erodes more coating,
generating more debris. The process continues until the fins retract due to a change
in operating clearance or until there is sufficient clearance over the fin tips for
the debris to escape.
The main problem in finding suitable abradable coatings is in satisfactorily
equating the two conflicting requirements of erosi.in resistance and ease of abrasion.
Experience haL shown that coatings which are relatively soft but have good
cohesive strength, such as some filled resins or rubbers, can go a long way towards
meeting these requirements. Unfortunately, these materials are only suitable for
the lower temperatures. It I,*unlikely that sucý properties can be found in materials
suitable for higher temperatures, i.e. above 600 K. For these materials, it is most
probable that the solution lies in a porous or composite material having sufficient
hardneso to resist erosion but the required amount of cohesion to again resist erosion
but allow good abradability.

4.0 TYPES OF COATING

The conflicting requirements of easy machinability and good erosion resistance

have led to a number of different approaches to the abradable lining problem. These
fall b&sically into five groupsi
(i) Filled resin mixtures, where the filler is included to give good machinability
to a reasonably tough resin.
(ii) Micro-balloon filled coatings. These consist of a mass of minute hollow thin
walled spheres held together by a tough organic binder.
(iii)Flame sprayed coatings, both combustion and plasma, which rely mainly on their
friable structure for ma.ihinability.
(iv) Sintered metal fibres.

(v) Thin walled honeycomb filled or unfilled.

The organic abradables used in Rolls-Royce engines include graphite-epoxy
compositions, glass microsphere-epoxy compositions, and talc-epoxy compositions.
Some of these material& have been, and are, proprietary materials and some have been
and are being developed 'in-house'oby Rolls-Royce. Theme materials vary in temperature
capability up to pproximately 500 K and are, therefore, only suitable for use in fan
and compebssor casngs,

Early graphite-epoxy coatings were applied by a paint xpray technique, using

thinners. Many thin coats had to be applied, and although the coating was quite
successful in engine use the length of time to apply it, and hence the relatively high
cgst, initiated the research for more suitable coatings. Trowellable room temperature
and heat curing graphite filled epogy compositions have been draveloped which have
maximum service temperatures of 470 K and SOO K respectively. In some cases, surfacing
of the uncured material, using a template, has eliminated the need for a post-cure
machining operation,
A talc-epoxy coating has also been developed which is a one pack putty-like
material stored in refrigerated containers. When required for use the material is
a•llowed to reach room temperature after which it is formed into strips of suitable
dimensions and pressed or rolled onto a suitably primed curface. This coating is
suitable for use up to 470 K.

Micro balloon filled coatings used have included a proprietary room temperature
curing mnterial, 3 M's EC.3524. This coating is used for filling voids and consists
of hollow glass microspheres in a two-pack opoxy resin which is applied by trowelling.
Surplus material is machined off after the filler has cured. Unf 8 rtunately, this
material has limited use as it is only suitable for use up to 370 K.
Coatings consisting of silica micro balloon filled 'rubberst are also being used
and developed.
The flame sprayed coatings used are all proprietary materials, but a considerable
amount of 'in-house' development work is done, to optimise the material for a particular
application, by variation of the spraying parameters. Some of the materials currently
being used and d*veloped are nickel/graphite produced by Sherritt Gordon, 5% silicon/
aluminium + graphite, boron nitride/aluminium bronze, boron nitride/nickel chrome +
aluminium, nickel/aluminium, nickel/chrome/aluminium, 6% silicon/aluminium + polyester
resin, all produced by Mateo.
Sintered metal fibres are being used for come applications and these include
Feltmetal produced by the Brunswick Corporation and O.H.P. Felt produced by Heurchrome.
These materials are available in strips and have to be bonded or brazed onto the component
 2-4

requiring the abradable lining. The 'Feltmetal' is available in a number of materials

including Hastelloy X, Haynes 25, Hiynas 188, Driver Harris 242 and these are il fibre
form typically 6-15 microns/dia.
The Heurchrome material is available in several materials including nickel/chrome
and nickel/chrome/aluminium, having typical fibre diameters of 7-20 microns. Again
I
this material has to be bonded or brazed onto the component.
Honeycomb materials have been and are being used 1,na variety of cell sizes and
materials. These are confined mainly to use in turbines where high temperature
performance is required, although some filled aluminium honeycomb has been used in a fan.
In the hotter areas the honeycomb is completely or partly filled with nickel/aluminium.

5.0 METHODS OF DEVELPING AND EVALUATING COATINGS

(a) Laboratory Development of Coatings
Be- re any new abradable coatings are submitted for rig or engine evaluation,
certain aboratory tests are required which can be used to a&sess their likely
performance. These should be relatively simple and quick to do to allow formulations,
spray parameters, etc to be optimised.
The use of plasma or flame sprayed abradable coatings is not as straightforward as
may originally have been thought. For example, two coatings which have had extensive
use and development are 750/25% and 859/150 nickel graphite. The 'powder' used for
spraying consist. of very small particles of graphite with A thin nickel shell, and each
particle consists of approximately 755/253 Ni./C or 85S/15% Ni./C. See Pig.3A. However,
whon the material is sprayed the coating consists of a splattered nickel matrix partly
filled with graphite and partly porous. The parameters used for spraying the material,
and indeed the type of spray gunt can vary the proportions of nickel and graphite and the
porosity of the applied coating. This can havw a marked effect on the abradabiiity and
the erosion resistance of these coatings. A section through a typical applied coating
is shown in Pig.3(8) at a magnification of 300 times.
The same principle applies to most other flame sprayed coatings whether they are
composites or not, and therefore a considerable amount of development work has to be
done to detcrmine the best spraying parameters for any coating. In the came of non
composite materials, the spray parameters vary the porosity of the coatings.
"With
organic coatings variations in their properties can be achieved by ,,lrying thea
types and mixtures of resins and fillers.
A simple piece oZ apparatus to evaluate the relative abradability of a coating
has been developed by Rolls-Royce Limited. It is shown in Fig.4 and consists basically
* of a swinging pendulum on which are mounted two cutters facing inwards. The coating is
applied to two specimens and these are mounted back-to-back at the bottom of the pendulum
swing. The cutter on each smde is set to give 0,127 mm (0,005 in.) depth of cut and the
pendulum is released from 30 . The angle of upswing is measured and from th.ts is
calculated the energy absorbed by cutting the coating. The cutter is 1,8 mm ( ,030 in.)
wide and the energy stored is 43,44 Joules ( 32 ft.lb.). Coatings tested usually fall
in the range of 1,4-8,1 Joules (1-6 ft.lbs,) energy loss. Results are assessed on a
* comparative basis relative to a coating which is known from engine running to have
acceptable abradability characteristics. Using this apparatus allows the relative
abradability of a coating to be assessed quickly in the laboratory in which the
spraying is being done, thus helping to make the optimisation of spray parameters or
formulation a more rapid process.
An equally simple piece of apparatus is used in the laboratory to initially assess
the relative erosion resistance of new and development coatings prepared in the
laboratory. It is shown in Fig.5 and consists of a 6,5 mm (0 026 in:) dia. sapphire
nozl, placed 22 mm from the test specimen at a", angle of 30 to it Air, at 552 Kpa
(80 p.s.i.), is used to blast the test specimen with 50 micron alumina grit. The test
speo men is prepared by spraying a coating 2,54 me (0,1 in.) thick onto a 50 x 50 mm x
16 .WG (2 in. x 2 in. x 16 SWG) mild steel plate. This is then placed in the erosion
test apparatus and run for N sin. or 1 min. The test specimen is turned round after
each test, to allow a total of four tests to be done on each one. The average volume
of material removed is determined for the four tests and this is used to stake relative
assessment* of erosion resistance of candidate abradable coatings.

e A composite flame material is defined as one which has a physical mixture of one
or more constituents In the powder form. The resulting applied coating then
becomes a matrix of ohe material surrounding the others in their original or
slightly modified form.
 2-5

(b) Test Rig and Engine Evaluation of Coatings

Having obtained likely materials from the laboratory, or in some cases direct from
outside suppliers, it ia necessary to determine their suitability as an abradable
coating in an engine. This can either be done by rig tests followed by final engine
evaluation, or by engine tests alone.
Devising a satisfactory relatively simple rig test, for evaluating the abradability
of coatings for engine use, is difficult. It is similar in many ways to the problems
associated with evaluating the friction and wear characteristics of materials for use
in unlubricated journal bearings, sliding joints, etc. Results of any sort of laboratory
or rig test cannot be applied universally, as each particular application has differences
which alter the performance, e.g. level of environmental contamination around the
component, the type and speed of movement which affects the type and level of debris
generation, the geometry of the component and/or the airflow around it, as these affect
the way in which debris can escape. Any, or all, of these conditions can vary the order
of ranking of a number of materials, which has been established by rig or even engine
evaluation of a number of materials.

To partly illustrate some of these points, a series of rig tests were conducted,
by Rolls-Royce Limited, on a range of flame sprayed abradable coatings. A 254 mm
( 10 in.) dia. wheel was used having slots machined around its circumference to simulate
blade tips, which rubbed on quadrants sprayed with the test coating. From these tests,
a range of coatings were ranked in order of performance. The best three coatings were
then tested on a more complicated rig which utilised a stage of an engine compressor,
i.e. disc, blades and casing. The coatings were applied to the casing, and this was
lowered onto the blades which were rotating at a tip speed of approximately 305 m/s
(1 000 ft/sec.). Results gave a reversal of ranking compared with those obtained on
the small rig. It is thought that this was due to the coating, which appeared tu be
more abradable in the full size rig, producing a greater rate of debris generation in
the smallsmearing
causing rig. This
and debris was unable to
local temperature clear
risen the rubbing
resulting zone quickly
in 'blade enough, thus
tip' overheating and
coating smearing. A new small scale rotating rubbing rig is at present being evaluated
at Rolls-Royce which, it is hoped, will make satisfactory rankings of coatings for rotor
path and finned labyrinth seal applications.
The above comments apply to coatings in the low and medium tem•erature ranges.
Coatings for turbine use, are subjected to temperatures up to 1 250 K and this makes it
even more difficult to produce a satisfactory rig. So far, Rolls-Royce have found it
more realistic and expedient to test turbine coatings in the engine. Even so, this
type oi engine evaluation is relatively slow and time-consuming.
Evaluation of the erosion resistance of coatings is also a difficult problem.
For inhtance, the erosion found in aome rotor path seals could not be explained by
basically circumferential flow as this would almost certainly not have resulted in
erosion. It could, therefore, be due to some sort of 'over the tip' vortex flow, but
the aerodynamisists are unable to define the type of flow over the abradable lining.
So far most cold tests have been done, using a fixed set of relatively arbitrary
conditions, which have produced results of a limited value. An investigation is still
required to determine the mechanism of erotion, over the blade tips and around seal
fins, and so establish a more realistic erosion test method for rotor path and labyrinth
seal abradable linings.
It has been established that, in general, soft materials with reasonably high
levels of cohesion are very erosion-resistant, These properties vary wit'l temperature
and it is therefore necessary to do erosion tests, at a range of temperatvres, in order
to establish the erosion resistance of a coating for any particular operating condition.
Some initial erosion tests have been done ,at -temperatures ranging from 290 K to 5N K
and these include tests on specimens that have been aged at temperatures up to 5W0 K
for up to 1,000 hours. Ranults have shown that the erosion rnsi tance of some test
samples dropped, by a factor of up to six, after aging at 550 K for 1,000 hours. This
illustrates the change in abradable coating erosion resistance which can occur with time
at temperature. It is very important therefore to determine the erosion resistance and
abradability of materials which have been aged in this way. However further
investigations, at a range of temperatures, need to be incorporated in the investigation
into erosion parameters mentioned above.
The current state of the art lacks the ability to confidently evaluate, by rig or
bench engine testing, the suitability of an abradable coating for engines in service,
and care must be taken to ensure that potentially good materials are not discarded by
unrealistic rig tests. Work is proceeding to develop satisfactory evaluation methods
for abradable coatings, but the necessary correlation with engine experience is a
relatively time-consuming process.

S*1
 2-6

(c) Methods of Quality Control

As previously explained, the properties of many of the flame sprayed coatings can
vary when applied to components. It is necessary therefore to evaluate the coating an
applied to each engine component. The swinging pendulum abradability rig was considered
for this but it couldn't be done on the actual components and it was not possible to
spray the abradability test-piece with the component. Spraying a test-piece immediately
after the component in not acceptable.
There was found to be an acceptable correlation between hardness of the coating
and abradability. Initially, a 'Shore' Durometer hardness tester was tried, as this is
a very portable unit and can be used on almost any engine component. Unfortunately
the coatings being measured were towards the top end of the 'Shore# scale, which was
too insensitive.
A Rockwell superficial hardness tester, using a 12,7 -m (0,5 in.) dia. ball and a
15 Kg load, gives acceptable readings on the Rockwell 15Y scale and values on this have
been established. Larger engine components will fit around the tester such that hardness
values of the coating actually on the component can be taken. For components which
can't be done in this way a 16 SWG coupon at least 25 mm x 16 mm (1 in. x 0,025 in.) is
placed adjacent to the land being sprayed and is thus sprayed with it. This coupon is
then hardness tested as being representative of the eng ne coating. On each component
the average of six readings taken around it is used as the hardness value for that
component.
During the initial laboratory evaluation of flame sprayed coatings a hardness
value for that particular coating is established and this is the value, with an
established tolerance, used for subsequent quality control.

6.0 EXPERIENCE TO DATE

The following chart shows the wide range of coatings that are being used in gas
turbine engines, and the areas within the engine in which they are being tried or usedl-

Type of Coating Max.Temperature Engine Positions in which

Capgbility the coatings have been
...... _K used
Filled organic resins or S00 Fan, I.P. and L.P.compresmor
rubbers. rotor paths and seals.
Flame sprayed polyester 600 Fan, I.P.9 L.P. and front
resen ÷ aluminium, end H.P. compressor rotor
paths and seals.

Flame sprayed nickel/graphite 725 Fan, I.P., L.P. and H.P.

compressor rotor paths and
seals and L.P. turbine seals

Flame sprayed boron nitride/ 875 L.P. and H.P. compressor

aluminium bronze and boron rotor paths and seals, and
nitride/nickel chrome in H.P.2 turbine seal.
aluminium.
Feltmetal 870 L.P., I.P. and HoP.compressox
rotor paths and seals and
turbine root seals.
Flame sprayed nickel/aluminiu 1 220 H.P., I.P. and L.P. turbine
and nickel chrome/aluminium, tip and root seals.

Honeycomb filled and unfilled 1 270 H.P., I.P. and L.P. turbine
(Ni.75 cells with nickel/ tip seals.
aluminium filler).

The ideal abradable coating for engine use would be one which could be applied
universally in all the seals (rotor path and finned). Preferably it would be a sprayed
coating, for eas8 of Application, and would have a maximum temperature capability of
say about 1 250 K.
A vast amount of engine experience has been gained in both development and service
engines and this has shown that we are a long way from achieving this ideal. Problems
of blade and fin wear, coating erosion and cost, are all contributing to the fact that
the above range of coatings are at present required in engines.

LI!
 2-7

Results from engine running have shown that fan rotor path coatings can experience
more erosion than the same type of coating applied to the I.P. and H.P. compressors,
and as such some of the potentially higher temperature coatings are not suitable for
use in the fan casings.
As stated previously a successful abradable coating is one which will abrade
cleanly, without damaging blade or fin tips, but at the same time one which will
resist erosion. Some engines have produced cases where both erosion and blade tip
wear have occurred together. In some of the labyrinth seals debris, produced when the
fins have rubbed into the coating, has been trapped between the fins where it has
eroded away the coating between the fins due to the high speed rotation of the debris.
Secondary engine problems sometimes result from the use of abradable coatings.
In one case the debris from a rubber based fan blade path coating, resulted in the
formulation of a degraded rubber substance in the variable inlet guide vane air control
system, thus causing it to malfunction.
One of the best coatings used so far has been a flame sprayed polyester resin
with an aluminium filler. It appears to have good erosion resistance and abrades away
without blade tip 8r fin wear. The only problem is that it is limited to a maximum
temperature of 600 K which only allows it to be used in the L.P., I.P. compressors and
part way through most modern H.P. compressors. Apart from this coating all the others
are producing some sort of problem. By careful selection of the position in the engine
of each coating used, and by tailoring the spraying conditions or the resin/filler mix
proportion%, it is possible to limit blade tip and fin wear and coating erosion to
levels which can be tolerated although in most cases they need improving upon.
So far filled honeycomb seems to be the only material suitable for use in turbine
tip seals, and at present this has to be carefully tailored to each application to
ensure that all possible rubs between blade tips and coating are kept to an absolute
minimum. Medium to heavy rubs result in severe fin wear.
Many of the linings which are bonded or brazed to engine components give trouble
with either poor bonding or areas of poor bonding, and many cases have been experienced
of parts of linings breaking away during engine running. This, together with erosion
problems, cost, etc., has led to a general dislike of this type of material.

7.0 CURRENT 'STATE OF THE ART'

In general, the abrasive coatings used have baen developed to a satisfactory
standard and are working well, having accumulated a vast number of engine running hours
in servic(c. The position regarding abradable coatings however is nowhere near as good
and in many cases abradable coatings are being persisted with when they are not entirely
satisfactory, because of the significant loss in engine performance which would occur
if these coatings were not used. The main problem with abradable coatings, especially
for temperatures above 600K is that no material manufacturers have yet come up with a
completely suitable material. It is hoped that this paper will serve to make more
people aware of this fact in the hope that more suitable materials will become available.
Currently, the major part of abradable coating evaluation is being done in engines
which lengthens the time for evaluation of a coating. Rolls-Royce, as engine
manufacturers, are well aware of this situation and are taking steps to devise improved
laboratory and rig tests. These will enable a more accurate evaluation of the
abradability and erosion resistance of candidate materials to be made, so that engine
tests will become final proving tests, rather than initial evaluation tests which many
tend to be today.
As discussed in 5(b) above, there are difficulties in rig testing coatings for
erosion resisancOe, and a programme of work is in hand to devise and evaluate a realistic
erosion test, which will be done at the appropriate environmental temperature. However,
all tests of this type are accelerated, when compared with the rate of erosion in an
engine, and therefore a lengthy period of correlation work is required to fully validate
these rig tests.
Abradable coatings and linings used in turbines, produce wear of the fins on the
root platforms and shrouds of the turbine blades. As theme fins are usually an integral
part of the turbine blade, then serious wear of them would result in the blade being
scrapped. To try and overcome this, various wear-resistant coatings have been applied
to the fins, but so far a completely satisfactory coating has not been found, as the
fins are still wearing during a rub.
2-8

8.0 CONCLUSIONS
(1) The improvements in engine performance, to be gained by maintaining close
clearances at the various rotating seals within a gas turbine, are essential
to its economic operation. To make the maintenance of these close clearances
a practical proposition often means the use of an abradable or abrasive coating
is mandatory.
(2) Abrasive coatings are much less used than abradable coatings, as most applications
are not suited to the use of the abrasive ones. However, there is general
satisfaction with the performance of the abrasive coatings, where they can be used.
(3) Abradable coatings are the most widely used, and are found in fan and compressor
bores over the rotor blade tips, in labyrinth seal housings, in turbine liners,
and in blade root seal bores.
(4) In general, the performance of abradable coatings in engines leaves much to be
desired, and in many cases the situation is being coped with by coatings being
carefully tailored for individual applications.
(5) Within the limited temperature capability of 600 0 K, an aluminium filled flame
sprayed polyester coating is working satisfactorily in a wide range of engine
applications.
(6) Although laboratory and rig tests exist and are being used to develop and
evaluate new coatings, better methods are required. Work is being carried out
within Rolls-Royce to improve a hot erosion rig test and a laboratory abradability
rig, for evaluation of rotor path bore and labyrinth seal bore coatings.
(7) There is still a definite need for new abradable lining materials, preferably
flame sprayed, for use in gas turbine engines. Such materials should have good
erosion resistance with useful lives of 5,000 to 10,000 hours in an engine, and
they should machine away cleanly without causing undue damage to blade tips or
labyrinth fin tips. Coatings are especially required for the turbine areas wSthin
an engine, and these would require a temperature capability of 870 K to 1 250 K,
depending upon the particular application.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge the help received from colleagues during the
preparation of this paper.
The author also thanks the Directors of the Aero Division of Rolls-Royce Limited
for their permission to publish.
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2.14

DISCUSSION

G.R.Wood, UK
Could the author comment on the compatibility of the seal material and the blade material, particularly on the
turbine gas path. Is there a probt!em with abradable seals retaining blade material under rubbing conditions and
accelerating the blade wear?

Author's Reply
There are problems with abradable lining oiatorials retaining blade material, and these are mainly confined to the
turbine gas path seals. The problems centre around finding an abradable material, capable of withstanding the
temperatures in the turbine, which is sufficiently abradable.
So far uxperience within Rolls-Royce has been that the turbine coatings tried so far have been too haid, and as
such have resulted in material being transforred from the blade tip to the coating, where It has usually become a
hard oxide, which undoubtedly increases further the amount of blade tip wear.
Materials that are used at present, as turbine rotor path abradables, we better than nothing but are still too hard,
and therefore all produce significant blade tip wear, We are still awaiting the availability of a truly abradable
turbine liner material,

A.R.Stetson, US
You did not discuss incuision rates. It seems that on your slides you must have gone from one incursion rate to
another in showing the smeared specimen to the unsmneared specimen but you did not rate it an important
parameter,

Author's Reply
Throughout all the tests, compared in the slides, the incursion rate was constant at 0.25 mm I sec (0.0 10 in, I see).
The reason for showing these two slides was to try and emphasise the point that misleading results can be obtained
by choosing the wrong design of test rig when evaluating the abradability of coatings. In the example shown, the
small rig produced smearing of a coating which abraded clearly whwe u8ing engine components, It is thought that
this was due to the fact that dehris was not able to clear the rubbing zone quickly enough,
This point is discussed in more detail in Section 5(b) of my written paper.
It was not intended to convey the impression that inclirsion rar, iL,nvt an important parameter, as it undoubtedly
is. However in the tests described, it was one of the parameters ,i was held constant,

J.Millward, Rolls-Royce Ltd, UK

In the two abradability tests which gave conflictiig results, i.e. a smeared effect on a small lab. rig and a clean cut
on an engine parts rig, was airflow used in both cases - If not this probably was the reason for the difference, i.e.
different debris removal rate.
Author's Reply
"The example given in the paper, i.e. that conflicting results were obtained on two different rigs which were buing
used to test the same coatings, was included to make the point that great care must be taken In choosing or
designing a rig to test the relative abradability of coatings for use in engines.
In answer to the question; a deliberate axial flow of air was not supplied to either of the rHi, In the case of the
large rig, this used engine compressor blades, and although it was a single enclosed stage and would therefore tend
to "stir" the air, it would nevertheless aid the removal of debris to a much greater extent than thu small dia. r16
described. An axiai airflow would improve the rate ol debris removal and if sufficient, in the case of the small rig,
would most probably give acceptable correlation with the rig utilising an engine compressor stage.
Certainly anyone wishing to conduct rotating abradability tests should consider very carefully the airtlow and
geometry and their likely effect upon debris removal in relation to an actual engine.

A.Mihinl, France
Vous avez parl6 dans votre exposd des difficult6s dans i'upplication des matdriaux abradables. lst cc qu'on peut
savoir quelles sont les difficult6s quo vous avez rencontrideY? Pouvez-vous pr6ciser quelles sont les difficult~s en
question?
Faites vous des essais pour d6terminer le rapport entre lus conditions d'application et leurs durde dans le temps?
Author's Reply
In reply to your question I would refer you to Section 5(a) of my written paper. In it I have attempted to explain
that when niame spraying composite coatings, i.e. coatings containing mixtures of materials, the final proportions
 2.15

of the mixture in thr applied codting can differ significantly from the mixture in the spray ptý,wdey eIeing fed to the
spray gun. The final proportions, and hence properties of the coating, are affected by '.nriations in the spraying
parameters which are optimised and then rigidly control.Ol.
Ejosion and abradability tests are done to assist in finling these optimum .pray parameters which are, very often,
further modified following the results of bench engine tests on these coadnis.

F.Wdiikop, Gennany
Mr Ludwig has shown in his paper that Zirkon coatings have good insulating properties. Has the cuthor tried to
examine a multilayer coating on the casing in the blade tip region, e.g. Zirkon coating with an additional cover of
an abradable material?

Author's Reply
Although Zircun itself has not been trieu as a part of u multilayor coating other coatings (e4g. magnesium zirconate)
have been investigated. Attempts so far have been unsuccessful in producing satisfactory adhesion between an
abradable lining and the ceramic insulatio'ig lining, and to (~ate this is still a problem.

-. WI -
 3-1

ABRASIVE COATINGS AS SELF ... EANI IG

GAS TURBINE COMPRESSOR VANE TIP SEALS

A. R. Stetsou, Chief, Materials Engineering

J. W. Vogan, Senior Plasearoh Engineer
W. A. (Copton, Director-lasearch

SOLAR Turbines Inteniational

An Operating Urocp of InterAational Harvester
2200 Paoific Highway, P.O. Box 80966, qftnDiego California 92138

ABSTMACT

Efficiency of a gas turbine is reduced by vane tip loses in the coppreosor section. Vane tip/rotor rubs
can result in catastrophic failure of a gas turbine angine. This paper describes a test rig and experi-
mental data obtained evaluating abrasive coatings for clearance control between the vanwe and the rotor
in a gas turbine coipressor. Plaosa/flame sprayed oxides, carbides and chemically bondcd abrasives were
tested under conditions duplicating those encountered in the compressor section. The effect..veneas of
the coatings in griz ding awa•, the vane tips to provide minimum clearance without doaage to the vane or
rotor wax determined. Coatings with rough, sharp abrasive grains were most effective. The laboratory
tests ware cvnfirmad by engine development tests with a full-scale rotox.

INTRODUCTION

With rising fuel costs and increasing shortages, Improvod efficiency in gas turbine engines is essential.
The large tip clearances currently in use in staticanry turbine compressors to prevent contact due to
shaft eccentricities are no longer acceptable because of loss in engine efficiency.

Us problem ii beat illustrated by referenoe to a schematic in a modern industrial gas turbine compressor
(Fig. 1). The vanes in the enine are static about the rotor. Spacing between the unshroudod vanes
and disc spacer rings (rotor) should be minimal for greatest efficiency, i.e., Alearance to permit
assembly and to allow for rotor thermal and mechanical growth ed thexual growth ok the. vane due to a
AT between shroud and tip. Wider ideal operating conditions this minimal spacing could be used. However,
wqpeWience has shown that aome eccentricities in the shaft can develop and clearance must be opened
slightly to allow for this possibility.

Vane/rotor contact can produce bowing and imbalance by uneven heating of the rotor. Frictional heat in
the vanes accentuate the initial contact by additional incursion resulting from thermal e"pension. When
extremely severe, vane rotor contact can produce x3ng spacer or vane failure and thus catastrophic engine
d~mage. Calculations and experience have shown that the vane/rotor interference rate can be as high as
25lnmsoc (0.001 in. sea) and can last for up to 30 seconds.
Increasing vane tip clearance is a vexy unsatiufactory approach to minimizing vane-rotor rub because it
results in an overall decrease in engine performance (output power and thermal efficiency).

To affect near not clearance, a system must be developed that will permit vane/rotor tip rub without
excessive heating of either com nant. An abrasive coating applied to the rotor was selected as one
mee•s of achieving this objective. To be effective, the coating had to meet the following raquirements.
1. Reamove the vane tips without generating ex'nasive temperatures either in the rotor or the vane.

2. Be unaffected by thermal cycling betw9en anticipated ambient temperatures and 427*C (800*F).

3. Application as a part of the normal manufacturing sequence without subsequent finishing

operations.

Essentially no quantitative data waa available on the performance of abrasive coatings under the antici-
pated operating conditions. Aluminum oxide applied by plasma or f3 mmespraying has been used on
compressor oases, with some success, to serve as an abrasive coating for removal of blade tips in the
event of rub. However, no data w"s available on its use un tw rotor. To obtain the required data on
coatings, a teat rig was detsigned and built. The rig duplicated those conditions encountered in
compressor operatiors. Omides and carbides were selected as the primary abrasives because of their
hardness, sharp cutting edges, low cost and availabilityl although consideration was given to other
"materials during the toot program.
TUBT FACILITY D031GM WD OPR•AT0H

The test rig wa dwawigned to duplicate the conditions encountered in a Solar axial flow compressor.
ScuDring operation, gas it Cie oampressor discharge end is at a teperature of 427*C (600F) and the
surface velocity of the rotor is 305 ape (1000 fps). If a rub occurs, the vane to rotor intrulc~on rate
may ba as high as 0.025 am per second (1 ail per second) with the meximum anticipated interference being
0.75 -- (30 ails). The teat rig was designed to duplicate these conditions.
The ompleted rig, Sliustrated !.n Fgqure 2, in powered by an air driven turbine adapted for this appli,
catioa from one oiý fLol''s standard production engines. Air to drive the turbine is supplied at a
pressure of 0.69 NXP (100 pcý) with a mass flow of .-35 kg (3.0 lbs) per sec•nd. Th value may vary
from test to test depending upon the coating tested and the configuration of the test rotor.
* Thia turbine is directly coupled tn the output shaft through a flexible coupling. The relatively slow
turbine speed (20.000 ro versus 60,000 rpm plus in normal operation) reduces drive efficiencyl however,
 3-2

this is move than offset by the elimination of the gearbox of an electric motor driven unit. The test
rig drive, as shown in Figure 2, was eseantiAlly maintenance-free after literally hundreds of test, runs.

The basic test disc used in abrasive rub testing was a nominal 31 cm (12 in.) in diameter and in machined
from an AISI 410 forging. Several of tleme wnre maise to minimise down-time while the disc is being
moated between tests. Over 50 material systems have been tested to date with this equipment.

The vane used fo. toating the coatings is located Immediately below this dico on a platform advanced by
a variable speed drive calibrated to produce an advance rate of 0.025 - (0.001 in.) per second.
During elevated tmerature operations, the disc is heated by an oxygen-acetylene toech and the vane by
the hot gas generated in the cavity during the heuting of the disc.

The basic instrumentation used to monitor the test consists of the following s

Vane temperature thermocouples

Vane stress strain gauges
Speed sensing pickups.

These outputs waer recorded by an oscillograph. Wheel temperaturs was monitored by a standard strip
chart recorder. in addition to this basic test data, vibration levels, oil prersure, and bearing
temperatures were monitored to warn of potential oquipment failure.

The test procedure used with this facility is as follows. The abrasive material to be evaluated is
applied to the periphery of the disc in the desired thickness. The disc is then balanced and installed
on the rig. A test vane with calibrated instrumentation is installed on the drive platform and the unit
is ready to run, The disc is brought up to a speed of approximately 5•00 rye and the speed held constant.
The instrumentation is given a final operational check and the torch ignited. Speed is then hold
constant until temperature of the dice han stabilised at .127C (80061P). anca thermal stability is
achieved, the speed is increased to give test velocity of 305 Ve (1000 1ipm) and conditions are again
stabilized. The test vane is then fed Into the disc periphery for 30 seoonds at a rate of 0.025 an
(0.001 in.) per second. Thm unit is held at this speed until cool down is complete to prevent hoat soak
back intv the bearings and turbine. After cool down, the disc and vane are removed for further examina-
tion followed by stripping and recoating of the disc for subsequent testing.

This test rig has been in operation for over three years without any significant problems. Recently,
minor modifications have been made to it to incorporate a capability for the testing of bladed discs.
Abradable tip meal materials have been tested at speeds of up to 430 a (1400 ft) per second and test
temperature. to 13706C (25007r).

TWTXW
UmaCTIXON OV MATERIALS

Because of the lack of specific data on abrasive coatings for the proposed application, it was decided
tO test a many different material systems as were practical. initial selection of the materials for
testing was made on the following basis,
1. The material system must be potentially capable of prolonqod operation at 427°C ( 8 0 0 *F)

in an osidising atmosphere.

2. Testing would be limited to materials that ware oummercially available.

3. The abrasive grain would be of a composition of demonstrable hardnless with sharp, cutting
edges.

4. The coating must be applied to a finish dimmsion without subsequent processing.

5. Application of the coatIng was to be compatible with our standard compressor fabrication
methods.
Ssiming these Auidelines the following materials were selected for initial testing am the abrasive con-
atituent in the coatings

Aluminum oxide
Chr•miu carbide
Tungsten carbide
Silicon carbide
* Chromium assqui oxide.

Although the latter was not considered to be a true abrasive, it has shown excellent wear resistance in
other applications and was included for comparison with the more abrasive materials.

Plamn spraying (P.O.) was selected as the primary method of application for these materials. the pro-
cesses wmre well advanced at Solar and could We ua'd to apply the coatinvg to the close tolerances
required. Maikel sluminide was chosen as the primary bonding agent in the composite coatings since it
iis self-bonding to moat alloys including the A1S8 410 substrate. Cobalt and nickel-chrc•msi bonding
alloys were also osed in a few composites as were coatings of the pure abrasive materials.
 in addition to the plAnma sprayed materials, a Solar developed abrasive coating (mC-1) waq appliod by
ounventional spray techniques and cured at 5380C (0o00F).

TEST PRO(IZJRrES

The material systems evaluated wore tested for the following taraoteristicst

Thermal a&hok resistance

* Thasrmal stability
* Adherence
• Surface roughness
S Abrasiveness as deteri•ned on the rub test rig.

Thermal Shock

Coatings were tested for their ability to withstand repeated thermal cycling by applying the coating to n
test panel of AISI 410 steel, 77m x 103 m x 1.53 me thick (3 in. x 4 in. x 0.060 in. thick). Tte
panels were heated to 5380C (1000*r) and rmoved and quenched In water. This cycle was repeated ten
times or until failure occurred as evidenced by spelling of the coating.

Thermal Stability

The effect of prolonged exposure to elevated teoesratures was determined using panels prepared in the
name ranner an those used in the thermal shook tests. These panels were heated in a furnace for 500 hours
at 8506r. After testing, the panels were removed and examined vinually for any evidence of attack due to
the prolonged exposuro to the elevated temperature.

Adherence

The adherence of the coating was evaluated in two ways - band teoting and tensile bond tests.* or band
testing, coated panels similar to those used in the previous test, differing only in size (51 me (2 iv.)
square], were bent over a 12.7 wm (0.50 in.) diameter mandrel for a total bend of 180 degrees. Per-
formance wan judqed on the basis of percent of material lost.

The second teat for adherence, or bond utrength, utilized tenaile trenagth. The coating ta be evaluated
was applied to the end of a 2.54 am (1 in.) diameter rod. A similar rod wan then bonded to the coating
using a high-strength epoxy adhesive. After curing the adhesiva to its maximm strength, the cemented
rod was placed in a tensile testing machine and the tensile force required to rupture the woating-
substrate bond was measured. bond utrength was then calculated.

S•rfacoe LO Shns

Surfeco roughness of the coating was measured using the same ample* as were used in the bend test. A
conventional profilometer was used to make these meINurIe-nts.

Rub Testing

The periphery of the teast dise waa coated to a thickness of 0.25 1 (10 Kilo) and the dins mounted on the
teat rig. The tent vane was instrumented with a thermonouple attached 2.5 m (0.10 in.) from its tip and
strain gauger comented to the vanes, 32 ma (0.125 in.) from the bane. Tha rig was brought up to an
operating apeed of 304 mps (1000 fps) mt 4279C (8001F), and atabiliaad. The vano wn then advanced into
the coated disc at a rate of 0.025 m (0.001 in.) per second. After the vane contacted the disc, it wee
allowed to advance for an additional 30 seconds at which point the feed meohaniLm was reversed and the
vane withdrawn from contact. The unit was then shut down and the vane and diso rmoved for examination.
Data reorded during this teat were the strain oxi the vane, the taneraturo indicatod by the thermocouple
located 2.5 ma (0.10 in.) frm the tip, and the lhange in wheel speed. Both the coating An the vane
were examined4 visually fox burning, metal transfer and overall appearance. lepresentative vrAew were aleo
sectioned for metallographic exanination.

RESULTS AM3 DISCUBBION

Over 50 matortal systems were tested. Typical results am presented in Table I for the initial screening
tests of varioms coatings. The"e reults have been limited to thos obtained with aluminm euoide,
tungsten carbide, ohromium carbide and hrumium .sequ oxide abranivee. An is evident in the table, the
baseline abrasive wan alumij.um oxide and it wan tstet oth as a pure plasma sprayed coating and with
various binders. Tungsten carbide V#a limited to a oo, -it binder. Attempt* to bond it to the subsetrat
chemical3y were unsuacessful. OChromium soqui oxide was tested "-Aly " a pure material and shoed little
promise. Cromium oatide was tented both with a nickel-rahmium alloy binder and with nickel aluminids
as the bonding agent.

The first criteoria used fnr evaluating the coating was the eas mad reliability with vhich it could be
applied. Materials showing poor deposit efficiency were disontinued since they were not considered
suitable for the end application. Chromium esqui oxide said nickel aluinide bonded aluminum ouide wwre
dropped at thin point.
Surface roughness valus rarnged from 3.1 v metre (110 microinohes) for the chromium sesqui oxide to
14.1 p metre (575 aLicroinches) for tungsten oarbide which wam the coarost material tested. The majority
of the abraskie materials were found to lie between 5 u metre (200 microiandes) and 11 iA metre (425 micro-
Inohee). Plasma spraye coarse almalnts amidd, which is am of the meet common abrasire atewials used
ii
"inthin and similar applications, gave a surfoae rouaness of 5.1 p metge (225 microinuhes). The JC1-I
 3.4

coating had a surface finish of 11 V metre (425 mioroinches). Both materials appeared to be adequately
rough for the proposed application.

Notallographic sections were taken of all coating types ani examined visually at a magnification of lOOX.
VThe comments in the table are largely self-explanatory. of particular note is the typical difference
between plasma sprayed and chemically bonded abrasive (OC-1). this is illustrated in the scanning
electron micrographs in Figures 3A and 33. The P.O. coatings exhibited a relatively dense structure with
rounded grains and thus retained little of the structure required to grind or accomodate the grinding
debris. With the RC-i abrasive coating, the structure is open and the grains retain the majority of their
"as crushed' sharpness. As will be noted subsequently, sharp grains and an open structure are required
in an effective self-cleaning abrasive coating. Attempts to obtain this structure by plasma or flame
spraying were unsuccessful. As power was reduced to the plasma gun, for exampl, to decrease rounding of
the edges of the abrasive grains to improve cutting efficiency, the weak, porous structure was readily
wiped away during a rub. Co-spraying of a nickel aluminum bonder alloy with the abrasive grains also did
not produce adequate retention of the abrasive unleas plasma power was high enough to melt the abrasive
grains.

The final test in this phase was for the adherence of the coatings to the substrate. Dcept for the
chromium carbide, none of the coatings was severely damaged by the bend test. The material lose indicated
in the table was largely on the edges where more sovrely stressed conditions exist. The nickel aluminide
bonded aluminum oxide and the conventional fine grained aluminum oxide had relatively high spolling
tendencies but losses were not sufficient to discontinue use of the materials on this basis. Tensile
testing for bond strength showed that all of the materials were capable of meeting the low centrifugal
stresses expected during operation [<680 kPa (100 psi)).

Data obtained from the bend test and bond strength test were confirmed in the thereal shook test.
Thermal shook results were not tabulated. All materials passed and no significant differences were found
in performance during thermal shock.

Similar tests were conducted on chemically bonded tungsten carbide abrasive grains. These data are not
included. The binder under consideration did not adequately wet the tungsten carbide abrasive grains.
Tensile bond strengthp are not reported for the RC-l coating since the epoxy adhesive used in these tests
did not adhere consistently to it.

The rub characteristics of representative coatings tested in this series are reported in Figures 4, 5 and
S6. in addition, a rub on a bars, uncoated disc is included ii each to serve as a baseline. Uncoated
data represents the situation in a conventional vane-rotor rub and should be used as a guideline in
evaluating subsequent results.

Typical appearance of the rotor after a vane rub is shown in Figures 7, 8 and 9. Figure 7 is an uncoated
disc. Chatter mlarks fxrom the vane are evident. These are the result of localised metal buildup and
indicate that a very high vibration level is generated in the vane during rub with the bars disc. Fig-
ure 8 is of a rotor plasma sprayed with a conventional aluminum oxide abrasive. Although chatter marks
have been eliminated, the metal transfer to the disc is excessive indicating limited surface life and
potential problems in rubs with multiple vanes. Figure 9 is a photograph of an AC-I abrasive coated
disc. This disc has been through the *am& rub test as the two previous discs but no evidence of metal
transfer or coating damage can be observed. rn Figure 10 the appearance of this rub is shown in actual
operation. To the left of the picture is a steady stream of sparks similar to those generated by a
grinding wheel. This steady grinding operation continues throughout the rub. When uncoated discs, or
discs coated with plasma sprayed aluminum oxide, are tested in this manner the steam .is intermittent
indicating that the thermal growth occurs during rub until sufficient heating occurr to melt the tip of
the vans. At this point the molten metal is thrown clear and the rub is interrupted until the vane has
advanced sufficiently to resume contact. Thia is an undesirable situation since it tends to create a
destructive rub mode and gives considerable excess vane wear, tmounting to 0.25 om (10 mils) in most
cases due to thermal expansion of the vane resulting from frictional heating.
Three grades of tungatei carbide were tested and as predicted upon examination of the coating prior to
test, the coarser the grain, the better the cutting action and the less metal transfer. The chromium
carbide coating showed heavier transfer than any of the other materials tested and wam dropped from the
program.

nhe next criteria used in evaluating the coating's effectiveness was the temperature recorded by a
Chromal Alumel thermocouple located 2.5 me (0.10 in.) from the tkp of the vane at the time of initial
contact. These data are reported in Vigure 4. the temperature indicated by this thermocouple lagged
the contact tamratura due to the mass of the vane and ths distance to the rub area. Actual vane tip
tperature was sufficient to generate melting in most tests. An indication of the magnitude of this
delay is the discrepancy between the tomporature readout of 5436C (l0lO4) for the vane rub on the bare
disc Ln comparison with the probable tip temerature in excess of 14820C (27000Y) as indicated by the
melting of the vane tip. 1n all cases, the application of a coating to the rotor reduced the tempera-
turte observed on the vans. However, with the exoeption of the X-1 coating, all coatings tested still
created melting of the vane tip. Increasing the grain sine of the tungstwn carbide abrasive did not
reduce th* indicated vane temperature. the reverse occurred with the tungsten carbide abrasive giving
an indicated vane temperature of 3016C (5730r) for the fine material and a temperature of 5124C (95311)
for the soarse material. This represents a nominal grain size variation of -325 mesh for the fine
material as oPpoed to -150 mesh for the coarse material. The chromium carbide gave a slight temperature
reduction of 21eC (600r). These temperatures are almost identical with those obtained with the coarse
tungsten carbide coating. Mhe coarse aluminum oxide coating reduced the measured temperatures to 4380C

Mtain data, Figure 5, generally paralleled the temperature data indicating the effectiveness of the
atkg. The correlation was qualitative-, not quantitative, as was the speed loss during rub. The data
obtained fL tho bar* disc was inconsistent with that obtained from th7 coated disc, with regard to
 3-5

strain and speed, and this discrepancy has not been resolved. TAh disc coated with sharp abrasive grain
(X-1 coating), showed an increase in speed during rub caused by a slight smoothing of the disc during
initial contact. 2ho reduction in air drag was greater than the frictional drag on the disc due to rub.
An overall acceleration of the disc was thus recorded for a constant driving force on the turbine.

The air drag imparted to the disc by the tough abrasive coatings is calculated from the power required by
the driving turbine. mhe
bare uncoated disc was used as a baseline and given an arbitrary value of 100.
Increased mass flow required through the turbine to stabilize at operating speed was calculated and
converted to relative percentage as omapared with the bare uncoated disc. On this scale the increase in
power amounted to between 10 and 15 percent. The data obtained are presented in Figure 6. This measure-
ment is useful in assuring reproducible testing and copring overall coating roughness. It is not
applicable to compressor operation where the affect is not detectable based on full-scale rig test.

A/ppearance of the vane tips atter a ruh is very revealing as to the effectiveness of a coating in pre-
venting overheating and stock removal. The appearance of a metal-metal rub, also characteristic of
essentially all of the plasa sprayed coatings is shown in Figure 11. IThe alloy reaches a temperature
near the melting point at which it is readily extruded. This extension of the material is relatively
symmetric showing essentially no preference to move the material in the direction of the motion of the
disc. With an efficient cutting material, e.g., the C-1 costing, this extrusion of material does not
occur as is shown in Figure 12. The vane is uniformly ground with minimum heating. Essentially no burr
is formed that would interfere with blade aerodynamics.

In ranking of abrasive coatings, the two most significant test parameters appear to be tmperature rise
and maximum strain during a rub. Thoes data for representative coatings ame illustrated in Figures 4 and
5. The results show that many of the plasm sprayed coatings are little, if any, better than the unooated
alloy. The RC-1 coating with the retained sharp abrasive is the outstanding coating. This coating was
selected for a full-sine rig test.

The comparison of coated versus uncoated rotors during vane tip-rotor rub is clearly shown in Figure 13.
These tests were conducted on a full-size rig to confirm the results obtained in the laboratory with full-
siss engine components. The vanes to the left have been rubbed against the XC-1 coated rotor. EXuept
for a very thin wire edge, no vane deformation or burning has occurred. The vanes rubbed against the
uncoated rotor are shown along site and the heavy burrs on these vanes can easily be seen. It is also
evident that the vanes rubbed agaknst the anoatted rotor have a burr both on the leadIng edge and tO
trailing edge an in the laboratoryp tests.

CO.CWSIONS
Properly engineered abrasive coatings applied to turbine compressor rotors are an effective meas of
reducing terature incr*ease during rub and elminating excessive vane strain. These coatings can be
0
applied with sufficient reliability for production usage on compressors operating .jp to 427 C (8000P).
Some loss of efficiency might be expected due to the increased surface roughness of the rotor. However,
this represents only a mall percentage of the total rotor area and the effect would nut be detectable
in normal operation. The increase in efficiency duo to operating with minimum vans clearanues will Iar
more than offset this slight increase in aerodynamic drag.

Testing of vaxtous coatings showed that conventional flam and plasma sprayed coatings lose much of their
effectiveness due to a rounding or melting of the sharp edges of the abrasive grain during application.
When the sharp odges of the grain were maintained by other bonding methods, cutting efficiency was greatly
increased and the overheating or melting of the vane tips was eliminated. norganic low taomraturebonda
for the abrasive, e.g., the one used in WC-1, afforded the best grain sharpness retention.

"urther work will be conducted with these coatings not only for use on the turbine ompressor rotor but
also on b3ade tips to overome rub problems in the blade housing area. The use of the reduced running
clearances allowed through application of abrasive coatings to paRts that may cwe in high speed contact
during operation is expected to reduce overall fuel oonsumption of the turbine engines significantly.

In evaluating an abrasive coating, the visual exaination of the specimens after test for burrs, melting
and metal transfer ,s one of the moat reliable means of evaluating their performance. instrumented data,
such as strain gmaugea and thermocouplos, axe helpful in this evaluation but the data generated are
insufficient for a final decision. the test rig built for this program beauas of its versatility and
the speed with which it may be adopted to other configurations and the rapid test turn-around has proven
invaluable for gaining prautical insight into the behavior of high-speed rotating components during rub.

"I 1 I I I • I I I I
3-6

INITAL SCNEENINO
TABLO1,91 COATINGSAPPIAXWTO AN Acst410 WIAE
TEST It6ULTS FORlROTORA1OIRARIVE

Eu. 01 9UrfsA 1008gb... hMcomstruMIar, good Test Tonsils Baitdarongth Abrulys Grain
Arsvyut A~pptaku eafl-AW 161
1n Wfi Appearano. (%Material LoAt( (Ugp&- Pat) Anmersanoo

Ni"m Ahlvabsds
now"d Mimiu 4.4 -118 Laminar with so 28'.4200 floWc~sgag"
10 poereat *brut".

pluame IprayeadAlumIinu Moderate 5.0 - 00 1 minsy with so 47 -6800 Viet with noiuded
Oxide (81> Is mioiC80M disoonlleaous vows. 0011*

7Iain. Wqod Abumlawt Diffloullto a.?-8125 11imlar to plums tO 85- 7800 ovoid
OKI (78 > so okra") costrt sprayed with larger

ISO-I 86.117inplld 10.9 - 425 Projeceog abruivo 0 N/A PAap blooky

ta relivred pasth beadedto grains

Caoblt bandeid 'luulngkf Modernte 4.8. 180 Fine ualrhmy 5 611- 7TOM matiall oostifis
OrblW* (48 > N6 nilciom) dtopi0.d Abiraio. an .bra.lys
cralni inimetal matilx

Cobalt bomdsdTungstena I~edsdr 6.0- 350 UotIorm si'wture t0 48. 6000 ItowWS.abrasto
(U>3 w *rm
W~bl v*hAl ditpersad p.5wf

c~balt bodnd Tiangatan fmfy applied 14.4-07

Ol.d "n ruchura With 10 54--0400 lAng. round
Clubd. (14:- 30 mfioas. 1 Ltlofinis malploimatlhy 20 afAIS.
dlimeiwh. p.17)614
volds

5tishei-chmbtm Dowdad Mlaodeal 6.32-20 Vi oappasrnoo

Ifund. g0 64 - 9,20 Fine grati.
chroautm CAuIW& dispersd in.

Nickel AbuntiaM. 11de roate 4.4 - 118 L~mlor structure to $00-4300 Vim. rowunde
Chromium C618.Ido with discntlbowkus gralm;

BLA EABRASIVE COATING

ABRASIVE COATING

COMPRESSOR SECTION TURBINE/COMBUSTOR SECTION

FIGuin 1. TypicAL moPPIN AXIAL nLow COMMERcILa CMB TURBINEW

 3-7

ol1

£J

Im
p, 0 !~I

pi
 3-8

4*2

r4

'

II

tII

,II

iif)

.1I
 3-9

TEMPERATURE
(C) (P)
600 -tl0

1000
500
900

S00
400
700
So zo
600
30 .aSooa zz
• •

A
A A
200 -' 2 004 po
A 8

-300

100 .aoo2

0 _0

FIGURE 4. TEMPERATURE RWSE GENERATED IN THE VANE DURING RUB

(# METRE/METRE)
ii (,~.INCHES/IN.)

900

800

700

600

~500
/" A A
400

100 .~ 8

VIQIRX 5. COMPARATIVE ALUM VANE STRAIN VALU8 GENIX3ATX D UWING

ABRAM"V RUB

-II I I I I I - I i I I I I I I i I I'l
3-10

140

to.

0l

0Vumd3AIYs
 3-11~

FIGURE 7. UNCOATED ROTORt AFTER 30-IPECOND BUD

FIGURE&8 APPEARANCE OF~ THE ALU)1flUM OXIDE COATING A2FTE VANE RUB

FIGURIE S. MOTOR 0OATAD WITH BC-1 AFTERBUDIV TEST~

 3-11

* I.q
 3-13

FIGURE It. CROSS SECT'ION OF A TYPICAL VANE AFTER RUB

WITH A PLASMA SPRAY COATED ROTOR

FIGURIE 12. CROSS SECTION OF A TYPICAL V&M4 AFTER RUB

I ON RC-I COATED ROTOR
4 3-14

Jaco~atod RotorI

W-1 Coated Rotor

is

Figure 13. Vone Segments Rubbed Aqainbt a Full Scale Rotor During
Advanced Engine cave lojuent Touts

sp I
 3.15

DISCUSSION

AJ.BJacdaon, UK
You mentioned that the roughness of the coating caused negligible aerodynamic loss. Have you conducted
systematic tests to separate the effects on aerodynamic performance of tip clearance and coating roughness?

Author's Reply
No. I have not, Closing the tip clearance is of course the general basis of abrasive coating itself. and there is no
way for us to close the tip clearance on the engine without some means of inhibiting the heating of the rotor under
adverse conditions or eccentricity of operation. The only quantitative information I might say on this is that in
the operation of the engine we can see a difference in its operation from the standpoint of aerodynamic efficiency
changes.

J.G.Ferguson, UK
I am not sure you mentioned in your talk whether you machined the coating after you have applied it?

Author's Reply
No, it is applied to actual thickness. It is applied to within approximately +25j.m. Machining Is really not feasible.
You would have to diamond grind it. And we would get into an expensive operation in doing so. We think the
accuracy of 1/1000 in. is satisfactory.

W.B.Litchfield, UK
What 14the approximate bond strength?

Author's Reply
I did not go into these details of bond strength. It is very difficult actually to measure bond strength on a coating
of this sort since it is completely open structure. But my rough guess would be that wQ are talking about a bond
strength of about 800-1000 psi,

W.B.Litclhfeld
Describe process details with respect to application of RC-1.

Author's Reply
It is sprayed on like slush and fired at a thousand degrees Fahrenheit actuall,', The binder diffuses at that point,
reacting very slightly with the aluminium and so the entire component there is fired. It is well within heat treat
cycle of the rotor which Is about I 125*F.

W.B.iUtchfield
Can the coating be applied to vane tips?

Author's Reply
We have investigated and we are investigating tip clearance coatings of various kinds. For the low temperature
application, there is no question that it could be bonded on to tip vanes or tip blades. The use temperature of
this particular composition is 1000*F. There are other programs in operation with Solar, General Electric C.,
and NASA in which we are IcokinS at coatings aimed at maintaining the abrasive on to about 1000IC. It is a
question of contrc~hing that bonding mechanism. The grains ui.. vey effectiva at high temperature. Our
experience is that flame sprayir$ Is not so effective, It is necessary to use a bonding technique around the
edges of the grains, benefiting by the special structure of the grain itself,

W.I.UtchnIeld
Does the coating here influerce in the fatigue properties of the substrate material?

Author's Reply
No, not at all.

H.LStockav, US
Relative to Figure 6, what was the absolute horsepower measured?
3-16

Author's Reply
The power levels used to be a requirement. Power wa,• measured by taking the volume flow of air through the
turbine that drove the rig.

H.L.Stocker
Did you account for possible turbine efficiency change in determining relative horsepower?

Author's Reply
This has been considered but it seemed to be unnecessazy since experience with test rip driven by electric motors
showed that distinction was not possible whether a coating had been applied or not. There seems to be evidence
in hand that the effect is small relative to others during operation.

H.LStocker
Did you run back-to-back tests with a smooth and rough (abrasive) surface at the same clearance in your compressor
rig?

Author's Reply
Back-to-back tests were made for a vane tip clearance of approximately 30 mils, At our system the drag is priamrily
an aerodynamic drag of a disc freely rotating in a confined chamber and at constant clearance - no difference was
noted.

H.L.Stocker
"Thepossible effects of surface
roughness on the airfoil velocity diagrams were not evaluated or determined in the
way you ran your compressor rig,

Author's eply
No.

G.Halu, UK
You talked about catastrophic failures that you occasionally experienced oa-the engine. Have you managed to
reproduce them on this rig?
Authoe's Reply
Well, the catastrophic failures that had been experienced are relatively few. If you remember the design of the rig
it used a solid wheel. The example that I showed happened to a ring spacer, It is only with ring spacer of course
when any problem occurred in any engine facility,
Let me just add another comment: We have a program now with the Aero Propulsion Laboratory in which we
plan to investigate the distribution of heat within the ring, a program In which we are going to study the heat flow
under various ingression rates, the heat flow within the vane itself and within the separated ri.,gs. But within that
wheel we could not. We were only looking at temperatures exclusively within the vanes. At that point, we were
unable to measure the rotor temperature rise. These are vane temperature rises. Now, with the new setup with
the telemetering system, we will measure the strain in the ring, the temperature distribution in the ring and also
in the vane much more thoroughly than was possible in this particular program.

3
U
 4-1

APPLICATION M~ FEUTRES M9TALLIOUES OHP

AUX JOINTS DfTANCHWI!f DE TURBOMACHINES

par Emile GENIEYS

HEURCNROME 92700 Colombera France
Socktir4

st Andrd HIVERT
Office Natioanai d'Ewdo at do Recliercho Atdrospattlat (ONERA) 22320 Chistillan - lFrarce,

L'ONERA a cr"4 desfontres mtaliiques qlul s.caract~risent par rimetris forts porositil jiusqu'A 96 %) at
rimestructure finie (fibres tubulaires do 10 1 30 orm). Le proc"d consists A dipowe par "ole ilactrolytiquo un
nmtal cormma Is nickel wur det fibres da carbon* provenant do impyrolye do Is celluiose, Cosfibres an vrac loot
transformil.s as. foutre, au moyan dotechniques papatiire d siadimentatior. par gravitil ou centrifugation. Un
frittag conaollds 1lidifice at dlimina Is carbons..
L'eotr a piatticittA da cos feutres at lawrAptitude A rocevir par diffusion pxasma du. chrome at do l'alu*
miOnlum on for.:, dosmat~nlsur porliculiamemnrt bien adaptis & Is fonction doajoints d'6lanchdit6 do turbonrachinas.

L&SolNt iorchromeearprisn charge lour dvlpamrent (ff ouro ONP, poujr ON aute
mayantd.

montop~ratioonals ua ' 8W'C;li otu stadae

dosatsl obnepu tompliratuma swpideiuret, j

APPLICATION OF THE OHP METALLIC FELTS TO TURSOMACHINIES SEALS

ONEA fet* harcteize bya very hihporosity up to 95 %)and a fine st ructure

dvelpedmetlli

onfiersme&
crbo of paper
y prolsisof cellulose, Theta loote fibers aretransformad Into felts by means

The extoramepleaticity of thate alolsarid their aptitude to receive by gaseous diffusion chromium or alu.
nmirnuim ake them perticularly suitabala for turbomaschina seals, The Heurchrorna Company took charge of their
ind~ustrial developmenrt (hence their wnae OHP, for ONERA High Porosityl. It implemanted motallo-ceramlo
sealing techniques for the low and medium tasoperaturat (up to 600'C1 arndbrazing processes foi highear teinpa
ratura,, The seeia fabricated this may areolperational up to BOO*C ,they are at the bench testing stagefor higher
tempaerturee, up to 110150.

INTRODUCTION
Is criation d'un fautra raitallique qtai, par so
L'sccroissament du rondameint thermo-dyncam- atrucrura onchavitrial, prisents une soliditt
qua dos turbomachinos eat un souci cons tant dec conisiddrablaemnt aupiriaura aluxmaltiriaux doaoama
motoriastaa. L'augmantation des toapiraturas at porositil provonant du frittago, do ptrticuloo fi-
des presslone qui contribusi puiceament A catta nos at liquiaxes. (1)
Avolution a corafirl un r~le primordial aux joints
d'StanchilitS ontre lee divers niveatux do preseion. La millthode do fabrication dhfinie, parfait.-
exact original., a pormis d'obtenir unosmtdritsu
Limajoinsitdes turbines Itgam;i joints do adaptable aux divers problkwas, partoia tris dif-
labyrinth... joints do carters coapraaeoursP ficiles, rasacontrls done ce domains des joints
joints do carters turbines, doivesit requlir A do turbines A Sax.
priori troic conditions aaaaintiallea i
at altoopioi sfbiain4u
- forts poroxitil global. i condition de ligiratil foutro do nickel pur qui set Il'lAment do dipart
at d'iuntocuiti pour les pillie. antagonista. do tout. uas adrit; do produits difffroata adaptill
A chacunt des problikams apilcifiqusso. Co fautro do
- structure finea condition do bonne Atanchdits do nickel aet ansmuite traitefortail par doesopirm-
at d'abraidabilitil rdlgulilire at inoffensive. tiasts do vdalitilisation qui permottent d'obtattir
un fautre hosoliluge do composition I nickel-chromes.
- risistance A l'oxydation at I In corrosion pour far-mickel-chrome, nicko1-aluminiust, nickel-far-
Ise applications 94 lee joints trovaillent I chrome-aliminium. nickatl-chroae-aluuinium, etc.
-i ~haute ott soyenne teampraturo.
Certatinosa do ca opgrations do miltailisattion
Do plus, ca caractiristiquas no doivarnt pas peuvoint stre ramliades cur I.tfeutro ilti-m
Ats's obtenums assditrimenat do lonur rmisitance md- avant mica on placeocur son support. Cet'taiines
cassiquo. on particulier, rdmistanicas Il'Airosion autred noe uSatetfectudes qu'aprill brasago dom
par lee gax circulaut I grand.r vitessia, feoutras cur lour' support. In particulier. catta
demuilre milthode Porment dlobteanr dos feutroc cal-
Loa travoalu
quo l'OMZ8A a conduit dane ce pablo. do rieuiter A des teaspdratur~e larsamnt
orientgo, die Is dilparit,
domin. at mosat vets saspdriourem A IOOO'C.
 4-2

Pour des raisons do commoditfi can feutres minisation pauvent Agalement Etre prhvues. En
inaitalliques ONERA A structure fine at haute poro- particulier, I'opdration d'aluminisation qui est:.
sitd maroni dixijgngs par Il'xpression foutres OUP on ginigral, risliage apris brosage du feutre
(pour "ONERA Haute Porositfil). on "xminera succo.- aboutit I un matiriau. capable do risistor A des
sivemmnt leunr fabrication, lour caractdriatiques teapgratures d'utilisation supoiriturae A 00000C.
at isLi application aux difffirents joivts dVitae- Do plus, L'opgration d'aluuinimatiou percent en
chditl dos turbomachines. cat do fixation du foutra par bracaes do trans-
former la nature do Is bracure dan. Is son* trio
favarnblo d'un accroissceunt saiultand du point
1. FABRICATION DES hOUTRlS OHl? do fusion at do i& risistance A I& corrosion.

A- Feutroc do Nickel 1I . CAIRACTERISTIqUES DES FEUTRES 011?

La technique rataonue pour cotta fabrication Lee feutres OH? prfixentent un certain noobre
oat bansi sesentioilemnt aur l'utilisation de do caractiriatiquos origistal.., qui tant lid..s
fibres omdtalliques obtonuca par dip~t Slactroly- eosentiell..nt I lour structure. A lour comports-
tique cur des fibres do carbons. Le feutre est mont, at I lour mithode de fabrication.
rdalist on cinq opdrations principalec succossi-
Vol. A- Caractirist igusa lidem I Ia form. dos fibres

a. Dam fibres do iolluloss soot pyrolysdos en Les fibre mitalliques qui conotituent It
vrac. 1 1O00'%, sous protection d'une atuosphbre feutro sent tout A fait difffirentoas des fibres
a'asote enrichis do xyllns, pour obtenir obtanues par vole m~canique A portir d'alliagas
par dlp8t do carbons pyrolytique, Ie conductibi- difinic. Ebbes cant tububairec at pcu vrilldes.
lit6 ndcessairu. Cott* morphologies p~r-tic-Ul1idr conduit I une ro-
marquable homwgfndit& dos foutra. at A un. bonno
b. Los fibres do carbons ainsi obtanuos sent re- rdsistance an traction fig.I.
vituar do ntickel par dipdt fi.ectrolytique Au
tonneau.

a. Los fibres nickolies sont difirprasoe daes

Ileau puis addimcnties par gravitation ou centri-
fugation. On obtient ainsi un foutre brut qui,
bien quQ pau solids, est nfiamnoins aisiment mani-
pulable.

d. Cotte Abauche oat ansuita frittie I IO!,O*C

done l'hydrogine humide ce qui a pour effet do
consolider par diffusion lam points do jonction
at d'dliminer Ie carbons sous form, do CO at do
CHt4
a. Ensfin, le mat~riau pout itre plang at comprind
* pour adapter casstructure A 1'utiliaution envies-
g6e.
Cotta technique do fabrication donnea u mai-
tre d'oeuvre , Is possibiliti d'intervenir our
toute une stine do parawitres an court do faori-
cation. Los caractAriatiques du produit final
sent, en consdquence, modif ides. Parmi lea para-
tsitroc importants, on pout citor Ia nitur* do
Ia cellulose (colon, viscose, etc.), j'4psimscur t.I-Sclvduktrobnke10C6mtn adiec f
du ddpfit gloctrolytique do nickel, Ia temp~rature F9 ~r~Wvdnf~~dncs W 5mlsIo vdnsI
do frittaga, Is taux do compactage. c~rccmtubukimodsc/brw.

Le foutre do Nickel est un domi produit qui

pourriait ddjA 8tra utibisi pour cartaines appli- Do plus, Is compaction du foutro, grace I
cations jusqu'i 400* environ, (premiers itagea cette caractiristique peut as faire do fagon trio
du comprecceur), homogane dane tout. l'Eptiosseur. at dens de trim
En 1 nouro d ca~gores,
flt pur
imitr large. liisites do densild, puisqu'il est possible
In
imitr t nomre d ca~goves,
fit pur do passer l'uoeo porositS do 957v I une porositE
cetun feutre nickel-chrome dent Is taoeur an do 40%, estconvorvant uno excellent* homogindit&.
chrome est comprise entre 25 *ý 30% qui est uLili-
ad pour toutes lea applications allant do Ia tons- Lea fibres utilisim doen Its foutrec Oil? ont
pdrature embiante A 750*C. Cot ourichiscemnt an une troisiduc caractdristiquo qui oit trio impor-
chrome du foutro do nickel est r~alisE done lea tant i bour finesas. Lour diamitre est compri.
*conditions classiques d'uno chromication en pou- entre 5 at 30 microns, at lour forms tubulaire
dre ayant contes caractiristiques eomentielles j udnoge una poramild formi. done Ie produit final.

*- unia forte concentration on 61ldmonts donnoure Colts association do fibre fine at do porool-
td formic confirm des caract~riatiques d'Etanchii-
- use bonne porositd du ciment parmattant un ti aux gSo trio supgiruros A cellos dam mattioux
transofrt aind per diffusion gameuse porous d'autro origins.

-us dosage pricis du odment pour Avitar Is for- Los eassais cos'paratifs mengs dons as domino
motion doechrome alpha done loo fibres du fou- ant fait apparattro i
tra, co quileac rendraient dures at casoantos.
D'autros d'6tanchdit4 entra un feutrs
D'urmopgrationt do ferrication at Welsl- OUP
.no
a Squivalenuc
it6%do porolits,
 4-3
*un foutra I fibres mdcsniques a 78% do porouiti, b) Foutros do nickel-aluninium ou do nickel-chro-
*un fritt6 poreux A moins de SOX do porositd. m-lmnu
Gotta proprigt6 des feutrac OHP eat extrims- L'aluminisatian des feutres, pour Streoeffi-
Wont important* dans l'utilisation do ces mst.6ol orson- p.tnu n lmnu
ricux pour I& rfialisation do Joints d. labyrinth& relativemeint Alevis qui onlive su mattriaux prn-
ou do joints do compreasseur. Elia permet d'utili- tiquament tout. ductiliti, on voit dont Il'ntirlt
mar 1* feutro daonecii. tris large fourchotte de d'une aluminisation r~alisle apr~s miss an place
compactage. On masurera plus loin Il'ncideiice d'un foutre chroisia ou non, par axemple, apris
i Wortaut do cette facilitg our Ian opdrations brasage, puisque 1. feutro Stant diji positiounn,
do rfialisation do joints do turbomachinss. on no lui demands plus par I& suits d'itre ductile
maim, par contre, on souhaite qu'il sit cue risis-
Tablaurcapiulatf tnce I l'oxydction at A la corrosion tout en
Tablau dcaptultifconservant. une bonne abradabiliti.

Coton Symbols C V-isnco-se- Symb~ol* V Los fautros OHP aluxiniods prisontent sous
cot angle des caractdristiquss tout A fait e"Cap-
_______tionnalles, puisqu~ils peuvent rdsistor A des
Pyrolyse Fibres carbon. tempdratures jusqu" A I1009C, on maintenant une bon-
no tenue AI Pirosion et des caractdristiques
d ebrabilitt convenables.
xitalliestion Fibres do Nickell
C - Caract6ristjques lides I I& mhthoda ds fabri-

S~dimenttion pgration do sidimentation des feutros do

nickel qui sat offectuia dons uu tambour tournant
DWcarburation frittago -a Feutres I grand. vitae@*, assure uns homogunditt parfait.
du fectre Oil?.Los fibres miss. en suspension dones
ciidisperseur *out distributes dcone un volume
1 00 5 10 V 5dcccu relativemsut important A l'untdriour du dis-
positif contrifugour. Cot appareil laisse une gran-
k1Chr-owisatfion contr86ed do latitude done I* choix dos ipaisseurs qui pec-

Le procidd do fabrication asopritasiors do

Aluinaio
cotr~de ces diffdrautes asquencos principalest, A dqa apd-
rateura do contr~l. qui permettent do garantir Im.
fiabiliti at Is reproductibilitd du produit final.
b 1OCI 8=20C 15 OL20V5 a) Contr~l. des fibres on vrac
0-400% O-700'C 600- 700- 900- Le rapport massique carbone/nickol eat mesuni
?800oC 1OOO4C IOO0C systdzsatiqcuemut avan: Ia vidauge du tonneasu d'd-
lectrolyse.
Not&a Los chiffres qul prdcident leassymabols&
indiquent lea tonsure pour 10) respectives oni b) Contr~l. du fnittage ot do l'dlimunation du
nickel, chrome, aluminium, carbon*
Les chiffros qci suivent lam symboles Mont
rolids I Ia fnoess'A du d~p~t JIlectrolytique (te- La taux d'insoluble dane l'ccide chlorhkydniqua
neur on carbons des fibres on vrac). dolt itre nfigligeable.
Exemplos I e) Contr~l. do I'adjonation d'6ldmsnts d'apport
Nature Diawl- Epaissour Composi-Apichoitinu.augiatn sgis
do Ia tre des Qu paroi tion
csllu- fibres Mi Co A, do poids timoignent des concontrntious *ttountes.
loss tubulaires

1820 C15 coton 12 3 80 20 0

- ~L:s fautres OIL? prisentent snfizn cue conduc-
62V5 7ics 60 20~ 20 tibilit thermique extr~memeut basso. Si Ilon
compare A Apaisseur 6&ale Is conductibiliti thor-
mique d'un foutro OHl?nickel/chrome/aluminium at
d'une structure nid d'abeilll dons laquells on
a fait cii remiplissago eppropnii, 1. rapport eat
S - crctirs~iaeui~eo1'a.jo~~tjpdtig- do I A 30 environ. Cott* caractuiristiqueoaet tout
A fait oseantiello puinqu'oll. a pour offot do
mcintenir A cii aivsac do teapdrsture beaucoup
a) Youtres do nickal-chrome plus has, l'anneau support dos joints do turbines
rdalis~s grace aux fomtros OH!'.
La chrunisuation des feutros do nickel ONl?
itconduit A cii elliage nickel-chrome trio Imomogine Cat &avntage nesat pasi obtenu *u ditrimont
A toenur tinchrome contr~lable avoc prficision. 11 des propridttis micaniques qui sont au mains Equi-
to rasult. deci &vantage$ I valento A call.. des matrinaux fibrous d'autres
origine. notaoement on us qui concern* lea rsisi-
*~
cii nilleure r&*istanca I Is corrosion not&*- tances A l'abraml-unst au choc thernique.
mant A chaud,
*utita soliditi accrue par suite du rnuforcew~at it
do 1'ilargissouoet ditspoints do contact antra
 4-4

III. APPLICATION DES FEUTRES OHP A LA REALISATION 2.0 59 50C'

BE JOINTS X'TANCIIEITE DRITURWOMACHINES 20 a/i~ P
La rislisation d'un joint do turboxischineo A psi

I
partir do watgriaux frittdo ou projotgs, so hour-
to A uno difficult& majoure qui set calls do Is
fixation do cam matdiraux our l& surface do V'an-
neau A 6quiper.
Les vinthodes do projection dolvont 2tra miaine 1500
an *ouvro avec un rdgisge trio fin do tous lam
paromicrem, car l'adhirenco our 1. xubstrat at I&
qualiti amis done s1s eoem du produit projoti
peuvent 8tra moditide: do fagon irriversiblo par
un 16ger glissiemont do Isun des paromitros do
1'opfiration. Cat inconvinieat met profondimenut
ressenti par lam utilisateurs qui no potivant
suufisainont slassurer d'un contr8le 4e qualitA
indiscutablo.

Leos produits frittlo posent I. problis. do0,

l'odhirence our Is oubstrat, l'amioumblaga no pou-
vent pratiquaeont so faire quo par brosage. Ce 500Q
braosge eat une opiratioa A tomipiraturo relative-
swent Slavic at, an raimon do It nature du mati-
riau quo 1'on doit fixer lea problamnos do propra-
td at d'sccosatge sent particullirematnt diffici-
II lea A risoudre.

Dane 1. dhvaloppmient des feutres OIIP,ce

*problimes a fait Ilobjet d'una attention particu- 0 60 00 10

Fig. 2 -- Rekaton afltM toWtimpt~turr et I'adhimwnc aur un mfdts du

1) Ciment mitallociramique 0110732 tJment OHC 752.
Done uns turbine ASax lea prociddo claosi-
quos do collage moat to plus mouvent disqualififihoitnc hziu
A cause du niveau do tempgratur.. Cependant, 1.Issaceciiu
produit OKC 732 do nature totalesuont inorganique
*persist d'attaindre des toxaprautrean do service do - exposition en brouilliard salin I 5Z
500*C. 11 as pthosflta sous forme d'un liquids via- 1000 heures pas d'apparitlon de roulilos
quoux qul apras cuisson 1 340% asotranafortse on - acid. foible excellente Lanus
*un ciment usinable, abradable, trim adh~rent. 11
eantinsensible I I'mau, mu kirosano, aux huile. - acid* fort mauvoisa tanue
mindraleso u hydrauliques.
* ~~~Son
utilisation pour Is scallsment des fou- -suecutqa dsouinrpd
tros OH? fivits Is brosage, opgration ddlicato at - kdrosana at hull. sans offet
co(Iteuss, pour tous lea joints mitudo dadnelam
xones A house ou moyenne tampdirsturo, - solVaUL organique off at
Baens

Do plus, Is cimeant OHC732 out soluble dona 2) aranage

l& soude caustique at, do co fait, In r~paration
dam piaces our lasquelles Is fautre OH? a 6t4 Pour l'utilization das foutrom A teaphrature
sceilI oat aish. puinque, par dissolution du 0i- aupirieure A 500'C, ii eat nficuassiro do riasijer
mont, il &at possible nano usinage d'Allmziner is une opdration do bras&&*. La subetrat Stant un
foutro. Les carectiristiques ghnhraloa du ciment suparalliage rdfractairs concenant du chromo at
* 011 732 mont rasaomblies ci-sprAm. do l'amiuiniust, ahtaux trio oxydables, Is probli-
CA*TRSILSDUCMN H 3 mesdu mouillagd so pose avac acuiti. Pour Is rd-
~~~~5TI
DUCIMEIT IIC732soudwe una atuaophlra hydroginde fluorde miss au
point A l'ONERA a fitiratanue. III* repose sur
*Caroctfristi u g hftM!j ugcs iE ilb.FCr + H12t:=4-Cr +. 2711. Un excla do
- stabilitS thosuique iusqu'I 650"C chrome masintiont constants Is concentration an
Scoofficii-t do dilatation :7,2 1 10.1 X 10-6 aimfuryrq. .cmoEfclt ordc
tion d'oxydao particulibroment refractAires not&*a-
- conductibilitg thox-oiqua 1.34 x 10-4 Kcal/ zment, Is Cr203. L'utiliioation do catte atomemphire
c2/.o/C~cuproveque uns dimnxydation parfait. dos feutres
z rom. a 'oa Iat
tenu muchocthamiqm du subotmat cur leoquola on dhsirs fair* Is
tonu authe
theniqe itraw* aIleu Ibravage, at co, done un tempo realtivaiment court.
partir do 550% *an* Aceillago. Un douxmism problime, calui do i'mccostage du
feutra sot Sgalwomint trio dilicat, car A Is temp-
Caractdri tig~eo 2h pivaturo do btaog.a , Is plasticitS du fautro eat
------ - _gnlgue tr~s Srando at i1 ant nicessaira do pouvoir
contr~lor do fa::nk trio prhciao Iap::osaci qaq
L~acourbe ci-aprgs reprdsonta Ia force io plqemr1 eto tlo otiie
d'adhhrouenoen fonction dem tesitldratures d'utili- Vo pl ique stirIavoute iVnootAie
astion.~1: afg2.t
n utilimiant uns technique do dilatation dif-
ffirantiello, an meintenant Is feotre esrri our
I'Anneau ou V'on veuit la fixer grice A dec presses
en graphite equipheg d'uns via do ourrage on Inox
dent Is longuour libre d~tormine I'deraomrent
d'accosotq. adwim pour Ia foutraý (fiX.3). wu
 4-5

maitrise de In r~partit~ion des brasuaros eat assu-

rfie1grice A l'utilisation d'adhduifs sp6dciaux qui
bont constitugs J'un Iiart organique 61iminable
comportant tine chiarge bien Iispcrsioc de brasure
en poudre.

Flo., 5-M Aftn p/ace par scv//aim tdo loints surdo* carters do compresmvua
d'sUne turbomnauhno dt
torbine A par /ndustr/Ie. at air deslab yr/ntboo c/'wl
pet/to pulpna/ce.

d'socoattap p.r d/Iatatlon d/ffdrantkdl prtqohito-inox

Fig,3 - DI~apohlel 4) Formago at umninage
dun UPeet.
fl ~i~i 5Yt bW.,La
ncke~c/imw grand. compactibilitS des foutres 820CIS
permit do lam utiliuor done un tw~s large iven-
tail do poroaitS. En consiquionce, I'uminagn du
type cloassique par enl~vomont do m-tiares pout
3) Rfaalinatioin des joints - choix du feutre itre officiaconont remplmcd par un simple compactsi-
ot do l& mdthodo do mime an place, go du foutro. 11 pout itre r~alimi soit I I*
moletto, soit aver un outil A bout rond, (fig.6).
Le roulage eat asidomnt pratiquable at outcries
des rayons de courburo ramarquablament foibles
pour un moth Lou aumsi poreux. (diomatre 10 x
6paisseur).

Fig, 4 - Pidc.. U. Iabyr/ntlies c/'une turbomechln. do potit# ice dont

p45/ss
/Puno ccnporvv 3 p/stew,/a p/us pet/to ge*nt X0mimdo dlmattv.

Les joints qui mont sauceptiblie d'atre rga-

lia~s &rice A l'utilieiation des foutre4 OHP sont P/s. 6 - Annoado cartersdo copr r (diemtrva mm) mowns do
p ~lea joints do labyrinthos do comproassoirs, lam
joints doslabyrinthus* do turbinew (fig,4), lsam tr ons66ack nlvnn o"n
joints do veins# do cotoprossoura at joints de
voines do turbines. Ls m~thodo d'utiligation des En ce qui concerns lea foutro. aluminisgs,
foutras 0)13dane con divers cao diffdra do fagon lour usinage o kpost sucun probla.0 particulier,
usaantialle an fonction des niveaux do tempirsi- smaliil faut signaler quo pour certain* cao d'ap-
tursoi lot10joints r'oot situras. On pout A priori plication, lo mine on form& pout Stra ir~alisie
donnor It raglo suivanto par compoctalgo au niveau du fautro avant Ilopflra-
tion d'alusinivation.
*de I'amblante 1 500% utilisation des foutrea
820C15, aellfis au ciment OIIC732. (2) (fig.5). IV - C.ONCLUSION
*do 500*C A 750% 1 utilisation do, fautras 820 Los foutria mltalliques ONEI/A A structure
C15 broids. finea at haute poromit6 m. sont rfiv~lis particulii-
riament buon adaptia A I& foac'tion do joints
*tampiraturo do 750 il850%C utilimation des d'itanchfilti dos turbomoschiriur.
foutras 820V15 broids (3).
Lour extr"i~ pliaticiti initial& focilito
*tomp~ratura aupgrioura A 800% utiliestiun considgrarblommnt l'acquisition do Is porositi
d'un foutra 820WC13 ou 8201V5 brasd at traitamoent optimailoo conjointomont aver Ilopirstion do amis
d'alusinisation do l'&Psomble de. Is pilca aprio en forma, tout an sauvogiardarit l~indisponsable

brisoge. (4). hoinogldnits.

 4-6

Le caractar* tubulaire des fibres at I& for- Rn ce qui concerne l'6tat do d6veloppexsent
to porosit6 rendont les feutros an nickel rmer- do corntechniques, il faut distinguer deux catg-
quablemnt apt** A Is transformistioin on feutre gcaries
doalliagos rdmistant A I& corrosion Juoqu'A
1050'C, au =you des proc4dis do transport d'dl4- lea joints A bass* at moyenne temp~rature qui
meats d'apport par l'intoru~diaire d'uso phase &out parvenus au staed opgrationnol on Equipant
g~mmnuo halogtut.. des turbomachinas affectiv~aont on service.
Pour I** joints situds dons des sonas A tar-- lea Joint. do turbines chaudes (850 A 1030*)
p~rature inf~rieuro I SW0C Isa lthode do scoll.- qui, spr~A avoir setisfait oux tests do simila-
mut par ciammnt ~tallwAmcanique permt dos Eco- tion, sont actuallIant I ltdprsuve des banca
nonie. conuidlrables A cause do asasimplicitt d'essais.
oplratoiro et du fait qu'aucun rebut dos supports RPEd
u out A pr~voir puisqu'un joint 4dfa~ctuoux pout
Itre retirE par dissolution dane I& soude. Rislati- -A. ivrPLptt,.Vadr-Ebra
vosont au brasag., Imicoft global kitl'inatalla- Ao. iert,aPplcation do . Weletre - Ealabora-
tion d'un Joint d'AtsuchditA our un anneau *et to at ra
do
fppineation fout es taliqu~es
rfduit d6 uo~tifi.
des poudros, Grenoble, 12-16 imi 1975.
Au-dl&'utliaeiond'u
o SOC fetroEdition provisoiro - 'I?OWERA n*1975-6.
contonant uve toneur imp~ortant on altainium cot 2 -Ierhoe-Rpota evc ehiu
oblgotir. L
frgiitlquienoutla ondqun-Agronautiquo n' 7394 422, juin 1974.
co pose do redoutables probllmes do siso an forma.
Avec Is procidd qui fait l'objot do cetto coins- 3 orrm -RprtaSevcTchiu
nication, on pout sal&Efranchir do cotte aujition 3 - erho -RprtaSricTchqu
on effcctuant Is formege at I* bras&&* sur un fou- Agronautique n* 7594 131, juin 1976.
tre do mickel-chromem qui rest* souple, puis on 4 Hucrm-Rpota
procddeau A I'siuminisation an phase gaseuss do evc ehiu
-lorhoo-Rpota evc ehiu
I'cuaoemblo annotu-joint. Adronautique n* 7694 231, juin 1977.

.A
 4.7

DISCUSSION

AA.RStetaon, US
You mentioned that the fine size Is an advantage. What is the wall thickness of the felt you are talking about?
Don't you think this could be a problem with its oxidation and high temperature resistance by decreasing the wall
thickness and increasing the total surface area?

RAponse d'auteur
La structure fine des foutres nous paralt presenter un avantage sur Ie plan de [eur ductilit6 et de leur officaciti en
tant quo Joints. Les 6paisseurs do parol quo nous avons retenues en fabrication sont comprises entre 2 et 8 microns
en fonction de I&nature dos fibres do depart.
11est 6vident que ceci peut prdsenter un Inconv~nient pour lea problbmes de tenue Al'oxydation, mali nota. avans
palli6 Acc probibme en r~aliunt pour let applications Ahaute temnp~rature par aluminisastion aprbs brasage, un
aUlage NIckel-Chrome-Aluminium tris riche en Aluminium et on Chrome, cc qul compense tres largament lea
probl~mes crtis par la faible Epaisseur des parois des fibres.
Notre matdriau 622 C 8 psr exemple, prdsente des caractiristlques de tenue A l'oxydation taut A fait renisrquables
Juaqu'A 10500 C,

PSuter, Switzerland
You emphasized the importance of decarbonisation. Would there not be some applications where the carbon could
be left within the structure?
Riponse d'autour
La d~carburatlon des fibres do Nickel dana l'6tat actual de notre technique dolt dtre compl~te si P'on veut pouvoir
rdaliser un frittage convonable du feutre. Lea eualss de dicarburstion partielle ant montrE qua It prodult obtenu
reatait inutillsable du ialt d'une trop, grande friabilitt.

D.C.Whltlock, UK
Would the author comment on to what thickness this felt can be produced?

Rdponme d'auteur
Actuellemorit, nous produlsons couramment des feutres dont I'6palsseur, pour une densit6 de l'ordre de 20%, pout
* varier entre 0,4min et 8 mm. 11n'y a pas de limitation th~orique aux 6paisseurs qui peuvont etre rdalismes. Sur un
plan pratique, lea 6qulpements de fabrication ant Mt adaptds Acette gamnme Wipsisseur.

A.M.Camsping, UK
Has the seal material been proved in service and if so by whom, for how long and in what environment?

Rdponse d'outeur
Les feutres OHP ant Rtd dEveloppis r~cernmant et iquipont un certain nombro do turbine's a~ronautiques et
lndustrlese depuis deux ans environ, Pour lea applications labyrinthos it pour des tempdratures aliant jusqu'A
650 a 700*, notre exp~rience sun turbine industrielle s'appule aur des pdriodes de fonatlonnoment sut une m~mo
machine qui d~passe Al'heure actuelle 1500 h.
Sur des turbines adronautlques, noua avons r~alis environ 800 a 1000 Joints do labyrinthes. Nous noi conasissons
pas do fagon pr~cis, lei temps de fonctionnoemnt unitairos, mais notre exp~rience globale correspond Aplus do
10.000 heures de fonictionnoment aur des machines difTdrenteg.
En cc qui concorne lea foutrus 622 Nickel -Chrome-Aiumlnum ils sont Al'heure actuelle en essal sur des machines
do turbines adronsutiquos,
 AMERICAN AIRLINES' OPERATIONAL AND MAINTENANCE
EXPERIENCE WITH AERODYNAMIC SEALS AND
OIL SEALS IN TURBOFAN ENGINES

C. R. Smith
Manager Power Plant Engineering
American Airlines, Inc.
P.O. Box 51009
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74151
USA

SUMMARY

User experience with aerodynamic and oil system seal designs utilized in current
commercial turbofan engines related to operational performance, seal reliability,
seal repair techniques, and seal maintainability cost.

A general insight of gas path deterioration resulting from sealing problems and
effects of associated hardware problems upon seal performance. A broad assessment of
this deterioration is reflected in fuel consumption, maintenance requirements (engine
management), and the impact upon airline operation, including operating costs.

LIST OF SYMBOLS

AVG. Average
E.5. Electron Beam (welding)
ENG. Engine(s)
FLT. Flight
HR. Hour
HRS. Hours
I.D. Inside Diameter
M Million(s) (US Dollars)
mm Millimeter
O.D. Outside Diameter
US or USA United States of America
US Dollars
Percent
SCentl 1/100th of a US Dollar

INTRODUCTION
With the introduction of the first airplane, sealing of gaees and liquids has
been a major problem. Sealing is classified as a problem when leakage exceeds
acceptable design limits, induces hazardous conditions, uncontrollable flow and/or
unslghtly appearance. These conditions can result in excessive maintenance expense.
Advancing seal technology and ingenuity have resulted in milestone achievements
by aircraft, engine, component and systems manufacturers. However, with each suc-
ceeding generation of aircraft, increasing demands develop, and the designers
ingenuity is continually challenged.
Further advancement in seal technology is a must if the manufacturers are to
provide an qnd product with which the user can sell transportation at a minimum price
with a reasonable return on his investment. In the case of the airline industry,
product support investment is sisable, with fuel consumption cost being the largest
contributor to direct operating costs.

In order to meet increasing competition, in spite of lower f~res, such factors

as on-time dependability, passenger comfort, etc., airline management must be inno-
vative in developing new sophist cated performance analyses and maintenance programs.
These programs muet encompass such factors as efficient use of resources, improved
dependability, reduced fuel consumption, hardware repair and performance restoration,
etc., without sacrificing safety or reliability.

Design philosophies must be developed with a focus upon the end-use of the pro-
duct and the needs of the user. The ultimate success of research development and
design efforts is measured by in-service results. To the user, proper design is
reflected in seal reliability and durability over extended time periods, repairabil-
ity and low cost.

Performance of seals in turbofan engines can be categorised in terms of: a)

Reliability - the ability to maintain the sealing efficiency for which the seal was
designed under all operating conditions for extended time periods; b) Durability -
the ability of the meal to function without maehanical failure of its detailed parts
between shop visitsg and a) Repairability - the ability to carry out simple and
economical repairs of those seal components which are subject to wear and tear.
!' ~5-2 ,

Failures within these categories may be due to basic design problems, or second-
ary failures resulting from associated hardware environmental conditions or, in many
cases, a combination of these factors. It, therefore, becomes eost important to sake
an accurate determination, through failure analysis, of the initial primary cause of
failure'. Design changes are often necessary to correct these failures which are
considered seal design deficiencies; also, changes must be made to associated hard-
ware if, in fact, this hardware produces the actual failure. In many cases, seal
redesign can compensate for related problems and vice versa.
In summary, it is very apparent that feedback communications from the user to
the designer are vital in obtaining adequate product improvement design changes.
Additionally, design intelligence must be shared with the user in support of accurate
seal performance deterioration and failure analysis.

All cost figures in this report are based on a 1977 US Dollar value and a fuel
cost of 9.240 per liter (.350 per US Callon).

PURPOSE
The purpose of this paper is to provide Designers and Research and Development
Engineers with user experience regarding reliability, performance deterioration and
its economic impact. It is this experience that vividly reveals that seals are a
significant problem ares in today's turbofan engines. Seals must be given the
highest priority in future engine designs to reduce user maintenance cost, minimize
facility capacity requirements and reduce fuel burn.
DISCUSSION
Performance Deterioration
Ga& path seal deterioration, as used in this text, is a result of normal seal
erosion, wear, thermal expansion and distortion, while the engine is operational and
produces the specified thrust. Normal gas path seal deterioration is reflected in
loss of overall efficiencies (increase in fuel flow and exhaust gas temperature)
as well ao gas generator mismatch. Increased fuel consumption due to loss of seal
efficiencies has not been an area of great concern in the pait. However, with the
decrease of fossil fuel reserves and continuing fuel cost escalAtion, this area is
now given special attention which will certainly not diminish in the foreseeable
future.

Pigure I shows that an average fuel flow deterioration of around 44 is normal

for a fleet of engines after they have been through their normal refurbishment
cycles. The percent of deterioration will vary with the average mean time between
refurbishment which is determined by the maintenance program and its effectiveness.
Obviously, the cost to maintain a low mean time between refurbishment of seals to
control fuel consumption is prohibTt-ve and will be discussed later. On a twelve
aircraft high bypass engine airplane fleet, a 4% deterioration equates to an excess
fuel burn costing 1.2 million US Dollars per year,

Figure 1 also gives an example of one aerodynamic seal deterioration effect.

If, on all of the four engines of this aircraft fleet, the first stage turbine blade
tip clearance were increased by .254 sm, the resultant excess fuel usage of .6% would
cost an additional 200,000 US Dollars per year.

- -
PERFORNC LEVEL

0 A/
YEM-7--T-1 172 173 174 175 ' s17

&% E 450 7i4 1W 125 145

'FIGURE 1% This graph depicts an example of performance deterioration
after normal refurbishment efforts for a fleet of aircraft using large
commercial high bypass flow eangines. The dotted line shows the
theoretical degradation if the first stage turbine radial tip seal were
increased by .254 mm on all engines.

t imaintenance,
Mismatch of the gas generator due to gas seal deterioration is a costly
as well as fuel consumption, problem. Accumulation of opeatLing hours

I, and duty cycles varies between engine modules resulting in one section of an engine
deteriorating more rapidly than another, causing a speed match chsaiae.
 5-3

In many instances (through lack of knowledge), the maintenance program does not
always provide for restoration to preclude this condition. Mismatch conditions may
cause recoverable compressor stalls which usually occur during high altitude
deceleration and acceleration operation. Shop. Maintenance is required to correct
these conditions. Figure 2 depicts this problem on a high bypass ratio engine. Also,
the cost impact on a fleet basis is shown, Without preventative maintenance action,
this condition can develop on a large scale an deterioration of individual seals
cannot be monitored. Maintenance programs must be established based on hardware
analysis at various operating times. Again, this is not an easy task due to a
combination of conditions and interrelated effects. More development testing by the
manufacturer and maintenance intelligence by the user is needed in order to
effectively manage and improve the engine.

.30 RFURJUSHMENT
1,0COMPRESSOR SEAL OF'COMPON.ENTS
30 DTRIORATION

&WO

;O30
ý;e20

4•5YAR
HRS ý1973 2.O0 39W
I5PO 19757,500 197610 197712500

FIGURE 21 Inflight shutdown rate due to

compressor stalls and material cost history
of a domestic wide body aircraft fleet using
high bypass ratio fan engines.

Performance retention and thrust specific fuel consumption has become major
concerns with current engine operations and with new engine design. The magnitude of
concern is such that currently the user is dematiding from the manufacturer a
performance guarantee for a specific operating period, in terms of hours or cycles,
prior to a Shop Maintenance visity also, a maximum cost guarantee in terms of labor
and materials.
Deterioration of labyrinth oil seals due to clearance changes, not only produces
oil consumption problems, requiring premature engine removals, but also has a
secondary effect of loss in general parformance and increased fuel consumption.
Increase in labyrinth seal clearances occur primarily from rubbing with mating parts
permitting high breather pressure within the oil scavenge system. However, most oil
consumption problems due to high breather, usually are a result of a change in
balance pressure across labyrinth seals due to uncontrolled air leakage at various
supply sources.

Mechanical Failures
Aerodynamic and oil zeal failures occur at various operating hours for a variety
of reasons. Air seal failures in the hot section area occur duo to thermal gradients
within the part which usually results in cyclic streasea. Such anrexample is shown
in Figure 3. This sketch shows an example where cracking in a labyrinth seal area
occurs because of thermal gradient effects resulting from the seal crops-sectional
thickness differences. In this case, the seal has a life limit restricting engine
"operating time and a redesign is pending.
One of the major air oaal problems in turbofan engines is portrayed in Figure 4.
This sketch depicts an abradable seal application. The cross-sectional sketch on the
right shows a typical axial and radial wear or 5 wiping' pattern which occurs on a
large turbofan engine. The wear or Owiping action results from differential thermal
expansion and contraction of various engine components whenever the engine goes
through its various power excursions, such as transient operation and takeoff power
application. seal interference rubbing also occurs during high maneuver loads,
coupled with rotor dynamics. This condition is aggravated by excessive rotor
alignment runout and high vibration levels.
 5-4

CRACK•ED AREA
VIEW A

FIGURE 3: This sketch shows cracking that occurred in a

second gtage turbine rotating air seal from a large bypass
engine. The cracking was caused by cyclic thermal gradient
stresses.

In severe cases of part out-of-round conditions, or other abnormal conditions, sta-

tionary part to rotating part interference could lead to metal burning and subsequent
failure, as in the case of high pressure turbine blades.
It becomes obvious that practically all seal failures are a direct result of
either: a) thermal gradient fatigue problems with the meal and its associated
hardware, or b) axial and radial thermal expansion during maximum power excursions.

STATIONARY
ABftAOAEBLE SEAL

-t(
BESFORE AFTER
SEAL IS RUN SEAL IS RUN

FIGURS 41 This sketch shows typical abradable meal axial and radial
wear. This vinan intertage compressor seal from a large bypas engine.
 5-5

Failure of carbon element oil seals develop primarily from excessive environ-
mental and frictional temperatures. Excessive seal element and face plate wear
occurs with subsequent leakage and, in dome cases, element breakage. In nreas having
inadequate cooling, oil coking can occur causing leakage as depicted in Figure 5.

FACE OF SEAL PLATE SEAL PLATE

VIEW ANUMBER TWO WARING

INTERFACE COKING PfiOLEM

SPRING PRESSRE'--&
SEAL PLATE/SHAFT
CARBON SEAL ROTATION
(STATIONARY)
SEAL P TE OIL JET FOR COOLING
VIEW A (STATIONARY)
a CROSS SECTION BB ELEMNI(000ELHUENT
SEAL FfýC COKE SEAAL FACE
DEPOSITSB

•LEMEHT -,COKW AREA, OEPOSITS THIS AREA ALWAYS "

HIGHER THAN SEAL FACE CLA

LIFTING SEAL FROM PLATE. OIL JET
(NOW TEFLON COATED) ONE PER SEAL

FIGURE 5: This sketch depicts a carbon coking problem in the main bearing carbon
seal of a comuercial turbo fan engine.

Here again, the axial and radial growth of the engine from temperature excur-
sions produces a problem of maintaining the desired face plate to element pressure.
This accelerates wear and raises the temperature of the parts, resulting in oil vapor
phase coking. Also, with resultant seal movement, wsticking" of the seal assembly
may occur, causing a complete loss of pressure and oil leakage.
Although labyrinth seals are affected less by temperature, proper design is
influenced by pressure balances to reduce bleed air loss. Labyrinth seals can allow
the oil to become contaminated with the atmosphere (moisture, sand, etc.). Compres-
sor cleaning by motorixing the engine and injecting various nonmetallic materials
and/or liquids to restore performance is undesirable, due to exposure to oil
contamination.

Figure 6 shows that seals are a major contributor to the total reliability of
the engine. A review of the last seven years of premature removals for engines and
modules illustrates the impact of seals in general. Three classes of problems are
illustrated: a) seal failures; b) failures where seal deficiencies contributed to
the problem, and c) on-the-wing gear box removals due to seal leakage.

These problems are shown for three types of turbofan engine., namely: a) early
low bypass turbofans (1959)1 b) medium bypass turbofans (1965); and c) high bypass
turbofans (1970).

The early low bypass turbofan history shows that almost 32% of the unscheduled
removals are related to "seals*. This number is 50% for the medium bypass turbofan
and 320 of the latest, large high bypass engines.

|•I

I ii ,, . .
 5-6

w .6W
. GEARBOX CHANGE
.70C SEAL CONTRUUTING FJLURES
" -'h•aOUTRIGHT SEAL FAILURES'

.5065

02MM 25% 30%

a ,
61%
EARLY MEDIUM BYPASS HIGH BYPASS
* TURIBOFNS TURBOFANS TURBOFANS

FIGURE 6s These bar graphs depict seal problems as a percentage

of the total prnmature engine and module/camponent changer over
a seven year period (1970 through 1976).

This picture of seal development in high bypass engines looks good, but it is
deceiving. The more frequent removals of the high bypass tan engines make it possi-
ble to manage seal performance by changing, repairing and cleaning meals with a high
frequency before they deteriorate. In addition, critical seals are designed to be
easily replaceable. For instance, all the carbon seals in the gear box of a late
high bypass fan engine are replaceable uon-the-wingw. Therefore, leakage does not
seem to be a problem, but it only seems that way because the problem is managed. As
the engine problems diminish, the seal problems will increase until the seal durabil-
ity becomes the restrictive factor with time. Considerable work needs to be done,
and is being done within the industry to understand the general engine performance
deterioration phenomena.
Seal Repair

Seal repair techniques vary from the most simple, yet innovative, to the more
complex. In one of American's turbofan engine models, the second stage turbine outer
air seal is purchased undersize and ground as required to provide the desired clear-
ance with the second stage turbine blades. The second stage turbine blade has a
shrouded tip with two knife-edge seals. With time, the knife-edges wear or rub and
erode requiring the outer air seal inside diameter to be reduced to a further under-
size. This is initially accomplished by metal spraying to a maximum thickness of
.500 on. A metal spray thickness beyond this has a tendency.to '"flake off". The
blade knife-edge can be replaced but the cost is more than the purchase price of a
new outer air seal. In time, a surplus of air seals accumulates. A simple repair
was developed to reduce the inside diameter while maintaining out-of-round limits.
Figure 7 depicts an application of a continuous weld bead around the periphery of the
seal using an automatic weld machine. This operation wshrinks" the seal, thereby
enabling salvaging of would-be oversized second stage turbine air seals.
Although this is a simple repair, operational testing was conducted to establish
that no adverse conditions existed. Adequate in-service testing was established to
determine a 10,000 hour or 6#000 cycle life between repairs.
Turbine blade shroud knife-edge seal and non-shrouded tip wear results in
scrappage of otherwise serviceable blades (up to $40,000 per engine). Replacement of
the knife-edge seals by Electron Beam welding, as shown in Figure 8, has proven to be
a cost saving repair. Without this repair the annual cost of the tuarbine blade
screppage would drastically increase. This repair technique is used in other areas,
such as the turbine spacer application as shown in Figure 9.
 5-7

• AUTOMATIC

NEW KNIFE-EDGE
SEALS

. • •.f- ELECTRON BEAM

•'• ... -- ;• WELD

---TURBINE
SBLADE

L SEAL L D.

FIGURE 7: This figure depicts a FIGURE B1 This sketch depicts

method to shrink a turbine outer replacement of turbine blade
seal inside diameter to compensate lhrond knife-edge seald by
for blade shroud seal wear. Electron Beam welding.

al , MACHIN 0 r-REPAIRED WORN

AFTER E.G. WELD KNIFE EDGE KNIFE EDGE

SPACER SPACER

FIGURE 91 This sketch depicts a typical turbine

spacer knife-edgfe repair by Electron Beam welding.

Figure 10 is an example of a repair to restore out-of- round of a major case.

This is accomplished by removing the flange, rounding up the case, and Electron Ream
welding on a replacement flange. This repair restores the case to a serviceable
condition. It relieves the imposed stresses upon the seal while providing more
uniform clearance between the turbine blade and outer air seal.

Main bearing carbon seal assembly refurbishment (see Figure 5) consists primari-
ly of carbon element replacement, machining of the seal plate face to remove wear and
plating to restore dimentional requirements. As a means of increasing seal life,
various plating and metal spraying materials have been tried. Tungsten carbide coat-
ing on the seal plate has produced the best wear characteristics.

No.9
5-8

SEAL ,BLi

SECTION A-A

SE L • I

AIRIPAGE AACE

CASE

FIGUPX 10: This sketch depicts result of case out-of-roundness causing turbine
outer seal to conform to came, resulting in inadequate and excessive seal
clearances. The left blade shows tip cub; the middle blade shows the correct
clearancei the right blade x*OWl excessive clearance.

Naintenanoe Operational rlpact

The impact upon user operation of air and~oil seal systems in reflected by
product rel ability and cost. An seen previously in Figure 6, seals are one of the
major problem areas confronting the user. These problems produce a large volume of
engines for shop maintenance, which requires an expenditure of millions of dollars
each year.
As shown in Figure 11, air and oil seal parts cost are only 1.5 of the total
material cost, and the seal repair labor costs are only 5 of the total engine labor
cost. For a large USA airline, this cost approximates 1.5 million US Dollars per
year.

$1,400, 000

SEAL PARTS COST SEAL REPAIR TOTAL

".5 %- " LABOR COST ANNUAL SEAL
MAINTENANCE COST
TOTAL ENGMNE 5% OP TOTAL
MATERIAL COOT ENGINE COST

FIGURE 11, The bar graphs above show the annual engine
seal maintenance cost for a large US airline engine
Maintenance base.

However, the important message of air and oil seal costs is reflected in Figure
12. it is important that air and oil seal systems be effective and reliable.
Ineffective or worn: air seals can contribute up to 1.51 to the engine fuel burn. On
top of this, if ineffective enough, they can contribute to intolerable engine stalls
and speed mia-matching. In a US airline, at 1977 fuel prices, this type of seal
deterioration could amount to 5.85 million US Dollars.
 5-9

1195M

E5-M
MI
VFUEL SUPO tNTRV AND SEAL MAVEW.. TOTAL ANNUALCST
OME TO SEAL N~PJ LABW EXVOCABLE 1% ATTISUWAILE WO
15%
Y&)SI~ ENGNE
& M #SJIUEFL Or TOTA RELATED MT EMNOE KAMJN
LANR R.E"TRY PF45LEMS
I.B% OF TOTAL PEPAIR
FUEL BILL.
FIGURE 12: These bar graphs show the annual total cost impact resulting
from "seal" problems for a large US airline.

The major cost factor is not the seal material or seal repair cost, but the
entry labor, expendable and related parts costs to reach the seal inside the engine.
This is graphically shown in the third column of Figure 12. This column indicates
that 6 million US dollars per year is spent for this type of "entry* for seal repair
or refurbishment work. This coot figure is even more dramatic when one realizes that
the costs of engine handling, support facilities investment, and the inventory
necessary to provide seal refurbishment to restore performance are not included.

The right-hand column of Figure 12 shows an accumulated cost figure twhich can be
viewed as the "seal cost' total for an annual total cost burden of nearly 14 million
US Dollars.
Aerodynamic seal deterioration and failure are difficult problems to manage in a
commercial airline environment. No two engines deteriorate at precisely the same
rate. Thereforep statistical predictions can only be used as a guideline. Effective
engine management becomes almost impossible. When random and frequent Oseal" pro-
blems occur, another problem arisess an unmanageable monthly engine volume fluctua-
tion which may exceed shop capacity.

With present day instrumentation and analysis, it is extremely difficult to

analyze a low performance engine and determine precisely which seal(s) (or support
hardware) are causing the problem unless the seal has failed structurally or exhibits
visual damage. Even with the obvious failed or damaged condition, there is the need
of analysis of associated hardware and its affect upon the failure.

American Airlines operates under an engine management program which is based on

the Condition Monitored Maintenance concept. Each engine is analysed and a specific
bill-of-work is developed. The concept requires collection and development of the
intelligence to know what maintenance the engine needs7 then doing only the necessary
work to produce a product that will operate for a specified period of time within an
acceptable reliability rate at a minimum cost.

Today's economics prohibit the use of an arbitrary complete overhaul concept at

a specific operating time. Designers must realize that the user cannot remove
engines for shop maintenance at a low operating time to refurbish multiple seal
deterioration. American's shop capacity for complete overhaul of high bypass ratio
engines if roughly estimated at 40 per month. Today's volume is 70 to 80 engines per
month of light and heavy repairs. If engines operating in American's fleet were
arbitrarily brought in for refurbishment at intervals of 2000 operating hours, the
shop volume would increase to 150 to 160 engines per month. Therefore, it must be
recognized that newly developed engines must operate 8000 to 10,000 hours within an
acceptable failure rate and performance level.

CONCLUSIONS

With the continuing increase in fuel, material, and labor costsl the need and
economic justification exists to warrant a high priority on engine design for
performance efficiency with a low deterioration rate.
Two basic areas having a major effect upon the loss of seal clearances are: 1)
thermal gradient fatigue problems and, 2) thermal expansion and contvaction of the
engin, assembly with maximum thrust applications. These problems must be considered
during initial design. Extensive gains must be made in these areas if the operating
expense of the final product is to be maintained at a reasonable level, and provide
for a reasonable return on uoec investment.
Further development is needed to provide a method and means of monitoring and
identifying specific seal problems during operation. This will provide for more
effective use of rosources. Expending resources on an arbitrarily established
overhaul program cannot be tolerated in the future.

.1
I
2•::•
:'.,,_•'__
••_
,,_"
_:.
......
. 2.
5-10

DISCUSSION

R.A.Hartley, UK I
Support for the speakers view on seal performance (that is that deterioration is too rapid) is that it is worse on
military engines due to more thrust cycles. Abradable seals are not good enough and adjustable seals may be
required to maintain the engine performance now being aimed at.

Author's Reply
Mr Hartley seems to have caught the gist of my paper in this comment. With fuel economy and reliability in mind,
the aerodynamic sealing of current engines leaves much to be desired. The problem of designing and developing
seals which will accommodate thermal cycle changes and, thereby, maintain high efficiency levels both during
takeoff and cruise r6gimes, needs to be dealt with in future engine designs.

H.LStocker, US
How does American Airlines clean their engines an could you attribute this process to accelerating the seal
erosion problem?

Author's Reply
I interpret Mr Stocker's question regarding "cleaning of engines" to refer to "compressor wash or equivalent" of
the entire engine while it is in its assembled state, and not cleaning of the individual aerodynamic and oil seal parts
in their disassembled or in-repair state.
Most models of engines when compressor blades and vanes are suspected of being dirty can be cleaned t i ome
degree by what is generally known as "water washing". The washing is generally preceded by soaking the
compressor area with a kerosine and water mix. All "washings" are performed In the test cell. To be more
specific, the following is a rundown on what American does on each of its four (4) engine models when a
compressor cleaning Is made:
P&W JT3D (Boeing 70 7 Alrcraft Engine)
Soak the compressor section of the engine with a kerosine/water mix for 20 minutes. Rinse with water. Then run
the engine at idle, ingesting 3 sacks of Carboblast (walnut shells). (This can be done since the engine has carbon
rubbing oil seals In lieu of labyrinth seals.)
P&W JT8D (Boeing Aircraft Engine)
Soak the compressor section with kerosine/water mix for about 20 minutes. Then rinse w!:". water. (This engine
cannot be Carboblasted since it has labyrinth oil seals and the Carboblast material would contaminate the oil system.)
P&W JIVD (Boeing 747 Aircraft Engine)
This engine is water soaked only. Then the water is forced through the engine by belting it on the starter.

GE CF6 (McDonnell DouglasAircraft Engine)

Water soak. Then ingest Cokeblast (carbon particles) while running the engine at idle.

We clean the compressors of the assembled engines in this man ner only in the test cell, never on the airplane.
The degree of cleanliness obtained varies between engines. It is not definitely known how long the average
performance increment improvement amounts to on any engine types.
The latter part of your question asks: "... and would you attribute this process to accelerating the seal erosion
problem?".
As can be seen from the above descriptions, each engine has Its own tailored cleaning method approved by the
engine manufacturer. It is difficult to visualize seal erosion deterioration from a liquid soak and wash. On the
engines where solids are ingested, the ingestants are of such a texture and composition that it is again difficult to
viualize their causing a significant seal erosion. In reality, only the NI compressor rotor seems to be cleaned,
Cleaning of the N2 compressor stages seems to be minimal,

A.Moore, UK
Could you pleue tell me what proportion of the seal deterioration (with time) is due to erosion?
If the effect of erosion on seal performance Is signifivAnt, would it not be better to use a harder coating and reduce
the erosion and start with a larger clearance? This would, In theory, give a worse performance when the engine is
new, but a better performance with an old engine,
 5-11

Author's Reply
In view of the fact that on the newly developed engines, the state-of-art of metallurgical technology is being pushed
in order to obtain high component efficiencies, saleable thrust, specific fuel consumption and exhaust gas tempera-
ture margins, the suggested approach appears to run cross-grain to the metallurgical technology push.
Typically, when the engine manufacturer first introduces an engine, he is intent on meeting his performance
guarantees with seemingly little regard to putting extra "fat" into the engine to withstand large seal clearance
with long life. Your point is a good one, but this has not been the practice in the past. Seemingly little thought
is given to making the aerodynamic seals last a long time, especially in the hot gas scrubbed areas.
This again brings up the point that a good design approach appears to be to provide an engine design which provides
a controlled clearance for the takeoff r6gime, then another controlled clearance for the cruise rdgime. Clearance
control and long seal life should both be primary objectives.

R.Kervistin, France
Is there a relationship between the labyrinth seal clearance on a newly manufactured engine and ne, -,,at '1-s

operated 10,000-12,000 hours?

Author's Reply
By all means, there are labyrinth seal clearance changes between a newly manufactured enginp and one that has
10,000- 12,000 hours, especially in those areas scrubbed by hot gases. The changes occur from erosion asld In
some cases rubbing, both of which result in performance losses.
American Airlines' experience shows that the seal deterioration over the long haul is lower on multi-land labyrinth
seals than on rub type seals.
It is generally recognised that the rub type abradable seals are more efficient than the labyrinth type on a new
engine. However, experience indicates that this efficiency advantage is usually short-lived. We have noted that a
large efficiency loss occurs on a big bypass kngine even after making only several power excursions in the test cell.
Again, this points to the need of the next generation of engines to have two different seal clearance levels - one
for takeoff and one for cruise.
*I

St
IJ
 7-I

OIL SEALING OF AERO ENGINE BEARING COMPARTMENTS

D C WHITLOCK
Technical Design Group
Rolls-Royce Limited
PO Box 31
Derby DE2 8BJ, U K

SUMMARY

The basic problem of oil sealing of aero engine bearing compartments is to provide a
seal between rotating and static components, or between rotating components, accomo-
dating axial movements and possible radial excursions (such as shaft whirling). The
sealing arrangements must also conform to modular concepts of engine construction.

Such seals incur penalties on the oil system such as heat &eneration, air leakage and
debris generation. This paper considers means of reducing these penalties and improving
sealing integrity by developments of existing techniques.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of oil sealing within the core engine, whilut it is necessary to main-
tain a low oil consumption, is primatily to prevent contamination of the engine with
oil. Internal oil leakage would give rise to the probabilities of a combination of
any of the following: cabin air contamination, internal fires either short term or
long term due to an accumulation of carbon, performance loss due to dirtiness of
aerodynamic parts, or engine vibration due to oil accumulation in rotating parts.

There are basically three philosophies applied to engine bearing compartment sealing
all of which involve, to varying degrees, maintaining the bearing compartment at a
lower pressure than its surroundings thus inducing an inward airflow to prevent an
outward oil leak.

(a) There is the use of 'contacting' seals (carbon face seals) which have very low
air leakaFe rates for high seal pressure differences. These normally need to
operate with high pressure differences across them in order to ensure that they
will still function satisfactorily at low engine idle speeds. This may mean
that the bearing compartment needs to be vented directly to the external gear-
box which may in turn give oil scavenging problems at high altitude due to
scavenge pump cavitation.

Further disadvantages are their complexity and its effect upon allowing a
simple build/strip design concept. The seals have a relatively high heat
gennration and require cooling and lubrication oil flow. Incershaft seals
present further problems.

(b) A freely vented clearance seal system (such as labyrinth seals) can be adopted
allowing high seal pressure drops and hence high airflows into the bearing
compartment for effective oil sealing. The high airflows however can contri-
but. significantly to heat to oil in high temperature regions and give oil
separation problems when the air is eventually vented overboard.

(c) In practice very low seal pressure ratios, loes than 1.01, can be effective in
preventing oil leakage, provided careful design of the oily side of the seal
prevents oil swamping. Thus, by unsuring that all seals at any one compart-
ment are pressurised from the same source of cooling air and that there is
minimal pressure variation from seal to seal, a restricted vent can be used
controlling the bearing compartment to a pressure just below that of the
surrounding cooling air. Such a system, by minimising the airflow into a
bearing chamber, aids the oil separation function and reduces the heat input
to the oil. The system is dependent upon the control of the bearings com-
partment surround air pressure and the effects of wear on seal clearance.

in summary the first syptem has high sealing integrity at the expense of high
mechanical complexity. The second also has high sealing integrity but has poten-
tial oil temperature and oil separation hazards. The third system requires careful

i I , ll! !! . ...... ..... . ! !I m

 system design to ensure adeauate sealing integrity but minimises the heat to oil and
oil separation problems.

It is pursuit of the third system that is considered in this paper.

2.0 RESTRICTED VENT BALANCED PRESSURE SEALING SYSTEM

Pressure Balancing

Fig. 1 represents the simplest compartment to seal, the single seal, single shaft,
end compartment. It is this type of compartment that indicates that adequate
sealing is obtained with low seal pressure ratio. Successful oil sealing has been
achieved with a seal pressure ratio as low as 1.0005 induced by the excess capacity
of the oil scavenge pump. This represents a seal air flow less than 0.001% of the
core engine flow.

Fig. 2 is more typical of the factors influencing cooling air system pressures in
the vicinity of a bearing compartment. Although each oil seal is pressurised from
the same cooling air system, the pressure variation from front to rear of the com-
partment (pa to p ) is subject to pressure losses through the bearing support struc-
ture and to vortices induced by shaft and disc rotation. The seal pressure
difference will be subject to variation in cooling airflow which may be calculable
but the vortex strength is less predictable.

The vent flow must be sufficient to ensure that the compartment pressure, pb, gives
a pressure drop into the compartment across the rear seal, The pressure drop
across the front seal will of course be greater than the optimum for adequate
sealing.
By the simple expedient of providing an additional seal and a suitable pressure
balance passage, as shown in Fig. 3, the effects of the vortex and cooling air flow
variation are virtually eliminated. The balance passage flow areas are now the
main influence on the pressure variation across the compartment and need only be of
the order of ten times the balance seal flow area to make the pressure unbalance
negligible. The effect of the balance passage will be to allow a reduction in the
vent flow whilst achieving a greater tolerance to seal wear and damage.

Secondary Venting

The principle of isolating the bearing compartment from the surrounding cooling air
systems can be extended from the simple balance passage, giving pressure variation
independence, to multi skinning giving temperature independence and protection of
the cooling air system from oil contamination in the event of a leak.
Such a system Is shown in Fig. 4 applied to a two bearing, two shaft compartment
which has high pressure turbine cooling air leaking into the cooling air supply for
a low pressure turbine.

There are four groups of seals A, B, C and D which separate 3 passages inner, mid
and outer.

Seals of group A are the bearing compartment seals. An inflow of air through
those seals is achieved by venting the bearing compartment via a restrictor through
the wet vent to the external gearbox. An inflow of cool air in ensured through
the group B seals into the inner passage by venting the inner passage via a restric-
tor to some low pressure area (such as the by-pass duct). This may be referred to
as the dry vent. Thus, if for any reason, a leak should occur from the bearing
compartment into the inner passage, oil would not pass through the group B seals but
would be carried through the dry vent thus avoiding contamination and fire hazards.
The outer passage is opened up to the lower pressure region of the LF turbine cooling
air via holes Y such that there is a preswnre drop across the group C seals into the
outer duct. Thus the high temperature air leak from the HP turbine cooling air
through the group A seals cannot find its way into the inner duct.

The balance of the LP turbine cooling air requirement would be fed via the LP turbine
shaft holes at X.

The system advantages are achieved at the expense of weight and space and possibly
also performance since the additional vent flow from the inner passage may be

"LT rI'" 'I " 1... ~ .i:

 7-3

significant. This flow must also affect the bearing compartment pressure balance
unless the inner passage flow areas can be increased to compensate.

Cool Air Blanket

Fig. 5 shows a compromise solution to the bearing compartment sealing requirements

accepting that weight and space are limited. The inner vented passage has been
deleted with the group B seals and the cooler air is introduced to the bearing com-
partment seals directly via the pressure balance passage. Since the flow in this
passage is reduced from that in Fig. 4 a better pressure balance can be achieved for
a given passage size.

If there were no holes at Z through the HP shaft, such as in Fig. 4, the holes at Y
could be suitably sized to ensure an outflow of cool air through seals C to prevent
the hot HP turbine cooling air from entering the oil seal pressure balance passage.
It may however be desirable to substantially dilute the hot air leak with the cooler
air to reduce the heat transfer through the bearing compartment outer wall. This
would be particularly important if the balance passage and the outer passage were in
parallel rather than concentric as space limitations may dictate. Thus by intro-
ducing holes at Z and increasing the flow area at Y additional cool air will pass
through the outer passage. Control of the overall flow of cooling air to the LP
turbine can be maintained by a corresponding reduction in flow area at X.

Thus loss of the dry vent, which isolates any oil leakage, is compensated for by a
higher tolerance to seal wear due to the improved pressure balance around the oil
seals. The dilution of the hot air leak by the cooler air reduces the fire hazard
if an oil leak should occur.

3.0 ROTATING TO STATIC SEALS

Labyrinth Seal

A bearing compartment cannot be sealed by providing an inward airflow through a fine

clearance between shaft and housing as shown in Fig. 6(a). Here oil will certainly
leak on shutdown as oil runs along the shaft and it may well leak during running,
particularly at low pressure difference across the seal. These leaks can be avoided
by a raised land as shown in Fig. 6(b) which will throw the oil clear of the shaft
during running and discourage oil from running down the shaft on shutdown. However
a plain bore is not as effective an air seal as a finned labyrinth seal of the same
clearance occupying the same length, Fig. 6(c). Also in the event of rotating to
static contact the plain bore would generate much more heat, resulting in local dis-
tortion, than would occur with the more limited contact of the finned labyrinth seal.
Thus the labyrinth seal evolves as an effective oil seal.

It should be noted that the innermost (oil side) fin which acts as an oil flinger
must not run inside the seal static liner to avoid oil draining out along the liner
against the airflow.

If a steel or other hard lining was used the seal clearance would need to be sutli-
ciently large to avoid metal to metal contact under any conditions. Hence it would
have to take account of transient effects such as shaft whirl, differential growth
rates between inner and outer seal parts and allow a small margin for ignorance of
the precise transient effects. By using an abradable lining which would tolerate
limited transient seal rubs, the seal clearance can be minimised thus reducing the
asir leakage for a given seal pressure difference. The requirements of an abradable
liner for oil sealing must satisfy the following requivements

(a) Since the debris from a seal rub will enter the bearing compartment and the oil
system it must not include hard particles or be abrasive.

(b) The seal material must be compatible with the oil types to be used in the
engine (this would preclude use of rubber and synthetic rubber bosed materials).
These are In addition to the usual requirements for mechanical integrity, erosion
resistance, ease of rework etc.

Ring Seal

The ring seal, Fig. 7, has a floating ring axially located in a static housing
running igainat a shaft muunted sleeve. The ring follows any radial excursions of

. .......
..
 the shaft by floating in its housing, consequently the clearance between ring and
sleeve can be very fine thus limiting the airflow through such a seal.

The ring seal generally requires development time to optimise ring and sleeve inter-
face materials and finish. It requires an oil presence to prevsnt wear and conse-
quently its use is restricted to cooler environments, 250 to 300 C. Oil gumming
or carboning would cause the ring to stick in its housing and lead to severe wear
between the ring and the sleeve. Similarly high pressure difference across the
seal can load ,L against the housing wall, inhibiting its free radial movement.

The seal will operate satisfactorily at sleeve surface speeds up to about 300 ft/sec
(90 m/sec).
Within these operating limitations the ring seal can be very effective in limiting
the vent air flow requirement.

4.0 INTERSHAFT SEALS

Labyrinth Seal

Intershaft labyrinth seals generally require larger clearances than rotating to

static seals particularly as the seal position becomes more remote from the bearings
and consequently require more air for an adequate sealing margin.

Hydraulic Seal

The hydraulic seal affords a very effective means of sealing between para-rotating
shafts being able to tolerate high pressure differences with negligible airflow.
The hydraulic seal, shown in Fig. 8, uses the outer shaft to support an annulus of
oil between two fins, one acting as a dam and the other as a weir.

A fin on the outer diameter of the inner shaft runs immersed in the oil annulus thus
providing a positive air seal. The weir controls the oil level on one side of the
fin, the level on the other side is determined by the rotational speed of the oil,
the oil density and the pressure difference across the fin.

For moat applications the oil speed approxcimates to the mean speed of the two shafts
and the sealing capacity can be estimated on that basis.
2 2
i.e. Seal pressure difference ,p -= pm (r r"
2

o oil density
U•m oil mean rotational speed

Since there are high velocity gradients in the oil, heat is generated at a hydraulic
seal. This is not generally significant relative to main shaft bearing heat genera-
tion but it must be considered with respect to local oil temperatures, The heat
generation will be minimised by avoiding excessive fin immersion. To avoid high
* local oil temperatures the hydraulic seal should have a through flow of oil by
feeding the oil on the opposite side of the fin to the weir.

There must be provided a suitable catchment volume to prevent the oil from the
annului spilling away from the bearing compartment on shutdown when the outer shaft
rotation provides insufficient centrifugal head to maintain It. The catchment zone
should allow drainage back to the bearing compartment. There maybe a very small
air leak through the drainage passages into the compartment during normal running
but it would be at an insignificant flow rate.

The hydraulic seal presents difficulties with regard to assembly since the fin out-
side diameter must be greater than the weir and dam inside diameters. Consequently
it is often not practical to employ an assembly procedure suitable for a hydraulic
seal.

However if the seal is only required to support a small pressure difference then a
deformable weir could be used in conjunction with a limited interference fin, Fig. 9.
Account must be taken of the compression of the weir under centrifugal load during
running when assessing the seal performance.

i l
 7-5

Oil Faced Labyrinth Seal

The principle of a centrifugally supported annulus of oil can be applied to a laby-

rinth seal where the oil acts as a deformable self repairing seal liner, Fig. 10.
The nominal seal clearance need only be that consistent with ease of assembly and
strip. Thus the intershaft seal can be as efficient as a conventional rotating to
static seal (may be even more so) without the assembly problems of the hydraulic
seals. Since it is an airflowing seal there will still remain the need for pressure
balancing. This can be adequately achieved by providing a conventional abradable
linered seal of relatively large clearance as back up.

5.0 SEAL FAILURE ANALYSIS

Since the principle of the pressure balanced vented bearing compartment is to mini-
miss the air used consistent with satisfactory oil sealing, it is necessary to do a
seal failure analysis.

After assessing what increase in seal clearance above normal wear limits need to be
catered for in the vicinity of the bearing compartment, the vent flow for the com-
partment can be calculated. It is assumed that all the seals on one shaft can fail
simultaneously and that they all increase clearance by the same amount. When con-
sidering a failure on one shaft it is assumed that the seals on any other shafts are
on maximum wear limits. The vent flow can then be sized such that at a failure
clearance there is no reversal of airflow at any oil seal. This must be checked
for each group of seals in turn. If the pressure balance around-the oil seals is
almost perfect it will be found that the vent flow calculated for the failure case
will provide a very low pressure difference across all seals when they are all at
the clearance for maximum wear allowance. In these circumstances the vent flow
should be increased to bripg the oil seal pressure difference up to a suitable mini-
mum, about k psi (1.7 kN/m ) at sea level static take off. Fig. 11 shows a typical
plot of seal failure margin.

Thus the benefits of a well pressure balanced system are reduced vent flow with
extended seal failure margins. These effects are enhanced by making use of oil
faced labyrinth seals and particularly by use of hydraulic seals.
6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Directors of Rolls-Royce Limited for permission to prepare
and present this paper.. My thanks also go to the Rolls-Royce Engineering Illustra-
tions Department and PSG Limited for their invaluable assistance in executing the
diagrams.

DISCUSSION

F.Willkop, Germany
I have a question concerning the hydraulic seal. Do you have experience with counter-rotating seals, their heat
generation and their need of oil exchange?

Author's Reply
Tests have been carried out investigating the operation of contra-rotating hydraulic seals. These showed that such
seals were not stable and would not support significant pressure difference and hence fureher testing was not
pursued.
 7-6

Fig. 1 SINGLE SEAL BEARING COMPARTMENT

COMPARTiMENT DE PALIER A JOINT UNIQUE

LP COOLING AIR
AIR DE REFROIDISSEMENT BP
- • •AXE-

SCAVENGE OIL & AIR

•_• '"•..__,
.,• ]=~l~lHUILE ET AIRr"
DE BALAYAGE

. _ l•,l _ I,

1I• •.....F .. ii' =i r• . .... I

 Fig. 2 TYPICAL BEARING COMPARTMENT
COMPARTIMENT TYPIQUE DE PALIER

VORTEX PRESSURE GRADIENT

CHUTE DE PRESSION
TOURBILLONNAIRE
VENT RESTRICTOR
RESTRICTEUR DE VENTILATION

COOLING AIR FLOW---,"

DEBIT D'AIR DE
REFROIDISSEMENT P

DEBIT D'AERATION
r.AXE - - -

Fig. 3 PRESSURE BALANCE PASSAGE

PASSAGE D'EQUILIBREDE PRESSION
VORTEX PRESSURE GRADIENT
CHUTE DE PRESSION
TOURBILLONNAIRE

PRESSURE BALANCE PASSAGE

PASSAGE DrEQUILIBRE
/
DE PRESSOON

COOLING AIR FLOWZ', Pb

DEBIT D'AIR DE ý P
REFROIDISSEMENT
VENT'FLOW P
D'AERATION
- .AXE
7-8

Fig. 4 SECONDARY VENTING

AERA TION SECONDAIRE

DRY VENT TO BY PASS DUCT WET VENT TO EXTERNAL GEARBOX

VENTILATION SECHE A CONDUIT VENTILATION HUMIDE VERS CARTER
DE DERIVATION DE TRANSMISSION EXTERIEURE

HP TURBINE COOLING AIR

AIR DE REFROIDISSEMENT DE
TURBINE A HP

HP TURBINE SHAFT L P TURBINE

ARBRE DE TURBINE D ERIEU D)
HPOUE HP
"X• ETERIUR fCOOLING AIR

C AIR DE REFROIDISSEMENT
INNERDE TURBINE BP
INTERIEU

X LP TURBINE SHAFT
ARBRE DE TURBINE BP ,-
- - ._AXE-

Fig. 5 COOL AIR BLANKET

ENVELOPPED'AIR REFROIDI
WET VENT TO EXTERNAL GEARBOX
VENTILATION HUMIDE VERS CARTER DE TRANSMISSION

HP TURBINE COOLING AIR

AIR DE REFROIDISSEMENT
DE TURBINE H PISEM

HP TURBINE
ARBRE DE
SHAFT
TURBINE H
ZI A C
LP TURBINE COOLING AIR
AIR DE REFROIDISSEMENT
DE TURBINE 8 P

x - L P TURBINE SHAFT
ARBRE DE TURBINE SP
- .AXE

~~)K
 7-9

Fig. 6 CLEARANCE TYPE OIL SEAL

JOINT DHUILE A JEU

SEALING AIR BEARING COMPARTMENT

AIR D'ETANCHITEIIý,~ COMPARTIMENT DE PALIER

SHAFT - - AXE
ARBRE

SHAFT _.AXE
ARBRE

SHAFT _.-AXE
ARBRE

Fig. 7 RING SEAL

JOINT ANNEAU

BEARING COMPARTMENT
SEALING AIR COMPARTIMENT DE PALIER
"AIR DETANCHEITE
SEALING SLEEVE______
MANCHON D'ETANCHEITE

.AXE -

.A

Ito
7-10

Fig. 8 HYDRAULIC SEAL

JOINT HYDRAULLIQUE
(a) (b) 2 P

ARBRE HAUTE PRESSION

p N, K
AXE Ck---
ýNLr

Fig. 9 HYDRAULIC SEAL WITH DEFORMABLE WEIR

JOINT HYDRA ULIOULE A VEC DIGUE DEFORMABLE

ARBRE H P -DEFORMABI.E WEIR

. ..... ...... DIGUE D1EFORMABLE

DIFFERENCE IN OIL LEVEL

DIFFERENCE DE NIVFAU DHIE

DE L'AUTRE COTE DU JOINT

- ______-q~AXE
 /I-IA

Fig. 10 OIL FACED LABYRINTH

LAB8 YRIN THE A FA CE DHURLE

BEARING LUBRICATION
GRAISSAGE DE PALIER H P SHAFT

ALIMENTATION D'HUILE *-AIR DETANCI4EITE

L P SHAFT
ARBRE BP

___-~~ -- tAXE __ _ _

FIGAI ESTIMATION OF SEALING SYSTEM

INTEGRITY
EVALUA TION DE L'NTEGRITE DU CIRCUIT
LI DIENTANCHEITE
Seal
"prssure
differenc pressur balance
diffimfilleEqullibage d'alr mauvals
dlu Joint
Effoct of increased venting
Ef Jet do ventilation

Minimum
normal sealGodkfli.
pressure--co pressurebanc

normale
du Mont _____________

Nominal Normal wvear Seal failure Seal clearance

seal clearanice allowance margin Jo u n
Jou nomnalW Tolerance Maigede
du Joint dusure normale securltW
 TRANSPORT PHENOMENA IN LABYRINTH-SBPALS OF TURBOMACHINES
Tahein BOYMAN Peter SUTER
Assistant, Dipl.Ing. Professeur Dr.Ing.
Ecole Polytechnique F6d6rale do Lausanne
Inatitut de Thermique Appliqu6e
CH-1015 LAUSANNE (SWITZERLAND)

SUMMARY
In turbomachines it has been observed that the oil-fog and the oil-vapour produced
in the region of bearings may be transported through the labyrinth-'jlands in the direction
opposite to the buffering-fluid-flow.
Two mechanisms are found to be at the origin of this undesired transporto
o the diffusion of the oil-vapour due to the concentration gradient,
9 the transport of small oil-droplets due to the complex flow created in the
labyrinth-seals.
The intensity and limits of these two phenomena are studied theoretically and oxperi-
mentallyl experiments have been performed in a real-eise-model and in a second large-scale-
model, both of the "xtraight-through-type" with moving fins and a stationary outer cylinder.
NOMENCLATURE
symbols Indices
A (CA) i area t : related to the inner cylinder
1 •m, #h^a)t breadth of one labyrinth- 9 1 related to the tip of the fins
chamber i related to the outer cylinder
0"n,
08l-9"wwO) thickness of a fin
velocity i related to
related to the
the real-siue-model
large-scale-modal
(J .,ie ) diameter d axial component
It (ham) a focal length in LDV i- a radial component
( ,. a number of labyrinth-chamber t a tangential component
A.M •'m•) amass transfer ooeffioient f of the fluid
L (mAn) i distance of the laser-beams p of the particle
in rDV i in the i-th chamber
4
) speed
i(hwiW
s of rotation 0" 1 average in the gap
1(0w80-) : flow rate
ra, a coordinates Definitions
Ae)( angle between the plane of
laser-beams and the plane C4m a average axial velocity of the buffer-
of labyrinth-fins ing-fluidin the g~p
V ( concentration of propane
dynamic viscosity
ak*.e
g(4.M'J) I specific mass Ait Reynolds number Re a PCf "
& (8") tangular frequency
(N a on tile drawings)
ppe I parts per million

1. INTRODUCTION
The labyrinth-glands are oontactless leakage reducing eleaents for turbomachines
working at high rotational speeds according to the direction of the pressure drop a
certain amount of fluid flows through the glands. When this echange between the fluids
inside and outside of the machine has to be absolutely stopped we make use of a buffering-
fluid. The buffering-fldid is injected into the labyrinth.glands in order to assure two
flows in opposite directional the first one directed to the atmosphere and the second to
the inner side of the machine. A- fuid
In practice it has been observed that oil is
transported from the region of bearings to the
inner side of'the turbomachine through the laby-
rinth-glands, in the direction opposite to the
buffering-fluid-flow.
The problem may be summuariad as follows I,
(sne figure 1) 1
The spaces & and S are ropazeted by a rotor
equiped with fins, the oeter nylinder is at rest.
The fluid in 9 contains oil in gaseous form and
oil-droplets. The pressure in d Is higher thar in
Z and du•e to this pressure difference we have a
flow Cam &Ato g through the glands. Xn spite of t
thin flow we observe oil in none Irigure 1. oheatia view of
the problem

- I
IA
 The purpose of this paper iV to study the mechanisms causing this undesired trans-
port phenomenon.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
In turbomachines the lubricating oil is partially vaporized due to the heating in
the bearings. Another part of this oil in atomized by centrifugation and constitutes a
suspenaion of oil-droplets in the air, called the "oil-fog". The oil in gaseous form will
be referred to as the "oil-vapour".
The following transport phenomena can be observeda
e the oil-vapour has a certain concentration in the region of bearingi and can be
transported by diffusion to those regions where the concentration is lower,
a large droplets end their trajectory on a stationary surface in the zone 9 before
entering in the labyrinth-gland,; smaller droplets follow the flow more or less
accurately and we shall show that there in some probability that droplets can be
transported by this procedure from space.7 to space E through the glands.
Experiments have been done in order to study separetely the two mechanismsa
0 the diffusion,
* the transport of emall droplets.
The determination of the rates of diffusion has been performed on a real-size-model
and as to the complex flow-field in labyrinth-glands, measurements and visualization have
been done on a large-scale-model. The transport of the oil-droplets of different sizes,
observed in the real-sine-model, can be explained by the information on the velocity-
field.
3. Di,,u m-smERVi4ETs
3.1 Configuration of labyrinth-glands
The experimental models investigated are both of the
"straight-through-type", with moving fins and a stationary
outer cylinder.
The variables are the rotational speed of rotor and
the average axial velocity of buffering-fluid through the
gap between the fins and the outer cylinder.

_____ __Figure 2. The ohosen configure-

m tion of labyrinth*

:11 ,

Figure 3. The real-size-model

 8-3

3.2 The real-size-model

The principal dimensions of the real-size-model are given on figure 3. The annular
chamber in the middle of this model simulates the zone S close to a bearing of a turbo-
machine where the oil-fog and the oil-vapour are produced. The buffering-air is fed
radially at station & and we have nine identical fins between the Intake (E) of the
buffering-air and the exit-chamber (S). The outer cylinder is made of plexiglaxs and
equiped with 49 holes of I mm diameter for sampling.
A direct-current drive motor allows rotational speeds from roo M00 to 9100 ip.t.
Average axial velocities of the buffering-air in the gap are assured up 'to C,,,,$ Spt-.
3.3 Experimental equilpent
The figure 4 shows the arrangement for the diffusion-experiments. Instead of oil-
vapour we Injected propane gas in the exit-chamber (9) and measured the propane-conoen-
tration in the samples taken through different holes on the plexiglass-cylinder.
A flame-ioniuation-detector was used for the determination of propane-concentrations.
The propane-concentration was maintained about 90OZ ppm in the exit-chamber (S) during
the neasurements.

.4 U
0 ointer._ 0"
I T

, i
~
"~~ -eiv
-&-~-Buffering
Recorder Faie,,S
" Io ewiob,
U Pr1lpe0 gas
detector

Figure 4, The arrangement for the diffusion-experiments

3.4 Results and discussion of the diffusion-experiments

The results are shown on figures 5 and 6. The figure 5 gives the variation of the
propane-concentration through the glands for nm .000#0MW and C"l0)=O,25lOj50,0VSf AOOMiI
The figure 6 shows that only the ratio C.,S/C.,,, is determinant and the Reynolds number
(obtained with C#,g or Ca,,, ) has no influence in the investigated domain.
During the experiments the test-room concentration-leval was about 25 pim and we
found the same concentration-level at station Go which is situated at some distance from
the labyrinth-glands, on the buffering-air admission-pipe.
In our case we have not any net propane transport fromt S to E through the glands.
Therefore, the concentration in the i-th labyrinth-chamber is the result oft
e a global transport due to the buffering-airf low,
* a turbulent mass transfers koqj A ( 1., - W1)
4 T, and

Thuss

For a large number of labyrinths with an average mass transfer coefficient km•, we
obtain the propane-concentration in the i-th chamber (see ref. 1) a
-,
TFigure 5.
Results of the diffueion-
* experiments fort

Ow 0 -,o O
M 075

so ,h concentration of nro

s 0 ±
fT E~
,Labyrinth-cjhomiers-

buffc*r€*ng- c-of the

Dbirection~ f€.ow

0
Figure 6.
Nk Results of the diffusion-
experiments fort

a.b

440,
4"6,00
--
eutio thieIdi.fus...-

S$0 -- .----- +- km~•----+-.--

-4sli•. * 00 .

- L albriveth -chambers -
 8-5

1..th C&,,. . , equation (2) reduces to:

A

Above the difference of concentration of 100 ppm

between two neighbouring chambers, the four distribu-
tions given on figure 5 satisfy the equation (3). Thus,1 go 0 fg IS
we obtain the mail transfer coefficients given on
table 1. The value of k"^ shows a slight decrease kA, 04
with increasing Ce, oiC M ratio.
Below the concentration-differ- Table 1.
once of 100 ppm between two neighbour-
ing chambersthe intensity of diffu-
sion is reduced and an effective seal-
ing against diffusion is obtained two
or three chambers upstreams, after
that the difference becomes lower than
100 pPE.
The difference of the concentra-
tions at stations 0' and 0 is due to a
protection-ring situated between the
labyrinth-glands-zone and the spaceS.
During the diffusion-experiments
it was also observed that:
"*there was no perceptible vari-
ation of concentration in any-
one of the labyrinth-ohambore
during one hour runs,
" the propane-concentration in
the chambers varied proportion- ' --

ally to the concentration in

the space S when this was
varied,
"ethe peripherical variation of
concentration in every chamber
did not exceed ± 101 of the
average value.
As a partial conclusion, we can
say that care must be taken against
the transport by diffusion when we
have reduced velocities of buffering-
fluid and also if only a few laby-
rinth-chambers are disponible.
4. DETERMINATION OF THE FLOW-FIELD-
IN A LABYRINTH-CHANMDR
4.1 The large-scale-model
In order to examine the details
of the flow, a large-scale-model (five
times greater than the rual-sise-model
with geometrical similarity) was con-
ceived. Figure 7 gives the principal
dimensions of this model.
In this model we used water
instead of air. Therefore, the hydro-
dynamical similarity requires the
reduction of all velocities in a ratio
of 85 in the water$ the rotational
speed is reduced 420 times. The buf-
fering-water flows from the bottom to
the top. On the outer cylinder we have
two plexiglass windows for visualisa-
tion and velocity meamurements.

Figure 7. The large-scala-model

 Figure 8. -

The double-helicoidal
flow-pattern

pion&Of

~r
rft tatof a'
aam~0

Figure 9. Plow-imaqe• obtained by dye-injootion-uethod

4.2 Flow vimualisation

With the injection of colored dyes (Luconyl from BASUdiluted with water) at appro-
priate Injection velocities, it was possible to determine the local directions of the
flow velocities in a labyrinth-chamber for different pairs of wrotational speed - axial
velocity of buffering-water".
From the flow-lwages obtained with thin technique and represented on figures 8 and
9 we doduce thots
e without rotation, on* largo helix appears,
a with rotationbut bufforing-flow lacking, two similar and partially overlapping
spirals appear,
both rotation and Swith
buffering-flow, the two helices are distorted.
Thus, the main floow for n0O and Co,I,,O consists of two oppositely rotating and
partially overlapping helices.
Besides the observation of the mean flow, the flow visualixation revealed also the
mmentary baok-flows occuring in the gap. During these experiments, the parietal injcotion-
point was sItuato approximately 5 mm on the downstream-side of the gap and in spite of
the buffering-water-flow the injici.ed dye came momentarily back (with a random frequency)
through the gap into the labyrinth-chaml ,r situated upstr~cmas.
4.J Laser-Doppler-Velocimoter (LWV) measurements
The measurements are made with a BBC-OoGrs veloolmoter (model LG 01) in the back-
scattering mode and a DDC-Goors signal processor (model LSX 01). The laser source was a
5 MW Helium-Neon unit. The output-signal of the processor wao sampled at the rate of 1000
samples per second and each sample was stocked in the corresponding channel of a numerical-
treatment-unit (Didac 800 from Zntertechnique). The fresh tap-water did aiot show any diffi-
culty during the measurementeswhich were done through a plexiglass window presenttng the
same internal curvature as the outer cylinder.
The points where the velocity measurements are performed are given on figure 10.
cmpt 4, eW points close to the fins, at each point two measurements in two different
directions (namely, se t 300 relatively to the circumferential direction) have been
carried out. Here,"one measurement" means the probability density distribution of the
velocity in the concerned direction, thin distribution being obtained for a total of
500000 samples at the rate of 1000 values per second.
Figure 10.9L
a, The sectioni of __w ~h )16m
measurement 0GZY 30
b. The disposition ____ ____
*30
'
of the measurement- -
points in the laby- V SIR? 30 0
rinth-chamber and A115, 30 tS
of the LDV'O opti- ----

cal arrangement for

each measurement

AK O~

But7r,~ e. a es. uea-.~ b

Viue1.Tneta 0 n x~ 6 eoiyopnn± eue

f,~cu fr n*9t5uvi~and
WVmeaurmetu mv
 (a) 21"5 (sb)
Cw .OOumt, + +so*l~
C,, 94600rf • S.- 0

Ci'

Lij
I -/

- ru '1 '*"pu-30I0E r ",, i8a-5 C

o~~C o'e' 0o,1 MIo, *
M 03

MF. ÷:0 CI

(C)
M~MS
(d)

: •-o,
r~ioo • •• - 30°Ca .i O,Oe$i,,;f • •

I-.

-I060*,
8a

L4-4 0

Figure 12. Probability denmity distributions of velocities in the

directions #altSV
0

aind deduced average values of C~ alid

C4 for
-0,002Jm and C i,0 l O•VI
0105 + +"3.
 From theme distributions we computed the average velocities and the central moments
up to the fourth moment. With two average velocities in different directions at the same
point we obtained the averages of the axial and the tangential components of the velocity.
The distributions of theae components arc given on figure 11 for fl* = 2f,55 ml'n"€ and
Come aO,O3.5 hfsi (these values correspond to " a #000 0im" and C"S * 3 Msa" in the real-
size model). On these representations, the iMer cylinder is rotating counter-clockwiue
when seen from the top and the liuffering-water flows from the bottom to the top. For the
sake of representation of the small axial components. the velocity-scales have different
values for each distribution on the figure 11.
The distribution of tho axial components (figure ll.b) (negative values are black)
confirms the results of the visualization: we find again the two distorted vortices with
a region of negative velocities across the chamber.
From the distribution of the tangential velocity components (figure ll.a) it can be
seen that in the middle of the labyrinth-chamber the average tangential velocity reachs
300 of the circumferential velocity of the moving walls.
The double-helicoidal flow in the space between the fins explains the transport of
droplets within a labyrinth-chamber. As to the transport from one chamber to the neigh-
bouring one situated upstreams, the turbulent velocity fluctuations in the region of the
gap may be at the origin of the momentary back-flows observed during the visualization-
experiments. The variation of the fluctuations when approaching the walls and mainly in
the region close to the gap can be observed on figure 12. On this figure are given the
probability
n@Dr as~MW4 density distributions versus the velocity at four different points for
and ¢o.,ftj 0,03S ie"q.
From figures 12.a and 12.b we see the increases of the axial component and also of the
velocity fluctuations when we approach the stationary outer wall: however, there is a
vnifesting velocity-peak. Figure 12.c gives the situation in the middle of the chamber:
the flow is practically tangential. In contrast to the distribution of the figure 12.b,
the velocity distribution in the gap (figure 12.d) shows the lack of a dominant velocity
and the fluctuations reach ± 251 of the average value for 6s *8O0 and ± 334 for t" -00.
Unless the fluctuations in the •An30 and u.M30 directions were rigidly correlated (which
is unlikely), the momentary axial velocity in the gap can well take negative values,
explaining thus the transfer observed in the visualization.
The partial conclusion we can deduce from the flow-field observation is that the two
helices account for the transport of a droplet within a labyrinth-chamberand the velocity
fluctuations in the region of the outer wall andmainly, near the gaps may transport drop-
lets from one chamber to the next one situated upstreams. j
5. MOTION OF DROPLETS IN THE LABYRINTH-GLANDS
Considering the motioxn of discrete (non-interacting), spherical and small (Stokes-
drag-law applies) droplets entrained by a gas flow (see ref. 2), we can verify:
s the centrifugation of the droplet* by the predominant tangential velocity component,
• the flow tracing fidelity of particles in the fluctuating flow-field.
For tangential and radial velocity components of the droplet we have (see ref. 3):

-.. fP

Thus the ratio of the two ocmponento isi

Here:

In our case, for the ratio C,r/Cp,t we obtain the values given on table 2.
The values of the radial velocity of the
particles do not exceed the order of magnitude
of the radial and the axial velocity compo-
nente of the afore-mentioned haliceg. Large
droplets can not enter anyhow in the labyrinth . "
glands-zone, being already centrifugated in O0
the space S Smaller droplets will follow, Co., 0M 0,00a A
to some extend, the helicoidal flow, but in
any case centrifugation tends to move the
Table 2.

1?
droplets in the direction of the outer wall
where large velocity fluctuations are present.

II

iU
 In this gland-zone close to the outer wall, the flow tracing fidelity of droplets
has to be verified. Expressing the particle velocity in terms of the fluid velocity with
the aid of an amplitude-ratio and a phase angle (see ref. 4), we obtain for our conditions
the amplitude-ratios and the phase angles given on table 3.
These considerations show that particles
of the micron-sixe will follow the fluctuations
of the flow and can be transported in the unde-
fO00 r" 6O000S-1 sired direction
flow. 1 in spite of a buffering-fluid-

1.100 1,000 -too 0,994 -5,00

S.1 O4,99 -4,0@ 0,044 -1e,o*

W%
5. 0 V -23,10 MR11 -864sf

to.06 0, 6,,0
-o, ,,4 -

Table 3.

6. CONCLUSIONS
e The diffusion-experiments show the possibility of an undesired transport of the
oil-vapour by diffusion at reduced buffering-fluid velocities and also if only a
few labyrinth-chambers are disponible.
e From the measurements with the Laser-Doppler-Velocimeter and with the aid of the
visualizations we observe a double-helicoidal mean flow in the labyrinth-chamber.
Turbulent velocity fluctuations are superposed to the mean flow. The intensity of
the fluctuations increases when approaching the stationary wall and,mainly,the
region of the gap.
e As theoretical considerations prove, droplets of the micron-size ( m) can
-W$f"
accurately follow the fluctuations and move in this way in the opposite-direction
to the imposed buffering-fluid-flow.

REFERHNCES
1. H. L. Weiusberga "Theoretical aspects of back diffusion", ORNL Symposium on shaft
seals for gas cooled reactor compressors and turbines,( 16/17.12.1959)
2. 3. 0. Hinzei Turbulence (2nd edition), New York, McGraw Hill Book Co. ,(1975),
Section 5.7-"Diffusion of discrete particles in a homogeneous turbulence"
3. J. H. Burson, E. Y. Keng and C. Orr: "Particle dynamics in centrifugal fields",
Powder Technol., vol. 1, (1967), pp. 30-315
4. A. T. Rjelmfelt and L. F. Mockros: "Motion of discrete particles in a turbulent
fluid", Appl. Sci. Ras., vol. 16, (1966), pp. 149-161

DISCUSSION

B.Wrisley, UK
Please comment on the effect of cell proportion on oil transport.

Authors' Reply
Our tests have, up to now, been performed with only one geometry of approximately I: I -ratio of height to breadth
of the labyrinth chambers. Of course, the mats transfer coefficient km depends on geonmetrical parameters;
effectively it may be expressed as a mas-transfer Stanton number Stm .
Stm 0 km/U - f(Re, Cq/U, geometry).
Our tests have resulted in the order of magnitude of km - 0,007, nearly independent on Reynolds number,
slightly dependent on ratio C,/U, but certainly influenced by geometry. We are examining this by theory and
expeilment. Let us remark that the mentioned value is of the same order of magnitude, as, but higher than an
expected turbulent mass transfer value; the Increase is due to the described flow pattern.

,-.I
 9-1

STUDIES ON VIBRATIONS STIMULATED BY LATERAL FORCES IN SEALING GAPS

by
H. Benckert
Researoh Assistant
and
J. Wachter
Professor
Institut far Thermisch. Str6mungsmaschinan
UniversitAt Stuttgart
Pfaffenwaldring 6
D-7000 Stuttgart So (Vaihingen)
Germany

SUNMARY

In high paver density turbomachines vibrational problems arise. One reason is

caused by exciting forces in sealing gaps. This effect can be soon in the unsymmetrical
pressure distribution within the sealing. In order to get fundamental knowledge of the
flow in sealing gaps a test-facility for labyrinths was installed, which allows to
investigate several labyrinth configurations. The following parameters can be varieds
the shaft rotation, the pressure difference on the seal, the entry-swirl, the eccentric-
ity of the rotor and the geometry of the labyrinth.

The presented investigations show a systematic dependence of the excited lateral

forces on these parameters. For a given labyrinth the corresponding force coefficient
is related to the entry conditions of the flow and the pressure difference on the seal.
Two examples of calculation demonstrate the application of the test results.

LIST OY SYMROLS
cso axial flow voloctly before
the labyrinth
*1
cu circumferential flow volootiy
Ouo before the labyrinth
D rotor diameter
relative admission energy
a of the flow
e rotor eccentricity (dinenuioned)
a Freference force
h heitght of the chamber
K excitation constant
lateral force spring coefficient
m number of whirling chambers

SPa static pressure after the labyrinth

pO static pressure before the
labyrinth

ADet Po " Pa
p differential pressure
Q lateral force
R restoring forue
r rotor radius
Ar radial labyrinth clearance
t spacing of the l'.yrinth
uW peripheral rotor speed
- e/Ar relative eccentricity of the rotor
density of fluid
9 peripheral angle
suboriptal superscripts:
o refers to position before labyrinth dimensionless value
4 i at each chamber - moan value
abe total
gee summation over all chambers
Sg lateral
M restoriiag

'I L.
 i

INTRODUCTION

The economical requirements and the technical development led, on many techni-
cal fields, to bigger and bigger machine units. This applies especially in the came of
the turbo-machine engineering due to the constantly increasing performance requirements.
Self excited rotor vibrations, produced by the flow forces of the handled fluid, belong
to the phenomena causing now operating problems. The origin of the exciting forces is,
at the present, only partially known. Among others, the power proportional lateral
forces, known under the designation "Steam whirl Excitation", investigated by Thomas (1)
belong to the causes of this occurrence which are being considered. The multiplicity of
the vibrational phenomena observed on manufactured fluid machinnry as well as on model
tests, points to the fact that, besides the inventiqated clearance excitationa, other
exciting forces act on the rotor via the working fluid.
The search for the physical reasons of theme vibrations out of rotational fre-
quency lead to the flow occurrences in glands, sealing gaps, balance pistons and shroud
bands. Even emall unsymmetries in the pressure distribution on the above units give
origin to forces, which era capable of lifting the weight of the rotor, The lateral
force component of the resulting rotor load, caused by the uneven pressure distribution,
can reach a vibration exciting extent.
Lomakin (2) shows that, in case of an acoentrical position of the shaft in the
caning, variable flow resistances occur in the gap. The different flow speeds resulting
from this fact cause an unsymmetrical pressure distribution with regard to the shaft
center line and, therefore, lateral forces. Lomakin considers here the plain axial flow
only (one-dimensional consideration). The circumferential flow and mpecially the influ-
ence of the shaft rotation are not taken into consideration. Doss and his collaborators
(3) investigate the influence of the sealing gap At boiler food pump impellero. The
lateral forces are considered, which occur in came of smooth annular clearances and
eccentrical shaft position, as well as their influence on the vibrational behaviour of
the rotor. Alford (4) occupies himself with lateral forces in case of labyrinth seals.
He is of the opinion that, in came of gap width variable with time, lateral forces
occur, which act out-of-phase with regard to deflection. Depending on reduction or
enlargement of the gap width in flow direction, exciting or damping forces appear, for
which no basic explanation is given in this theory. The investigations (1, 5, 6) include,
besides the sealing gap flows, also the effects of the uneven distributed blade forces,
the influences of the bearings and other effects of the whole machine. The above works
consider boundary conditions of the shroud band at the impeller of a turbine stage, and
an incompressible flow being assumed.

It in known that the lateral forces of the shaft meal, loss considered up-to-now,
give much more reason for difficulties, the larger the power concentration of these
machines becomes. According to manufacturers' statements, the number of operating prob-
lems with high pressure compressors due to vibretional excitations out of rotational fre-
quency increased more and more, lately, which origin is assumed to be in the gaqp flow
phenomena, but also with stationary gas turbines of higher power, stability problems
arose for the same reason.

In order to increase the availability of the machine units, a move and more exact
and cooplex vibrational calculation is necessary. Hereto, the speed synchronous vibra-
tions (unbalance vibrations) as well as the self excited vibrations out of rotational
frequency must also be taken into consideration. The influence of the selected bear.ng
arrangement (spring and damping coefficients) must also be taken into consideration,
since, in case of plain bearing, oil film instabilities (oil whip) may lead to self
excitation (7, 8). besides of this, the knowledge of the self exiting mechanismmscaused
by flow is decisive, since these modify the stability limits of the rotor (9, 1, 5, 6).
Pollmann and his co-workers (10) make a comparison of the vaLious flow effects causing
vibrations out of rotational frequency.
The purpose of the labyrinth investigations shown underneath is to determine the
flow induced forces appearing in the sealing gaps. The results of the investigations lead
to a lateral force excitation ,oeffivlent of the shaft seal, which, comparable with the
excitation coefficient at the impeller, must also be included in the vibrational cal-
culation. In opposition to the investigations made until now, the influence of the
compressible flow in seals has been inveetigatedseparately, in order to allow a gap-
aration of these effects from the other self exciting causes (10).

LABYRINTH TEsT-FACILITY, TEST PROGRAMME AND EVALUATION

For the investigation of various labyrinth configurations, a new teat-facility,

which operation began in 1976, was conceived at the Institut fOr Thermische Strdmungs-
maschinen of the Stuttgart University. Figure I shows the sectional drawing of the test-
facility for labyrinth*. Design and installation were made together with the firms be-
longing to the "Forachungsveroinigung Verbrtnnungskraftmaschinen eV.0, Frankfurt/Main,
Fuderal Republic of Germany. The picture shows a labyrinth sealing gap (half labyrinth)
with plain shaft and seal tops mortised in the casing. Mach whirling chamber of the
labyrinth casing in provided in circumferential direction with twelve statlual pressure
measuring holes. The flow enters the test seal from above, several inflow assemblies
being available, with which different entry swirls of the seal can be produced. The test
medium is air which is expanded to the ambient conditions. The speed of the rotor is
 9-3

continuously adjustablea (U, Tax- 150 m/s). The rotor eccentricity can be arbitrarily
selected within the range o• the mean gap width (Ar).

The collection of the total of 216 measuring data, pressure measuring data
alone are in number of 188,is made with a measuring data collection computer. A central
processing unit takes over the control of the measuring unit installed at the test
facilities and processes the obtained digital measuring data for pressures, temperatures,
leakage flown through the seal and rotor speed. The data output for the test evaluation
at the main computer can be selected.
The labyrinths to be tested are sketched on figure 2. The following
test parameters can be varieds
The entry conditions before the inlet tooth (pc, cuo).
The eccentricity of the rotor from the concentric position (c - 0)
up to the relative eccentricity c - 0,9.
The velocity and direction of rotation oi the rotor.
The number of whirling chambers (i) of each type of construction.
The geometry of the whirling chamber (Ar, t, h) of each type of
construction.

The investigations on the first two labyrinth configurations (Type a and b) are com-
plated; at the present, the test evaluation for the version b with four and ýao whirling
chambers, respectively, is being made.

Figure 3 shows now typical dimensional pressure distributions in a labyrinth gap

meal with three whirling chambers. The location of the pressure measuring planes in the
chambers is sketched in the diagram. In order to deturmine possible pressure variations
over the depth of the whirling chambers, two measurings on the peripheral line take
place for each chambor (aeal top slip t - 8 mm, preseure measuring holes spacing 4 mm).
Over the periphery of the labyrinth, the pressures are measured in 30 degrees distances)
peripheral angle I - 00 is the position of the widest gap, V n 1800 is the location of
the narrowust gap. The measuring data shown on the diagram are the mwan data of each
of the two measuring holes. The pressure variations of both data are loes than one
percent of the differential pressure acting on the seal.

Parameter of the pressure distribution presentation shown is the relative

admission energy of the flow 9*o. The full lines (point-symbol) are the result of a plain
axial entry flow (to - 0), the stroke curves for a swirl entry flow (CK - 0,22). The
eccentricity is 0,7, the measuring. take place with rotor in stand still condition. The
pressure distribution for the axial entry flow has, in the first chamber, the charac-
teristic distribution according to Lomakin (2), i. a., the highest pressure in the
narrowest gap. This effect is inverse in the second chamber, in the third chamber the
pressure is almost equally distributed over the periphery. For the swirl entry flow the
maximal pressure is located before the narrowest gap, the pressure variations in the
chamber are more evident.

The normal loads on the shaft (R and Q) shown, are the components of the loads
resulting from the pressure distributions. The restoring force R acts against the rotor
eccentricity, i.e., centering, the latoral force Q vertical to the eccentricity. Since
the pressure distributions in the chambers (pa(j)) ore periodic over the rotor pvriphoty,
the evaluation is made possible by means of a Fourier's development, the pressuer prog-
ress being presented by a trigonometrical series. The resulting normal forces are obtained
by addition over all chambers tot

Lateral force Restoring force

27C 2Tr
Q~r -t f py V)sintp tw con tpd%
Rmýr-t-f V1 lip)
liI 0 jai 0
For the pressure integration in the individual chambers, only the terms of the basic fve-
quency are then of interest. The advantage in that small pressure measuring errors, per-
ceptible by means of terms of higher degree, do not appear.

Nowever, for a systematic test evaluation, a relative presentation is more

recommendable. Fig. 4 shows the most important relations. The reference force for the
dimensionless labyrinth mean values of the lateral and restoring forces is as follows.

F| a r • a • t A at (M)

The pressure dimtributions are made dimensionless by means of the static pressure differ-
ence acting on the seal (Ap ). The expansion in the labyrinth is, with this, standard-
ised for all the pressure oSBditiona between 1 and 0. The relative admission energy of
the flow X* into the labyrinlth represents the relation of the flow energy in aircusfer-
ential diriction (+ u - direction of rotation of the rotor) to the flow energy in axial
direction (Ap ). Thl coefficient 20 As designated as dimensi ,. a spring constant,
since it indiflles the rise of the force displacement curve in u.pendence on the relative
admission energy of the flow. The dimensional normal forces on the ahaft a&e then ob-
tained from the product of the specific relative spring constant with the relative rotor

I,'
 9-4

eccentricity and reference force.

FORCES AND LATXRAL FORCE EXCITATION CONSTANTS IN LABYRINTHS WITH SWIRL ENTRY FLOW

The relative pressure distribution is represented in Fig. 5 in dependence on the

swirl entry flow for a constant axial pressure difference of a half labyrinth with 12
whirl chambers. The rotor eccentricity for the three represented tests is constant with
0,8 , The pressure variations in the individual chambers increase with S- rising rele-,
tive admission energy of the flow. Compared with the axial flow (E2 * 0) the maximal
pressure for *",> 0 moves to a point before the narrowent gap, and the rotor load result-
ing from the pressure distribution gives the restoring and theexciting lateral force.
The most important forces occur in the first whirl chamber, then a sudden reduction of
the circumfefential flow takes plaes, the pressure variations after the 7th chamber are
thus detectable only for latge so values,

While Fig. 5 shows the parameter E,: the second decisive inflow coefficient, the
rotor eccentricity, Is made avident in rig. 6. For a 7-chamber labyrinth sealing gap the
pressure distributions for the concentric and two eccentric rotor positions are shown.
In case of concentric shaft position (9 w 0) the pressure on the periphery of the whirl-
ing chamber is constant. Thus, the larger the rotor eccentricity becomes, the more in-
tensive will be the prassure variations, i.e., the resulting lateral and restoring forces
on the shaft.

These force-displacement curves are graphed for the 12-chamber half labyrinth in
Fig.7p the parameter is the relative admission energy of the flow. The mean relative
restoring force A is slightly negative over all 12 chambers, because only the first
whirling chamber has a positive restoring force. Accordingly the mean labyrinth value of
the restoring force varies around meore depending on the number of chambers# and is
therefore of subordinate importance compared with the lateral force under swirling entry.

The lateral forces on the shaft increase linoarly with the rotor eccentricity up
to deflections of c - 0,6 - o,7. As the shaft displacement increases further (though
this does not happen in actual machine operation) the curve flattens out slightly. For
c w 0 the characteristic curvem must pass through the zere. Any zere errors arising can
thus be eliminated by parallel displacement. This is made clear by the curve No - 0,083.

The slope of the lateral force-displacement curves plotted depends only on the
relative admission flow energy, i.e. on the ratio of the entry swirl energy to the total
pressure gradient. This statement is valid regardless of the number of whirling chambers
or the shape of a weal. Fig, 8 shows test results for the labyrinth type 4b' with six
chambers. The mean gap width Ar has been halved compared with the half labyrinth. In
addition a few test points have been plotted with negative rotor eccentricity, in order
to show the linear mere passage of the lateral force-displacement curves.

The slopes of thenecharacteriatics, which ate linear up to a rotor eccentricity

c - 0,6, give the dimensionless lateral force spring coefficient 21 (eo) (relative
labyrinth mean) for the particular labyrinth. The dimensioned lateral force then emerges
as the product of the lateral force spring constant with the eccentricity (c) and refer-
ence force( * r . a . 0). With equal relative admission flow energy 300 the relative
lateral foce greater with a small number of seal chambers than with more chambe*rs,
because the mean is taken over the labyrinth. It can be shown that the pattern of the
lateral force across the individual chambers is influenced only by the relative admission
flow energy, irrespective of the number of whirling chambers in the seal. The marked drop
in the lateral forces tccur: in the first chambers, as is documented also by the pre::ure
distributions shown. The reason lies in the retardation of the circumferential flow by
friction and vortex losses. At the same time, however, the axial voloctiy increases
steadily, so that the chamber-specific ratio of swiri to axial component becomes progres-
ively smaller, i.e. the flow angle to the axial direction become@ ever smaller. On the
labyrinth gap seal investigated it can be observed that after the 10-12th whirling
chamber there are practically no longer any lateral forces due to swirling entry flow,
because the ou component of the flow has been dissipated.

Fig. 9 summarizes the investigations for swirling flow into the labyrinth with
characteristic curvos for various labyrinth types having different numbers of whirling
chambers in eash case. The lateral force spring constant V is plotted gainest the rela-
tive admission energy 3• to double logarithmic scales. Retseen the spring constant
and the admission energy R0 there exists a parabolic relation. The influence of the
number of chambers (a) is taken into account roughly reciprocally. It should be noted
that the symbols entered (a, x) are not individual measuring points but the results of
evaluating the associated lateral force-displaoement characteristics, which in turn
consist of seven different double measuring points for the various eccentricities. This
evaluation route is made clear by Figs. 7 and 8.

The specimen calculation in Fig. 10 shows how the results presented previously
may be used to dimensiox and calculate contactlons seals. The numerical example relates
to a labyrinth seal commonly employed in turbine engineering. As already explained, It
Is sufficient for the calculation to take the first 12 whirling chambers, because after
these no more lateral forces appear due to swirling entry flow into the seal. The statiu
prsmmure gradient on the 12 chambers Is thus p w Vc- P. Apart form this It is im-
portant to know the admission state before the lirst pres ire peak. From these data the
relative admission energy 3* can be calculated. With this ahd the number of chambers

! _
b..' . I I . ... I I • -| I I I I I I I •
 9.5

(a - 12 in the example) the dimenmionless lateral force opring constant can then
be determined from the characteriaLich in Fig. 9. For an assumed shaft displacement
of a - 150 ps, i.e. c a 0,3# the lateral force Q normal to the rotor deflection
then emerges. The dimensional exitation or spring constant figuring in the vibra-
tion calculation is the quotient at lateral force and deflection.

INFLUINCS OF SPEED ON TUR LATIRAL FORCE IXCITATION CONSTANTS IN

LABYRINTHS WITH AXIAL (NOW-SWZRLING) ADMISOION FLOW

The foregoing remarks are confined to the lateral force excitation by the
swirling inflow into the seal. But the Influence of the peripheral shaft speed cannot
be ignored aither. It depends on the magnitude of the circumferential flow component,
which Is determined by the shaft rotation. As a simplification it may be maid that the
au component te a function of the ratio between the retarding surfaces (housing) and the
propelling surfaces (votor) in the labyrinth seal.

Comparison of the labyrinth configurations (Fig. 2) shows that this ratio differs
considerably in the Individual types. For labyrinth type 'b' the ratio Is high, whereas
in type 'c' the cu-propelling surfacas of the rotor predominate. In type 'c' the two
components are equal. The configurations were chosen deliberately to enable the influ-
ence of speed on the Lateral forces in eccentric labyrinth seals to be defined with
general validity. Below the results with a comb groove seal having meal strips mortised
into the rotor are given.

Graphed in Fig. 11 are the laterai force-displacement characteristics of a laby-

rinth with 10 whirling chambers and axial flow admissions constant rotor peripheral
speed and variable axial pressu•s gradient. The sense of rotor direction has been
changed to enable the exact slope of the characteristics C1g) to be determined. Any sero
errors or errors in the seal geometry (c = 0,1 25 om) are eliminaed in this way. Cor-
responding to the peripheral rotor speed of uN - ± 75 i/s illustrated as an example,
further speed tests with reversed rotation were examined for the various rotor eccen-
tricities and pressure differences on the seal.

Comparable with Fig. 9 the lateral force spring constants obtained in this way
yield characteristics for the various peripheral rotor speeds (Fig, 12). The excitation
constant is plotted against the reciprocal differential pressure at the meal to double
logarithmic scales. A parabolic relation exists. If the parallel straight-line charac-
teristics are compared, the linear speed influence of the shaft rotation on the lateral
force spring constant is revealed. Fig. 13 shows this for the six-chamber seal. Since
the moan is taken over the number of chambers in accordance with rig. 4, approximately
the same excitation constants result for equal speed and pressure difference. The slight
Increase in theme values compared with the results In Fig. 12 is due to the preliminary
vortex before the first seal strip caused by rotor friction. With six whirling chambers
this has a greater impact than with ten. Also shown In rig. 13 is the influence of the
location of the static pressure measuring holes in the whirling chambers, in order to
make it clear that no force changes of consequence occur.

In Fig. 14 the excitation constant due to speed has been estimated, as it emer-
gem from the above results under axial (non-swirling) inflow to the seal. The labyrinth
seal has strips mortised into the shaft. The number of chambereand pressure difference
correspond to the example in rig. to, though the mean gap width has been halved. As the
excitation constant duo to rotor rotation in the dimensionless form does not depend on
the number of swirling chambers, for the reference force F3 the total number of chambers
(m - 50) and• the total pressure gradient must be taken into account. Although the later-
al force is lees compared with the calculation affected by swirl (uW o 0 M/l)0 a greater
lateral force excitation constant (low Ap ) emerges in the second spacimen calculation,
because the rotor displacement is only hale as much with the same relative eccentricity,
However this remains true only for the above example, because for other machine para-
meters (large Apgt) there is a very low I6 (uN, Ap4t). When determining the lateral
force spring constant, with constant peripheral opeed the value l/Apmt is decisive.

CONCLUSION

In eccentric labyrinth seals, unequal pressure patterns occur over the ciroum-
ference of the seal due to the circumferential components of the flows in the whirling
chambers. The total force on the rotor resulting from these pressure distributions ham
been determined for various labyrinth configurations. It could be proved that the com.
ponent R of the total force lying in the deflection plane of the rotor is of secondary
importance. On the other hand the lateral force component Q acting perpendLiularly to
the rotor deflection constitutes a vibration-exciting factor in the rotor dynamics
Which must be taken into account, As the investigations show, lateral force excitation
constants can be developed for the vibration calculation. In the precentation form
adopted, a distinction has been made between the causes of the circumferential flow.
For the swirling flow into the labyrinth the lateral force spring constant should be
repressented systematically ao a function of therelative admission energy E4, regardless
of the labyrinth type. In comparable form the influence of the shaft rotation on the

j lateral force excitatLon constant may be demonstrated. Future work ought to supplement
these results so that the expected lateral and restoring forces with eccentric shaft
location for labyrinth confIgurations to be desLgned can be calculated already at the
 draft design stage. Who resultinhg lateral force excitation constants will thahn al.low
better prediction of the vibration behaviour of turbomachines.

(1) TRomCis, . ntbeoclain fTrieRtr u

to Steam Leakage in the Clearances of the
Sealing Glands and the Bucket*.
Bulletin Sciantifique, A.J.H. 71, 1958,
p.1039-1063,
(2) Lomakin, L.A.s mostimmen der kri~timchan Drehxahl don Pumpen-
liufewe unter Bardaknichtigung der Xr~fts, die
in Diahtungen entatshen.
NCichgiU, $and 5, 1958.
(3) Doom# N.s Dernedde, 9. Der MinfluB von otutenabdichtungen auf die
and Eandwarker, 'rh.v kritioche Drehnahi von Kesselupeiuepumpen.
VDI-Norichte, Hr. 113, 1967.
(4) Alford, 3.8.. Protecting Turbomachi~nory from Self-Exited4
Rotor Whirl.
Transactions AIM, J. of Sng. f. Powers
October 1965, pp. 333-344.
(5) Urlich., K.s Duroh Spaltutrdmungen hervorgerufene Quer-
krlfte an don Lhufern thermischer Turbo-
Mcechinen.
Dios. TU Mndflhen, 1975.
(6) Wohlrab, N.a Xxperimontelle Xrmittlunq spaltatrdmungsbe-
dingter Krifte an Turbinenstufen und deren
Niafluft auf die Laufotabilitlt ainfacher
Rotoren.
Diuu.TU Mdnchon, 1975.
(7) Kollmann, K. and Radial-Qleitlager mit beliebiger Schuler-
Iohaffrath, 0.s spaltform.
Notortechnische Seitacbrift 29, 1968, 1o
pp. 401-400.

(9) GaLenicke, a.$. Uxperimentalle Xrmittlunq der statischen

und dynamimahen Migensohaften von Gleit-
lagern fOr schnellaufende Notion. linflud
der Schmiersjialtgoometris und der Legarbr.Jito.
vDi-rortachrltttaborichts, Roth* 1, Hw. 22, 1970.
(9) Pollmann, 8.. Btabi~litflt amner in Gleitiogern rotiewenden
Wells Nit spalterregung.
Vol-rortachrittmbarichte, Roihe 1, Hr. 15, 1969,.
(10) Pollmann, 2., rlow Zxcited Vibration, in High-Preecure Turbines
Iohwerdtfogor, M. (Oteam Whirl).
and Termdhien, N. u Turbomachinery Developments in steam and Gas
Turbines AIMS, Gas Trwbine Division Atlanta
Georgia, 1977, pp. 76-97.

*Thank. are due to the roruohungoveroinigung Verbrennungakwaftmaschinan e.V.,

Vrankfurt/NAin, redermi Republic of Germany for their assistance in the investigations
reported here. The research project in being oarried by a team comprising the partic-
ipating turbomachinery makers In the rederal Republic of Germany And Swituerland.
 9-7

N ~Flaw Directlwo*

otur and easing

LO ninthIlypee a) 0) 134e Toolng Methoods:
Static Press re- 4orbsed Seat Strips
M~easuring ;:ft;1 11 1 in the Casing
in heWhrlngSmoothRor
Chambers ma 12 7 3,2l
1b Rotor Ar .4smm

Rou.sseed Casing
Mortised Rotor

1-Compensating Srp
intl Yhrodedand the Rotor
the~~~~I ICLas.lcg thecotitt

TetIlng Parameters of the Labyrinth:

__________Geometry lkrh~t)

E!1_ Teting Facility fr Labyrinths Fiqj2 Tested Lobyrinth Patterns

[bar) 0 0 it's
Angl 13.
0erphra

4?*-
 Relative l'revisure oIly

NO.R
P. Relative Admision-

AF Energy of the Flow

Reference orcre .7,1--

mt'p, car
Lateral Force Restoring Force

Relative Load R;.". R

f,.0.1" VON.I. V;./m .. R
Nondimonsionol Spring 0 ds1/:
__ _ __
Riuidl"u)d
__ __
Coefficient _____ ___
Dimensioned Force$ 6 - F I R.R*tui'c(j
...
IN)
In the I I_... _k__

FjjA Calculation of the Lateral and Restoring Force

.0 =P 1,. -

,- .. uw.,.% .

-4-,,4-" -,T,

... ------ 71
S0 0.061•ei=
0 C0 tll

0~ ~~7 I°Oes0 '

---w-,-M 02
Peripheral Angle * FW10warl Angle I

E!. Pressure Distribution In an Eccentric fL1R• ginh bpLwetwen the Rotor..Eocentricity

ynth 1-m x,13) for Differen~t,
Hq, -Lo MrJ~ and the Pressiure Distribution In a
'Relative Admiuslori - En~rgJlas of the Flow
-- 12 H y n
yr.-th m
 9.9

P. / 0 Cli

0F
57 75 0,078
0,795 too 0,065

I- 0 ~ m$
inn. Uwe mh
mu1
N.0'
Ito ~ -

o lh~iThLoA 1 to __________gel-__

-u . j s5'

V actrdl

A A" CLO
4

0~"I le A2
Oe .
01 C

Fig.7 Reatv Latra etrnoc -n 1, oc-ChrateisicEcnrc

fo af-ayit saFnto fo ayit

"th Eccentricit
Rotor's.Ut~lI

ms". s
-12 ~ U 065
lollmw

n ~~~a
is 0SMIS.b
~P~fu. 0 moilg

E1..
kh~mtss~o-IawIS Ni

Jg jgafil'o t far twoeenowkhwCluato:

FlWc~l o h
Labvrlnj
ae Fuct~on ofthe Reltive
Pattere Lwer' M
Forc u) oEtr wr
A~tmiuion
nerg atte Flw in6 cetrcHl Lbffj
 9-10

IUWs1 75rnf
IS-'- - eS

m N -

... . .. .. - | o

"• I• •o•S% I~k

R4 toi (L ow.o1a omiua Pr sr WIN XI

Ecicentricity cI I-) Ilr~l0itrrta!Plslrl'~ rSN

591 Lateral Force Characteristics of a Eý,1 Lateral Force Spring Coefficientp

Labyrinth with Axial Flow Admission and for .DifferentIShaft Rotations
Revwrse of the Shaft Rotation with Axial Flow ," "Mission in
_the Labyrinth mIra0)

1 1135 bon

't' ~ '/i . o,SM

II.. • Cihamibrs
go
r .A25- -0

I) a i I1M) bur
- frethe Labroeficinth(uO-. I W barat
e•0 We•1

.M.. U-. 0 7%6 MN fia l ol

am~~ o ~~~ AGemo*
i VAU&0S
.. . m- " WI

Rvnruoion ofthe Sa R with Aal Flow N

0.4 Hn VOW of Ii Old

I both pl n.
0 u1i
71 PO C l. 43I

llnlil---I I ~0 •l,I i
-. - ",• 0 41Ji
0 l 14 I bI
i ' R~~
" fi,p ri cl ODiff ovillulp r'es sure • Mt.
l , 1l.6,0tl 0) N

Fg1 ILatlal Farce Spri__ng Coefficetsh 14 Fxaple for the Calculation of thei
for Difforeri Mhalt Rotai!ons Lateral Force due Jo Shaft...Rotottlon
with Axial Flow Admission in (tw•o mis) In an, Ecceintric- Labyrinth
the Labyrinth lra,6
 9-11

DISCUSSION

I.A.van den Braenbusschie, Belgium

In your paper you have studied parameters influencing the forces in a stationary (non-swirling) case. However there
is also a controversial and apparently very important parameter in the case of a swirling rotor, namely the difference
in clearance between the inlet and the outlet of the seal 4 . Have you done or do you intend any measurements about
this parameter, or could you comment on his influence,

Authors' Reply
We havo also studied the different parameters by rotation of the rotor. These results are reported in this paper, but
only for the second type of labyrinth. The investigation of the labyrinth gap with a smooth rotor has shown no
noticeable exciting lateral forces by axial flow admission and rotation of the rotor.
Measurements with variable clearance between the inlet and the outlet of the seal (two fins, one chamber) are not
done until now, In operating turbomachines this type of seal is normally not used and therefore it is not planned
to test this parameter in our next test program in the near future. The Influence of the variable clearance has to
be investigated due to the two reasons of the exciting forces, The lateral force, induced by the entry swirl, is
increasing with the leakage stream by the same entry conditions. The effect Is just opposite by the lateral force
due to the rotor rotation without entry swirl. The connection of these two phenomena will give the comparison
with Reference 4. In contradication to Reference 4 the influence of the clearance variation between inlet and
outlet is described by Spurk and Keiper.*

D.A.Campbell, UK
Referring to the Authors' Figure 2, the test configuration (a) has the sealing fins on the outer static member with
a smooth rotor. This arrangement Is not normally used in aero-gas turbines and it would therefore be useful to
repeat the tests with the fins on the rotor and a smooth stator. This would allow comparison with configuration
(b) to determine the effect of steps in the outer member.

Authors' Reply
It is planned to test these configurations too, We expect to get the same lateral forces for the investigations with.
entry swirlstudies
But these and without rotation
will show, that of
thethe rotor, when
influence of thethe geometry
rotor of the
speed for this seal
newistype
equalwill
to be
thevery
typeimportant.
(a) of Figure 2.

H.Zimmumann, Germany
Have you done theoretical investigations in parallel to your very elaborate measurements?

Authors' Reply
In the first step the Institute has done theoretical investigations about the numerical calculation of the flow in
eccentric smooth gap seals. At the moment parallel to our experimental studies further theoretical work is done.
It is possible to calculate the lateral force, but more information is needed on the coefficients for the various types
of labyrinths. We want to get these values by our tests. Then a precise theoretical calculation of the exciting
forces in staling gaps can be pei formed.

H.Ztm2nue nn
Do you know of any damage done to a turbomachine because of this effect?

Authons' Reply
Yes, some instability problems, due to these effects, are known, In Reference 6 a steam turbine is described with
leakage flow excited vibrations. By disturbing the entry swirl in the seal and the circumferential flow In the
chambers of the labyrinths, it was possible to operate the machine without vibrational problems. The same
effects are observed in turbo-compressors with high power density.t The damping of the machinery system was
going negative before reaching normal speed by exciting vibrational forces due to the lateral forces in sealing gaps.

H.L.Stocker, US
How does the shape of the seal cavity affect your results?

Authors' Reply
Until now It is not possible to determine this effect exactly. We suppose, that th%) height of the chamber In
counection to the clearance of the sealing fins Is most important. With constant clearance the exciting lateral
force will increase by smaller height,
JHSpurk and R.Kaiper: Selbsterregte Schw/ngungon bel Turbomnschinen Infolge der Labyrinthutrbmung, Ingpnleur.Archlv. 43 (1974),
pp.127.135.
t W.Alcher, YJenny and H.Rodunar: UJntersuohungen an Turbokompresoren: Rotorachwingungen, SchAufelichwinguiigen, Versuche ,nit
schweren Gausn. Suzer.Formdhunpheft 1978, pp.1 1.18.
 THE CONTRIBUTION OF DYNAMIC X-RAY TO GAS TURBINE AIR SEALING TECHNOLOGY
BY
P.A.E. Stewart and K.A. Brasnett
ADVANCED PROJECTS DEPARTMENT
ROLLS-ROYCE LIMITED
P.O. BOX 3
FILTON
BRISTOL

SUL__ARY
Rolls-Royce have developed a Radiographic Technique to study the behaviour
of Components particularly seals, during the full range of Gas Turbine operation.
This technique has proved very powerful in its application to a wide range of
engines, particularly during transient conditions.

INTRODUCTION
Historically, the measurement of air seal clearance, particularly at the tips of
compresuors or turbines, has been carried out using abradable probes. The data re-
trieved from such devices is very limited. More recently work has been carried out
to determine the proximity of the rotating component by building a sensor into the fixed
component. Measurements of capacitance can be calibrated to give clearance measurement.
Another device in the Fenlo type probe used at Rolls-Royce which uses a motor drive to
set a spark gap between a wire probe and the blade tip, An alternative is the optical
type of probe using laser light which may be stroboscopically actuated to impinge on
selected blades, The reflected light is collected by an electro-optic device and the
data is processed to give clearance information.

All these techniques require engine modification and special engine builds, they
are also difficult to install in many instances.

DEVELOPMENT OF DYNAMIC RADIOGRAPHY

The application of high energy X-radiography has been pioneered by Rolls-Royce to

provide more detailed studies of component flextures and two dimensional clearances not
possible with standard devices. It has also been a philosophy of our work that it should
be possible to use the equipment on any engine for problem identification and study with-
out special modification. The provision of such a capability furnishes us with an ex-
cellent front line diagnostic instrument. (Ref.1).

The development toward this capability commenced, with low energy (300 KV) X-ray
equipment, flash pulsed X-ray equipment of nanospoond duration and medium energy (2.3
MeV) and radioactive isotopes of medium energy up to 2 MeV and limited X-ray output
(12 rade/hr). This early work showed the necessity for a higher X-ray energy level of
up to 8 Megavolts (optimum for thick steel sections) and an intense continuously pulsed
output of X-rays. It had earlier been supposed that nanosecond duration exposures were
necessary to arrest the motion of components within turbine engines. However, the experi-
ments with isotopes showed that the image did not substantially suffer degradation due
to movements including vibration, and therefore long exposures were acceptable.
The experience thus gained led to the specification of a radiographic electron
linear accelerator. This is a pulsed X-ray source with a pulse repetition frequency
range between 50 and 500 pulses per second, Stroboscopic techniques may be used in
which sensed engine rotational speeds trigger single pulses to build up images of
specific components.

Following satisfactory trials in September, 1970, on the Olympus 503 where tie
movement of H.P. Compressor' Labyrinth seals were clearly seen and H.P. Turbine'Root
Seals (Fig.l), a Radiation Dynamics Limited 'Super X1 linac (Fig.2) was purchased with
an X-ray output of 1500 rmm and energy level of 8 MeV. This equipment has been exten-
sively used at Rolls-Royce on over 20 ,0ifferent engine projects, with about 70 installa-
tions, Specially prepared Linac Test, Sites have been provided at the Main Work Centres
at Nottingham, Coventry, Cheltenham and Bristol serving all Aero Engine Division Centres
and the Industrial and Marine Gas Turbine Division.
As a result of this activity over 18,000 radiographs are now available for detailed
analysis covering all phases of operation of the engines under study including steady
states uand a variety of transient engine meanoeuvres.
Radiographs can be producod with exposure times of tenths to tens of seconds,
providind a time averaged tunge of a specific engine condition. A very large number
of such radiographs would be required to cover a full enginr, operating envelope. It
is therefore necessary 'a priori' to determine a limited number of conditions in an
engine testing cycle when exposures should be made.

Thus a qualitative system was devised using X-ray television (The Delcalix) which
provided a constant flow of images with an effective exposure duration of 1/25th second
 10-2

(Fig.3). This capability allows the identification of the most important conditions
which may then be recorded by film iadiography for detailed anp.lysis. The total
Radiography system is shown schematically in Figure 4. (Ref,2).

it is our practice to first radiograph the engine when 'cold' and static, thus
providing an image which serves as a reference. Any subsequent radiographs made with
the engine running are compared with this cold static and the relative movements of the
components are determined, This technique assumes that the radiographic parameters are
maintained constant for the two exposures, therefore quality control requires consider-
able attention.

In the initial stages of the work, single radiographswere obtained and measurements
were made using a scale and light box, It was found that there was a high degree of
subjectivity and the technique was not being best served. A policy was, therefore,
adopted to develop the previousli, little known and used techniques of X-ray photogrammetry
and to centralise the analysis ot the images obtained into a single calibrated group of
analyst using specialised equipment.

ANALYSIS OF RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGES

To be a useful tool to the Gas Turbine Engineer, X-ray imaging must provide two
levels of information. Firstly, it is required to provide a qualitative 'feel' for the
problem. Such 'feel' can be essil.y obtained by viewing the images on light boxes, over-
head viewers,comparators or video monitors. Secondly, it is necessary to obtain quant-
itative diita on the phenomena observed, and also to look for dimensional changes that
are too small for qualitative assessment.

In Rolls-Royce a number of methods are used to quantify component movements from

radiographic images. The most simple method utilizes co-ordinate measuring machines,
low magnification optics ard skilled photogrammetrists. A 'multi-reading' technique
is adopted and statistical programmes used to calculate an average result and a con-
fidence interval. Despite the apparent subjectivity of this method it provides reliable
data with a typical 95% confidence interval of 0,10 - 0,15 mm. However, many problems
require greater accuracy or a less subjective approach for difficult radiographs. A
custom made video microdensitometer has been developed to provide a very accurate density
profile across the area of interest (Fig,5). Suitable algorithms are used to define a
measurement position within the profile, A confidence interval of 0,05 mm can be obtained
by this method.
Images showing very low contrast can be improved by Digital Image Processing or
Optical Processing Techniques, However, care is needed to avoid converting artifacts
into recognisable 'engine components.' Thus a range of methods are available to produce
dimensional data from radiograohic images, and a further range of computing facilities
are available to assist the engineer in interpretation of this data.

APPLICATION OF RADIOGRAPHY TO SEALS

Dynamic Radiography can be used to investigate virtually all seal areas of gas
turbines without modification. For this reason, the minimum of 'a priori' knowledge
is required with respect to the components to be investigated. A development engine
experiencing difficulty can be radiographed within days', and various areas investigated
until the problem is identified. Of course, there are limitations, the technique is
primarily used to investigate only one two-dimensional plane (normally a vertical
centre-line), and only data on mechanical matching of components is obtained. A very
necessary part of any investigation is, therefore, to correlate radiographic data with
that from conventional instrumentation and engine strip information.

The main influence on mechanical behaviour of components can be broadly categorized

as thone that are speed dependant and those that are temperature dependant with a
corresponding thermal response time. These categories can be separately investigated
by svitable choice of engine conditions to be monitored, For example, short duration
exposures can be used to investigate speed dependant conditions during a fast accelera-
tion or deceleration, Longer exposure times can be used during slow handling or in the
stabilisation period after a change in condition. The X-ray television system is utilized
as previously described in order to deffne the best conditions at which to produce radio-
graphs.
Large format radiographs are used to obtain the greatest information from one
J exposure. For example, a rnniograph of a turbine tip seal will also yield data on all
associated disc seals and guide vanes, A fixed datum is also used to allow the measure-
ment of 'absolute' movements. For example, the diametral change of static and rotating
members uf seals can be calculated in addition to the change in seal clearance.

Labyrinth air and oil seals can be readily imaged in most arsas of the engine (Figure
6). Good data can be obtained on axial and radial movements of both static and rotating
components. This data can be used to outain optimum build setting of the seal, and also
for profiling of the static component if large axial movements occur. If the rxial move-
ment is too great then the source can be identified and a solution devised. Difficulty
is only experienced when the metal path thickness is over 250 mm as can be the situation
when seals are inboard of discs, large flanges or test bud structure.

JI ] [ I I I I I
 Shrouded blades are radiographically similar to labyrinth seals and only on larger
engines does the metal path thickness become a severe restriction (Figure 7). On air
cooled blades additional information is available on seal plates, pre-swirl rings or
cover plates. Guide vane and root seal movements can also be observed.

Unshrouded blades present a different problem, the metal path thickness of the
blade is small relative to total thickness to be penetrated. For this reason, it is
not possible to reliably image the tip clerrance. However, a close approximation to
tip clearance changes can be obtained by measuring blade platform to inner casing
dimensions (Fig.8). The unknown dimensional change of the blade aerofoil can be cal-
culated with reasonable accuracy,

A number of other phenomena are worthy of note in relation to seal performance.

Shaft lift on squeeze film bearings and shaft whirl can both be monitored radiographically.
Casing distortion can also be observed by changing the orientation of the X-ray source.
Bearing loads can be estimated by measuring deflection of support structures, and seal
support diaphragms can be used in a similar manner to estimate pressure loads.

A CASE HIS70RY
This particular radiographic exercise is used to illustrate many of thepoints
discussed in previous sections. The problem concerns an industrial engine that experi-
enced seizure following an emergency shutdown from full power. The high pressure spool
remained seized for between four and six hours. Initially it was thought the casing
was cooling quickly and clamping the blade tips, which were not released until the discs
had also cooled. However, an increase in tip clearance had no effect on the seizure
characteristics, and a decision was made to use radiography to diagnose the cause.

A number of seals were identified as being potential causes of seizure, including

all blade tips (Fig.9). A full programme of radiography was completed, including engine
handling and a simulated emergency shutdown. The radiographs were analysed, and the
results given as orbital plots. Figures 10 and 11 show the results obtained at tile turbine
and compressor tips, clearly indicating no contact during the six hour cooling period.
Figure 12 shows the result from the H.P. Turbine front disc seal, indicating a possible
light engagement for a limited period. The results from the H.P. Turbine rear stub shaft
seal however indicates the main cause of seizure. Figure 13 shows a radial tightening
of the seal And a large axial movement, causing heavy engagement of the seal honeycomb. 14
Consideration of results from the radiographs of engine handling clearly showed that the
honeycomb causing seizure was not contributing to seal performance. Profiling of the
seal could therefore be carried out with confidence that the problem could be overcome
without reducing engine performance.

From initiation of this test it took just one month to demonstrate a successfully
modified engine. A bonus was also available in terms of a detailed knowledge of every
seal in the H.P. spool.

CONCLUSION

Gas turbine manufacturers continually strive for higher efficiency with lower main-
tenance costs - the dream of every operator, This target of improved efficiency leads
to higher compression ratios, higher turbine entry temperatures and a requirement for
improved sealing efficiency. The task of the designers is thus becoming increasingly
difiicult, particularly in the prediction of transient response.

Dynamic Radiography provides an ideal empirical feedback of engine mechanical

behaviour. This information can be used to refine theoretical predictions, and to
'tune' each seal during eujine development. The unexpected problem can also be identified
with great speed, and nufficiont data collected to enable rapid solution.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1. Rolls-Royce for permission to publish the paper.

2. AERE - NDTC Harwell for assistance and consultancy on radiographic technique in the
co-operi~tive research and devolopment programme,

3. Staff at Advanced Projects Department - Test Operations, Rolls-Royce Limited, Aero

Division - Bristol.

4. Staff at Dowty Fuel Systems Test Site at Staverton, Chelteaham,

REFERENCES
1. "Engine Testing using advanced techniques" - P.A.E. Stewart
The Aerkoautical Journal, August, 1975, Vol.79, No.776, Pp 331-343.

2. "High Energy X-Ray TV of Gas Turbines on Test"- PA.E. Stewart

Chartered Mechanical Engineer, April, 1978, Vol.25, No.4 Pp.45.
10-4

Fig.1I These sections from two radiographs show clearly that a turbine %,Cealdiwn~gagc
axially at one engine condition, althou~gh normal at another.
The shift can he measured accurately

Fi. 2 "Super X- mounting 4 degrcc of' freldm 'onoi t

 ioi

kUMW"M

LKM~~ AWI I

I~~~~ek ~ u~ AMT FMWSU

momUAM

IN w
~ ~~
Fla,4 ~ ~ ~ sse
rdogah ~ ~ ~
Rol-Ryohiheniydyai R
(or ~~ nta~ ~ gstrin~ ~ O fxt"n
 Fig.S X-ray plictogramimetry equipmnto

Pig 6 Section from a radiograph of a labyrinth air seal I

 10-7

Pig,7 Section from a radiograph of a shrouded turbine tip seal

Fig.8 Section from a radiograph Illustrating unshrouded blades ina compressor

Li
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DISCUSSION

H.L.Stocker, US
How do you approach the problem of circumferential variation in clearance such &3case ovalization?

Author's Reply
Mounting the x-ray source at different trangentlal positions allows variation in circumferential clearance to be
quantified. Additional information is also available from correlation of engine strip data with x-ray results.

RA,Hartley, United Kingdom

Is it posible to investigate oil/air leakage across seals by the introduction of radioactivt isotopes into the oil/air?

Author's Reply
The only possibility for investigating oil/air with x-rays is to dramatically increase the attenuation of the oil/air.
This would be the equivalent of the medical barium meal. However, it Is not practical to ue this technique.

G,W.Fairbslmn, United Kingdom

When obtaining the radiograph of a shrouded turbine tip shown in Figure 7, what was the thickness of metal
penetrated?

Author's Reply
The metal path thickness was approximately 175 mm. Thicknesses of up to 300 mm of steel can be penetrated.

D.K,HIennecke, Germany
Do the xrays penetrate the caglne parallel or in a cone4ike way? If the latter is true, what is the cone angle and
what are the erron resulting?

Author's Reply
The x-rays are emitted u a cone of radiation having an Included anole of up to 17'. This results in all radiographs
having a geometric magnification, dependent on &ourceto object and object to film distance, It is also necessary to
align the beam to the subject under investigation. Aie" out of alignment display obliquity effects which would
result In errors of measurement.

"Ih11

!!ih
-4!,
 :'• I1,.1

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON HIGH SPEED DOUBLE MECHANICAL SEALS

by
2 3
Enrico Bollina , Corrado Casci , Ennio Macchi
Istituto di Macchine - POLITECNICO DI MILANO
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 - 20133 MILANO - ITALY

1
Research Engineer
2
Director, Professor of Thermal and Hydravlic Machines
3
professor of Special Power Plants

SUMMARY
A facility for testing high speed mechanical seals is described. Its main features are:
(1) the possibility of continuosly varying the rotating speed up to 60,000 rpm; (2) the
possibility of independently selecting the flow rate, the pressure and the nature of the
sealing and cooling fluid; (3) the seal power consumption is accurately measured by means
of a force transducer.
The performance of a number of double face mechanical seals having different geometries
was investigated on this rig. Remults concerning the mechanical losses and the leakage
flow rates of these meals under -6arious operating conditions are presented and discussed.

INTRODUCTION
The adoption of face seals is undoubtely attractive in a wide range of turbomachinery ap
plications, their main advantage being the low rate of fluid which leaks through their
faces (often in the range of a few cubic centimetres per hour or less). When gases or va
pours are to be sealed, the so-called "double face seal" can be used. It comprises two
single face seals, between which a sealing and coolant liquid is injected, usually at a
pressure larger then the one of the fluid to be sealed. While face seals today are mass-
produced for low speed applications, their use in high speed turbomachinery is still li-
mited. Actually, when the rubbing speed increases, several problems appear:
1) the leakage flow rate increases; according to the Mayer correlation |4j, represented
in Pig. I, if the sliding speed is increased from 2 to 100 m/s, the le kage rate will
be multiplied by a factor of about 5001
2) the power consumption increases, mainly
because of high turbolent losses occur-
ring in the coolant; for instance, an
example is quoted in Ref. IlI where a
seal running at about 18,000 rpm (rub- 1000
bing speed 85 m/s) has a 15 kW power con
sumption due to turbulent losses;
3) high wear rates can take placel further
more, heat cracks can damage the seals7
The theoretical study of high speed face
seals seems unfortunately quite difficult,
because of the interrelatiormhips occurring
between thermal and fluid dynamic phenomena.
Reliable design methods, accounting for ooo
lant fluid and face materials properties,a E
re not available. .f 10
At C.N.P.M. (National Center for Research
on Propulsion and Energetics), research on
closed-cycle power plants, operating with
various working fluids,is going on since
several years. In most of the fore seen ap-
plications for these engines, the availabi- 1
lity of reliable high speed seals is a cru-
cial point.
Double face mechanical seals, using the fluid
working in the er cycle also as sealing
and coolant fluid, are particularly attrac-
tive for these applications. It was there- .1 . * i ili*1ii a,,iii

fore decided to carry out an experimental re I 10 100 M0

search on these seals.
In this paper, the test rig built for thin U mIs
investigation is described, and some results pie. I - 0=4iaftmeloal b6ha0e rote
concerning a number of double seals of va-
rious geometry are presented and dtscuSSed. Vt. te sluding spe.

DESCRIPTXON OF TEST FACILITY

In designing the test rig, a number of requ.

I . ..,,- '
I 1-2

rements was taken into account:

a) the seals should be tested at varioue speeds of revolution, up to very high speeds;
b) the pressure, temperature and flow rate of the sealing and coolant fluid should be in
dependently varied;
c) various sealing media should be tested;
d) the power consumption of the seal must be meanured with good accuracy;
e) leakage rates, averaged on a proper amount of time, must be determined.
Among the various considered solutions, the one represented in Fig. 2 was chosen.

16

,6

I- oil mist lubrication feeding tank

2'-oil mist lubrication discharge tank
3- multistage centrifugal pump
4- sealing fluid loop flexible pipes
5- water cooled heat exchanger
6- membrane pressurizer
7- pump by-pass loop
8- supersonic air
9- compressed impulse turbine
nozale
i
10- ocopressed air main feeding
11- nozzle flexible feeding pipes
12- turbine discharge
13- calibration weight
14- calibration graduated arm
15- rpm magnetic pick-up
16- flow rate measuring diaphrum

Fig. 2- Test rig plant.

 As shown in the figure, the seal to be tested is mounted overhanging a shaft supported
by two couples of angular contact, spring pre loaded, oil mist lubricated, bearings; the
shaft is driven by a compressed air impulse turbine, fed by six supersonic nozzles; the
sealing fluid loop comprises a multistage centrifugal, pump, a water--cooled heat exchan-
ger and a membrane pressurizer, the pressure and the flow rate of the fluid circulating
in the seal are onMtrolled by means of a by-pans loop and a throttle valve. By acting on
the air pressure at the turbine inlet power input variable from 0 up to 20 kW can be set,
with revolution speeds up to 60,000 rpm.

ILI
1
3

Fig. 3 -Shaft mechanical arrangement.

As shown in Fig. 3, the bearings and the seal casings are independently mounted on ball
bearings; their rotation is counteracted by two force transducers, which therefore measu
re the reaction torques caused by the losses in bearings and seals. It is believed that-
this direct me-hanical measurement is more precise and practical than heat balance measu
rements. The system can be easily calibrated under operating conditions by simply apply:
ing known weights on a graduated arm (see Fig.2).
It was found that it is necessary to repeat this calibration for every variation of the
sealing pressure, which has an influence on the elastic ruaction torque exerted by the
pipes of the sealing loop.
The speed of revolution is measured by a magnetic pick-up, visible in Fig. 3.
Eventually, the leakage rate is measured by collecting the leaked fluid in a given amount
of time in a graduated tank.
All measured dt.ta (reaction torques, rpm, sealing fluid temperature and pressure at seal
inlet and outlet, sealing fluid flow rate, etc.) are sent to a data acquisition system
and then computer processed. Controls of power absorption measurements are systematical-
ly performed, by comparing the mechanical power (torque x angular velocity) to the sea-
ling fluid thermal power (flow rate x enthalpy increase across the seal).
The teut rig was completed in July 1976. Since then, it haa satisfactorily operated for
more than one thousand hours of tests.

DESCRIPTION OF TESTED SEALS

A number of mechanical seals were designed and built, with the cooperation of an Italian
firm operating in the field. The various seals arrangements are represented in the follo-
wing series of figures, while the salient gAometric data are given in Table 1.
All seals are double, i.e. they have two con-tct faces, separated by a room filled by a
liquid which has the triplp function of lubriating, sealing and cooling the sliding
faces.
The seals A, 8 and C are "axial"; the sliding faces are at different axial positions and
operate at the samn speed. Being symmetric, they don't exert any axial thrust on the shaft.

A
VTha seals D, E tnd F are "radial"; tho sliding faces are at the ame axial position and o
perate at- d.fferent speeds.
 11-4

-fi

,•I ~The seal A is made by a rotating disk, mounted floating on the shaft by m~ans of two o-L
i l rings; the two sliding faces on the disk are of tungsten carbidej the stationary elements
S; are made of graphite and spring loaded. The sealing liquid in brought in and out by meang
of the holes shown in Fig.4, and the turbulence chamber is in the outer part of the seal.
•
JI rotating disks, moulnted floating on the shaft$ the stationary gra-
Seal B is -aade by two
phlte elements are central and the turbulence charraer in in the inner part of the seal,at
lower radii than in solution A. (See F'ig. 5)
•
:
:q
j lil IIll l IIl l Il I II
~Seal C is identical to seal A, w.ith the only exception being the holes and the radial
grooves in the graphite elemerhts, represented in Fig.6.
Seal D 121 is made of a stationary graphite disk with six holes which bring the sealing
fluid in An annular groove, which substitutes the turbulence charuber of the previous sealsi
the rotating disk in axially floating and its contact pressure is governed by the spring$
load and by the hydraulic pressure of the sealing fluid, which acts on the back surface
of the ring. (See Pig. 7)
z Seal E is oimilar to D except for the outer diameter of the back surface of the rotating
, disk, which is larger, thus yielding a larger hydraulic load* Eventually, seal F has a
floating stationary disk, mpring and hydraulically !oaded; the rotating disk 1•,8similar
to the previous one, but doesn't have spring*. (see Figs.8-9)
TABLE I
SEAL SPRING XXTERFACE HYDRAULIC ARASIIGFCE NEXL
EAN
LOAD SURFACE SURFACE AE SLDNFAE TRISROUGIVIEUS
(N•) (MM2) (M2) RATIO (Pm)

& (Fig. 4) 55 465 506 1.09 Tungsten carbide/graph. .05

B (Fig. 5) 55 226 95 .42 Tungst-en carbide/graph. .05

SC (Fig. 6) 55 369 410 1.11 Tungsten carbide/graph. .05

D (Pig. 7) 75 471 200 .42 Nl,.Resist/graphite .t

8 (Pig. 8) 75 471 471 1.O NJ-Roxslt/qraphite .1

P (Fig. 91 75 471 483+331 1.73 NI-Rasist/grAphita .I

 liZ. A-A

rig. 6-Geometry of goal C. rig. 7- COOAt*7 of WSV D.

-IM

rig. a - Geometry of Maml 3. rig;.) - eeqof "&sI r.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
A number of tests were performed for all the above described seals, at various operating
conditions (rpm, pressure and flow rate of senling fluid). All tests were carried out
with water as sealing fluid. An investigation of the influence of the properties of the
fluid is planned in a future series of tests. Just the "overall performance" of the seals
was investigated, i.e. the power consumption and the leakage flow rate.
During the tests: the sealing fluid pressure was varied from I to 8 bars over the atmo-
sphere; a lower sealing pressure was kept for tests on seals D, E and F in order to limit
the axial thrust on the shaft. Tho whole range of speeds of revolution was investigated,
from 0 up to the speed at which the "opening" of the sealing faces occurred. The flow
rates of the sealing fluid across the seals were in a range of 50 - 500 1/h; however, it
was recognised that this parameter exerts only a minor influence on both losses and leak
ages, provided it is sufficiently high to avoid the fluid overheating.
1) Maximum speed of revolution
As said above, for all the seals the "opening" of the faces oceurred at some speed of re
volution: this speed varied in the 20,000 4 40,000 rpm range for "axial" seals, and in
the 10,000 ; 20,000 rpm range for "radial" seals.
This "opening" is probably caused by the large increase of the Interface pressure occur-
ring at high speeds of revolutionj the sealing pressure increase delays but doesn't a-
void this process. For "radial" seals, the variation of the area ratio from seal Z to
seal F yields just a small improvement (see Fig. 20).
It is to be said that for the "radial" seals, the axial thrust produced some shaft vibra
tions, which probably alter the phenomenon; modifications on the shaft arrangement to
avoid this problem are already planned.
2) Power consumption
Results concerning the power cosumption of the various seals are given in Figs.10-17 in
terms of total friction torque.
The obtained results suggest a number of considerations, which are given in the x llo-
wingi

A large increase of torques in experienced at high soeed of revolution, due to turbulen

ca losses in the sealing fluid caused by the rotation;
b) U.2eo H 1 L.RE!SEur!
In general an increase of sealing pressure yields an increase of friction torqueI howe
ver, the relationship between these two quantities is a rather complex function to be
predicted; for example, for seal B, the increase from 6 to 8 bars produces a torque do-
crease (Fig. 15):

- the "axial" seals have a power consumption larger than the "radial" ones; this is pro-
bably due to the better lubrication obtained by tie last ones:
- the different layout of seals A and B doesn't seem to have an importint influence on
losses (Fig. 13): however, a lower increase of losses at high rpm can be recognized for
seal B, having an inner and amllior turbulence chamber;
- the presence of grooves has a marked beneficial effect on losses, as shown in Fig.141
this can be explained by the Mayer theory Ill ; the power consumption at low speed is mi
milar to the one of "radial" seals;
- the area ratio influences the friction torque, as shown in Figs. 16 and 17.
3) Leakage flow rat,
The obtained result ore represented in Figs. 18-20.
For "axial" seals A ard C the pecullai behaviour occurring at high speeds can be obser-
ved: an inversion of leakage flow occurs, and the liquid travels from the low pressure
to the high pressure region.
This can be explained by the "pumping" effect of the rotating disk at high speed: when
this occurs, extremely high flow rate. take place.
Comparison between results of Figures 18 and 19 showx that the presence of radial groo-
ves, which yields a far batter power conmumption, causes a remarkable increase of leak
ages, due to the large gap height conse ent to the hydrodynamic action. As far as the-
"radial" seals are concerned, very low leakage values are found up to the "opening" of
the seal.
CONCLUSION
The described seal test rig has proved to be an efficient and leliable tool for testing
high speed operation of mechanical seals. None of the tested seals exhibited a complete
ly satisfactory high speed behaviour. Very high turbulence losses were found for "axial"
seals; the presence of radial grooves docrease* the friction torque# but yields high leak
ages: the "radial" seals have a good performance, both in terms of power consumption and-
leakages, up to moderate speeds, but fail at high speed, due to the sudden "opiwiing" of
sealing faces. Further investigation is required for a better understanding of phenomena.

I X. Mayer - Mechanical Seals - II English Edition - London - ILIF nOoks

lo - 1972.
2 Italian Patent no 23089A/77.

' l' I" 1"i r II'!'" .... " "I'

 11-7

1.0
1.0

.6 66
w
0
OR-. 0 PRESSURE I bar A- 0 PRESSURE 2 bar
&2" 4 "
03 ot 4 ,eV m 6
.2 .-
,2 a.
FLOW RATE 1201/h FLOW RATE 120 l/h
0 !I I JFLOW RAT 12 I/h ;
0 1
0 10 20 30 40 0 5LA 10 - Ii
15
3
RPM x 10 RPMxlO 3

Fig. 1o - Torque consomption of -

Fig.1ITorque oonzsumption of
deal A. goal 1.

1,/1.0
a PRESSURE 4 bar
a 6
So
4-.,6 , , .i .8
0.PRE SUR
FLOW RATE 5-0 bw
I0
E
z.
E
z.
,4• SU E
RATE //1/h FLO 20
~~pA 4OEAL PRESSURE 2 bar

0 SEAL B PRESSURE 4 bar

.-. 2 VA
- ~FLOW RATE 120 4.1h

0 1 20 040 0 10 20 30 40
RPM x 103 RP Mx 103

719.12 - TorqUe consumption of Fig. 13 - Comarilmo of torque o.mp-

meal C. tiems bev malm A amd B.
!, 11-8

0 SEAL A PRESSURE I bar

1.0 FLOW RATE 1201/h 1.0

(3SEAL C PRESSURE I bar
.8 FLOW RATE 150 1h .8

E
z.6
w
M

-A- o RPMURE
ar0

u6 000
al
.2 .2- a ,, 10,000
0 12,000

0 10 20 30 4O O [ SA
2 a
APESR ,2 bPRESSURE bar
Fig.14 -Cocparison of torque consump- i'ig.15 TorqUe Va. pressure for
tIc. between seaIs A wzd C. goal B.
.0 FLO RaT 150 CA.4

OSEAL D PRESSURE .5 bar

.5 K a.42 FLOW RATE 1501/h
0 SEAL E PRESSURE 2 bar 0 SEAL E
KwI.0 FLOW RATE $011hOSA
.ASEALEPRESSURE .15 bar
Ka 1.0 FLOW RATE 120 11/h
E FLOW RATE 70 1/ h
zz

0.2

.t .1

0 $ 10 15 20
3
0 6 10 15 20
RPMx14 RPM x 1•3

Fig.16 - Torque consumption of seals

Pig.17 - Comparison of torque consump-
D and E.
tion between seals E and F.
 11-9

•"
,5..10

.05- A

W
010 30 ~
30 40.
1
PRE5FL. ATE
00-
IE$ FL.TET
10'PRE Aa-/ ba 31I.0

Sa 1 .3 36 5

2 0 330
1 5
~.15 2 180
-IAB .5 150
,6 10

B SLOWLY ACCELERATHG
.20, 4241
.81 5h9.2

r'ate of .seal A. Fig,19 - Leakitgo rat=e of 'oP" C,

Fig, 18 - Leakage

.54SO A*
PRES. FL. RATE
bar I1h
.7 -; .15 70
Dc 1.4 120
.15. .15 70

E * SSEAL

IIIs
eSEAL F

U .1

0 '0 15 20
RPM• x 102
C.
Fgg.20 -l eakag. rate of meals
and ]P.

AXMOWILEDG3N4ENTS FLUITTEN-ITALIA S.p.A.

The aPthors wish to thank Mr. D.A. Colombo, general manager of the
for his enthusiastia support i~nthe designing and building of all the tested seals.

... .
. .......
.• -• . •".. ..........T ' ' ....
' 7............. . . ..±. .. ...
i.. ..-i__ .... . .i ... .
,., ., •i. . . .i•.........
 DISCUSSION

J.A.Milward, UK
Were any measurement or observations of wear rate for the various seals made, i.e. is it possible to comment on the
relative wear rates of the various designs?

Authors' Reply
We did not carry out any long wear test and no wear parameter was recorded; only a serial check of the seal sliding
faces was made during the testing. However, no significant wear was recorded after an initial period of adjustment
of the sliding faces.
AIho at high speeds of revolution, no wear appeared If a proper cooling and lubricating flow rate was guaranteed,
Due to the lower power absorption of the "radial" seals, lower wear rates were noted In these types of seals

-iI

ii

'I !

EEEM - -.-- y---.----***J* *- . - -. ~ - - - .-.-- - - - -

 12-1

TIP OILARN•a
3STIW WOR 7M 1ABUUWNT CO ROTOR
DtIBPWIANT IN A GAS TWRABI
ANlD
by
0.1. Aebu" eand T.V., OhIvos
I+eotio~d a InAtrimebation RkJearh Departwoet
SDUL$-R0OTh LDI!3n
P.O. Dsn 1
Derby
UA2 O8
United Kingdom

The rotor tip oloaraw system omaiias basica1Uy of a stepper motor driven InsulAted win hioh is
pol•z•ies at a high voltae and whicbh sp.ae to the rotor blade tils wheti within a certain diatoa .
noe incidanos of sparking is doteoted and tho radial immeseion of the wire Is leteruineA by
electronioally oouting the motor drive pulses. Tke disalaemeat s0tem Is based upon a o oasitanos
transduoer spoofioally desigued tor operati•n witkin a as turbine 01 tmaporatur.s of up to 6C. doeg s
Omntigrodo and pressures of 30D psi. The tieaodueor capacitance which is a f'uotion ofa prob/rotatin
meal oloeaeneo is connected into the feedback loop of avi mpl•fier, the output of which is proportionol
to Whe olearano.

A S, lING
•IONNOTON MWPOP
o WA5II3rT 0f RUM TVP OLUAROMU
The system to be described, was developed from work does a few years ago on oampuant profleh
iLupootion and with It a number of woeusful runs on teat bM engines have been ae•ieved, both in
compressor adturb•ns etr ets,
The prJowipv uwd La very simple and not new. A wire probe Is elect•ically polarised e•d Co
towards the rotating blades until It Is diboharged to the blado. %b change of VOltag which then ocours
is used to oame the probe '-o retract umtil the vc Rtop.s• 'ae,4tabllad,
s when It Is again fed towax4a
the bldo.m. When the probe is "ensing a wsrtfoe it in ortim•ausly oscillating about .02. tbs
otion of the probe Is aontinuously monitaoed and displayed.
by usin& modern teobniques s• d ompo•fnet a probe has been oanstr-m•ot which ham a fast enough
response to tollow engine handling conditiens, with the ozooption of compressor surge wAnthe probe lia
to tit under the cowlio,
small oWAou& of a typical engine.
The oux ret design has a useful measuring range at 5mm and a speed of responase of If./eeo. noe
repeatabUlity is .02a and accurmoay t.0m. The probe does not mamsure tip clearance di.nctly bat the
distawos from a refeenceo datus to the blade tips. The stability and position of this datum with
"etoens to the inside ot the engine casing is obviously important.
The probe may be divided into
, Wo setionso, the mechanioal dvo bhead, aid the stem assembly which
Mt Into the eng+e.10 The la4t00 I0 subjeot to rS-da*Ni to 8ULt different engines.
The head (sonmsmt of a stainless steel body (A) whioh can withbetpd coolizg sir pressurea up to
V7OW&~ (400 PBX)* This houses a modiflo
1. wsel stepping motor (2). Mhe rotor of this motor In a
penmaut moot end the oviginal shatt wos raeoad, tho magnet we boned md a new brons thanft
eont
fitted. This shaft IsInternally threaded to tor srotating
a nat, and exarnalaly carries two bell raie

The leadeooew (0) Is guided by the extended bearing housing (D) and prevented from rotating by the
OVoe. VIn (1) 1,4 a slot In the•bowing. At reae a enepratoe spring lodoodmat taes up end p" •n
the beeriLJa end lederw assembly.

the stator Is held In

end plat"s are bove4 out to locate Go spigots an the howusig MAn
lbsaon W
plaeby ftour mron and look nuto. A smal vest hole at the rew ollows a fw of cooling air through
the moUr
The front of the body houses an inmsuted baLl and socket ouling to the probe seadsn element, and
tho bigh voltage monection, Including an interferenoc sqpreeing naistor (0). Nuanted off the
be•rUg homu*sn is a bookstop which the probe returns to in the retreated position.
The om shown Is deeid for the lower tomporature onwirommenta such em ooepreesovs, &aM ocamsit ot
a staiales steel tabe hawing a ormmio tubular insulator down which rue the probe sensi element, a
straigt ottnle
et steel wi•e.
S.hole probe is mountet off a bees ov this tube, to be losateld as nwar the mog6oun some as
proetil. In this ase the *ear of the stem to su orted In sliding seals in the engi• e bypass duct.
The oielone air pOeeeure prevents hot aomproseOr sir from entering the probe by travelling up the stem.

Nigh Teepera$.u Stem Ounetruotion

This dmpen showm th type of atm otruotion used for tip olOar•wse moesuwents In a hot tufbine
oenvir kt Mad it has operated suocessfully up to leO0K.

[ _ -_ __ __ _ _
 It oonsists of a lmoanio tube (A) uhich t looated from the tuArbiaw shroud M by the ayomet rid"
arrav~et shoew. Tho tab. houeseaoceramic Insulator (B) of the arc"secmtion shoe=; thi allows a
msp=*(e toe* ofoooling on, nitz"on, whioh bravels to tha tip and b•eo it at a r4awswombl
teqwoaturm, In this am" the probe body is iijkepouw•tly mountod mad ommnted by a lookable
teleseopi ooupling howing a bll md s@adet joint at esoo eod to ullow for axal ais-a.tPment.

It wil be soan that the probe noting elem"n in this ses has a small "f2loe wr Its out end, when
the probe In retrote4o tUs fl•g otatots the i s-erthed surface o the probe istes and this torm a
rloar dm at ce free which•e ma, maromonto mode. It is blocted oLe.. to the gop to be measur•d, ead
tb sVery mich rednews eror
ast to thermal epeansim of the probe An stm. It does hovew pose
pmbbea with probe repleoMent ad it is not always soveadent to wse this teohneao.

Ulgetraato i etrl Suytem

So probe Is pobavrsed at sabou 3%N DO from a speils pomer supply which Is Insulated frem earth;
the earth ceammeotiorn to nasd Via a resistor (it) of about WWO aoh. By this system the crenret passed
from the probe to blaft is asue. ad not oh#ge In probe voltag..
It in doe beesm It results is mob lew electricul Intazeroeane into the following login oirouits.
Ocseiserable Noomatioas hers to be tamul owen ems Is attempting to operate hiA Voltage sparhing
oizouLtN is sloeI
cl osdity to elee00troMiG1 0 slesents.
A srossEsstor (1) Is developed a aLl Voltse when the probe spsihs to the blade, thii Is filtered
to remove offset& from blde passing freqiasiei and other short duration transients mad the resultant
signal is compaerd with sm ad~jostahle rsferafos volbege by the acomparator. the level of Its output
denotes whether to feed the probe In
sr out sad It oaemrobs the motor drive logie. It also feeds the
up/down lISe Of a reversible sisotroate couter. A *look generstor foods both fte motor logic a&M the
saunter, the trfevmoy ot this CIO* oatroLN the Mtot speed, it Is in the rup 20 to Meo.

Th output from the moter foeds a digit• l to saslge aomeerter whoms W0 mtput Is a measure of
probe poeltioa.
This is me Incremental Woste whioh may be movtea with the probe at may position. In prectice the
probs is svwuy switched on and datwoed at the backstop, either the Internal onea ot the external one
shows on the biAb temperature atem.
Opsmerai
Th probe poimising voltage now used is 350 W. This is not sufficient to cese any prWawtase
pp betwoen tim probe tip mad blede ti1pe, hemce the probe rubs the blob and suffers wear,

cyareful adjuutwaet of the referouc varobtn in thm aocpveator tMo rub Sit very lialt, mud a typical
wear figure is .Obm/rnim. Pbs se~ttn Is mAd in the labor~sty by bringin the prowe up to a
rotati" tootedb sheal, It does not seed frequent ro-adjust'.nt. Hiesw polarIaine voltaehave b eanbo
tried, up to Y. TbIs results In a spark pap at lower vAliient "p wafts, but with oomressor pressures
up to smovel. UW, totally Imptattotins polaristag vobta~p' would be required to still samainai any spark
pp. Moems ens still has a rubbing probe at the engine senditions of greater interest, and an
a*-.lib•raed e€rror pp at lower proemsresl oanoqusntl', it vow decided to barn a known rabbifg
condition at a1) speeds id pressures.

To obtain a reasosable probe life the probe is not left in the assuring poeition Ilsor than
nessary to reoeoi a reading, uually about I to 2 moonds Is m•a'iient. Durtin eangime soeleatiaes
and deeelowatiONS, linger mosuacmeit itims are of 4ourse. required, to obtain the tip clear"e" preense.
To toa into aooount probe tip wear, aearements an aso at frequent Intervals with the engine
either statiosam or rotating at a bow speed, where conditions an reasonably be assumed to be stable oad
4 ~repea"tal.
Failures in use have ooued hazind development, the met ommso being onaductive deposits bQuAeiUlp
'I sores. the and of the semise iMcUbating tube at the Inner and This is particularly niotieable is a
turbine eawirosmest. the anisme length of tUme aebieved so far in this come is about 5 hours - thils Js
"engine
rmn *t o, not asot" nmssuring tine, a typioal time achieved hers Is a total or 2 minutes
omprising eso IM spot asurements and 6 acceleration tosts when the probe was measuring
soatmomly for about 60 so. each.

efter 6 miLmtem at Vownd idle peed.

Cum 2 Is a plot at tip aoearew an a similar somprso• or doe by X-Ray teohniqoes.

Ur,3 Is a plot of tip obalusexo on a turbine test wig having gaw teeperatiarea up to I8OO'K.

ZIMUMM5 AIAMJUWWT ifRZIM OIAU"U 331 A GAB !WtU

Moi paper describes the construction and operation of a eqeeltanne displacement transducer muhi~ has
beenoveloped prinsaril to measure the clearanoe be!tween rotating and stationary omeqesnts In a seal.
Tbopriaryreasons tiobic led to the selection of a capacitarnce techinique for this measurement are I-
I -

.... ,.. a.... .. ...' ... ...,

 ?he tranducers .noa-ontacting A non-oonteating tochmiqae is essential -n the measurement meast
be made betaeen components with a rotational speed differential in the order of A0/SMo.

Very low tamperature/pressure coefficient. As the transducer contains no oails or eleetrhic

components and the permittivity of air changes little with tmp•eratvre and pressure a *Mapsitne
based system exhibit* god stability throughout the high and transient tompereskurs snd preamasr
encountered in gae turbines.

The trsnsducer is simple and aeohmal•lly robuat. Thes ae undeniable advantasm for any device
required to operate reliably in clooe prozxity to a gSe turbine.
The oqecitanoe transducer in its bsic tfom consists of two concentric electrodes, the inne one
being the soews electrode and the outer one the guard electride. oaab
electrode is insulated from the
other in addition to being Insulated tras earth. The oapaitance foromd between the #an"e eletrode asd
an earthed conducting target which is plaped in front of the tranoduoer is used as %henegative toedback
elemet in a high goin spltfier which is driven by an oscillator. The amplifier ouftut is demodulatod
and filtered, the resulting voltage being proportional to the clear•aoe between Ma sen" electrode mnd
the target Which in this application ie a rotating sea1 component.

?he guard system serves to coapletely saeren the book and aides of the msnse electrode, the
oconenting vire and the electrotio omponents from the erthed sarroundings. Thus the Sasl
oapaoitanoe (in order at I piooferad) between the front of the sense electrode end the earthed engine seal,
which is a funotion of the separation of the two ocmponsntsm is asessred in Isolation and is not masked by
the large fixed capacitanoe to earth of the transducer and oabling.
The initial system requirament vwa to meaose a olearanoe of between I and 6= under onditions of
temperature and pressure whioh varied from 20 dogres 0oentipegde at 10OkPa to 600 degrees Centigrade at
Ma
awith an acouracy of t1% fal scale.
In order that the transduoer should survive In an environment where the temperature oen reach 600
degrees entipeade the inaulatore used haws to be anufactured from inorganic materials. The msn"
electrode is insulated free the guara electrode Ma the guard eleotrode la insulated from the earthed
transduoer body by manu of two al-uina bead insulators of different disnterit. Timm the transducer
body is at earth potential end can be directly attached to the engw metalwork.

The *able to the transducer is subjected to the ses conditions of temperatue and proemust a the
transducer istelf and is thus 4inerally insulated. It is of a double screened, oaelaL sonstwoution
with an outside diameter of 3mm - the oontroe conductor connomting to the sene elootrode, the inner
scmeen conneoting to the guard electrode and the outer msoon being at earth potential. The cabling Is
ohabpd to a single screened P.T.F.A. insulated coaxial cable when the leadout resabhe the exterior of
the engine where typically the temperature is lees than 200 degrees Oettir-ede. This ohang of oa*le
type helps to keep the high standing eopacitance of the ninrelly inmilated cable to a miniama and also
facilitates handling L, the PMT cable is Auch more flexible than the stainlems steel sinerally
insulated cable.
In prtios, the tranuoer n desc.ribed, has given very encourAgg results. Initial problems were
ooained to Lifficulty of installation when using a sheet nica insulator in place of one of the *eroe
insulator,. Kowevor, two problea. have persisted until recently in one partiularly severe eains
application wher the trensduoer is subjected to an eeeasional oold watevereeens mixture spray.
Although clearance rad4in are not required whilst the transduoer is wet the combination of wetting and
teomperture cycling severely tests tho transiduoor sealing, any failure leading to loss of Insulation
resistance between electrodes due to ingrese of moistnre. This problem has been relieved by the use of
tighter tolerance oeramic materials for the insulator and a better quality control during manufaoture.
Phs second problem arises after several hours of operation and is caused by Mhe formation of a
conductive coating across the trendu•oer eleotrodos which again has the effect of lowering the Inter-
ele1tr4e resistances. As the Vater/kerovene mixture is heated to a high temperature the kOronene tend.
to oeartomai thus leavn a thin
• aoductive layer. After several layers have been built ip by
alternately vetting and heating the transducer the Insulation rmeistane can fall to a level whiach
affects the system olectronios. One possible solution being exa•ined involves covering the sense an4
guard electrodes by a thin oraio diso thus preveNtinS any ontmination of the transducer from
affecting the inter-eleotrodo recistanss.
12-4

MOTOR POW69 SOCV-T -5TEPPING MOTOR.

57 m PyE.SO UPf>

PIN AND %.Or

moo lernc

__ 00se

COU~~COLW AlitO6t~tTK~

L 0
6MYONFO LhoCAi"-/

Prob.YOg. C WtmrtueIN
hG.~tm~aw r
IGT SOWTI-
CO
N,**"
6-,,..., PR'I, OD. NI2I R smF T E
 12-5

CO1~ It M!~~ V~
350

Bock di~rmn oWprob.contro

FI.3 ici

Ir '4

. 1F p t ýl
12-6

go IL
f-ill

0~0

Ii
0n-
 12-7

* Transducer is non-contacting

* Very low temperature and

pressure coefficient

* Transducor is simple and

mechanicaliy robust

* Can be fabricated to withstand

very high temperatures
Fig I Cpawitive system features

Fig,6 Traeid• er alhtm•de onftmUn ! "-

12-8

Fig.7 Capacitance system schemnatic diagram

Trnsducer TeWmpeaure Range:'- 0-60 degrees centigrade

Presrem Range:- 1002000 kPa (15-300 pasi)

Sysem MesrMen Range:- 1-6mm

Requqre Systemn Accuracy:- ± 1%Futll Scale

Transducer must be non. contacting

Transient respons requirements:-

Ciparance: 0-60th frequency response
Temperature: WOC change In 10 asecomds max.
Pressure: 16WO kP. chainge In5 seconds max
Pig.8 Systom design criteria
 12-9

3 I , "

'VI

Ilg.9 Redesigned transducer

Inadequate transducer sealing - unable to

cope with the combination of repeated
wetting and temperature cycling. Water
absorbed through microscopic voids in the
ceramic to metal braze caused by small
variations in concentricity of ceramic bead.

Build up of a conductive coating across the

transducer electrodes caused by repeated
wetting of the transducer with
water/kerosine
mixture followed by heating to a high
temperature. This problem unique to one
particular research gas turbine.
,iFg.10 Long term operational problems

V.
-- I -I I I
12-10

Fig.1 I Future transducer development

 12-1l

DISCUSSION

D.A.Campbell, UK
In the stepping probe described for compressor measurements, appreciable errors due to differential thermal
expansion would be expected. Would Mr Amsbury please comment on the possibilities of reducing these errors.

Author's Reply
Eirors due to temperature, and hence expansion differentials between the probe wire and stem are present. To
minimize these we are using low expansion alloys for-these components, and are measuring the temperatures
attained under engine running conditions. We can then either use calculated corrections, or choose materials to
give minimal error at normal running temperatures.

J.G.Ferguson, UK
What is the measurement resolution at a probe clearance of 6 mm?

Authors' Reply
It is important to differentiate between resolution and accuracy, Although the system described has an absolute
accuracy of ± I%full scale i.e. 0.06 mm for a 6 mm range probe the resolution is an order of magnitude greater
than the accuracy, Thus for a 6 mm range probe the resolution is 0.006 mm (0,00024 inches).

HL.Stocker, US
Have you correlated the rotor tip clearance system you have described with the X-ray technique presented earlier
by Stewart & Brasnett?

Author's Reply
Slide 4 shows a comparison with X-ray results, This was done some 3 years ago. The X-ray techniques have
improved considerably since then, We have no recent comparative results. As far as we know X-ray measurements
have not been taken yet during engine handling conditions (iLe. during acceleration or deceleration tests),

D.Wrigley, UK
Could you expand further on the accuracy of the capacitance probe, please, with respect to its absolute accuracy,
rather than quoting it in percentage of full scale. (Please see answer to following question.)

P.Suter, Switzerland
I understand that you are using different probes for the range of I to 6 mm gap or clearance width. Could you
comment on the absolute accuracy of the different probe/gaps,

Author's Reply
I will deal with the questions from Mr Wrigley and Mr Suter together as they are closely related.
The absolute accuracy of our capacitance probes varies in proportion to the magnitude of the full-scale range.
For example, a probe designed to measure a maximum clearance of 6 mm will typically have an absolute accuracy
of better than ±0.06 mm in the range 0 to 6 mm. For a probe with a range of only I mm the absolute accuracy
will be better than 40.01 mm. In both cases changes in clearance can be measured with much greater certainty,
typically to M0.015 mm and 10,0025 mm for the 6 mm and 1 mm range probes respectively.

*1i
 13-1

DETERMINING AND IMPROVING LABYRINTH SEAL PERFORMANCE

IN CURRENT AND ADVANCED HIGH PERFORMANCE GAS TURBINeS
by
Harold L. Stocker
Supervisor, Flow Systems Group
Internal Aerodynamics
Detroit Diesel Allison
Division of General Motors Corporation
Indianapolis, Indiana 46206

SUMMARY

The leakage rate of the labyrinth seals incorporated in ourrent and futvxr advanced
design gas turbines strongly influences the performance level of the engine. Labyrinth
seal design and analysis technology, however, hap not kept pace with the advances
achieved in the major components of the gas turbine. Therefore, recent investigations
were undertaken to (1) determine the aerodynamic performance of conventional labyrinth
seals employing abradable and honeycomb lands, and (2) develop an advanced design laby-
rinth seal which would significantly reduce leakage.

Abradable and honeycomb lands were evaluated with a conventional

straight-through seal uning a static two-dimensional (rectangular
flowpath) seal rig and a rotating three-dimensional seal rig. nw
co
Test results show that some abradable lands leak significantly
more than a solid-smooth land. However, honeycomb lands were
found to reduce leakage up to 2J4.

Through aerodynamic testing, an advanced design labyrinth

seal was developed which reduced leakage 541.2% compared to C(*TAVOEHTHIONUG
a conventional straight-through seal and 26.3% compared to LAPYRIN1HSAL
a conventional stepped seml.

COMANTIONAL.
STIMPWAJ' ~
"LASYNIMlISE LAIM1It

Symbols Abbreviations
2
A Area, am BPR Bypass Ratio
CL Radial Clearance, cm DTC Distance to Contact
KH Knife Height, om HP High Pressure

KT Knife Tip Thickness, cm PR Pressure Ratio

Ke Knife Angle, degrees SYC Specific Fuel Consumption

P Pressure STLD Small-to-large-diameter
SH Step Height, cm 2D Two-dimensional
T Temperature, K 3D Three-dimensional
V Velocity, m/s
W Flow, kg/s Subcipits
1 Efficiency D Downstream
* Plow Parameter, WvT/PA S Static Conditions
T Total Conditions
U Upstream
INThODUCTION

The economic incentives imposed by future fuel conservation requirements and the con-
tinuing effort to improve performance has created increased interest in improving the
efficiency of current and future gas turbine engines. Advancements in technology
toward the achievement of higher thermal and propulsive efficiencies for current and
advanced aircraft gas turbines have been characterized by significant increases in the
operating cycle pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature. However, these trends
cause internal air seal leakage to increase because higher operating temperatures pro-
duce greater differential growth in the seal components that frequently results in
larger seal clearances. The higher operating cycle pressure ratio also increases gas
path and bearing compartment seal leakage, even if current olearance levels could be
maintained. This problem is readily seen by considering the flow parameter character-
istics * - WIT/PA. The air leakage in a typical labyrinth seal (e.g., in front or the
high pressure turbine disc) can be represented by W w (PA0//T)(l0O./Wenngie) in terms
of percent compressor inlet flow. Increasing the compressor pressure ratic from 1511
to 30:1 at constant engine airflow and seal clearance would increase leakage approxi-
mately 75.4. A plot of typical seal leakage versus compressor pressure ratio is pre-
sented in Figure 1.
Compensating for the current state of seal technology by improving aerodynamio compon-
ent efficiencies may result in limited payoffs relative to the time, cost, and manpower
expended. Figure 2 shows an example of the improvement in compressor and turbine com-
ponent efficiencies required to achieve the same increase in engine performance as a
reduction in turbine seal leakage of 1 0% of engine airflow for an advanced high bypass
ratio gas turbine engine. For example, reducing the high pressure turbine seal leakage
1.0% of engine airflow would produce the same improvement as a turbine efficiency
increase of 0.51%. The results presented in Figure 2 show that a reduction in high
pressure turbine seal leakage of 1.0% would improve engine specific fuel consumption

Perhaps a more meaningful presentation of the benefits of reduced seal leakage are
shown in Figure 3. This figure shows the approximate total U.S. fuel savings would
be 4 2 9 ,6 3 8 ,600 gallons annually if typical gas turbine seal leakage was reduced 25%
throughout the engine for all current gas turbines.

An approach frequently used to reduce labyrinth seal leakage and mechanical damage
has been to incorporate abradable or honeycomb lands and reduce the operating clearance.
Recent investigations reported herein show that positive results may not always be
achieved. In addition to fully utilize the potential of increased cycle pressure
ratio and temperature to provide higher thermal and propulsive efficiencies, sealing
efficiency must be increased above present levels. Therefore, the purpose of this
paper is to present the effects on the leakage of a conventional straight-through
labyrinth seal using abradable and honeycomb lands and to discuss advanced labyrinth
seal design concepts that significantly reduce leakage. Increased internal cavity
turbulence was used to achieve reduced leakage in the advanced seal design without
significantly affecting the mechanical integrity of the seal.

The results presented in this paper represent the cumulative efforts of several pro-
grams. These programs involved an aerodynamic evaluation of conventional straight-
through labyrinth seals using solid-smooth, abradable, and honeycomb lands in a two-
dimenuional (2D) seal rig.with additional tests of selected configurations conducted
in a rotating (3D) seal rig. The investigations carried out on the advanced design
labyrinth seals included water tunnel studies, 2D air rig tests, and dynamic air rig
"tests. The water tunnel provided an economical visual method of screening design
concepts, while the two-dimensional air rig provided an economical and rapid means of
evaluating the various seal goometrio parameters. The performance of specific seal
configurations under static and dynamic conditions was obtained in the three-dimensional
air rig.
The seal nomenclature used throughout this paper is presented in Figure 4.

TEST AMG AND PROCEDURES

Three labyrinth seal test rigs were used to obtain the experimental results presented in
this papert

(1) a water tunnel flow visualization seal rig

(2) a two-dimensional (2D) static air seal rig
(3) a three-dimensional (OD) or annular, rotating air seal rig
 Water Tunnel Seal Rig

The water tunnel flow visualization seal rig, shown in Figure 5, wan used for the pre-
liminary evaluation of the advanced labyrinth seal candidate designs. This rig was
designed to test ten-times size clear plastic models of labyrinth seals. The candidate
test seal configurations were formed using a building block concept with adjustable
seal hardware. Thus, multiple use of components was achieved. This concept provided
greater flexibility in making dimensional changes in seal pitch, clearance, and step
height as well as complete changes in seal configuration. The seal bloak pieces were
individually adjustable via slots machined in the seal components.
Water flow was measured with a Potter turbine-type flowmeter. The seal inlet and exit
plenum pressures were also measured. Air bubbles were introduced into the water, supply
for flow visualization. A plane of light was cast through the rig to illUminate the
turbulent regions for observation arid photographing. The seal configurations were
tested at pressure differentials of 7.5, 13.7, and 19.9 kPa witis clearances of 0.127,
0.254, and 0.508 cam.

Two-Dimensional Seal Rig

A sketch of the two-dimensional (2D) static air seal test rig Is presented in Figure 6.
This rig was used to investigate the aerodynamic effects of abradable and honeycomb
lands on conventional straight-through seal leakage. The influence of geometric varia-
tions on the performance of an advanced seal design was also evaluated and optimized in
the 2D rig.
The 2D rig seal hardware was designed on a building block concept whitch utilizes indi-
vidually adjuttable seal components. Adjustable knife and land sections permit con-
tinuous variations in the primary geometric variables, i.. knife pitch, knife height,
land step height, number of knives, axial clearance, and radial 01carance. Figure 7
shows a photograph of the 2D rig with a stepped seal installed. The width of the test
section Is 16.0 cm.

Structural deflection of the rig sidewalls under high air pressuroe loading was consid-
ered in determining the actual clearance tested. A micrometer dial gauge with .00005 cm
readability, shown in Figure 8, was mounted on the rig top plate to monitor the relative
movement of the seal knife with respect to the land.
The building block concept for the seal hardware tested in the water tunnel r'ig and the
2D rig proved to be an economical and expedient means of screening candidate seal de-
sign concepts and developing optimum performance geometry for a given design.

Three-Dimensional Seal Test Rig

A oross-seotional sketch of the three-dimensional (3D) air seal test rig is shown in
Figure 9. The rig can test a maximum seal diameter of 15.3 am at a maximum seal knife
tip speed of 239 m/s. Static and dynamic seal leakage performance was measured with
this rig.

Description of Instrumentation

Similar pressure and temperature instrumentation was used to determine seal leakage in
both the 2D static rig and the 3D dynamic rig. The instrumentation locatrions for the
2D and 3D rigs are shown in Figures 6 and 9, respectively, A standard ASHE square edge
orifice with pipe tape was used to measure the seal leakage flow. The inlet pressure
and temperature and the exit pressure at the orifice were obtained to datemine flow.
The data acquired for each seal test also included seal inlet pressure (PU) and temper-

ature (Tu) and exit pressure (PD),

Test Oonditions

The 2D and 3D rigs were oaprated with ambient inlet air temperatures (approximately
2200). Rig discharge pressure was essentially ambient ('19.5 kPa). Rig inlet pressures
were varied up to a maximum of 8 atmospheres. Typically L5 seal pressure ra*,io value$
were recorded for each configuration tested. The 3D rig tests were conducted statically
and at rotational speods giving 80 m/s, 159 m/s, and 239 rn/s knife tip velocities.
13-4

Seal clearances in the water tunnel and 2D air rig were set by feeler gauge. The 2D
rig build-up clearances were corrected for the measured rig deflection to determine
the seal leakage area. For the 3D air rig each knife on the seal rotor and each land
on the stator were dimensionally inspected in the free-state. A feeler gauge was also
used to check the end knife radial clearance after the hardware was assembled in the
rig, The data reduction program calculates the rotor growth based on the dynamic
conditions to determine the actual seal clearance.

Data Reduction and Calculation Methods

The measured pressures, temperatures, and seal leakage flow were used to calculate the
air flow parameter characteristic,
WVWTU
,
PU-.
as a function of the meal pressure ratio, PU/PD. All the seal performance curves pre-
sented in this paper will be in the 0 versus PU/PD form. Typically, seal performance
comparisons will be based on the 0 values at PU/PD of 2.0 for convenience.

2D Rig to 3D Rig Seal Performance Correlation

Comparison of the performance characteristics for similar seal configurations tested in

the 2D and 3D rigs generally show good agreement. Figures 10 and 11 show the correla-
tion between the two rigs obtained for a four knife straight-through seal with a solid-
smooth land and a honeycomb land, respectively. The 2D rig seal performance at 2.0
pressure ratio only differs from that in the 3D (02D - *3D)/03Q by -1.9% for the solid-
smooth land and +1.9% for the honeycomb land. Therefore, the 2D rig, except for the
possible effects of rotational speed, provides reliable design data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section is organized into (1) test results for a conventional straight-through
labyrinth seal using solid-smooth, abradable, and honeycomb lands, and (2) test results
for advanced design labyrinth seals. The testing of the conventional seals was primarily
conducted in the 2D seal rig. Selected configurations were tested in the 3D seal rig
to determine the effects of• knife rotation on seal leakage. The advanced design laby-
rinth seals were initially evaluated in the water tunnel rig. Selected designs were
fabricated for dynamic tests in the 3D seal rig. One design was developed further in
the 2D seal rig to optimize the seal geometry. The optimized design was then tested In
the 3D seal rig to determine the effects of rotation.

Ocnventional Labyrinth Seal Results

The conventional straight-through seal configuration shown in Figure 12 was used to

evaluate four abradable and three honeycomb lands in the 2D rig. A photograph of the
seal lands including the solid-smooth baseline, is shown in Figure 13. The four
abradable lands tested included two non-porous materials (nilcel-graphite and aluminum-
polyester) with material thicknesses of .076 cm, and two commercially available porous
abradable materials designated abradable "A" and abradable "B", with material thick-
nesses of .229 cm. The cell sizes evaluated with the honeycomb lands were .079, .160,
and .318 cm. The cell depth was .381 cm.
The flow parameter characteristics derived from the 2D rig aerodynamic test data
(Reference 1) are presented in Figure 14 for the seals with abradable lands which were
tested at .013 cm clearance. The solid-smooth land characteristic has also been in-
cluded in Figure 14 as a baseline for comparison. It is evident from Yigure 14 that
the two porous abradablelands leak substantially more than the solid-smooth land.
Similar tests were also conducted at .025 am and .051 cm clearances. The seal perfor-
mance with the abradable lands at a 2.0 presuure ratio is oempared in Table I ýo that
of the solid-smooth land for the three clearances tested. The performance comparisons
summarized in Table I are also presented graphically in Figure 15. The abradable Oea,
land results show that the porous land materials, abradable "A" and abradable "B",
produced 27.4% and 60.3% leakage inurease, respectively, as compared to the solid-
smooth land at .013 am clearance. At .051 cm clearance the leakage increase amounted
to 9.9% and 12.6% for abradable "A" and abradable "B", respectively. The apparent
leakage through the porous abradable land* diminishes as a percentage of the total flow
as clearance is increased.
 13-5

Another interesting result from the abradable land tests can be noted from the nickel-
graphite land performance at .013 am and .025 cm clearance. At these clearances the
nickel-graphite land demonstrated lower leakages by 3.6% and 7.8%, respeotIvely, than
the solid-smooth land. The surface finish of the nickel-graphite land was rougher
6
(880.p cm) than the solid-smooth land (7 .p cm). The smoother aluminum-polyester
land, surface roughness of 16 5.p om, however, did not experience a performance level
different than the solid-smooth land at .013 am and .025 cm clearance.
The honeycomb land seal performance measured in the 2D seal rig (Reference 1) is
presented in Figure 16 for .051 am clearance. These results show that the honeycomb
lands substantially reduced leakage compared to the solid-smooth baseline land. The
honeycomb lands were also evaluated at .013 cm and .025 cm clearance. A summary of
the leakage performance for the honeycomb lands compared to the solld-smooth land at
2.0 pressure ratio is presented in Table I1 for the three clearances evaluated. Figure
17 graphically displays the results summarized in Table II. The honeycomb land results
presented in Figure 17 show that honeycomb cell size can have a strong influence on
seal leakage. At a small clearance (.013 cm) the large cell (.318 am) honeycomb leakage
was 96.2% higher than a solid-smooth land, but the leakage decreased as clearance in-
creased until it became 18.4% lower at the largest clearance (.051 cm) tested. The
small cell (.079 cm) honeycomb land reduced leakage, compared to the solid-smooth land,
4.9% at .013 cm clearance and 12.6% at .051 cm clearance. The intermediate cell sice
(.160 cm) honeycomb land shows a 24.4% leakage increase at .013 cm clearance, but a
21.1% leakage reduction at .051 cm clearance. Generally, it appears that honeycomb
lands are effective for reducing leakage at large clearances, but should be selected
with care for small clearance applications.

Abradable "A" material and .160 cm cell honeycomb lands were fabricated for testing
in the 3D dynamic air seal test rig to determine the effect of seal knife rotation on
leakage. A solid-smooth land was also tested to provide a baseline. A conventional
four knife straight-through seal geometrically similar to the 2D rig seal (shown in
Figure 12) was used in this evaluation. The aerodynamic leakage tests were accomplished
statically and at three rotational velocity levels which resulted in knife tip speeds
of 80 m/s, 159 m/u, aid 239 m/s. The tests were conducted at .025 cm and .051 cm radial
clearances. The reduction in clearance due to rotation was small (.002 cm at maximum
speed), but it was included in the calculation of the leakage area.

The 3D rig static and dynamic test results for the solid-smooth baseline land (Reference
1) are presented in Figures 18 and 19 for .025 cm and .051 om clearances, respectively.
Similarly, the abradable and honeycomb lands performance (Reference 1) is presented in
Figures 20, 21, 22, and 23. Figures 18 through 21 show that the solid-smooth land seal
and the abradable land seal experienced a reduction in leakage with increasing knife
rotational velocity. However, in Figures 22 and 23 the honeycomb land showed a mixed,
but small effect due to knife rotation. Table III summarizes the dynamic test results
and shows that the solid-smooth land experienced an 8.9% reduction in leakage at .025 cm
clearance and 6.7% reduction for .051 am clearance between static and the maximum knife
tip velocity tested of 239 m/s. The air leakage past the abradable land shows a reduc-
tion of 9.9% and 10.3% from static to maximum dynamic conditions for .025 cm and .051
am clearances, respectively. Table III also shuws that the honeycomb land leakage at
.025 cm clearance was Increased 2.4% at 239 n/e but was reduced 2.6% at the .051 cm
clearance compared with hesatic performance.

The 3D rig straight seal static and dynamic performance with abradable and honeycomb
lands is compared to that with the baseline, solid-smooth land in Table IV at a 2.0
seal pressure ratio. The 3D rig maximum rotational velocity results show that the
abradable land leakage is 2.2% higher than the solid-smooth land at .025 cm radial
clearance, and 4.9% less than the solid-smooth land at .051 cm clearance. The 3D rig
statIc results show the abradable land leakage 3.4% higher than the solid-smooth land
at .025 cm clearance and 1.1% lower at .051 cm clearance. Dy comparison, the 2D rig
results showed the abradable land leakage to be 9.8% and 9.9% higher than the solid-
smooth land at .025 am and .051 cm clearance, respectively. The difference in the
abradable land leakage between the 2D rig and the static 3D rig results is attributed
to the difference in porosity leakage and surface finish. Additional testing will be
required to identify these individual effecte on abradable land leakage.
Table IV shows that the honeycomb land leakage in the 3D rig was 4.9% less statically
than the solid-smooth land, but 6.9% greater at 239 m/8 for .025 cm clearance. The
honeycomb land leakage at .051 cm clearance was 27.4% lower than the solid-smooth land
statically and 24.2% less at 239 m/s. Therefore, the use of .160 cm cell honeycomb
lands above .025 am clwaranoe provides a substantial reduction in leakage of oonven-

I tional straight-through heals.

.4, i:5 -i;•-"" - " t -i I . . 'f l I r

 Advanced Design Labyrinth Seal Results

The approach used in this investigation to reduce labyrinth seal leakage was to improve
sealing effectiveness through the use of unique geometry configurations designed to in-
crease the internal seal cavity turbulence. Several candidate configuration concepts
are shown in Figure 24 (References 2 and 3).
Numerous geometric parameters influence the level of internal seal cavity turbulence.
Mie effects of some geometric parameters can be calculated analytically, but the
interactions of the numerous geometric parameters involved in a labyrinth seal design
are complex and do not lend themselves to current analytical methods. Therefore, a
water tunnel flow visualization rig, with adjustable seal geometry components, was
used for the preliminary evaluation of the turbulence generated by the candidate seal
designs. A typical water rig photograph of an advanced seal concept is shown in Figure
25. Arrows have been added to indicate the observed flow direction. The seal pitch,
knife angle, and step height were varied to obtain an optimum mix of geometry. The
water rig proved to be an invaluable tool for screening seal designs since the evalua-
tion of numerous design features of the candidate seal could be made rapidly and
economically with the same hardware.

Baased on the results of the water rig tests, several candidate designs and derivitive
designs were fabricated and tested statically and dynamically in the 15.3 cm diameter
air seal rig (shown in Figure 9.) The static results at .025 cai clearance for Designs
1, 3, 4, and 5, and a baseline conventional mtap seal are given in Figure 26. A
performance comparison of the advanced seal configurations with the baseline seal is
also presented in Table V at a 2.0 pressure ratio. This table shows that the advanced
designs achieved a 12.8% to 14.0% reduction in static leakage, compared to the baseline
seal. The dynamic test results at the maximum test velocity oi' 239 m/s show little
additional effect on leakage. Table V almo shows that the conventional step seal ex-
perienced a 0.8% increase in leakage, while the advanced designs ranged between a 3.2%
Increase to a 1.4% decrease in leakage. The net dynamic results for the advanced
designs, therefore, showed a leakage reduction range from 10.7% to 15.9%.

Additional development work (Reference 1) was accomplished on the advanced seal Designs
4 and 5 shown in Figure 24. Variable geometry components similar to the water tunnel
rig hardware were used in the 2D rig (Figure 6) to optimize the performance of these
seal designs. The parameters investigated included knife pitch, knife height, stop
height, land notch, and knife angle. The Design 4 optimized configuration is shown in
Figure 27. Design 5, shown in Figure 28, uses the same optimized dimensions as Design
4, but with the seal knives canted in the opposite direction. Design 4 is intended for
leakage flow in the large-diameter-to-small diameter direction. Design 5 is applicable
for leakage flow in the small-to-large-diameter direction. The static and dynamic
performance characteristics for the optimized advanced seal derived from the 3D rig
l* tests are presented In Figures 29 and 30 for Designs 4 and 5, respectively. A perfor-
mance curve for a similar, conventional stepped seal has been included on these figures
for comparison purposes. A single curve for the baseline seal has been used for
simplicity since rotational effects were found to be less than 3.% of the static
performance (Reference 3). The performance curves of Figures 29 and 30 apply to a
.051 cm clearance.
Table VI summarizes and compares the performarcoe of the optimized
baseline stepped seal. The optimized Design 4 seal reduces leakageadvanced seals to the
16.4% dynamically
compared to the baseline seal. Design 5 reduced leakage 26.9% dynamically. These
results show that substantial performance gains can be anhieved with improved internal
cavity turbulence.

Table VI alas shrws that the effects on leakage of seal knife rotation for the conven-
tional stepped seal
respec tively). and the 5 optimized Design 4 seal weresensitivity
quite sirtallto (-2.9% and with
-2.2%,
Who Design seal showed slightly mov'e rotation a
5.9% reduction in leakage at the maximum test velocity of 239 m/s.

CONCOLUSIONS

Advanced design labyrinth seals incorporating geometric features to increase seal

cavity turbulence substantially reduce leakage. Optimized geometry for an advanced
seal design with high internal cavity turbulence was developed that reduced leakage
26.9% compared to a conventional stepped seal.
Convent.Lonal straight-through labyrinth seals with honeycomb lands reduced leakage up
to 24.2$ ut .051 cm clearance compared to a solid-smooth land. However, as clearance
decreased to .013 cm, the honeycomb lands were found to inoruase leakage above a solid-
smooth land.

mom
 13-7/I3~7

Surfaoe roughness effects of the non-porous abradable lands contributed toward reducing
leakage up to 7.8% at .025 om clearance for conventional straight-through seals. Addi-
tional studies are required to investigate this effect and to provide design guidelines
and analytical methods.
Conventional straight-through seals leak substantially more with porous-abradable lands
than with solid-smooth lands, as expected. The porous-abradable lands tested showed an
increase in leakage over a solid-smooth land of 60.3% at .013 am clearance and 12.6% at
.051 cm clearance.
Seal knife rotational velocity had mixed effects on seal performance, Leakage for a
conventional straight-through seal using a solid-smooth or an abradable land was re-
duced up to 10.% at 239 m/s knife tip velooity. However, the honeycomb land only ex-
perienced a +2.5% leakage change, depending on clearance. The advanced design seal
experienced a maximum leakage reduction of 5.9% at 239 m/s compared to the static
results. A comparable stepped seal experienced a 2.9% leakage reduction at 239 m/s
knise W
velocity.

REFERENCES

1. Stocker, H. L., Cox, D. M., and Holle, G.P.,"Aerodynamic Performance of Convwntional

and Advanced Design Labyrinth Seals with Solid-Smooth Abradable, and Honeycomb
Lands," Detroit Diesel Allison EDR 9339, November 197f.
2. Stocker, H. L., "Exploratory Investigation for Reducing Labyrinth Seal Leakage in
High Pressure Ratio Gas Turbines," Detroit Diesel Allison EDR 7968, September 1973.

3. Cox, D. M., "Advanced Labyrinth Seal Development Program," Detroit Diesel Allison
EDR 8539, July 1975.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shapiro, A. H., The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of OoMpr.o.sible Fluid Flow, Vol. X,
Chapter ,4.
Labyrinth Seal Leakage Flow Analogy, Detroit Diesel Allison ETH 73001, March 1973.

Stocker, H. L., Advanced Labyrinth Seal Design for High Pressure Batio Gan Turbines,
ASME Paper 75-WA/GT42j, jDecember 175.
Meyer$ C. A., and Lowrie, J. A., III, The Leakage Thr_ Straight and Slat Labyrinth
Seals, ASME Paper 75-WA/PTC-2, August i97"I.
Mahler, F., Advanced Seal Technoloigy, APAPL..TH-7.-8, FabrutuLy 1972.
Mahler, V., Advanced Segl Technology, AFAPL-T1,-72-7, February 1972.
Koeing, H., and Bowley, W., Labyrinth Sea1 AnA4JLis, ASME, January 1972.
Ueda, T., and Jubo, T.I The Leakage of Ai_ Trouh Radial Labyrinth Glands, Japon
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol, IQ . 30, 97.
Zabriskie, W., and Sternlioht, B., Labyrinth Se*l Leakage Analysir, ASME, 1959.
Kearton, W. J., and Keh, T. It.,Leakjge of Air Thrugh Labyrinth Sal.l, Proceedings
of the Institute of Mechanical Einir, Rs A, Vol. 1!)5D
Egli, A.ý Leakage of Steam Throucth LabyvinthSeals, ASME 1935, Vol. 57.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The results presented in this paper, were derived from three contractual programs; two
With the Naval Air Propulsion Test Center (NAPTC), Trenton, New Jersey (Contract
N00140-73-0-005, and N00140-7i..C-0759) and one with the NASA/Lewvi Research Center,
Cleveland, Ohio (Contract NA33-20056.) The author wishes to express his sincere
appreciation to the Naval Air Propulsion Test Center and NASA/Lewis Research Center
for permission to publish this paper. Special thanks are extended to William Wagner
and Guy Mangano of NAPTO and Dr. John Zuk, Larry Ludwig, and Tom Strom of NASA for
their helpful suggestlor.s and comments dtrIng the course of the oontraot work.

S...•- ].........
.... • .. •=-•
....... • •;: °.:•.= e• " :,•=.•;'••. ',;"...........,...,......,...........,.-.,
I- , .- -••:''•• . -•..' • .• " --
 1.2]

* 1.0

CONMVTIONAL 4 KNIFE
0.4 STRAIMN-IIROUCH M
CLEARANCE - 0.S cm

I A I I I l I I I

10 12 14 1I 20 U 24 A I
-24
COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO
FIGURE 1. IFECTOF COMPIESIOR PRESSU0E
RATIO ON LAIYRININ SEAL
LEAKAGE

TRADE-OFF IN
ADVANCED TRANSPOIRT IENGINE _ ET ic

REDUCTION OF1%SEAL LEAKAGE - 0.00 THRUST HP COMPRESSOR

(WITH REMATCHING) OR
BPR 5.25 - -0,40%SFC 4O*-SI%,HP TURBINE!

FIGURE 2. PERFORMANCE PAYVFTS FOR REDUCING HIGH PRESSURE

TURBINE SEAL LEAKAGE 1%OF ENGINE
AIRFLOW

AmREDUCTION INLAKAOE FOR

EACH SEAl, INENGINE TYPICALLY
YIELDS ASPECIFIC FUEL
CONSUMPTION REDUCTION OF ... 2.7%

U.S. CTICIAL AND MILITARY

V ANWNAL JT FUEL
PROJECTED CONSUMPTION
FOR 197/)'..........15,912,54,IX)GCOALI.ONS

A 2,7 REDUCTION IN
FIJ•CONSUMPTO SPECIFIC
ANNUALLY ...............Wt

OAINI P4 PIFICAL
2,7%IOREDCTIOTN INflQYAWMI~tltION,
W ALLY. ..... ......I .... 29. d~i GLOII
FICECO AVIMTION
FWLLS

FIGURE 3. EFECT OF REDUCING ALLSEAL LEAKAGE

29% INGAS TIRSINE MNINES

TO
DISTANCE TIP TIIICKNESS IKT;
KNIFE
1D0)
CONTACT
SlPipHEIGHTISi). - CLARANCEICI)
RADIAL

LE .... ' I LAROE4O-SMAL-.IAMEIER tLSD)

KNIFE
.... I' IFLOW DIRECTION
JROT04
SMALLTI4AR&EVIAMI1E (SILo) KNoIli PITCH
IRPI
LO DIRECTION
FIGURE4. SEAL MNO ,,AIU

i ... ,' ';. • , , , , ,i - " - - - - '- -- -

 13-9

-4.3cm

~~~38.cm

47.8 ccm

Y.11
2
A 1 A
~

I~~
FIGURE?.SKMHO 1WATIERUNELFO ISUALIZATIOSNT SRIG I TS I NSALTO
 oLICTý aws
Im~t&~l es ^o ario

FIG4JRE
9. SKETCH OF THREE AIR SEAL
-DIME~NSIONAL TIEST
RIG

4 IQ41FESTRAIGHT SEAL WITH SOLID SMOOTH LAND

KIP - .279 cm KH -0.279 cm CLEARANCE-0. (1 cm

0Q. -O

CL ~-0-30 RItIGSTATI C DATA

0O2D STATIC RIG DATA
0.01

ORI I I-
1.0 i.2 1.4 1.6 1.6 2,0 2.2 2.4 2.6
SEAL PIESURIE RATIO JPW~ppj
FIGURE P. PERFORRMANCIE COMIPARISON4 FOR 2DRIG4 IISTAHTELWIh.ImCLLONCOBAD
Al STATIC CONDITIONS 4K ESN H ELWIT .10cfCL OEWILN
;rj Kp -0.27 con KI4-'0. 27 con CUARANCE- 061 co

4310 RIC SrATIC DATA

010 STATIC RIG DATA

1.0 1.2 1.4 L6 1.1 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2,3

SELPRIESSURE
RATIO 110IPWPO
FIGURE II. WRIFCRVANCIE COMPARIS04 FOR 2D ftUSA It RIG
AT STATIC cCOMMIONS
 13-11

FIGURE 12. CONVENTIONAL STRAIGHT-THROUGH SEA? 'ISEDIN

2DRIG SEAL LAND PERFORMANCEEVALUA)ION

FIGURE 13. 21)TEST RIG STRAIGHIT SEAL LANDS

o Smooth Land
*~Al-Poyester

iIa
z.0
AbrafdtIe "B"

.01 Clearance .013 cm

Pith -.219cm
Knife Height - .279 cm
0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.5
Seul Pressure Ratio (PUIPDI
FIGURE 14. 2D RIG FOUR KNIFE STRAIGHT SEAL. WITH SMOOTH ANDO
ABRADABLE LANDS
13-12

Clarence wfk Change Fromi

Landcm 4C) _jASmoothWill
Smooth .013 Q77 0.
.051 AMT 0.
Abradebl "A" .013 .05) 427.4%
.00 Xm9 49.5%

Abraftc II'3s .013 .004 +11C.".

.151 .012 .12.6%

Ni-Graphlla .013 .026 - 3.0%

025 .151 7.3% _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
.151 .0~4 +2.3%WA

Al-Po~lyalr .013 .027 0.0 +0 LAND SU'A

,111
.112 - 0.4% wk a MU0r*1o w c.
.51 .UI 4 0 Aulnumi.PsIyala 1 11090101u
Notm
+ Indicutus Inkage grater than &MOM 4
land at comprabl. clearmnce. Knll Slr~hM
Four SOW
InIats@*n * Ion than smooth 10dbol Hoogt
-.219CIA
Uana at comip~ros clearanca. + Th n. -. 0n CIA
Tip
KANO
S20

TABLE
I COMPAPIRSON OFSAIOOTH ANDABRADASLE LAND .
PERFORMANCE AT2.0 PRESSURE RATIO

Stll Ck"Ine - co*

COMPARI
FIGURED1. 501OPAIRAPASUELANDS
MWOSWACO

o Smo101h Land
Honem Lands. .381 cm Dwe

Knife Heiht - .279 cm

1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
5161 Pressure ROWtIo
PIPO)
FIGUIRE 16. 20 RIG FOUR KNIFE STRAIGHT SEA WITH SMOOTH AND HONEYCOMB LANDS
 13-13

Clerance U Chane From

Land Type cm) P A Smooth Land

Smooth .01)3. .077

.05 .0272 0,
.051 .O277 0.

Hon•yo" Cell .013 .0264 - 4.9

.019cm .05 .10 -11.7%
.(61 .10242 -12.6%

Hvnicomb Cell .013 .0W45 24.4%

.10cm .025
.51 .02
.1029 --21.1%
7.3%

Honhycomb Cail .013 .W44 +96.2%

.318 cm .0 .003 +11.2%
.151 .0226 -18.4%

NoWe+ Indicas laMp pretr thn smooth

land at comnprslo clurarce.
- Inicatu leakage lass than smooth
land at conperaie dlarance.

II COM
TABLE PARISON OF SMOOTH AND HONEYCOMB LAND
PERFORMANCE AT 2.0 PRESSURE RATIO

too

Sym" Coll Size

-2.0
PuID cm
0 .079
CJ
-20 .0 . I0 .3.1

N •, Four Krlk Straopt Soa

1o1121191

i2 - SD Cl'earane-cm

FIGURE 17. COMPARISON OWHONEYCOMB lANDS

TokA
,.nRTpATIVE SMOOTH LAND

I IT I TOA SMOT LAN

13.14

Legend

.05
SpeeW (rpm) V(m/s. ,a
0 0 0

.04 A200m0 159

mm300 239

Clearance .W5 cm
.01 Pitch - .279 cm
Knife Height- .219 cm

1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.8 2.6 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
Seal Pressure Ratfo (PUIPD)

FIGURE 18. FOUR KNIFE STRAIGHT SEAL - SMOOTH LAND

S Legend
Speed (rpm) V (m/s)

o 0 0
01l0W) 80

159
V 20000
.04 - a 30000 239

.03

Clearance • .051 cm
.01 Pitch - .279 cm
Knife HeIght .279 cm
0 I I I I I I . I I . 1.

1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
Seal Pressure Ratio (PU/PD)

FIGURE 19. FOUR KNIFE STRAIGHT SEAL - SMOOTH LAND

 s3j

-V 1(M/
1.0
1. 1.4 16
2Mss
~ 0
20 2. 24
S4m r. t
Z6 2. i0
1
FIGURE 01593
20.
F U9LNF ~ 3.
TR I H
-A RA A L ALa~

14' tgen

0
.7:
cm
26 2..2 3.
24 2-SOS
1.6
Prusre
) RO(U/P34 3. 3I

0 loomU, 20to 2.8

I
7 3P0P0 0a

FI.E2.F02NFESR
239 3.53 89

I H EL -A8 A A~ 'AL JD/

Claac
Pic 20c I5
1.2
14 K/1
 .0c Legend

.05 0 0 0
0 loam so0
,820000 159
.04 '7 NoC 239

Clearmnce -(125 cm
.01 Pitch -.279 cm
Knife Height - .279 cm

'I1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
II Seal Pressure Ratio iPUIPD)
FIGURE 22. FOUR KNIFE STRAIGHT SEAL - HONEYCOMB LAND

II .06
Legend
.0 Speed (rpm) V (m/is)
0 i80
a 20000 159
~.O V730000 239

.01Clearance -. 051cm
Pth-.279cm
Knife Height - .219 cm

1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2,8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
Seal Pressure Ratio (P/D
FIGURE 23. FOUR KNIFE STRA IGHT SEA - HONEYCOMB LAND
 13-17

WVT K,/K

CL V, 0 V • 8iV V 1-9 V-239

Salid-Smoh ,M .066 -2.6 -6.0 - 8.9

.01 am +1.3 -1.9 - 6.7
Abradtle "A" .25 .1275 -1.6 -5.5 - 9.9
.01 .am - . -4.6 -10.3
How~ b Cell ,M5 . '53 -1,2 -1.2 + 2.4
l6Cm .01 .OS - .7 -2.2 - 2.6

Ill ErFECT OFROTATION ON THEPERFORMANCE OFA FOUR KNIFE STRAIGHT

TABLU
SEAL ATPuIPD - 2.0 WITH SMOOTH, ABRADALF., AND HONEYCOMB LANDS

CL V- V. V -159 V- 239

Solid-Smooth .5 Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline

Abradale"A" 4 3.4
, 4.4 + 4,0 + 2.2
1Hornwfcb - 4.9 - 3.5 0 4 6.9

Sodld-Smoedh .051 Baseline Baseline Baselne Baseline

Abradale "A" - 1.1 - 3,2 - 3.8 - 4.9
'Honqcomb -27.4 -21.9 -27.7 -24,2
0 s, Solid-Smooth Land FIo Parameter
. Abradabile "A or Hecomb Flo Parameter

*Honeycomb Cell Size - .160cm; cell delh - .230 cm

TABLE
IV COMPARISON OF ABRADABLE ANDHONEYCOMB SEAL LAND PERFORMANCE
WITH SOLI DLAND AT2.0 PRESSURE RATIO

1
I;esn Dissgn 2 Dalgn 3

DesIgn 4 0""n 5

FIGURE 24. S*7TC(M OF ADVANCED LAIYItN1H SEAL

 13-18

FIGURE 25. WATER RIG PHOTOGRAPH OF CANDIDATE SEAL 9

0.25 cm TANGENTIAL BLEED SLOT.
it (ARROWS NOTE FLOW DIRECTION.)

ConvenionaSep Seal

SPePs atorac
r f RaneUO Avaned
RO
FIGC 6.ARI ON W~DVA C
EM
SEAL
E
DeinSalInei
DESIGN A YR
oNoNNignA
PERIORMANCE Sol
IN
P SEAL
 13-19

Percent Leakage Re~uicon Dynamic Test Leakage

Coipered to Baseline Seal Change From Static Test
V.0 V -231
Configuration .UL.- -ADLL
Baseline Converdional +0.8%
$tep Suel
Design 1 1U.S 10.7 +3.2%
Design 3 13,6 13.5 +0'.9*
Design 4 13.6 13.5 +0.9%
Design 5 1,1.
0 15.9 1%
Radal Cleerincet .US cm

TABLE
V SUMMARY OFSTATIC AND DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE
OFADVANCCD DESIGN LABYRINTH
SEALSCOMPARED TOiCONVOITIONAil STEP
SEAL
ATA 2.0 PRESSURE RATIO

LAND(SATION7RY
LEAKAGE FLOW
LARGE-TO-SMALL-DI AMMETER
* FLOW DIRECTION

GEQMETRIJ
DjINfl.
PITCH - 0.762 ra
STEP HEIGHT - 0.305 cm
KNIFE HEIGHT - 0.381 cm
KN IFE ANGLE - 50'

FIGURE 27. OPTIMIZED ADVANCED SiAL CONFIGURATION

ýLNIlSTATIONAPY 0.)s o

- -0.03cm RADIUS

lox. 063 C LEAKAGE FLOW

SMALL-TO-LARGE-DIAMETER
FLOW DIRECTION

GEOMETRIC DEFINITION
PITCH 0.71 2 cm
STEP HEIGHIT -0.305 cm
KNIFE HEIGHT- C381 cm
FIGURE 28. OPTIMIZED ADVANCED SEAL CONFIGURATION
 13-20

.030
Legend
Sped (rpm) V Irlas)
.025 0 0 0
13 ]OOX so
4 . a0 2000 159 Standard Stepped Seal

S.015

,• JJ" Pitch - .762 cm "

I Knife Height - .381 cm
Step Height - .305 cm
.005 Knife Angle 50"
Distance to Contact - .259 ui,
0 I I I I I , , I I , I .
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3,0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
Seal Pressure Ratio (PU1PD)

FIGURE29. FOUR KNIFE ADVANCED STEPPED SEAL- DESIGN 4

•,1 .11130
Legend
Sped(rm V (mls) '
• QS 0--o---- --T
80
,.30000
2 1 Standard Stopped Seal

• 015 i'

0 0Clearance .00 cm
F ~Knife Ht•ht - .,5I cm
Step Heht .30 cm
Knife Angle 50'
Distance to Contact .368 cm

1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2,2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
Soil Pressure Ratio (PuiPo)

FIGURE 30. FOUR KNIFE ADVANCED SIEPPED SEAL - DESIGN 5

_ -
 13-21

Percent Leakage Reduction Dynamic Testage

Compred to Baseline Sool Change From Static Test
V-0 V.239
Conflgyratlors mIs m/s
Bsselne Coiwrilonel .tiona
Step Sel
Optimized Advanced
Sol - Dosgn 4 17,1 16.4 -2,2%
Olilmized Advmnc*C
Sol - Design , ?3.9 26,V -5.9%
Radial Clursnre • . 1 cmal

TABLE VI SUMMARY OFOPTIMIZED ADVANCED DESIGN LABYRINTH

SEAL PERFORMANCE AT A2.0 PRESSURE RATIO

DISCUSSION

A.Moore, UK
The advanced design described in your lecture uses airflows entering the seal at the smaller diameter and shows a
significant improvement with rotational speed. If the airflow enters the seal at a larger diameter, i.e, if the airflow
is reversed, Is the effect of rotation Increased?

Author's Reply
The optimized advanced seal design was developed initially for flow in the "large-to-ranall-diameter" direction as
shown in Figure 27. Canting the knives into the flow was found to be beneficial. However, application require-
ments exist that require sealing In the opposite flow direction. To address this application, the advanced seal
knives of Figure 27 were canted the same amount In the opposite direction as shown In Figure 28. The rotation
effe(ts were slightly different for the two configurations. Using the small-to-large-diameter seal design for flow
in the opposite direction has not been tested either statically or dynamically, but I would expect the static leakage
to be higher when compared to the leakage flowing in the designed direction, If the effects of rotation were
greater for reverse leakage in the small-to-large-diameter seal design, It would havc to offset any increase in static
leakage to yield a net gain in sealing efficiency. My experience has shown that rotation has a small effect on the
static leakage performance of labyrinth seals.

A.Moore, UK
Do you get the same benefits, or other benefits (more or less) with rotation when the flow is directed from a large
diameter to a small diameter?

Author's Reply
The advanced seal configuration shown in Figures 27 and 28 were designed for leakage flow in a specific direction.
These configurations were subsequently not tested statically or dynamically for a leakage flow direction opposite to
the design direction,
However, the measured effects of rotation on leakage for the two advanced seal designs shows that the small-to-large-
diameter configuration, shown in Figure 28, experienced a slightly higher reduction In leakage with rotation, 5.9%,
than the large-to-small-diameter design, shown in Figure 27, which had a 2.2% reduction in leakage with rotation.

G.A.Halhs, UK
Would you please comment on the accuracy and repeatability of your results, particularly on the rotating rig,
bearing in mind that a small change in clearance of say 0.0025 cm can produce a 10% chanfe In the flow of a seal
of 0.025 cm gap.
How sure are you that the changes in flow which you measure are due to the configuration anti do not come from
a gap change which has crept in unnoticed.

*d
 ii-~2

Author's Reply
The dynamic rig test seals that we use are approximately 15.2 cm (6.0 in.) in diameter. Ambient temperature air
is used for all testing thus eliminating the thermal growth effects. Several approaches have been used to determine
seal clearance at the rotational test speeds. To begin, the seal rotor and land diameter are measured at four
circumferential locations to obtain the average static condition clearance, The rotor and land are also measured
to determine that the maximum and minimum diameters are within print tolerances. The assembled seal
configuration in the rig is checked for radial clearance using a feeler gauge at four circumferential locations.
The running clearance is determined by applying the calculated radial growth of the rotor to the measured
clearances. A check of the calculated radial growth was made by using plastic rub strips and measuring the depth
of the knife groove after running at various speed levels,
It should be noted that the same straight-through seal rotor is used to evaluate the smooth, abradable, and
honeycomb lands. The same radial growth increment is applied, at a given speed, for each land tested. Therefore,
the test results were all obtained with the same radial clearance change and the static to dynamic percent change
is consistent with each configuration, The sensitivity of seal leakage to clearance is acknowledged and I feel that
the attention we have given to this influencing parameter has been adequate and accurate.

F.Mahler, US
(a) Have you any conclusions as to the sensitivity of leakage, in the advanced seal, to the axial gap between the
land extension and the canted knife edge?
(b) Have you any data on the rub tolerance of the advanced seal in conjunction with the various land types with
respect to either mechanical condition or leakage after rub?

Author's Reply
(a) Thie advanced seal has been tested for various axial gaps between the land extension and the canted knife edge.
As expected, the performance of the advance seal does change with variation in the knife to land axial gap,
However, a similar set of information has not been generated for the conventional step seal. Therefore, a
comparison of the performance of the advanced seal design and the conventional step seal at various axial
gaps has not been made. The results I have presented comparing the advanced seal to the conventional step
seal have been obtained at the same axial gap.
(b) I do not have any data regarding the rub tolerance of the advanced seal design. The use of striated, abradable,
and honeycomb lands with the advanced seal is being investigated, These lands provide rub tolerance for
conventional labyrinth seals and may be useful for the advanced seal,

B.H.Becker, Germany
In turbomachinery there Is generally a very limited axial space. Comparing the pitch values of the optimized step
seal with the straight-through seal shows nearly a factor of three for the same clearance. The fact that the straight-
through seal may have a much higher number of knives for a given axial length therefore should be taken into
account when comparing the leakage flows.

Author's Reply
The advanced seal design is primarily directed to the same application area as the conventional step seal. This
application area is high radial clearances. Granted, more knives can be gotten into a given axial distance using a
straight-through seal as compared to a step seal. However, as radial operating clearances get above 0.0381 cm
(0.015 In.), the efficiency of the straight-through seal is less than the step seal. Adding more knives to the straight-
through seal will reduce leakage, but most designers find that for a given axial length, a stepped seal will have equal
or lower leakage than the best straight-through seal when the radial clearance is 0.0381 cm (0.015 in.) or greater.
 14-1

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH RUB TOLERANCE OF COMPRESSOR TIP SEALS

Charles W. Elrod
Aerospace Engineer
Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory
Components Branch (AFAPL/TBC)
Wright-Patterson APB, Ohio

SUMMARY

This paper will examine the ineffective tolerance of compressor blade tip seals to high speed rubs.
Research being conducted by the Air Force Aero-Propulsion Laboratory, at Wright-Patterson Air Force ease
will be described which examine basic issues of the problem.

Two facilities used to study different facets of -the problem will be described and the integration
of the test data from the facilities in the overall rub tolerance program will be delineated. A Compreo-
sor Rub Test Facility (CRTF) including a single compressor stage driven by an electric motor drive is used
to study rub interaction in a realistic compressor environment. The apparatus is unique in its capability
to provide a full range of compressor operating conditions and rub interaction rates for a full scale tip
seal configuration.

The second facility, a laser test facility, is used to examine the phenomena of self sustained com.-
bustion of titanium in a simulated compressor environment, especially the environment involved in the CRTF.
Although the information being generated is applicable to various compressor environments it is of par-
ticular interest to the CRTF. The burn rate and damage criteria is being used to develop proper pro-
cedures for safe test operation. In addition, the pressure, temperature, and velocity relationshipo on
self sustained combustion of titanium are noted to have significant relevance to many situations outside
the CRTF environment.

INTRODUCTION

Performance and economy have become increasingly important to gas turbine anginu technology in recent
years. As a result, areas such as air flow management and in particular gas path seals are receiving con-
cerned attention. Parameters which were considered important but not critical a&-enow being carefully
examined. One such parameter is clearance, ie., the space between a rotating and stationary part.

The effects of clearance and the desire to minimize this loss factor are known and have been reported,
ref. 1. Decreasing the clearance of a turbine tip seal 0.0254 cm. can produce fuel cost savings in excess
of $1,000,000 for a fleet of engines. These figures are even more striking when one considurs that clear-
ances exceeding 0.152 cm. nre iiotuncommon.

Reducing clearances on the other hand is not accomplished without some penalty, Penalty in the form
of blade wear, deleterious debris and excessive heat generation are common occurrances and are sometimes
lumped into the category of rub tolerance. The concept of rob tolerance is associated with blade/case
interference, vane/rotor interference and labyrinth tooth/stator interference.

The interference occurs, for example, as a result of differential thermal growth between rotating and
stationary parts, as a result of sudden radial transients during landing, takeoff or hard maneuvers, or
from some structural failure. The effects of these radial excursions can, in most cases, be minimized
with good design and proper material selection.

In the area of tip seals, which this paper will address, the designs and material prublems have been
noted for a number of years, however, most solutions have been trial and error. That is not to say re-
search is inadequate or unsystematic, but the transition from laboratory simulation to real engine environ-
ments has been difficult. Materials which look good as rub tolerant tip seals (case treatments) in
laboratory rigs do not exhibit those same features in the engine.

As a result of these inconsistencies and the desire to understand the mechanism of rub tolerance, the
United States Air Force, at Wright Patterson APB has initiated study programs to examine the various
features associated with wear and heat generation.

The program consists of analytical models relating to friction and wear, which will be consolidated
into a generalized analysis and design tool, and experimental programs to quantify the parameters relat-
ing to rub tolerance.

It is important to note that the parameters relating to rub tolerance include not only design criteria
such as the amount of energy dissipated, the heat split between rotor and stator and the wear mechanism
but they also include a study of the problems arising from severe rubs. One of these problems, the
ignition of titanium blades, was a catalyst in focusing attention of rub tolerance and prompted the initi-
ation of a number of experimental programs to examine the problem. The paper will describe one program
involving a full scale single stage compressor to study rub initiated titanium combustion and a comple-
montary program defining titanium butn rates, sustained combustion criteria and extinguishment problems.

COMPRESSOR RU! TEST FACILITY

The Compressor Rub Test Facility (CRTF) was designed and built to study the ignition of titanium
blades in a real engine environment during a rub situation. A number of configurations were considered

-... i - - - - - --- - - -
 14-7.

in the initial design stages but most were eliminated because of non-adaptability to the focilities
that were available. Ono concept which appeared feasible involved a high pressure gas source, flow
control valves and an exhaust system, see Figure 1. Considerable attention was given to the design,
especially in the areas of system repressurization, system capacity and flow control.

SYSTEM I

FIGURE 1 -- SCHEMATIC OF OPEN LOOP RUB TEST FACILITY

The Concept was abandoned, however, in favor of the one shown in Figures 2 and 3. One of the primary
reasons was air availability. If the closed loop design is successful the amount of air needed for a
test sequence is only .8Sm plus an additional .907 Kg per second for leakage control, makeup air and
pneumatic valving.
Although the facility was designed to provide a fuil scale compressor environment for rub initiated
titanium combustion, the capabilities of the apparatus far exceed these requirements. Before proceeding
with a discussion of these capabilities a general physical description of the facility is in order.
Basically, the apparatus is a closed loop flow system incorporating a single compressor stage from a
gas turbine engine, inthe test section, driven by an electrical motor drive through a gearbox. The loop
is supported by a metal structure and air is supplied from a high pressure gas source. The controls
feature remote operation from beneath the test stand.
The drive system is a ISO0 hp synchronous motor capable of speed variations from 0-3000 rpm. The
motor is housed in a concrete structure with the output shaft 10.67 maters above ground level, since the
rig was previously used to test propellers. The Jack shaft of the electric motor is connected to the low
speed end of an aircraft gearbox by a low speed coupling assembly.
The high spoed drive from the gearbox incorporates a flexible coupling for misalignment, two bearings
(one being a roller and the other a thrust absorber) and the single stage rotor assembly. The gearbox is
mounted to the test loop support structure to minimize misalignment in the high speed shaft due to thermal
growth differences between the metal and the concrete support structures.
The test loop includes a flow straightening or distortion xection (1), a test annulus with inlet and
exit guide vanes (2), a diffuser/eohaust section (3), a fill/bleed section (4), and a flow measurement
section (5). Air is bled into the cavities 2a and 2b beneath the test annulus to prevent ingestion or
loss of high temperature air from the test section. A hydraulic actuator is positioned on the outer sur-
face of the case segment, included with the stator assembly, to provide controlled deflection into the
rotor, The amount of interference is controlled by a Linear Velocity Differential Transducer and rub
depths of .025- .102 oc will be provided. The test loop is also insulated to prevent excessive heat loss
and instrumented to obtain loop temperatures and pressures.

i m mm mmmfm •:
 14-3

COMPRESSOR RUB TEST FACILITY

TEST ARTICLE

MOTOR
SBox DRIVE

3
[ -- ý R---4

DIFFUSER

X. FLow METER

OUTLET

EMERGENCY

BUTTERFLY
VALVE NLET

FIGURE 2 SCHEMATIC CLOSED Loop

The operation of the facility involves first pressurizing the loop to the desired pressure and slowly
bring the rotor up to speed. The flow through the loop is allowed to stabilize and the temperature allowed
to rise until the desired conditions are reached. Once the loop is at the proper settings the inlet bleed
valve is opened to introduce cold (ambient) air from the pressure source. The amount of air bled into the
system (Cm) is just enough to overcome the heat input from the drive system (Win) less the heat loss
through the insulation (QL), the hot air lost through leakage (1L) and the hot air removed by the pressure
relief system (aR).

mepT - Win-QL-mLCpT-NtRJCpT

At this point the lpparatus is ready to initiate testing.

The facility in its current configuration is capable ofLperforming tests on the instslled compressor
stage within the limits shown below:

Speed -- 9000-14,000 rpm

Temperature -- 150%Z - 480'C
Pressure -- 345 kPn - 830 kPa
Incursion Rates -- .0025 - .025 cm/sec
These limitations are primarily a function of the stage being tested. The first series of tests will be

run at the upper ranges of speed, temperature and pressure while the rub depth will be .076 cm and the
incursion rate .013 ca/sec. The blades in the test stage are, of course, titanium and the rub strip
material is a plasma sprayed Ni Cg. The rub strip material will be varied to determine the effect of
rub tolerance on titanium combustion. Initial screening of the rub strip materials to determine their
relative abradability is accomplished with a mini rub rig incorporating a 12.7 cm test disk rotating
at 2000 rpm.

The facility is currently in the final stages of checkout prior to the initiation of the first test
sequence. Prior tG the initiation of testing in the CRTF, however, a complementary program was required
of obtain
to sow basic
the program information
was required to provide a moanscombustion
on titanium and extinguishment.
of protecting
The extinguishment portion
the rub test facility in the event of a
14-4

FIGURE 3 -- COMPRESSOR RUB TEST FACILITY

massive fire and the self sustained combustion data provides information on the burn rate (reaction time
for extinguishment) and probability for massive metal combustion. Although these programs were initially
established to provide information for the CRTF they have been expanded to form the basis of a very com-
plete study on titanium combustion.

TITANIUM COIOUSTION PROGRAM

The basic titanium combustion data was obtained in two programs: a Melt Ignition Test (Ref 2) and a
Laser Ignition Test (Ref 3). The former program provided an insight into the phenomena of self-sustained
combustion and the effects 'of pressure, temperature and flow on the burn process but was abandoned in
favor of the laser test. This shift from melt ignition to laser ignition was necessary to effectively
evaluate the burn rate and self-sustained .ombustion process in greater depth. Laser ignition is a more
controlled and reliable energy source with respect to the site of ignition and the area affected by the
energy input. The results of both programs will, however, be reported since some information from each
program will be used in the CRTF.

The melt ignition program was performed in the apparatus shown in Figure 4. Air at a specified
temporature, presiure and velocity is directed at a sample (2.54 ca X 7.62 cm X .016 cm) of titanium 6A1-4V
canted 40" to tho flow. Once the flow is established, a wire (7.62cm X 6.3m X 1.6m) across an arc
 145•

BLEED OFF - -
AIRFUNCVAE
COMPRESSORS

WV CAMERA AND
SAMPLE UV INSTRUMENT

VARIABLETEM4PERAI 'RE AND

ORIFICE MOTION RSr ROE
PICTURE PRESSURE U

SCONTROLLER
IL DXTINGUISHINg""
L/LGAS
r INJECTION
CO•FROL MANI FOLD

FIGURE 4 -- TITANIUM TEST FACILITY SCHEMATIC

welder is melted by current flow and %he melt impinges on the test sample. The energy contained in the
melt is sufficient for ignition to occur, however, the dispersal of the burning droplets is difficult to
control and the ignition site varied depending on where the melt impinged on the sample, Once the fire
went out, the flow was shut off and the test terminated.

The primary data from the tests were in the form of movies. Each run was recorded by a l6ma Miliken
camera operating at 250 frames/sec and observed by closed circuit TV with a video tape capability, The
films were processed and projected on a grid and drawings made of the luminous boundaries at selected
times to obtain burn progression.

The data was plotted as boundary lines between the regions of sustained and non-sustained burning
for velocity versus temperature and velocity versus pressure. The velocity versus temperature graph,
Figure 5, indicates a relationship between velocity and temperature where an increase in velocity is
required to blowout or prevent sustained combustion as the air temperature for each isobar plotted in-
creases. The relation!:hip seems more pronounced at low pressure than at higher pressures. There does
not appear to be as maul of a relationship between velocity and pressure, see Figure 6, as observed iii
the previous plot.

Two additional features of the study which should be mentioned are the effects of sample thickness
and extinguishers. Figures 5 and 6 both illustrate the larger sustained burning region for the thin
.06 cm sample than the .016 cm sample. This phenomenon is significant when related to an actual compressow
blade with an airfoil shape, i.e., thin leading and trailing edges, thick mid-sections. The thin sections
would be expected to burn first and faster than the thicker middle section which was observed when real
blades were tested.

The extinguishment tests confirmed previous expectations relating to the difficulty of extinguishing
a titanium fire. Argon was found to be an acceptable *XtinSU13hing agent but only in concentrations
exceeding SO% by volum.,e. With argon concentrations of 90% the flow suppression was, in effect, immediato.
Nitrogen and C02, as expected, encouraged the combustion process rather than suppressed it.

As previously mentioned. the indepth investigation of titanium combustion fundamentals was conducted
in the laser ignition facility because of the reproducible nature of the ignition process. Both the site
of ignition and the amount of material ignited can be precisely controlled.

; The procedure was similar to the previous test with the major differences being the substitution of
the laser source for the melted wire and the orientation of the sample, parallel to the flow rather than
canted 40" to the flow. High speed ainematogrophy was employed and the film analyzed in a manner similar
but more extensive than in the previous test program.
14-6

80

- 448 kPa
.~'. 793 kPa
70 esoin 1138 kPa

60' (NON-SUSTAINED
BURNING)

50 -

40

40

(SUSTAINED BURNING)

20 /

100 200 300 400

TEMPERATURE ('C)
PIGURE 5 -- SUSTAINED, NON-SUSTAINED BURNING
DATA FOR SAMPLES .016cm 4 .06cm

The data was plotted in a variety of parameter relationships with the most meaningful being the
dpressure versus tmporsture for various velocity ranes, Figuress 7, oss e10hand
1. Furthermore, the
individual data points were idontiieus in terms oi the damage (% mass loss) each sanple sustained and
segregated in regions of similar damage.

The figures illustrate a strong pressure dependence but less of a temperature dependence which appears
to be a direct contradiction to the previous results. The data is being examined in further detail to
understand the possible anomalies but one must remember the ignition process was considerably different
and the sample orientation was changed. Once the original melt data is examined in more depth some of
the initial differences may disappear or a significant difference relating to melt ignition phenomena
may develop.

Some of these answers may surface during a planned extension of the laser ignition work involving
cascade or multiple blade tests. Ignition of one blade by the laser and subsequent ignition of down-
stream blades by melt impingement could clear up the current discrepancies.
The burn rate of the titanium samples was analyzed and the data plotted as shown In Figure 12. The
lines represent a best fit of the data to the equation:

y aA 1 Ixp (-A 2 xl) + A3 xp (-A4 x) + AI

The dependence of bLun rate on pressure mW velocity is quite evident from this figure. Although a pre-
cise quantification of burn rate is not available at this timeý the data does indicate the ranges oF
allowable reaction times.

! . i ...
....... ii i i~iii- .. .... i I i 1 ii -........-....-....
 121*C
80 ia" 2600C
"anll 399'C

701

60.

* 50 "-".....•. . . .a a.a. .....

40 _ , "' ,,u eu-q

.. 00

20

10
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
PRESSURE (kP&)

FIGURIE 6 -- SUSTAINED, NON-SUSTAINED BURNING DATA FOR

SAMPLES .016cm 4 .06cm

, • = -
 J i:0

1100

1sol| I" 0772.'

900 130o 534 072, U60.2-

lSS.7 -75 72.4

110 0Os.6

0 0

I 40.o3f 4o-0
0.0.30I- 1.
1 70-

, 000.0
0.0 00000.0 3

30- Co0.0 IM 37.0

100 U01

p0 0

0 100 200 300 400 500

TEM4PERATURE -*

FIGURE 7 -- MAITERIAL LOSS FOR THE VELOCITY RANGE 0-49 M/SEC

N4D•BRS BESIDE THE DATA POPIS REFER TO DMAGE ( LOSS)

1000

14 087

800
83.7120 09o.s
0]83.7
088.2

>75%
'8I
le C088.2

S4400 . 67 .4[ 77 __.4___,0 79

60. ~ ~~4.9
61.3 033.4 0JI9.s C371.5
]55.7 062.0 7.9
200 40 611
0, 19,s .0 6.7
2.0 036.3 0,00- -

0J . 4.0___D_____

0,0 100 200 300 400 S00 600

TINERATUR - F
FIGURE 8 -- NATERIAL LOSS FOR IhE VELOCITY RANGE SO-100 mt/SEC
UMBIERS BESIDE THB DATA POINTS REFER TO DANAGE (% LO)SS)
 14-9

1000
140
l8.
C3 so. s
800. 120 (380.458.1
08s2.4I

83.7 C37.2
10O0 79.
0378.3 -81.4

sB0o 0 7 .3 0805.
C371.9 > 70% DAMAGE na 82'
0

400 60 79.2 072.9

1 62. • Q91.4
0 62.8 64 .3 o.s
'6 50-75% 13
40-151
40
200 061.1 072.9
47.5- -.-- - 63.8
[3---
S2.S 25.8 DOt .. s-o
20 0 . -°o " UM24. A o .FU"•
39.6 0 7•. --. 9, "8-O
031 6,6
1

180
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE - "F
FIGURE 9 -- MATERIAL LOSS FOR THE VELOCITY RANGE 110-183 u/SEC
NUMBERS BESIDE DATA POINTS REFER TO DAMAGE (% LOSS)

1000
140 ______

800 120

089.1

60 100.
o 066.5Ua.
- U
60069.2 [ 79.6

so 63.3 - - ~ >0%0 g

773.8 S 073.3 09 _ae

400
047.5
6 3 -..
4 56_2'
.
47.J5 bo
'
064.7
I76.s
548 5i.60 67.0164
C 06,
0 63.33
200 I37, [3 S9.63.,11C0 0
0. 50 081.4
63.3
8

100 200 300 400 So0 600

TEMPERAIURE - 'F

FIGURE 10 -- MATERIAL LOSS FOR THE VELOCITY RANGE 183-274.5 r/SEC

NUMIBIERS
BESIDE TH43 DATA POINTS REFER TO DAMAGE (% LOSS)

A Ii
 14-10

1100
150

90 130

110
7

11~~90 __ _ __ ___ _ __ _

Soo
70
46.2
S59.7
055.7 _____ 46.2 V _____

50 1"3E4.6 4621 b 77,-6' 0 >75%

Soo 12.0 r39.1
.6 Z1 63.3 177.8
30 34.8 C343.01 _- ,, '
3_ 1 .52 033.0 018.1 3 9
1O"1,19 0 r023.5 023.5
10 3 i2.• 012.7 [3024.0 030.3
10 0100 200 300 400 so5 600
TEMPERATURE - 'F

FIGURE 11 -- MATERIAL LOSS FOR THE VELOCITY RANGE 274,5 - 296.5 N/SEC
NUMBERS BESIDE THE DATA POINTS REFER TO DAMAGE (% LOSS)

1000 16C

Soo .
800

600

'400

0 30 60 90 120 150
VELOCITY - FT/SEC

VELOCITY ./SEC
FIGURE 12.-- COMBUSTIONl RATE DEPENDENCE Oil VEL.OCITY AND TOTAL PRESSURE -
CURVES REPRESENT AN ARBITRARY CHOICE OF RANGES

IIIIIIIIIIIIII
II
 CONCLUSIONS
The programs described will provide valuable insights into one of the important problem areas relat-
ing to rub tolerance but more importantly two unique facilities have evolved. One with enormous potential
for testing compressor related problems over a wide range of environmental conditions and a second
facility for the study of titanium combustion in a flowing airstream are now an important part of the
United States Air Force research and development capabilities. Future programs are currently being
formulated for both experiaental rigs.

The CRTF will become a source for testing new seal materials, blade coatings or blade tip treatment
and possibly a prerequisite before the final engine verification or engine demonstration phase in a new
product development cycle. In addition, programs relating to blade flutter, disc stress, or similar
technologies can be included in the test program planning for the CRTP.

The laser ignition test program results include, in addition to the Ti 6-4 parallel flow tests, a
series of Ti 6-4 canted blade tests (where the blades are angled at 10* to the air flow), a series of
titanium alloy tests (currently 26 alloys have been ignited) and a select number of coated titanium blade
ignition tests. Future programs include multiple blade (cascade) tests, locus of ignition tests (where
the ignition site will be moved to the trailing edge and the leading edge at the midspan of the blade)
and ignition energy tests (where the minimum ignition energy as a function of airstream temperature,
pressure and velocity will be determined).

An important feature of the laser ignition tests is the applicability of the data not only to the
CRTF operation but also to the actual engine problem. A detailed knowledge of titanium combustion
behavior in an aerodynamic environment if of invaluable assistance to the engine designer. Furthermore,
the tests on titanium alloys, coatings and tip treatment will offer the engine manufacturer reassurance
in the practical use of titanium in current and future gas turbine engines.

REFERENCES

(1)Mahler, F.H., Advanced Ser.I Technology, Technical Report AFAPL-TR-72-8, February 1972.

(2) Fox, Dvrne G., Investigation of Titanium Combustion Characteristics and Suppression Techniques,
Technical Report AFAPL-TP.-75-63, February 1976.
(3) Glickstein, M.R., Manty, B.A., Lyon, S.R., Elrod, C.W., Ignition and S8lf-Sustained Combustion
of Titanium Alloys; Proceedings of the 5th DOD Laser Effects/Hardoning Conference, San Diego,
California.

.Il
14-12

DISCUSSION

GlauGman, US
How did you choose the alloys?

Author's Reply
We have gone through a list of commercially available alloys, Those which are normally used not only in the
aircraft industry but also in other industries to see if - if we look at a large cross section, a large specimen of
alloys - there are any alloying trends which tend to show up an Incombustible trend.

IGhoummn
There is a lot of knowledge in the combustion of metals which would simply say that you want to pick a metal
which basically would perform an oxide which has a self-healing effect. The trouble with titanium is that at
certain temperature titanium oxides. Perhaps the best with which you can make an alloy would be simply
aluminium. Have you tried that and does it still burn?

Author's Reply
Yes we have tried that. We tried Ti 3AI and TiAI and both burned. We could not ignite the last alloy under our
test conditions, If the weight percentage of Aluminium was between 24 and 36%. When we dropped the Aluminium
below 24% we were able to ignite the alloy. We are going to continue the testing a little more to get a more indepth
analysis of that burning process with Aluminium.
The problem with Titanium-Aluminium is because it is very brittle. Now, if you can get some ductility back Into
Titanium-Aluminium, it Is very possible that we could use this in some isolated incidents, e.g. a casing or a vane.

EE.Covert, US
In combustion of liquid droplets in gas tbrbine combustors, there is a correlating parameter which is the product
of pressure and temperature and the reciprocal of the velocity of the air flow. Have you looked for a similar type
of correlating parameter for your data?

Author's Reply
That's a distinct possibility. We had not actually considered putting it into that form. I think we may go back
and try to see if we can get some correlations.

2.i.

I,
 16-1

SELF-ACTING SHAFT SEALS

Lawrence P. Ludwig
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio 44135

SIUbARY

Self-acting seals are described in detail. The mathematical models for obtaining a seal force bal-
ance and the equilibrium operating film thickness are outlined. Particular attention is given to primary
ring response (seal vibration) to rotating seat face runout. This response analysis reveals three dfffr-
ant vibration modes with secondary seal friction being an important parameter. Leakage flow inlet pres-
sure drop and affects of azisyayetric and nonaxisymetric sealing face deformations are discussed. Exper-
imental data on self-acting face seals operating under simulated gas turbine conditions are given; these
2
data show the feasibility of operating the seal at conditions of 345 N/cm (500 psi) and 152 &/sec (500
ft/sec) sliding speed. Also a spiral groove seal design operated to 244 u/sac (800 ft/sec) is described.

SYMBOLS

*(r - r
I constant - hm 22

F sealing dam force, H; lbf

h film thickness, c; in.
2 2 1/3
hchar characteristic film thickness. (hl1 , cm; in.

I primary seal radial length

L sealing dam circumferential length, cm; in.
M Mach number

P pressure, N/i2 or N/cm 2 psi

2 2
AP pressure difference, Nl/m or N/c ; psi
Q not leakage (volume) flow rate, scma; ecfm
R radius, cm; in.
AR sealing damn radial width, R0 - Rio cm; in.

R gas constant, universal gas constsant/voloculsr weight

Re Reynolds number
r radial direction coordinate
T temperature, K; oF
V velocity, t/Lec; ft/seec
x coordinate in pressure gradient direction (radial direction)
y coordinate across film thickness
* shear flow coordinate in Cartesian system
m relative inclination angle of primary seal faces, red
S saisylmmtric relative inclination of primary seal faces, red
y sonaeisymaetric relative Inclination of primary seal faces, red
2
absolute or dynamic viscosity, N-sec/m (2bf-eec)/ft2

P density. kg/u3; (lbf)(sc 2)/ft

Subscripts:
ay average
char based on characteristic film thickness
h based on film thickness
i inner cavity

o outer cavity
r based on radius
a spring
1 sealed pressure, upstream reservoir pressure
2 pressure at and within sealing gap inlet
 3 pressure at aud within sealing gap exit
4 downstream reservoir pressure

".NTRtODUCTION
The continuing increases in gas pressure and temperature which accompany the evolution of the gas
tur3ine, iodustrial compressor, and other rotating machinery places burdens on A ahaft seal technology,
which seems to nom. to be barely adequate for current needs. In addition, the *ephasis on efficiency,
caused by the impending fuel shortage causes an additional need for seals with reduced leakage rates. In
the Sau turbine shaft seals are used to restrict leakage from a region of a gas at high pressure to a re-
gion of gas at a lower pressure and to restrict gas leakage into the bearing stmps. (Bearing sumps con-
tain an oil-ga mixture at n4ar ambient pressure, and gas leakage through the seal helps prevent oil leak-
&aS out and maintains a mainimi sump pressure necessary for proper scavenging.) Bearing sumps in the high
pressure turbine area are usually the mest difficult to seal because the pressures and temperatures sur-
rounding the sump can be near compressor dischazge conditions.
LAbyrinth seals are commonly used for shaft sealing iu gas turbine engines (a simplified model of one
system is shown in Fig. 1). The advantage of labyrinth seals Is that the speed and pressure aspability is
limited only by the structural design; one disadvantage is a relatively high leakage rate. Is leakage
can be a significant performance penalty, and will provide easier passage of air-borne vat . Wn dirt into
the sump. In this regard high leakage rates of hot gas into the bearing compartment tend t. isrry oil
overboard and add significantly to the heot dissipation burden of the oil cooling system. An added compli-
cation in small engines is the limited space available for seals and bearing stmps, here the multiple
labyrinth seal with associated bleed and venting passages is difficult to accomodate

Conventional rubbing contact seals, shaft riding and radial face types, are also uaed for sealing
bearing numpd. Because of wear rate, shaft riding
2
and circumferential seals (see Fig. 2 for one version),
have been limited to pressure less than 69 N/cm (100 psi); and successful operation has been reported at
2
a sealed pressure of 58 N/ca (85 psi), a gas temperature of 644 K (7000 F), and a sliding velocity of
73 i/sec (240 ft/sec)(Ref. I). On the other hand, the conventional rubbing contact fare seal (Fis, 3)
2
is limited to approximately 90 N/cm (130 psi) and 122 "/sec (400 ft/sec) for long operational life.
Rubbing contact seals cre attractive becnuse they have lover leakage rates than labyrinth seals, Asso-
ciated with this lower gas leakage rate is less entrained debris, lower heat dissipation requirement for
the oil cooling system, and lower efficiency penalty.

By Incorporatin* thrust bearing geometry into a conventional face seal, nonrubbint; cperation can be
achieved. This seal concept has been termed the "self-acting" seal, since the mechanism is similar to a
self-acting thrust beariatg in that the mating faces lift out of contact because of the pressure developed
by relative motion between the seal faces. Studies (Refs. 2 and 3) demonstrated that the self-acting seals
can operate at advanced aircraft engine conditions, that they have lower leakage rates than labyrinth
seals, and hence that they are attructivs from an efficiency standpoint.
The objectives of this paper are to (a) review the operating pcinciple and design of the self-acting
seal, (b) point out effects of adverse operating conditons, and (c) present soe experimental data. The
data are for two seal sixes, a 16.76-cm (6.60-in.) nominal diameter seal suitable for large s turbines
and a 6.44-c. (2.54-in.) diameter seal for small engines. The exparimintal portion of the program was run
in rigs which simulated the bearing compartments of gas turbines, this placed the sealed pressure at the
seal inside diameter; thus the bearing oil/air mixture was at the seal outside diameter and centrifugal
force acted against oil leakage.

DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

Self-Acting Face Seal Terminology

The terms "hydrodynamic" and "hydrostatic" are often applied to describe s4els for comprassible fluids
as well as for incompressible fluids. But following the bearing terminology, the term "self-acting" and
"pneumostatic" will be used when the sealed fluid is compressible, and the terms "hydrodynamic" and "hydro-
static" will be reserved for sealing incompressible fluids.

It should be noted that conventional "contact" seals often operate with separation of the sealing sur-
faces bicause of forces produced by self-acting, pneumostatic, hydrodynamic, or hydrostatic effects. This
is particulary true In conventional radial face seals for liquids (such as pump scalm), the hydrodynamic
forces being produced by miniscule atm&lignments and surface waviness (which are largely unplanned and
occur by happenstance) caued by such effects as local thermal expansions, friction, and wear. In con-
treat, in the seals which are the subject of this paper, the self-acting or hydrodynamic action is produced
i!acting by a "machined
seal. in" bearing
(Since a hydrodynamic seal not
geometry and by uncontrolled
assem.bly
effects. Figure 4 shows this type of self-
would be the *ane in principle, the discussion can be
limited to the self-acting seal.)

As previously mentioned, a self-acting face seal is similar to a conventional face seal except for
the added feature of a self-acting geometry (gas lubricated thrust bearing). As with a conventional face
"eal, it con•ists of a rotating seat which is attached to the shaft and a nonrotating primay7 ring assembly
which is free to move in an axial direction; thusmthe seal can accomeodate axial notion such as is due to
&*ino thermal expansion. The secondary seal (piston ring) Is subjected only to the axial motion (no ro-
"tation)of the primary ring assembly. Several springs provide mechanical force to maintain contact at
start and stop. I operation, the sealing faces are separated a slight annunt (in the range of 2.5 to
1.27 pa (0.0001 to 0.0005 in.)) by action of the self-acting lift geometry. This positive separation re-
sults from the balance of seal forces and the gas film stiffness of the self-acting gSemtry. The self-
acting geomatry can be any of the various types used in assthrust bearings; the Rayleigh step bearing is
illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5.

I-, "='• • ~ • _• ,4_- • ,=• - _m*• •i • m '" ;. .

 Within the seal industry there is a wide variety of ters used to describe similar seal parts. The
ASLE seal glossary (Ref. 4) has provided some guidance in seal nomenclatu:re, and the self-acting nomsncla-
ture which follows is mainly an extension of this ASLE work. The nomenclature applying to an assembly of
parts (Fig. 4) is
1. Primary seal - Seal formed by the sealing faces of the seat and primary ring. Relative rotation
occurs between these sealing faces.
2. Secondary seal - Seal formed by the sealing surfaces of the secondary ring. In the case of a bel-
lows seal the secondary seal is the bellows itself.
3. Static seal - Seal furmed by the mating surfaces of the primary ring and its carrier (in some de-
signs the static seal is an interference fit).
4. Self-acting geometry - Lift-pad geometry (Rayleigh step bearing) and mating face which together
produce the thrust bearing action to separate the sealing surfaces.
S. Film thickness (h) - Distance between primary sealing faces or between surfaces forming the self-
acting geometry. For parallel surfaces the film thickness at the primary seal is the sme as at the
self-acting geometry. (Note that h may vary with radial and circumferential position and with time.)
6. Seal head - Assembly that is axially movable and consisting of primary ring, its retainer (if any),
and its carrier. (The retainer and the cnrrier are combined into one part in some designs.)

The nomenclature applying to single parts (Fig. 4) is

1. Seat - Part having a primary sealing face and mechanically constrained with respect to axial no-
rion.
2. Primary ring - Part having a primary sealing face and not constrained with respect to axial motion.
3. Secondary ring - Part having secondary sealing surfaces which mate to the secondary sealing sur-
faces of the carriers.

Force Balance

General description. - To determina film thicknesses and leakage in a self-acting seal, the axial
forces acting on the seal head (assembly of the primary ring and its carrier) must be determined over the
range of operating conditions. Theme forces comprise the self-acting lift force, the spring force, and
the pneumatic force due to the sealed pressure. lssentially, the analysis requires finding the film
thickness for which the opening forces balance the closing forces. When this equilibrium film thickness
is known, the leakage rate can be calculated. Thi, force balance analysis is readily obtained for the
steady-state case in which the seat face has zero runout. (A seat vith face runout causes dyasmic
changes in film thickness; this is a complicating factor which is discussed in a later section., For
most seal design purposes the steady-state solutiou is sufficiaent.

The following sections outline the analysis used to obtain seal performance predictions over the
operating range; for aircraft gs turbines this range is spanned by the idle and takeoff seal pressures.
6
temperatures, and sliding speeds, To provide an example, the 16.7 -ce (6.60-in.) diameter seal was selec-
ted for illustrating the performance prediction analysis. Also, for comparison purposes, the performance
maps are given for a 6.44-cm (2.54-in.) diameter seal.

Primary Seal Pressure Gradient

To establish the axial force balance of the primary ring, the pressure gradient in the primary seal
most be determined. (See Fig. 4 for primary seal location.) The mathematical models described in Refs. 5
to 7 were used for these calculations. From a gas leakage flow standpoint the primary seal is a long pas-
sagse. For example, a typical operating film thickness of a self-acting seal is in the range of 10.2 um
"(0.0004 in.), and a typical radial length of the primary seal is 0.127 pa (0.050 in.). Thus, the length to
height (i/h) ratio of the flow channel is in the range of 125/1. Data from Refe. 6 and 7 show that this
leakage passage has the following qualitative features:
1. Laminar leakage flow prevails over much of the range of interest in seals for gas turbines (pres-
2
sure range of 345 N/cm abe (500 psi&)).
2. Sonic velocity (choking) can exist at the passage exit for soss of the larger pressure ratios and
film thicknesses which occur in seal operation.
3. Pressure profiles across the primary seal for choked and nonchoked flow can be very different.
4. Sine* the primary seal radial width is small compared with its diameters, the area expansion effect
on flow can be ignored.
* 5. The leakage flow and pressure profile are significantly different if the surfaces of the primary
L* seal are not parallel. (See Ref, 8 for a discussion of the effects of converging and diverging sealing
surfaces.)
ii The primary seal mathematical model used in the one-dimonsional analysis of R~efs. 5 and I to shown1 in

Fig. 6. As mentioned, the area expansiou effects are ignored, end the modol is a passage of height h
r•and length 1.

From stagnation source conditions of Pl and V1 (see Fig. 6) an isentropia expansion Is considered
to occur ahead of the entrance to the primary seal gap. 'thus, the entrance pressure, 12, is leon than the
stagnation pressure Pl, and the entrance velocity, V2, is a finite value. To account for entrance loss
and viscous friction, it was found necessary to use an entrance loss coefficient. Thus. the entrance ve-
locity, V2, is less than that calculated by imentropic expansion. In a later section the entrance affects
are discussed in more detail.

Flow in the sealing gap is assumed one-dimensional and a friction factor is introduced to account for
v.ýscou" losseu,. At the exit, three conditions are conaidered in the analysis: Firsa, exit velocity, V3 ,
is b&.o,,cnic and exit pressure, P3, is equal to reservoir pressure, P4. Second. exit velocity, V3, is sonic
and exit pressure, P36 is equal to reservoir pressure, F4. And t. rd, exit velocity, V3- is sonic, the
flow is chokel, and exit pressure, P31 is greater than the reeervoir pressure, P4'

L
 16.4

If the flow is subsonic throughout, the analysis reduces to the following equations:

6 2L(1 2
f2.72 81 0
. Leakap flow ateQ char 1-PP}4
O.0OO217 ume - RI OM)

b. Pressure distributionr \I \lU

I + - 1h2X(25 4
1/2

1I\ 2 (1 - R±)hb(s + ax) 2

c. Bawling da= force

II

Parallel film case P - )1(

tnumarically)() Smell deformation case - L (P - Poin dx (vauated()

Typical pressure gradients across the prlimry seal for tim design points (idle and take-off) for the
16.76 cm (6.60 in.) diameter seal are shown in Fig. 7; these data were developed by the analytical proce-
dures of Ref. 5 and is given In more detail in Ref. 9. The Important point is that choked and nonchoked
flows can have pressure gradients with very different ahapes thus affecting the opening force, which is
the integrated force under the pressure-gradient curves.

Self-Acting Geometry

The self-acting geometry (lift pads) consist of a series of shallow recesses, typically about 25 Pi
(0.001 in.) deep, arranged circusaferentially around the seal under the primary seal face as shown in Figs.
4 and 5. An important point in that the lift pads are bounded at the inside diameter and the outside di-
saster by the sealed pressure Pl. (This is accomplished by feed slots connecting the annular avoove di-
rectly under the primary seal.) Therefore, the pressure gradient, due to gas leakage, occurs only across
the primary aoal and not across the self-acting geometry.

The self-acting geometry Is approximated by the smathematical model (shown in Fig. 8) in which the
curvature effects have been neglected. This mathematical model and associated analysis are described in
detail In Ref. 10; the followin~g restrictions apply:
1. The fluid is Newtonian and viscous.
2. A lasinar flow regime is assumed.
3. Body forces are negligible.
Figure 9 shows the calculated lift force (see Ref. 10 for details) produced by the self-acting goom-
etry for idle and take-off seal conditions. Inspection of Fig. 9 reveals that at film thicknesses of
2.7 pm (0.0005 in.) and greater the lift force is small. However, at film thicknesses less than 2.7 n
(0.0005 in.) the lift force increases as the film thickness decreases, and as a result the self-acting
geometry has a high film stiffnosu which enables tho seal head to track the face runout motions of the ro-
tating seat face. As mentioned previously, the ,sli-acting lift force tends to open the seal, and is
added to the primary seal opening force to obtain the total opening force.

Closing Forces

The closing forces acting on the primary ring are a spring force and a pneumatic force. Since the
full sealed pressure acts to the inside diameter of the primary seal, the net pneumatic closing force acts
only an the annular area between the primary-seal inside diameter and the secondary-veel outside diameter.
I
For the 16.76-cm (6.60-in.) dimeter seal this annular area (see Fig. 10) is 4.66 am/ (0,722 in. 2 ), and the
resulting closing forces due to the sealed pressure are listed in Tab. I, for idle and take-off sealed
pressures. It should be noted that these closing forces are for average dimensions at room temperature.
At operating temperature a thermal growth difference may cause a change in the relation between the
secondary-seal outside diameter and the inside dissater of the primary seal. Thus, the closing force
could be a function of temperature.

Equilibrium Film Thickness

In a rubbing contact seal the closing force is resisted by solid-surface rubbing cntoactl thus, a
total force balance is achieved. But In selfacting seals the forve balance is achieved without rubbing
contact. Therefore, for a given design point the seal will operate at a film thickness such that the

III II ntanct,, IIcoII

 16-5

total opening force exactly balances the total closing force, and, as illustrated in Fig. 11 from Ref. 9,
the intersection of these force curves gives the stevdy-state equilibrium film thickness. (This film
thickness determination does not take Into account dynamic running factors such as seat face runout and
piston ring damping,)

Each operating point should be checked foi' equilibrium film thickness. If these film thicknasses are
not satisfactory, it my be possible to adjust the closing fowca such that afll operating points fell within
a satisfactory limit. Experience has shown that the satisfactory film thickness regime is about 2.5 Um
(0.0001 in.) on the low end (some tolerance to thermal deformation must be maintuined) and 0.0013 us
(0.0005 in.) on the high end. These limits are only approximate and depend to a large extent on the dy-
namic and thermal condition to which the seal is subjected. The high limit of practical film thickness is
established by seal dynamics and leakage considsrations. In particular, the primary ring response to the
eat face runout becomes excessive as the mean film thickness increases (Ref. 11); this is because the
stiffness of the gas film decreases as the film thickness iacreases.

Performance Naps

Once the equilibrlum film thickness Is found, the predicted leakage can be determined by using the
one-dimesional method outlined in 1ef. 5. By cross-plotting the equilibrium film thickness over the leak-
age curves, a performanee mp can be generated; and typical data for the 16.76-cm (6.60-in.) diameter seal
is given in Fig. 12 (from Ref. 12). Inspection of Fig. 12, which covers a range of sealed pressure differ-
2
ential from 34 to 276 N/cm (50 to 400 psi), reveals that sir leakage increeses an speed is increased; this
is due to more effective Rayleigh step bearing perforuseco. Also for ony given speed, as pressure is in-
creased, the equilibrium film thickness increases slightly. This suggests that the net pneumostatic force
(pressure gradient across the sealing dam minus the closing force due to the sealed pressure) is decreasing
slightly.

Performance maps (Fig. 13) for a smaller seal (6.44 ca (2.54 in.) nominal diameter) are similar except
that the design selection of the pnuumostatic force balance led to a decreasing film thickness with in-
creasing pressure. Figure 14 shows the construction details of a small diameter seal design.

Care is taken to insure flatness of the sealing surfaces after assembly. The seal seat is keyed to
thp shaft spacer and is axially clamped by a m-chined bellows which exerts a predetermined clasping force,
thus minimiisng distortion of the meal seat. The bellows also acts as a static meal between the seat and
the shaft spacer. Cooling oil is passed through the seat to reduce thermal gradients, and the oil das disc
also serves as a heat shield. Windbacks are used to prevent oil from approaching the sealing surfaces.

Inlet Effects

As mentioned previously, shaft seals for gase• have very small sealing gap heights h (direction per-
pendicular to the leahta3e flow), and these are in the range of 2.5 to 12.5 Pm (0.0001 to 0.0005 in.). In
the direction of flow the gap length Z it relatively long, in the range of 1270 us (0.05 in.). In other
words the leakage channel is long and narrow with Z/h ratios of over 100. The matheamtical modeling of
this leakage channel is critical, in that the validity of the equilibrium film thickness prediction de-
penda to a large part on the accuracy of predicting the pneumostatic opening forces on the primary seal;
this is the pressure gradient which accompanies the leakage flow. The fully developed portion of the flow
is readily obtained (Ref. 5), but the entrance region lose data fox seal configurations and operation is
generally not available.

Data with so-= applicability has been developed for gas lubricated bearings. But the flow in the
cavity region just before the inlet of gas thrust bearings is generally different from that before seal
configurations because the flow to the inlet of thrust bearings is often a strong function of radius and
not so for seals. For this reason the inlet condition in hearings can be sonic or even supersonic. In
this regard sonic, or supersonic, inlet flow is not predicted by the seal mathematical model (Ref. 5); and
subsonic inlet flows are thought to prevail.

As an illustration of inlet effects the matheomatical model of Ref. 5 was used to calculate the pres-
sure gradient for the small diameter seal depicted in Fig. 14. Assumed gap thicknesses were from 2.54 to
12.7 vm (0.0001 to 0.0005 In.) and the operating conditions assumed were

Sliding speed 198 M/6s0 (650 ft/sac)

* Sealed gas temperature 677 K (7500 1)
2
Sealed gas pressure (P1) 148 N/cm a&a (214.7 psia)
2
Beoa•nlg cavity pressure (1'4) 25.6 N/Cm abe (37.1 psi.)

A constant inlet coefficient of 0.6 was assumed for the range of gap heights, and the pressure gradient
curves are as shown in Fig. 15, in which the areas under the curves represent eanopening force. An impor-
tant point is the inlet pressure loss: the mathemtical modal predicts that the smaller leakage aeps have
leos inlet loss than the larger Saps (assuming the inlet coefficient is constant). The other point to note
is that the larger gaps are operating under choked flow conditions at the eaxt, while the smaller gaps are
not choked. The choked flow condition tends to increase the area under the curve, but the inlet loss tends
"to decrease the area (decrease closing force). The not result is a smeller closing force exists under the
curves for the larger Saps. This is beneficial since it introduces positive axial film stiffness; that Is,
if the leakage Sap closes, the opening force increases, and this tae•ls to hindar further closing. This is
j, a desirable feature since it is a positive stabilizing force from a dynamic operating standpoint.

In order to check the inlet lose coefficient magnitude which applies to suals, experiments wear made
using a scaled-up simulated primary seal with a fixed clearance of 25.4 on (0.001 in.). A schematic of the
test rig is shown in Fig. 16, and an exam•ple of thw dala obtainad is shown in Vig. 17 for a pressure ratio
"of10 with an upstream reservoir pressure of 62.1 N/am (90 pals). In addition to the inlet loss the pree-

.1
 16r6

sure gradient across the primary seal was measured by mans of a set of s-ili diameter pressure taps.

Analysis of the data shove the inlet coefficient to be 0.66. In addition the data provides a cnon-
e
lent check on the accuracy of the primary seal pressure gr.adient model of Ref. S. Figure 17 shows •u
deviation batwesn the manured data and the calculated profile but the agreement is good. It should be
noted that a slight conyergent deformation, if it actually exist. in the rig, will produce the deviation
shown.And, in fact, analysis revealed that theory and experiment will agree exactly if a convergent de-
formation of 0.0004 radian is assumed; and for this case the coefficient drops to 0.61. It Is apparent
from theoretical data (Fig. 15) end measured data (Fig. 17) that neglect of inlet affect in the mathemati-
Cal modal for the pressure gradient will result In a predicted opening force which is too large. This is
the significant point of the data.

Adverse Operating Conditions

Effect of nonpsrallel sealina faces. - Figure 18 shown, In an exaggerated manner, the axinymmetric,
coning displacement of the seal seat. (The primary ring could also be coned.) This type of coning die-
placemnt, which can be caused by thermal gradients, results tu nonparallel fAces within the primary seal
and the self-acting geometry. These nonparallel faces have a significant effect on load capacity of the
self-acting geometry; also the primary seal opening force Is affected. Thus, in design, the equilibrium
operating film thickness should also be calculated for anticipated coning displacements.
I
As an example of the effect of this coning, cruise condition operation was checked (using the methods
of Ref. 9) for equilibrium film thicmess for a distortion of 13 pm (0.0005 in.) across the self-acting
pad. This is a distortion of 2 milliradians and is typical of some seal operation (Ref. 12),

Figure 19 shows the self-acting lift force for the 2-milliradian distortion of the seat face. Note
that the force is plotted as a function of the mean film thickness of the self-acting pad. Also plotted
is force generated for a parallel film, and Comparison showe a significant reduction in lift force due to
the azisysietric coning, especially at the lover film thicknesses.

As noted previously, the primary seal opening force is also affected by nonparallel faces; and this
was calculated by using an analysis similar to Itef. 7 for the 2-milliradian distortion. The results are
given in Fig. 20. For the divergent deformation shown in Fig. 18, there Is a marked reduction in opening
force as the film thickness decreases (negative film stiffness). In contrast, for convergent deformation
the opening force Increases as film thickness decreases (positive film stiffness). lowever, in aircraft
mainshaft seals, the divergent deformation is a natural tendency due to thetual gradients.

Finally, in Fig. 21 the equilibrium film thickness for a 2 milliradian distortion is found by finding
the intersection between the total closing force and total opening force. 'The mean film thickness is about
1.69 ps (0.00066 in.). Thus the minimum film thickness Is 10.4 Am(0.00041 in.).

With the equilibrium film thickness values for the axisymostric distortion, the gas leakage was calcu-
lated by using the method previously outlined. The results revealed that the leakage rate for the
2-uilliradian deformation was nearly twice that of the parallel-face case.
Effect of qmt face rmfout. - The preceding analyses were foa, operating film thicknesses that did not
vary with time. This would be the situation if the rotating seat face had zero rumout. However, the seat
face will, in general, have some runout (misaligned with respect to axis of rotation); and in particular,
the maxim/m runout used In practice is of interest since it will induce the maximum time-dwpendent film
thickness changes.
Of Interest, then, Is how the primary ring responds to the runout motions of the seat face. This re-
spouse deteraines the film thicknesses at any instant. Experimental data reported in Ref. 13 reveal that
the primary ring can follow (dynamically track) the seat face motion over a considerable range of face
runouts. These data were obtained by mounting two proximity probes (900 apart) on the ring retainer and
recording the change in film thickness as a function of time. A schematic showing the probe location is
given in Fig. 22. Some results from 3sf, 13 are given in Fig. 23 which shows that for a seat face ruaout
of 20 pa (0.00085 in.) full-indicator reading (F.I.R.), the ring response is in phase and the total Change
in film thickness is 17 um (0.00067 in.) and that the film thickness varies circumferentially; that is,
the film thickness is not alsnymastric and is similar to that depicted in fig. 24.

This nonuymmatric angular misalignment is an inherent tendency because of secondary seal friction and
seal head inertia, which are introduced by the tracking response to the seat face axial runoute As the
high point of the seat face runsout (see Fig. 24) rotates, the seal head must move back, and this is re-
sisted by the secondary seal. friction and head inertia; thus the film thickness tends to be smaller oppo-
site the high point of face runout. In contrast, the friction and inertia are acting in opposite direc-
tions at the low point (1800 away). Therefore, a rotating force couple exists which is synchronous with
the face rumout (if the seal head is properly tracking the meat rotion); this causes the sealing faces to
have aa Inherent angular misalignment.

As previously indicated, nonparallel faces cause changes in the pressure gradient across the primary
seal and, therefore, effect the contribution of the primary seal to seal stability; this contributiou can
either have a positive (converging faces) or negative (diverging faces) effect. Table I1 (from Ref. 14)
outlines some of the possible primary seal distortions, axisymnatric and nonaxisysimtric; and the result-
ant contribution for seal stability is indicated. Table II was constructed for incompressible fluid but
these stability wdels, in general, also apply when sealing n Compressible Sas. For gas turbine mainahaft
seals, modal t, with the sealed pressure at tke inside diameter, is probably the most prevalent with the
nonaxisy tric displacement (angular umsalignment) baing produced by the response of the seal head to the
face rumout notions of the seat. The aax portion of the nonparallel displacement will '4 due to
tisytic
tbermal gradient which arises because of two ffectast (a) the temperature gradient between the sealed gas
and the bearing sump, and Mb the shearing of the fluid film In the prbwry s*"I. Analysis suggeusts that

* i II i
 16-7

tL'41;eqe
1 9 iA
7 •ngcan readily predominate, therefore, with reference to model 9 of Tabl 1I, 0 will be
and the seal force will be divergent over tVe full 3600; this is a destabilising condi-
seal stability must be provided by the self-acting geometry if rubbing contact is to be

An anakytical program has been developed for the purpose of predicting primary seal ring response to
seet face runout (Rsf. 11). Analysis of the 16.67-cu (6.60-in.) diameter seal depicted in Fig. 4 revealed
that the primary ring response in markedly affected by secondary seal friction and by inertia of the pri-
mary ring assembly. The friction effect Is illustrated in Fig. 25; as runout increases, there is a fric-
tion level that, if exceeded, will retard the primary ring motion to such an extent that rubbing contact
1,, qccur (line (1)); also for the higher face runouts there is a friction level below which the inertial
aqis
are so high that the primary ring cannot follow the runout (line (2)). Therefore, soma friction is
bly desirable for most applications because of the practical limits on control of face runouts. Fur-
that, hu data suggest that the primary ring assembly inertia should be kept as small as practical in or-
der to maintain good xesponae (avoid unstable operation).

In a detailed analysis (Ref. 11) three different types of nosepiece responses were revealed by'
parametric study using different magnitudes of seat face runout and secondary seal friction. These three
cuAes are

Case I - Primary ring motion duplicates seat face runout motion and can be described by rotation
(rocking) about two orthogonal axes. However, be-auss of primary ring inertia and/or friction, the face
of the ring has an angular misalignment with respect to the face of the seat. Therefore, the film thick-
noes between the faces is not uniform (see Tab. II, model D).

Case 2 - San as case 1 plus an additional axial vibration component.

Case 3 - Seal failure (film thickness reaches zero). This case can occur when the frictional forces
are either two low (when inertia forces are high) or too high for the available load capacity of the self-
acting pads.

An analysis was made of the seal head dynamic response of the 6.44-cm (2.54 in.) diameter seal with a
seat face runout of 13 un (0.000512 in.) and with secondary seal friction considered. The mathematical
model described in Ref. 11 was used, and the date are given in Fig. 26, in which the minimum film thick-
ness is given as a function of time for a seal sliding speed of 244 u/sec (800 ft/sec). The plot in
Fig. 26 shows stable operation with a minimum film thickness of 5.6 in (0.000219 in.) was achieved within
a very short time span; stable operation of the case 1 type (tracking without axial vibration) was pre-
dicted.

WEVRINUIT DATA

16.76-Centimeter (6.60-In.) Nominal Diameter Seal

Table III (from Ref. 12) shove typical experimental data on the large diameter seal. The maximum con-
bined conditions attempted in the rig test were a sliding speed ot 175 u/sec (575 ft/nec), a sealed gas
temperature of 811 K (10000 F), and a sealed pressure of 207 N/Icm gage (300 psig). This set of date and
resulting posttest inspection of the ports confirmed the analytical predictions that the seal would
function without rubbing contact at operating conditions expected in advanced engines.
Figure 27 (from Ref. 12) shows so-- experimentally obtained leakage results compared with the pre-
dicted total leakage (combined primary and secondary seal leakage). The correlation in reasonable, and
the experimental data show the scatter typical of leakage values obtained throughout the teat. This scat-
ter in results is due to the strong dependence of leakage on sealing clearance (A very small change in
clearance will produce a significant change in leakage. See formula (1).)

In addition to the performance evalaation at various operating conditions, the seal was subjected to
a 320-hour endurance test (Ref. 15) at the following test conditions:

120-hr segment 200-hr segment

Sealed air temperature 775 f (1000c F) 775 K (10000 F)

Sealed pressure differential 138 N/cm' (200 psi) 138 N/ca 2 (200 psi)
Seal velocity 122 W/sac (400 ft/sac) 122 u/sec (400 ft/sec)
Spring load 68.5 N (15.4 lb) 68.5 V (15.4 lb)

During the first segment of testing, seal leakage averaged approximately 0.33 scgm (11.7 sacf) as
shown in Wig. 28. During the second segment, leakage averaged 0.40 acme (14 ocfa) for the first 100 hours,
and increased at the rate of approxiastaly 0.03 acen (1 sofa) every 20 hours for the second 100 hours.

Inspection of the seal after the 320 hours suggested that the gradual increase in leakage was due to
air-entrained debris erosion of the sealing dam. (Erosion due to debris is discussed in the following qqec-
tion.) A profile trace of the carbon primary seal face taken after 120 hours of endurance is shown in Fig.
29(a). The deepest scratch (air entrained debris) in the sealing dam was approximately 5.08 um
(0.0002 in.). The averase Rayleigh pad wear for the 120-hour test was less than 1.27 me (0.00005 in.).

After the second segment of testing the carbon primary seal and seal seat were still in good condition.
A profile trace (Fig. 29(b)) taken at the same location as the traces in Fig. 29(a) shows more shallow
scratches 2.34 •m (0.0001 in,) deep. The average wear on the Rayleigh pads for the second segment of
200 hours was less than 1.27 Um (0.00005 in.).
The effects produced by air entrained debris were checked by the introductiGn of abrasive particles

I•........ ........ .. ..... ........... .. . . . . ..

 (Arizona road dust) into the test rig at the rate of 3.5 g/hr over a 14.5-hour test run. Data indicated a
gradual increase Jo seal leakage due to wear of the sealing dam by the air entrained dirt. No significant
wear occurred to the Rayleigh step pad portion. The erosion wear pattern of the primary seal is shown in
Fig. 30, which In a surface profile trace taken radially across the primary seal. It is thought that the
sealing dam wear may proceed until the leakage gap height becomes large enough to pasc the entrained
debris.

6.44-Centinater (2.54-In.) Nominal Diameter Seal

Table IV contains gas leakage data for relatively sresll diameter self. acting seal@ (see Fig. 14) oper-
ating in a teat rig over a pressure differential range from 23 to 111 N/ca- (34 to 161 psi) and a sliding
speed range from 91 to 183 */aes (300 to 600 ft/eec). (This is a rotative speed range of 27 300 to 54 600
rpm.)
The test setup contained two seals, one fore and one aft of the rig bearing. This simulated a bearing
compartment in a small asa turbine. Neither the forward nor the aft carbon nose or seal sest showed any
wear during this evaluation (Tab. 1V, from Raf. 16). Thus the sealing surfaces were separated by a gas
film over the entire matrix of operating variables. This suggests that the gas bearing file stiffness was
sufficient to p'event rubbing contact under the high inertia forces which are associated with high rotative
speeds (inertia forces increase as the square of the rotating speed).

Data in Tab. IV indicate a seal leakage increase with a sliding speed increase (for any given pres-
sure differential). This leakage increase is due to a slight increase of the *ealing pp.

To further explore the operating limits of the smell diameter self-acting seals, 500 hours of endur-
ance operation at ambient temperature (.381 K (2250 F)) was conducted as follows (Ref. 16):

Hours Speed Air pressure

- -. differential (max)
2
c/c ft/ec rpm N/cm abs pai&

1-100 145 473 43 000 125 181

100 - 200 152 500 45 500 129 186.5
200- 300 160 525 47 700 130 189
300 - 400 168 550 So 000 129 187
;00- 467 17'; 375 52 300 128 186
467- w5r0 183 600 600 128 i4 1t6

The same aft seal carbon and seat were used throughout the test, and a forward carbon ring was used
that had previously operated for 150 hours.

Table V from Ref. 16 outlines Ltst results for the 500-hour run. The lest run was typical of the air-
flow that can be expected through two seals at an air pressure differential of 127 N/cm (184 psi); approx-
imately 0.007 kg/soc (12 scfm or 0.015 lb/sce).

The depth of the self-acting geometry was checked by surface profile masourements for the purpose of
1 monitoring the wear process. The avere total weer of the carbon rings during the 500-hour test was 51 on
(0.0002 in.) (Ref. 16). In addition to endurance rune, the effect of seat face runout was evaluated in a
10-hour test run by using seats which had been machined such that in the assembled state a full indicated
runout of 50.8 pm (0.002 in.) existed; this magnitude is twice the usual practice for conventional soale of
this @sie range. Baseline tests var. also conducted on seal assemblies which had runouts of 15 Pa
(0.0006 in..). A comparison of leakage rates is shown in Fig. 36. Nzximum speed was 43 000 rpm or 145
•/see. (475 ft/Wea). The data of Fig. 31 reveal a significant axial runout effect on leakage rate, the
seals with 50.8-pm (0.002-in.) seat face runout - having about three times the leakage of the seals with
normal runout values (15 pa (0.0006 in.)). Inspections after the two tests, 10 hours of baseline testing
and 10 hours of testing with 40.8-pa (0.0020-in.) runout, revealed that wear wea insignificant; therefore,
noncontact operation was maintained in both 10-hour tests. The increase in leakage over the baseline test
is due to a greater average film thickness induced by response of the primary ring to the seat face runout
(Sam previous discussion on effects of seat face runout).

Spiral Groove Self-Acting Seal

The Rayleigh step bearings of the small diameter seal depicted in Fig. 14 were replaced with a set of
spiral grooves (see ?ig. 32), and the seal was run at simulate engine conditions. Typical seal leakage
data are shown in Fig. 33 (from Ref. 17) for sliding speeds of 182.9 u/sec (600 ft/sec). Data at other
eliding speeds confirmed that the general trend for self-acting seals was a leakage increase as speed in-
creased. The leakage, however, was relatively low and considered within the unable range for application
in oomll gSa turbine onginea,
2
A 54-hour enduranc# run uas made at 148.1 N/ca abe (213 paia) sealed pressure and the data are given
in Tab. VI. The sliding &peedu ranged from 122 to 243.8 i/sea (400 to 800 ft/cec), with the majority of
the time being at 213 a/sec (700 ft/oec). The mwv~mu sliding speed of 243.6 rn/sec (800 ft/sac) eorre-
spends to a mamximm rotatiuR speed of 72 500 rpm,

The measured wear in the spiral groov* region after the 54 eiours of. operation was (Ref. 17):

Forward seal ........ ......... ...................................... No smeasvable Wear

Aft meal.. ... . . . ....... ......... ..... ....... ......... ........ .0aon(0.000040 in.)
 Leakage Rate Comparison to Conventional Seal

Leakage tests war* made on various conventional seals of a size comparable to the 6.44-cm (2.54-in.)
diameter Rayleigh step pad seal (Fig. 14); the comparison is shown in Pie. 34. In general, the plot shows
that the self-acting face seal has the potential of significantly reducing leakage as compared with the
conventional seals.

Of the conventional configurations, face @eals allowed the least air flow at high pressure differen-
tials. Circumferential seagmented seals are as tight as face seals at moderate operating conditions; how-
ever, expgrience and the subject test program results have shown that at pressure differentials above
41.4 N/cm4 (60 psi) and speeds above 107 a/see (350 ft/sec), these (unbalanced) circumferential segented
seals rapidly wear out and finally operate an labyrinths. In that case there is little to choose between
circumferential, rotating ring, end labyrinth seals in term of air flows.

To gain some perspective of the magnitude of air flow under discussion, engine experience hat shon
that excessive air flow into a bearing package incorporating seals of the sixe used in the test program
would be in the order of 0.012 kg/sec (0.029 lb/sec). Taking midpoint values of the rnuse of preaoure
differentials in Pi . 34, the face seal could not ment this criterion at pressure differentials above ap-
proximately 85 N/cae (123 psi), and the limiting pressure differential for circumferential cegenuted seals
(which wear rapidly), rotating ring seals. and simple labyrinths would be approxiestaly 40 N/car (38 pai).
The self-acting meal, however, did not reach the limiting leakage rate and had a leakage of 0.0046 kg/sec
(0.0102 lb/sac) at a pressure differential of 107.6 N/ca (156.0 psi). In general the self-acting Seal
had about one third the leakage of the conventional face seal,

i
CONCLUDMMING S

Self-acting seals are described, and their potential for meeting operational requirements of gas tur-
bine engines is explored by mans of predictive analysis of their operation at sealing speed, pressure.
and temperature conditions which would be impooed by the engine. In particular, the analytical procedure
in given for predicting the leakage and operating film thicknesses. Performance maps for two seal sizes
are givent these are a 16.76-cm (6.60-in.) nuaoual diameter seal suitable for large engines azd a 6.44-ca
(2.54-in.) disamter seal for small engines. The analysis and subsequent operation of these seals under
simulated gas turbine conditions revealed the followingi
i! 1. Analysis

"a.Noncontact operation with acceptable leakage is predicted over the range of engine operation con-
1.tions (idley takeoff, climb, and cruise) for both seal sizes.

b. The predicted operating film thickness of the 16.76-coa (6.60-in.) diasmetr al ranged between 4.6
and 11.9 pa (0,00018 and 0.00047 in.) for idle, takeoff, climb, and cruise.
a. The calculated seal leakage rates of the 16.76-cm (6.60-in.) diameter seal ranged between 0.01 and
0.40 seams (0.4 and 14.0 scfa) for Idle, takeoff, climb, and cruise.

d. For a typical operating condition noncoutact operation waU pvedicted under the assumption of a
2-ailliradian face deformation. Gas leaksge was about twice that for parallel-face operation.

e. Analysas reveals that the pressure drop in the inlet to the primary seal gives rise to a positive
film stiffness and has a significant effect on seal opening force magnitude.

f. Proper tracking of the seat face runout by the carbon ring is predicted for practical levels of
face rumout magnitudes.

2. Experiment, Simulated Engine Operation

a. In general the self-acting esals operate, as predicted, without rubbing contact over the range of
aimulated engine operating conditions. Of particular interest was: (a) the nouncontact operation of the
16.76-cm (6.60-in.) diameter seal at the advanced aniine conditions of a 152-an/ee (500-ft/nec) sliding
2
speed, a 345-N/ce (500-psi) sealed pressure differential, and a 811 X (l0000 F) asaled air temperature
and (b) the noucontact operatign of the 6.44-ca (2.54-in.) diameter seal at a 243.8-a/sec (800-ft/eec)
sliding speed and a 148.1-N/cm' (215 psi) sealed pressure level.
b. The seif-acting face seal leakage was significantly lower than that of conventional sesal types.

1. Sob, elger, 1. A., "The Performance of Jet Engine Contact Seals," Lubr, mog., vol. 19, no. 6, June
1963, pp. 232-238.
2. Parks, A. J., NcKibbin, R, H., Ng, . C. V., and Slayton, 1. M., Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, "Develop-
ment of Main-Shaft Seals for Advanced Air Breathing Propulsion Syscte," 1967, PWA-3161, NASA
CR-72338.
3. Poviaelli, V. P., and HaKibbin, A. H., Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, "Developsent of Nalushaft Seals
for Advanced Air breathing Propulsion Systems," 1967, PWA-3161, NASA 0M-72737.
4, svovn, P, F., Jr., "A Glossary of Batis Tarms," Special Publication OF-I, American Society of Iabrics-
tioe EnSineers, 1969.

A i III II II II
 5. Zuk, J., Ludwig, L. P., and Johnson, R. L , Lawis Research Center, "Wasi-One-Dimonsional Compressible
Flow Across Face Seals and Narrow Slots, I - Aralysia," 1972, NASA TN D-6668.
6. Zuk, J.. and Ludwig, L. P., Levia Research Center, "Investigation of Isothearmal, Compressible Plow
Across a Rotating Sealing Dm. I - Analyols," 1969, NASA TV D-534-4.
7. Zuk, J., and Smith, P. J., Lewis Itsearch Canter, "computer Program for Viscous Isothermal Compres-
aLbl Flow Across a Sealing 4sm with Small Tilt AnSle," 1969, NASA TN D-5373.
8. Johnson, R. L., and Luadwil, L. P., Levwi Research Center, "Shaft Face Seal with Self-Acting Lift Aug-
uentatison for Advanced Gas Turbine Mugina., 1969, NASA TN D-5170.
9. Ludwig, L. P., Zuk, J., and Johnson, 1. L., Lewis Itssarch Center, "Design Study of Shaft face Seal
with Self-Acting Lift Augimntatiou, IV - Force Nalanoe." 1972, NASA TR D-6368.
10. Zuk, J., Ludwig, L. Ps, and Johnaon, R. L., Lewis Research Center, "Dealgn Study of Shaft Face Seal
with Self-Acting Lift Augmentation. I - Self-Acting Pad Geometry," 1970, NASA TN D-3744.
11. Colabhr, I., snd Shapiro, W., Franklin Research Institute. "Steady State and Dynamic Performance of
Goa-Lubricated Seals, 1972, 1-04•2-1, NASA 01-121093.
12. Dabek, L. J,, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, "Development of alinshaft Seals for Advanced Air Breathing
Propulsion System," 1973, PWA-TN-46893, tASA 01-121177.
13. Uady, W. F., and Ludwig, L. P., Lewis Research Center, "'xperLmental Investigation of SeLf-Acting-
Lift-Pad Chariacteistics for X@iLu Shaft Seal Applications." 1971, A•SATN D-6384,
14. ladvigs L. P., Lewis IRaearch on•tor, and Greiner, H. P., Sale1 Inc., "Design Conaiderations in
Mechanical Pace goals for Improved Performanoe - it Lubrication," NASA TN X-73736, 1977.
15. Povinelli, V. P., and KoJibbin, A. H., Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, "Development of Nainshaft Soals
for Advanced Air Areasthig Propulsion P,,s•vtm, Phase 11," 1970, •WA-3933, NASA CR-72737.
16. Lyavander, P,, Avco Lycoming Division, "Development of Self-Antiug Seals for Helicopter IngLnes,"
1974, LYC-74-SS, NASA 01-134739.
17. O'Brian. K., Aveo, "Development of Spiral Groove Self-Acting Face Seals,"l 1977, LYC-77-41, XASA

"TABLEI
clsg Fome

Design point
Idle Takeoff
Oa"Lad Me taoeratur... . .......... 311 x (1000 P) 977 x (130e i)
Seal sliding speed ............ 122 /sece 2 (200 ft/se) 137 a/sec2 <450 ft/sac)
sealed pressure, P, . ........... 45 N/c. a (65 psi&) 217 N/cn * (316 psisa)
2
Pressure change. AP ... ........... . 34.5 N/€m (50 psi) 207 X/01 (300 psi)
osalsd-preoaure closing force. F . . 160.6 N (36.1 lbf) 963.A N (216.6 lbf)
Spring force. Ps ........ ........ 71.2 N (16 lbf) 71.2 N (16 lbd)
Total closing forams Ft - F + .. 231.7 N (32.1 lbf) 1034.6 N (232.6 lbf)

'II

Sl l II -l l lll l l ll• Il I l l
 16-11

TABLE 11

Seal Stability ModOW

pressure Axial meatrOing

pattern stiffness moment

A. Pdr&llsL

<P, Azilyminstric zereo er

SI ,g•1 'o>Pi AzyUi ogrinet. Zero Zero

1.0P< PL Axisymmertc Asstro Ngstio

Pii> Pi Axismnsri Positive pegitive

0>1% A ymtric Negative Nosative

- - Po< IP, Nsamaz@tric Positive Positive

P0 Pi Axtaiyns~tric Negat ive megitive

a. oaned a,

£ PO > PIi Waimmgic Posi

Meetive Posigtiv

4:m < PNonauisynetri. Nogitive Negative

F. Corned and misaligned

F. Coned and misatligned d 0 < PL

P] ,onauti.yetric Poaitive Positive

Si131 > Po orna•is•.ettc p~oitiv.a o -v

S• P
P>
•i•.J°lt
PL
Y~l t " '•P~l
onaaisymnstrio
JV
Negative
OJl" Ly
Negative
 16-12

TABLE lB
TYpical Test Data for 16.76-cemtiMuter (6.60.-in.) Nomia Diameter SuP

Tim. Udin. pead Se.1 press..ur. Air o1-.i Actual tot.l air
br t"Warature rowspratur. leakage
w/sem ft/gsa Nu/aw2 put of 9 air .c.xl03 guab
2.0
2.,0 111 365 207
14
22 300
325 700 b00 394 250 15.0
1,6.5 31.9
34.9
2.0
3.0 241 350 17.6 37.6
259 375 L8.8 39.9
2.0 275 400 19.6 41.5
2.0 112 400 275 400 26.6 56.4
6.0 LU 4w 293 42 27.8 59.0
1.0 137 450 207 300
w 11 1000 17.2 36.3
.5 132 50 17.3 37.0
.5 1"0 523 I I16.5 35.0
.75 166 550 . L L16.5 35.0
.25 175 575 V 17.9 38.0

L2.
Retf.

TABLE IV

Seal
Sdf-Aolinh FP8 So uaton
[6,44-cm (2.54-in.) nominal diameter seal.

I~i . ..-peed Air pressure

difeentuial Aflow
(too goase).....
.. al..
e teaurs

""se N/c2
I/ta/sea psi ksse lb/so K F

27 300 91 300 23.4 34.0 <0.0006 0,0013 333 140

36 400 122 400 23.1 33.5 <.0006 <.O013 352 174
43 500 152 500 23.1 33.5 <.0006 <.0013 371 210
54 500 183 600 22.1 32.0 .0011 .0024 3092 246
27 300 91 300 111.4 161.5 00W23 .0050 364 196
36 400 122 400 110.7 160.5 .0032 .0070 373 212
45 00 152 5oo 109.6 139.0 .0034 .0079 386 236
54600 163 600 107.6 136.0 .00, 6 .0102 402 .26
 TABLE V
50e-Hour Endurance Test Rntultsa
[Sealed Presure, 148 N/cmt abs (21S pda).I

2
sled pressure, I" N/am abs (215 pait)]

Hours IHmum. airflow lMULa=m CeVtt7 Mama. seal tempersture bemr

(two seals) pressure of
Forward Aft a tops

ek/s saeo lb/sec U/ce? abe paid K a K OF

I I - 100 0.011 18.3 0.024 25.3 36.7 407 272 30 225 6
b100 - 200 .008 13.5 .017 21.S 31.7 417 200 385 234 9
b200 - 300 .007 12.5 .016 21.5 31.2 421 298 390 242 21
b300 - 400 .008 14.5 ,018 22.5 32.7 420 296 395 251 9

400 - 467 .007 12.5 .016 21.2 30.7 420 296 399 258 8
467 - 300 .007 12.0 .OL5 21.2 30.7 426 306 407 272 3
5
ae f. 16.
Air leakage reults Includes leakage throgh ecvwene, ftt•gio,

TABLE VI

]•nuranoe Test for 6.44-Centimeter (2.544m.) Diamneter Spiral Self-Acting Seal

Scaled air pressure, 148 N/cm 2 abs (215 pals).]

[Ss.led air preasure, 145 U/Cu2 be (215 poei).]

Actualsted
timlel, -
Speed cavity pressure Airflow hal temperature
' - -.... _ - ;- - 7
hr a/sec it/soc rpm n/ca2abe pola ks/soc safe lb/sW c orward Aft

4 122.0 400 35 900 26.7 41.7 0.0116 20.0 0.0255 359 18b 360 189
9 152.0 3o0 4•5100 32.0 46.7 .0119 20.5 .0261 377 220 3h 235
19 183.0 600 54 100 26.9 40.7 .0093 16.9 .0204 402 263 407 273
24 213.0 700 62 900 25.1 40.7 .0079 13.5 .0172 044 358 469 365
45 213.0 70 62 900 26.7 36.7 .0070 12.0 .0153 480 403 504 448
52 215.5 707 63 800 32.2 46.7 .0104 18.0 .0229 527 490 544 520
33.7 230.7 757 68300 34.2 49.7 .0113 20.0 .0253 547 524 359 547
54 236.40 777 70 100 34.9 50.7 .0115 20.0 .0233 $50 530 36C.' 54
54.1 243.6 800 72 500 34.2 49.7 .0113 20.0 .0253 555 540 562 553
16-14

SUMP FAN VENT COMPRESSOR

PRESSURE PRESSURE P4 DISCHARGE
P41 p1 ' PRESSURE iiE!E~
Pi

Fig. I Labyrinth seal system schematic

CAR rER
TOP COVER 4PING
RING- /'I
AXIAL
PRIMARY \/ LA
R ING SPRING

L-SIDE COVER RING

Fig.2 %haftriding or circumferential seal

SUMP COMPRESSOR
PRESSUREUR
PA

SPRING
FIS.3 Schematic of&a conventional r#dAl fac seal
 --PRIMARY SEAL
P4 HED - ,SELF-ACTING GEOMETRY
P4 HAD-1 ' '-STATIC SEAL
- /~'"STATIC SEALING SURFACES
's'- R_1A J-CARRIER,
PRI RY PRIMARY RING
S SECONDARY

-CARRIFR,
A SECONDARY
s hPRIMARY RING
,F I Is hRING \ -SECONDARY

SECONDARY SEAL SFACESG

S" SECONDARY
RING
(a)NOMENCLATURE

0
PRIMARY SEAL FACE ODSELF-ACTING LIFT PADS
EQUAU.Y SPACED)

15.14
5911.17
MCA
A-AI~ j
DIMENSIONS DAM DA
IN CM(IN.) W SELF-ACTING GEOMETRY

-IFis.4 Self-acting face seal

'Iý

Fig.S5 rimary ring aussmbly

 SEAT P4 PRIMARY
rvP< IM 1). P3
INRING 4
- p34
3 1). P3 P4
MV3

SI SV v3•~ 4 IM
. 1).) v3 P3 P

",d-'P2<P101
Vi>0-JV
ISE/rVoP>0 __f V2 <UISENTROPIC
FEX0PANSIN"
P1

Fig.6 Mathematical model of primary seal

SEAT P4 I0.3 N/CM2 ABS (15 PSIA)

CHOKED FLOW
TAKEOFF
2
Pj; Z•17NICM
AS (315 PSIIA)

SI~lr IDLE PRIMARY

P "45-N/CM 2 ABS
,6 PSIA); NON- 16.84CM
CHOKED FLOW (6.63 1N.)
DIAM

210-% 3,-N
300 200 100 0
PRESSURE, N/CM 2 ABS
PI 16.59 CM
4D0 I30D
I I
200 100 0I4(6.53 DIAM N,)
"---ý"PRESSURE., PSIA -
Fig.7 Pressure gradient in primary seal, illustrating choked and nonchoked flow. Parallel faces;
mean film thickness hm , 0.0010 centimeter (0.0004 in.). (From Ref.9)

LAND
B RECUSS

"MOTION VIEW A-A ýEED GROOVE

0.0025 CM
a.001 IN.)
VIEW B-B

Fig.8 Mathematical modil of self-acting pad wittl curvature effects negletited

 16-17

SLIDING TEMPER- DESIGN

SPEED, ATU1•I• POINT
180 - 800 n4s ON KOF)
- 1371 I40 977 1300) TAKEOFF
61 (M0) 31 (100) IDLE
160 700

140-
600

120-

L..

3 400
60-
100 8 0 12PxO
200

10D

2 4 6 8 10 12 16i104
MEAN FILM THICKNESS, hm, CM

1 2 3 4 5XIO-4
MEAN FILM THICKNESS, hmi IN.

Fig.9 Lift force of selfacting geometry, Number of pads, 20; recess depth, 0.0025 centimeter (0.001 in.);
fluid, air; parallel faces. (From Ref.9)

S----SPRING FORCE

b PRIMARY
RINGI CLOSING
• FORCE AREA

1I ,SECONDARY-SEAL DIAMETER
I • "'_D
INaSIDE 2 , 16.76
DIAMETER D! OFCM (6.W IN.1)
P1 \ PRIMARY SEAL, 16.5A CM
S (6653IN.)
PNEUMATIC CLOSING FORCE

FlA.lO Closing forces - spring force and net closing force due to coaled pressure

I
_ _. . - - - . . - - I
16-18

-- OPENING FORCE
. CLOSINGFORCE

1 SUDING TIMPER- DESIGN

300 SPEED, ATIME, POINT
250-in s M'/) Kt~
M"- - -000- - - 137 040) 977 0300) TAKEOF
2

,EQUILIBRIUM OPER- ,
400 'ATING FILM THICKNESS"k
a)-"•r-.--_ 61 (M0) 3I 1000) IDLE
0 02L 4' 6 'S 10 1'2 14x10"A
MEAN FILMTHICKNESS, hm, CM
' I I I 10x
1 2 3 4 5x104
MEAN FILM THICKNESS,
hm, IN.

Fig. I I Equlibrium ps film thicknessw determined by total seal opening and closing forcas.
Paiallel faces (from Ref.9)

212- 10"1._-

276 00
V (300)
21. 2 -- 1 0 "3

69

SURFACE SPED, V.

.212- 1'4

.0212"5 10 15

FILM HICKIESS, pm
I t ... t I I I I I / f
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .M0"3
RIM 'ICUMS, In.

Fig. 12 Primary meal leakage wsfunction of film thickness. Nominal diameter sal (from 'ef. 12),
16.76 cm (6.60 in.); seal air temperature, 700 K (800 F); spring force, 75 N (17 Ibi)
 16-19

Pressure,
Nlcm': abs Osia)
Pi P4
o 217.1 (314.7) 29.5V42.7)
o 182.6(a47) 29.5(42.7)
0 14B.1(214.7) 26.0(37.7)
L. 113.6 (161.7) 19.1 (21.7)
A 79.1(114. 7) 17. 7(25. 7)

2.12- 1"•._• •SURFACE SPEED,

V.
mIs #11s)

S10I
7.06 0251
I!
FILM THICKNESS, Mm
I I I I
.1 .2 .3 .4
FILM ThICKNESS, In.

Fig. 13 Performance map for 6.44 cm (2.5 in.) nominal diameter seal, Scaled air temperature,
644 K (700° F); spring force, 31.1 N (7 lbf); inlet loss coefficient, 1,0,

S12 SELF-ACTING
\LIFT PADS EQUALLY SPACED
2\ 5-0. 76 1mm
\ \(0.0In.) p-1,57mm FL/ T0.062
ICNS 1ni
e'r-E-SEALLF
12
5011
_.__- ,.-. mmmmDAM

(0.021In,)
'2 m lo9 2m~42

51.816 mm dii. L_
62 .992 mm dl..
0.39m9
(2,041n.)• A-A, "( In.)
(2.)I0n.)
0.02D
0.0229/0,0152 mm 44mmdli.
\~OLSD
M,
(0..O0SEAIN DAM IE P

1. SPRING PLA0E 6. PISTON RING (SECONDARY SEAL)

2. COMPRESSION SPRING 7.
)ELLOWS SPACER
3. SPRING PIN S. OIL DAM AND HEAT SHIELD
&. HOUSING 9. ROTATING SEAT
5. CARRIER
0.29005 mm 10, NOSEPIEC
;L %-OI SID dN -4C- -M
00 ( IýOIL
Xi DE
Fi0.14 Self-acting face ea)l design, 6.44cm (2,54 in) nominal diametnr
 16-2o

160- FILM THICKNESS,

INLET RESERVOIR PRESSURE. P1 pm (In.)
no- 0
0n 2.54
5. 10.1xWA~
08 L&0".)
7.62 •(•.10"
ISO- A -0o0,
"0 z70 L..510"•
L 16.1L4(.107
A 10.

1-• -1
1280 W- a.

, dO
Laa

CHOKED
40 FLOW-.=..:
"¾.

EXIT RESERVOIR
PRESSURE, P4-"

0
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.1
RADIAL DISTANCE FROM INNER DIAMETER, mm
I I I I I / o.
0 8 16 32 40 49x
RADIAL DISTANCE FROM INNER DIAMEIER, RI, In.

Fis.15 Calculated radial pressure gradient across primary seal. Seal diameter, 6.44 cm (2.5 in.);
sealed gas temperature, 672 K (750* F); spring force, 31.1 N (7.0 lbf); sliding speed,
192 m/i (650 ft/s); assumed inlet coefficient, 0.6

r PRESSURE TAPS AT
/ VARIOUS RADII-.\

OUTLET PORTS
TO VACUUM
SIMULATED ..
PRIMARY SEALS INLET IFLOW (SEALED
PRESSURE)

Fig.16 Schematic of telt rig for meaurement..•1 ,ffect and

prewuwe lraient across the primary seal

-mum
 6.P1 EXPERIMENTAL
MA,.IWATCAL ODEL REF. 5h

i'5.
12

~27.6
RADIUS, IInT. 0...
LOSS

p--
4

6.9 7.11 7.24 7.37 7.49 7.62

Fi.7Piaysa13. tpesr do rsuecm
n RADIUS, pain.Sae pre
3 ue

I.D. RADIUS, In. 0.D.

SEAT

Fil. 18 Axisymmetay coneas displacement of seat, causingr nonpardlel faces in primary seal
and in self-acting gaometry
 ,--. NONPARALLEL FACES, 2-MILLIRADIAN
FACE DEFOPJ•TION
-- • PARALLEL FACES
m-
M- \
nO- \
40- \

\\

I 1 I I I 1 I

06 It i0 12 14 16 18 20xlO"4
MEAN FII ,',• THICKNESS OF SELF-ACTING PAD, hm, CM
i ! I I !
3 4 5 6 7•M•1
MEAN FILM THICKNESS OF SELF-
ACTING PAD, hm, IN.
Fii.19 Lift foroe ofmlf4ctJnBpometry. Number of pads, 20; pad depth, 0.0025 centJrneter(O.O01 in,);
fluid, air. Sealed preuur•, 148 N/ans abs (215 psh); ,lidin8 ,peed, 153 meters per second (SIX) ft/lmC);
fluid temperature. 700 K (8000 F)
S.... OPENING FORCE FOR PARALLEL FACES
--- OPENING FORCE FOR NONPARALLEL FACES
2-MILL1RADIAN DEFOliATION

2 2

0 2, , ,
MEAN FILM THICKNESS OF PRIMARY SEAL, hm, CM

I1 2I ,I3 4I •I 6I ,?xlO"4
I
WAN FI W THICKNESS OF PRIMARY
sEAL, hm, IN.

FlJ.20 Ol:)entnll force acting on prJlllliry • utembly, lealed fluid, air. Selded pressure, 148 N/cmz (215 plda);
fluid temperature, 700 K (8004, F). (From Ref.9)

•en
11 n me rCLOSING POl••
100 S00

/ I{•QUi LIIIRI UM OPERATII•O FIlM 1HICKNES5

40•, |- • 17 18 l! JO IlxlO"4
Sicmss Pt, tv s L.
t.O 6.5 7.0 7.5"Ls'--• M"4
MEAN FIlM THICKNESS OF PIIIMARY • ha, IN,

i•1.21 Equilibrium p8 film tldelmel in de•nnlned by total openlnll and cloeinll forces for 2-mlllLridtim floe
defornui•ion. Sfidinl speed, i 53 meters per second (500 ft/imc); inmied piemum, 148 N/cals abe (21S p•);
sealed • temperatume, 7130 k (800° F)
 RING

T
SEAT FACE MOUNT F.1.R,
0a0020 CM (0.00=8I N.)

Fig.23 Osaillograph tracos showing response of ring to seat face runout. Recess-pad longth to lan~d-length ratio,
2: 1; recess-pad depth, 0.0013 centimieter (0.0005 In.); sliding velocity, 61 moetors par second (200 ft/see):
ambient pressure, 10 newtons per square centimeter (14.7 lb/in. 2 ); room temperature, 300 K(800 F);
spring load, 1.,13 kilograms (2.50 lb), (From Ref. 13)

,-PRIWAARY
RING
SEAT
FRICTION
FORCE

O0F SEAT
ROTATION

FRICTION
FORCE

GOP
Fig.24 Angular misaligninent of sealing famue, nonoxisymntwtz* sealins gap
 16-24

2• UNSTABLE

STAý41 ""LINE I
SYABLC

UNSVABIE

SEAT FACE RUNOUT

Fig,25 Typical stability map of primary ring response to sat face runout

•:"6.8 -
i .25 EQUILIBRIUM
6.6SEAT CLEARANCE
FACE RUNOUT IFR ZERO
1.3 microns RUNOUrIn.)
4O.0000512

6.4 -STABM
.6.2 OPERATION

.V .2N &-
.219 .6 \.

.ai1 5.4

TIME

Fig.26 Minimum clearance from start-up (time 00) for 6.44 cm (2.5 in.) nominal diameter seal;
sliding speed, 244 m/sec (800 ft/see)
40- •

F
j0 - SEAL SUDING SPEED
15.4 masc W00
0fsc

CALCU30--
LLATED

H-TOTAL AIR LEAKAGE

1 0 oIfSTAlIC AIR LEAIAGE

0 0- 00 SPRIG4ALOAD 81.2N OIL l)

-0 SEAL AR -WIATED
10 - SEALOML w• 1K F)

o 5 100 150 ZI 80 M
SEAL DMRIINAL PRESSURE. I4CM 2
L I I. I I I I I _.j
0 in M aIS n M s 0 40i 0
SEAL DIRENTIA PRESSURE. pal

FII.27 Sead leak"op; 16.76 cm (6,6 in.) nominal dianeter maul, (Raf. 15)
 16-25

30% INCREASE IM0 INCREASE

REAR BEARING REAR BEARING
FAILURE INDICATOR FAILURE INDICATOR
READING READING (CAUSED
INCREASE INSEAL

AIR TEMPERATURE 775 K a100( F)

15 ~SEAL VELOCITY 122mM900 Mee) - - ,4
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE 138Nfcml (200 psI0

083-4-0----- 56~-- 6 ) 2a 6 9 4 1 21 28
ENDURANCE HOURS
FIS.28 Air leakage for 120-hour endurance test 4f 16,76 cm (6.6 In.) nominal die seal (Ref. 15)

*- RAYLEIGH PAD SAN A

(a)AFTER 12D hr OF ENDURANCE. '

(b)AFTER 200 hr OF ENDURANCE; TOTAL TI1ME n SEAL 336.5 hr.

Fl6 .29 Repreaentative profile trace radially across a Rayleigh pad and primnazy seal after 200 hours of endurance.
Tota time on weal 338.S hours, (From Rat 15)
 10. 4.~ microns 60 microincheis
.~127 '

Fig.30 Re~presentative profile trace taken radially across the face of the carbon ring at completion of air entrained
dirt teat. Total teat time, 14.5 hours

140AF A RN
SIAL 0.011 mm (0.00005 In.%
FORWAR D SEAL 0.015 mm a 0006 In.)
120'-BASELINE TEST

150- 10

100- u RUNOUT TEST

E0-

so AXIAL RUNOUT
AFr SEAL 0.051 mm 40.002 In.)
MVRWARD SEAL0.(051 mm 40.M2 In.)

0 .0025 .0 .007 m0o0 .012 .050

AIRFLOW. kgls

0 .05 .010 .015 .02D .03 .03D

AIRFLOW. IbIs

Pig.31 Airflow through two sealsh as function of pressure differential at 145 rn/s (475 ft/8) for seat face axial
rurtout testing (Ret, 16)

r#24 SPIRAL GROOVES

Mp SEPIRAL-

Fig.32 Sipira grove self-acting seal

 16-27

.0,4

SMAED PRESSURE,
N/cM2 gbs

F~g.3Sprajgro~
y~~ lt.a~tr4 Sal;afrfaj SEAED PRESSURF si
Ves8 sealed Pft huur; sliding sp eed
182.9 rnu(600 ft /eec);2seals
.05 LABYRIMy.
SEALS ROrArING
0 ClRCWZ"4 SEALS-ý

.0I
03

F L
100-MN t-

02

PRESSURE DIFFERENCE, PSI

2
Fis.34 Corapariso
of sell colilgIurati...
16-28

DISCUSSION

J.G.Ferguson, UK
Have you had any problems in your secondary seals especially in the case where you have got run-out?

Author's Reply
In answer to the question by J.G.Ferguson on secondary seal problems in the self-acting seal, problems generally
start to show up when attempting to seal high pressures (over 275 N/cm 2 ) and high temperatures (over 677 K).
In general, there have been no problems with the secondary seals (carbon material) In the 6.44 cm diameter seal
tests. However, secondary seal problems (carbon rings and metal rings) have been noted ii the 16,76 cm seal
diameter when operating at high pressures and temperatures. Test runs have been made under high levels of
runout axial motion in both the 6.44 cm and 16.76 cm seal and no secondary seal problems that were attributable
to the axial motion were noted.

B.Wrigley, UK
The paper states that film stiffness at idle is satisfactory but have high altitude conditions at high engine speed
been examined?

Author's Reply
At high altitude conditions, no problems in film stiffness are anticipated since the sliding speed is adequate and
the pressure is such that the fluid viscosity Is also adequate. From a sliding speed standpoint, tests have shown
that lift-off occurs at relatively low sliding speeds; also numerous tests which have been run at the relatively low
sliding speed of 61 m/soc (200 ft/sec) with both the 16.7 cm and 6.44 cm seals, demonstrated that operation
occurred without rubbing contact. From a fluid viscosity standpoint, a significant decrease hi the self-acting
force will not uccur until the pressure reaches very low values (probably less than 3.5 N/cm 2 a (5 psia)),

D,C.Whltlock, UK
How does the heat generation (particularly heat into the oil system) for the self-acting seal compare with that for
conventional carbon face seals operating under similar conditions?

Author's Reply
Your question raises an important point. When the three seal systems, labyrinth, conventional rubbing, and the
self-acting seals are analyzed for heat load into the lubrication system, we find that the labyrinth seal adds
considerable heat because of the relatively high leakage of hot air into the bearing compartment. On the other
hand, the rubbing seal has relatively low leakage, but adds considerable heat into the lubrication system by virtue
of the high speed rubbing contact. In contrast, the self-acting seal has both low leakage and low sliding heat
generation, and there is a wonsiderable reduction of heat to the lubrication system. This consideration becomes
important for those systems (such as some supersonic operation) in which there is competition for the heat sink
capacity of tho fitel,

J.G.Ferguson, UK
Doet this seal you have described cater for gross-axial movement which can sometimes occur?
In other words: due to the thermal differential expansion you encounter an axial shift of the rotor and the seal
has to follow this. Have you had problems when this occurred?

Author's Reply
Following the grou-axial movement, either due to differential thermal expansion or surge motion, should present
no problem since adequate axial motion length can be designed into the seal, and the stiffness of the seff-acting
gs bearing is sufficient to prevent rubbing contact. There is some test experience that relates to this question of
operation under axial motiop and this was obtained when the rig thrust bearing failed in two tests. In both cases,
the seals survived the bearing failure and associated axial motion without excessive wear.

G.A.IWuih, UK
Both this paper and the one delivered by Professor Dini deal with very similar solutions to almost identical problems.
That is self-adjusting seals to control bearing chmnber seal leakage. Would both authors comment on the differences
and simlarities in their approaches to this problem.

Author's Reply
Both papers cover the same self-acting seal concept. However, Dr Dini• shows in detail how the seals may be applied
to a particular IAs turbine engine. I particularly like Dr Dini's epplication approach since it provides a fall-safe test
of the concept. That is, Itthe self-acting geometry Iseroded sway by air ontrained dirt, then the seal acts as a
 conventional rubbing contact seal; and at the pressure and temperature of his application the conventional rubbing
seal will not fail catastrophically.
In regard to the potential erosion wear problem, our current approach is to place the self-acting geometry (spirdl
grooves) into the hard surface rather than in the carbon ring, and this, we feel, will provide improvement in
erosion resistance.

* r
 17-1

SELF ACTIVE PAD SEAL APPLICATIONI

FOR HIGH PRESSURE ENGINES

by
Dino lini
Istituto di Macchine, UniversitA di Piss, Italy

SUMIMAR
A more effective and improved engine sealing syntem is analyzed and discussed for application to an ad-
vanced high pressure engine.
Very high leakage results in labyrinth seal applied at high pressure and temperature locations of high-
performance engin,,s. A s,alution to this shortcoming is offered by a self-acting lift pao seal added to
the primary sealil-g surface, enabling a very thin gas film separation of the surfaces during shaft rots
tion.
Details of consetrction and design to operate at a clearance less than 1/10th that associated with laby-
rinth aesla are giver, in the paper. Oerstion was obtained at a rotating speed of 600 ft/sac and a
cealed air temperature of 600 'F.
The maximum speed and pressure capability is at present tested for use in high-pressure engine applica-
t ions.

MTgRonUCTION
The operation of shaft seals in high pressure turbo-engines is riot yet fully understood.
A large gas turbine engine can have hundreds of major and minor neals for restricting gas leakage, pro-
"viding thrust balancj.g, metering cooling gas flow, and protecting bearings end other mechanical compo-
nents.
In addition to being used for cooling purposes, air from the compressors is used to seal the bearing
housings, so preventing the leakage of oil into the engine main casings or into the compressor inlet.
This is achieved by directing the air across the bearing oil eels, the flow being inward towards the
bearing or oil supply, thus preventing the escape of any oil. An oil seal reduces the working clear-
once between the rotating and static members to a minimum value. Oil and air seals may be of various
foraes,
The air that enters the oil system from the vz.rious preseurized oil seal creats a small positive pres-
sure to assist the oil return system. The air is finally separated from the oil by a do-aerator sys-
tem, which sometimes incorporates a centrifugal breather, from which is vented outboard.
For example, in the two spool gas turbine engine T53 AVCO-Lycoming of figure 1, three compartment seals
are located adjacent to the engine main shaft bearings, and are the compressor bearing compartment seal
and the turbine compartment seals. The turbine bearing compartment shaft seals present critical prob-
lems to minimiso high-pressure air leakage into the compartment. This seal is face pressurized by corn
pressor discharge air, used to isolate the bearing compartment from the hot environment.
The internal cooling system provides cooling air to the internal engine components and pressurizes the
No. 1 and 2 main beoring seals and the inershaft oil Peal. Internal cooling and pressurization air
is obtained from five different pressure and temperature supplies, from the fourth stage compressor
spacer; frca the tip of the centrifugal compressor impeller; from the edge of the combustion chamber
deflector; from the area surrounding the gsa producer and power turbine assemblies; and from external
air through the hollow struts Df the exhaust diffuser. Compressed air, bled from the tip of the can-
trifugal compressor impeller, cools the forward face of the diffuser housing and pressurizes the No. 2
bearing forward seal, continuing rearward through transfer tubes in the bearing housing to pressurize
the No. 2 aft oil seal. It also passes through a series of holes in the rear compressor shaft into the
space between the rotor assembly and the power shaft. At this point it *sperstes into three separate
flow paths, one of which flows forward into an irea between the carbot elements of the No. 1 bearing
seal and continues on the aft face of the interoheft seal, located forward of the No. 1 bearing.
The No. I bearing seal is an internally pressurimed seal. The radial labyrinths on the forward lace of
the seal body are designed to work in conjunction with labyrinths on the paddle pump to reduce the flow
of oil to tWe positive contact portion of the seal. Thr positive contact portion containiq carbon ele-
ments.
The No. 2 be. aing package contains positive contacts of seals and a controlled gap air seal.
As the foed oil is distributed to all the necessary parts of the engine, a substantial amunt of seal-
ing air mixes with it and increases its volume. Therefore, to prevent the flooding of the bearing hous
Ingo, it is necessary to use more then one pump to titurn or scavenge it to the oil tank. This is a-
chevd by using a pack of pumps, each of which returns the oil trt a particular section of
-- e engine.
To protect the pap gears, each return pipe is provided with a strainer that, during inspection, can _
veal the failure or impending failure of * component,
thee b ac te eac o wic reun h I ro patcua
i of he
17-2

However, Ref. 2 and 3, main shaft sealing is becoming inceansingly critical in advanced gas turbine forhel
icopters. An shaft speeds, air temperatures, and air pressures increase; engine size has decreased, lea%-
ing loss envelop* to accomplish the sealing function. Because of their non-contacting feature, labyrinth
seals offer infinite life; however, at high pressures and temperatures, simple labyrinths will not suffice,
and complicated multisteg labyrinths must be used.
Labyrinth seals comprise more stages of rotating knife edges that act as flow restrictors against rigid
stationary surfaces. The gap between the knife edge and the stationary surface most be large enough to
accomodate large dynamic motions, distortions of the shaft, and high leakage in high-performance engines.
oil is entrained as the leakage vents out of the engine. Venting and pressurization passages are costly
to p~roduce.
In order to overcome these hiSher airflows, which muat be absorbed by the lubrication system, face contact

seals are sometimss used. In this application, a seal ring assembly, with a carbon sealing surface, is
held against a rotating seal seat that is attached to the shaft. The non-rotating seal ring assembly can
move axially to adapt motions of the seal sat. However, the face contact seal is pressure and speed lim-
itedby fthigh heat generation and subsequent susceptibility to wear or to determine other surface failures
that can result from the rubbing contact.
The self-acting lift pad seal has much greater preseure and speed capability than face contact seals, and
gives lower leakage than either labyrinth and face contact seals. A self acting lift pad geometry, added
to the primary sealing surface, permits positive separation of the sealing surfaces during rotation by a
very thin gas film, in the range of 0.0001 to 0.0005 in. Stability and performance of this self acting
seal are of particular interest at rotative speeds to 50,000 rpm, where high inertia forces are induced on
the high pressure and temperature gas.

SZLF-ACTIKO LMlT PAD SEAL

This type of sealing, figure 2, a finite width pad sealing with side step to limit leakage, offers the siA
ni•itant advantage of large tolerance to wear, no moving parts and the capacity to be used as both a hy-
drostatic and hydrodynamic sealing. The desired operating gap between rotating and stationary members of
the seal is generated by a properly designed hydrodynamic pattern on the seal ring surfaces. Circunfer-
ential steps and recessed pads (pockets) are typical seal ring patterns used to establish hydrodynamic
face separation, such as shrouded Rayleigh step bearings. During shutdown or period of non-rob:ation, the
primary seal ring is held in contact with the seat (rotating ring) by compression spring. Thus, positive
sealing is maintained.
Like in a shrouded step thrust bearing, the side steps have the purpose of limiting the side leakage from
the pockets (recessed pad areas), and this shro)uding action (lifting force) gives the seal its name. The
pads are arranged on the annular thrust surface with a radial feed groove (drain passage) between each
pad end its neighbors. The recessed pad area is depressed an amount, approximately 0.001 inch deep, be-
low the otherwise uniform lifting surface (side step). As the seal clearance between face may so small as
0.0002 inch (loss than 1/10th to 1/100th that relative to labyrinth seals), a significant amount of atten-
tion has been paid to potential thermal asd mechanical distortion of these seal systems, Ref. 4. The
sealed pressure p is imposed by the gas supply. Ambient sump pressure p& surrounds the sealing dan, Seat
rotation is anti-clockwise.
During hydrostatic operation, gas under pressure is supplied to the recessed pad area via the radial feed
groove. During hydrodynamic operation (rotation of the seat), the high pressure gas is dragged into the
pad and compressed as it passes over the step. The resulting lifting action separates the primary seal
ring and the rotating ring. The stiffness vf the gas film between faces results in a stable equilibrium
configuration for a properly designed seal at operating conditions.
Theas mchsaical face seals, operating without rubbing contact, have Che obvious advantages of longer life
and reliability and lower power requirements. From the other hand, there is a maximum frequency at which
a typical non-contacting face seal may be run in the presence of axial runout. As a result of axial
runout, contact will occur between rotor and stator when the stator is no longer able to dynamically track
the wobble motion of the rotor. This will happen when a rotor angular velocity is readied w1hwre the gas
film wedge between stator and rotor is not able to generate the torque required to enable the stator to
track the rotor.
Conventional face contact asala, presently used in gas turbine engines, are generally limited to sealing
pressure less than 200 psi, at sliding velocities below 400 ft/sac, and gas temperature of 2000F.
Surface speeds to 500 ft/see, differential pressure to 500 psi, and sealed air temperature to 1,300%,
have been demostrated with self-acting lift pad seals for advanced aircraft engines.
Gas film seal performance and analysis are considered in Ref. 2 to 11, where solution of compressible flu
id 'Iuw across shaft face seals with deformation are obtained from an approximate integral analysis, pre-
dicting gas film seal behavior operating at subsonic or choked flow conditions. Laminar or turbulent
flow regimsa, entrance losses, fluid inertia effects, sealing face deformation and lip motion, heat trans
far and subsequent stresses, pressure balancing of gas film, designs and experiments, have been object of
detailed development for application on aitoraft advanced gas turbine engines.
Koch significant analytical work has beau done, as indicated by the References at the end uf this paper,
tn provide the engineer with rational fundations for the design of gas film bearings. To remove the resric
tiems of incompressibility we must derive a more general form of the Deynolds equation, Ref. 12.

I
 17-3

MNII STUM W
"R AINSUArT SEAIS APPLCATIOH

Because of high reliability, low leakage and stable gas interface on the rotating parts (to speeds as high
as 20,000 rpm or more), requirements in the design of mainahaft seals; conventional rubbing contact types
are abandoned in favor of non-contacting type seals.

Leakage is minimized primarely by the introduction of external forces on the leakage gas; axial forces
(self-acting lift force, spring force, and pneumatic forces due to the sealed pressure) in the case of the
shrouded step seal, centrifugal forces in the slinger seal, and viscous shear forces in the case of the
screw seal.
These kinds of non-contacting seals, and new seal concepts of labyrinth stages, are under test in our lab-
oratory.
The test rig, figure 3, permits simultaneous operation of two seal samples at the sides of a split inner
race ball bearing. During normal operation, desired air pressure is maintained into the cavities com-
prised between the ball bearing end the refrigerant sides of the seals, and the air that leaks to passed
into the sump. I.e., a pressure differential is available to derive refrigerant gas into the sump. It is
required that the sump pressure be maintained close to the pressure in chamber B during normal operation.
Therefore, the seal leakage must be vented from the sump back to the refrigerant loop as shown in figure
3. It is required to pass the vented refrigerant through a fine mesh filter to trap the oil particles.
The test rig aimulates the effects on the seals with a simple open loop configuration.
The important measurements pertinent to evaluating seals 1erformance are seal leakage rate, which is me -
ured with calibrated flow metors, and seals temperature which is measured with theamocouples embedded in
the carbon graphite stators. The ball bearing and each seal face are, respectively, fed and cooled by oil
jets. The bearing compartment drains by gravity into a static air-oil separator. To separate air from
the oil returning to the oil accumulator, a de-atsating device and a centrifugal breather are incorporatmd.
The return air-oil mixture is fed on the de-aerator where partial separation occurs, the remaining air-oil
mist then passes into the centrifugal breather for final separation. The rotating vanes of the breather
centrifuge the oil from the mist and the air is vented overboard. A variation in temperature of the cool-
ing air will give some indication of seal distress through a thermocouple system to a temperature gauge.
The test rig is suitable for different seal sixes, and supply air temperatures and pressures, to simulate
many operating conditions of bearing oil seal internal pressurisation in high pressure gas turbine engines.
For that, the air supply is derived from a large reservoir, in which air is contained at the pressure de-
sired for each test; the temperature level being established on the delivered flow by a variable heater.
In such a way, air may be delivered in the appropriate condition simulating bleeding eastraction from a
stage compressor spacer.

The gas bearing, like the shrouded step seal in figure 2, in offering a more difficult analytical chal-
lenge than the oil bsaring in the governing Reynolds partial differential uquations. As showu in figure
4, the streamlines are vf such a nature that neither the fluid velocity along the a axis nor the first
derivative of the velocity along the x axis can be neglected at certain locations, Fortunately, the effect
of dropping the velocity terms may be checked approximately by using the two-dimensional model. The theory
may be developed for the infinite pad, on the assumption that the inapplicability of film theory in the
neighborhood of the step will not result in serious error. Establishing that the pressure within each of
ýhe two uniformrthickness film portions must satisfy Laplace's equation, the pressure at the common bound-
ary is determined by flow continuity, according the pressure distribution in figure 4. For that, the staE
pad pad bearing operating load capacity, for a given minimum film thickness is high, and a seal is intro-
duced between hot gas discharging from one pad end relatively cool Sao supplied to the pad directly down-
stream from it.
To provide acceptable numerical values of sealing performance on vhich to base the seal design, the pads
are assumed to be linearized and to form a continous strip, referring for computation at the mean diameter
with corrections to account for curvature and for flows across the corners of the pad. In addition to this
approximation; all Inertia, entrance and body, effects may be neglected; all flows are considered one-di-
monsional; the recessed pad pressure is dependent on the length dimension only; and steady-etate operation
may be applied.
The gao bearing analysis may be carried out starting from the Navior-Stokes equations, applied to a carte-
sian element of space, the continuity and energy conservation equations, combined with the equation of
state for compisnsible fluid. A simplification is deriving from the fact that the gas viscosity is co~par
atively insensitive to both pressure and temperature (dry air at atmospheric temperature increases in ab-
solute viscosity of about 12Z of its atmospheric pressure value as the pressure is increased to 1,000psia),
If inertia and body forces are considered to have small effects on pressure compared with viscous forces,
and additional assumption of an isothermal film eliminates temperature 6s a dependent variable, absolute
viscosity may be treated as constant over space and time. A further simplification permits the problem to
be treated with the Reynolds equations, in which the space between the solid surface is so small to con-
aider the flow aa laminar.
If we assum an incompressible fluid in place of the perfect Sam law, making density constant, the set of
equatione of the usual theory of hydrodynamic Sas films are semplifled to solve the problem of the evalua-
tion of the pressure at every point In a lubricant thin laminar film, neglecting Inertia and body forces
and assumning vimcosity to be invariant over space.
In such a way, the solution for film pressure, as a function of x for the infinite (along y direction)
pad, is resulting in the pressure distribution of figure 4, where pll, pa and ps are, respectively, the
174
pressure at the inlet, at the outlet and at the step location.
As an adequate approximation for design purposes of oil thrust bearings, we get, Kof. 13

pN pP• "0.718 (pin pa) + (0.413 pmub)/h2 (1)

and, for the pad load capacity

V - 0.718 (pin - pa) BL + (0.206 VuB 2 L)/h2 (2)

whare B and L are the pad dimensions along x and y axss, and p is the absolute viscosity.
Considering the large influence on the real result of side leakage, film thickness, and stophaight (h 2 -h 1 ),
and the difficulty to take into account all the flow parameters, it is convenient to give an empirical
form at the expression (2) to compute the necessary spring load for the high pressure self-acting lift seal
ring, with a given number of pads as represented on figure 2. In this sense, the incompressible fluid
analysis may be acceptable.
For evaluating the radial flow between two coaxial parallfl disks, the seal ring and the seat in figure 2,
the quasy fully developed flow model is widely used.
As in Ref. 4, the balance between the pressure and viscous friction force in a control volume, figure 5,
is, neglecting entrance effects,

A'd ,-r 'dA (3)

p w V

with A and T, respectively, the cross-sectional area and the viscous friction force per unit wetted (v)
area. And, introducing the hydraulic diameter D -4&d A /d x, the man friction factor f MT /p v/2, and
the mess flow A - p • v * A (being v the radial velocity), Eq. 3 is becoming (with the perfect gas law
p- pIT)

2
pdp - - 2 f R TiH - dx/DA (4)

Integrating Eq. 4, with laminar radial stream, we obtain, Ref. 4, respectively for leakage mass flow, ra-
dial pressure distribution, entrance distribution

2whl (p2 - p2)/24ITlnRT

2I- 1 /R 2 (5)

0.5
P p1
I {i + I(p 2 /pi)' - at/(R 2 - i1)0 (6)

p, - p0 ill + (y - 1) M2/2
I
C•lY/C"l)
L
(7)

where h, y, M, and CL, are, respectively, film thickness, constant pressure and volume specific heat ratio,
Koch number of the entrance flow conditions. and lift coefficient.
In this simplified analysis, influence of seal face doformations due to the centrifugal force, shaft ther-
ml coning, other kinds of distortions, and turbulent flow are of course not considered. For applicetion
purposes, empirical forms of Eqs. 5. 6 and 7 may be used.
As shown on figures 6 to 10. labyrinth seals normally precede the shrouded stop thrust sealing, to reduce
as possible leakage in between stationary and rotating knives separating different pressure spaces, Laot
nation occurs, without any surface contact, in the gas going from a space to the other through a long and
winding path. A pressure drop for each lamination develops a gas velocity runnin" down in the following
free space, which is relatively large in comparison to the gas mount passed through the restricted clear-
ance. To continue its path to the labyrinth outlet, the gas is uudergoing another pressure drop for pass-
ing through the successive flow restriction. By moons of an adequate number of laminations, the ovsrpran-
sure in respect to the receiving asbient, as vell as the gas leakage, will be sufficiently reduced. The
intent is to produce a pressure in the annular groove which is only slightly greater than that existing on
the low pressure side of the seal, iintaining the desired pressure difference with the other seal aide.
in order for this coatept to work, each labyrinth stage meat have several times the gss flow resistace of
the internal vent pQ*saage. Therefore, the seal is constructed so that the clearance between the rotor mad
the stator parts is minLimzed. To achieve this, the inside diameter of the seal stator is constructed
from a carbon graphite composition and the seal assembled with sero to 0.002 inch diametral clearance. To
retain a low leakage characteristic throughout the life of the machine, it is essential that the sehap
 1_7-5

tips of the labyrinth teeth not be worn.

A first approximation numerical solution, for many stages of equal pressure drop p a Pn+l and restriction
cross area labyrinth laminations, give a leakage mass flow

a
* V1
/p (pW - pz)/Pl n (8)

where a, n, Pi and P2, are, respectively, the restricted cross sectional area, the number of stages, and
the pressures on the two sides of the labyrinth seal.
Espression 8 is derived by combination of the restriction velocity v - /2 (Pn Pn +l)/P, the average
2
pressure p - (pn + Pn+1I)/ in a small pressure drop, and the mass flow a.svp after n stages with a
known total pressure drop (p, - P2)'

As shown on figure 9, an oil slinger seal in following the No. 1 bearing of figure 8, in between the under
race lubricating ball bearing and the screw labyrinth seal oil return. This type of non-contacting dynamic
seal has shown leakage rate comparable to mechanical contact face seals, and demonstrated the possibility
of extremely long seal life because of the absence of rubbing parts. The configuration on figure 9 is ap-
plied for pressure oil lubricated ball bearing, particularly the ones operating at speeds up to 3 million
DN (DN is a speed parameter equal to the bearing bore diameter in millimeters multiplied by the shaft
speed in rpm). For example, a 120 - millimeter -bore bearing running at 25,000 rpm would be operating at
3 million DN. Mainshaft bearings on current engines operate at DN value as high as 2.4 million. Jot lubri
cation, used to cope with the more difficult lubripation and cooling requirements at high speeds, is not
effective at speeds above 2 to 2.5 million DN ,,.e the lubricant is centrifugally thrown away from the
inner-race-ball contacts, these areas resulting rapidly deteriorated. Introducing the lubricant under the
race, figure 9, the centrifugal effects are supplying lubricant directly to the inner-race contact areas;
for increased cooling effect, some lubricant may be directed through axial slots under the race. To main-
tain the desired temperature equilibrium between the inner and outer races, outer-race cooling may also be
empluyed.
With a slinger seal downstream the under race lubricated ball bearing, it is possible to maintain a stable
liquid-to-vapor interface on the rotating parts, and thus the only leakage is the evaporative loss from
liquid-to-vapor interface. In the configuration at the left of figure 9, relative to bearing No. 1 in
figure 8, the axial clearance between the rotating disk and stationary wall of the plane slinger is main-
tained at the relatively large value of 0.020 to 0,025 inches and the labyrinth screw return at the inner
diameter of the stationary wall is relied upon to return any leakage down to the stationary will to seal
interface. A jet lubrication system is utilised both by the plane slinger and housing disk.
Design of the plane slinger with screw return is carried out on Ref. 19, where, with a given slinger diem
star, an axial clearance is chosen to allow for differential expansion between the rotor and stator. The
turbulent mode of operation with merged boundary layers is depending upon the Reynolds number relative to
the chosen lubricant and its temperature. The pressure generating capability of the slinger and the total
power loss in the bearing is deduced.
Regarding the labyrinth screw return on figure 9, analysis and test experience are presented on Ref. 20.
The purpose of the screw return is to stop the drops of fluid coming from the interface due to instability.
As the screw will not normally run flooded, a simple thread form is used.

In figures 6 and 7, representing self active pad seal applications for the bearing No. 1 and No. 2 of fig-
ure 1, the seals are face pressurized 6y high pressure air directly bled from the centrifugal compressor
outlet and passed through labyrinth sets of carbon elements.
In figure 9 and 10, a combination of self active pad seal, labyrinth seal, and slinger bearing is shown
for the No. 1 and No. 2 bearings on figure 8. The slinger seal in the No. 1 bearing acts as a centrifugal
separator, and its main function is to form a stable interface between the vapor and the liquid, and to
pump the liquid up to the return liee pressure. For the No. 1 bearing, is also shown a solution of the
slinger seal, Ref. 21, which not only restricts the leakage from the interface but provides a method for
the return of any leakage to the interface. It consists of a hollow slinger, the outer portion of which
operates as an ordinary slinger and serves to scavenge the bearing cavity.
As shown in figure 8, 9 and 10, the compressor rotor bears the serrated parts of three labyrinth-type
seals: the balance chamber seal, the first stage air seal, which prevents the inlet air from becoming
trapped and loasing energy between the first stage compressor disk assembly and the front compressor rotor
disk assembly; anO the tenth stage air seal, which permits compressor air leakage for cooling the gan gen-
erator first stage turbine nozzle, The No, 2 bearing transmits both the radial and axial loads imposed by
the dynamically balanced rotor assembly, and mounts an oil deflector on each side. Both the forward and
rear double labyrinth seals are pressurized by the tenth stage compressor seal leakage air.
Seal design study, however, may be only limited to deriving empirical numerical solutions adequately cor-
recting theoretical results obtainable from approximated and simplified assumptions. It is in fact obvi-
ously impossible, as above mentioned, to carry out an analytical solution, taking into account: all the
hydrostatic effects, as axisyimetric radial taper due to distortion, surface tension effects, and molecu-
lar adhesion; and the most important hydrodynamic effects, as non-Newtonian fluid effects, thermal And
pressure wedge effects, surface waviness, viscous shearing of surface waves, vibrationo misalignment and
eccentricity.
 17-6
However, the sealing problem has had an appreciable contribute from cnalytical studies, referring about
theoretical results, often obtained with computer programs, and experiments simulating the real operating
conditions.
As conclusion of this paper, whose intent concept is the one to discuss practical seal applications suit-
able for the more and more stringent requirements of high speed gas turbine engines operating with gas at
very high temperature and pressure values, some results are presented from our empirical and experimental
investigations.

SALU 1R TEST

Essentials of the used seal test rig are shown schematically in figure 3, and details of the seals under
test shown in figures 6, 7, 9 and 10. Both seals are for compressors, figures I and 8, of turboahafta,
whose gas generators speed, compression ratio and free turbine maximum power, are in the range, respective
ly, of 25,000 rpm, 10 to I and 1,250 Hp. Sealing air is supplied from the reservoir to the test rig at a
temperature of the order of 550"?, through a heater. But, higher temperatures and pressures are obtain-
able, because of the variable power heater and the changeable preasure level in the storage reservoir.
lunning time may be very large, because of the capacity of the 20 cylindrical containers used, 63.5 cubic
feet each as volume, in comparison to the low required air mass flow supplying the test rig for compensat-
ing the exhaust seal air leakage from the test rig. The containers may be charged with air at the maximum
pressure level of 3,000 pasi.
To check the practical validity of such test rig, in regard to the high temperature and pressure levels of
advanced gas turbine engines, some results have been obtained at peripheral seal rotating speed of 600ft/i
with supplying air at temperature higher than 600"F.
Leakage mass flow are resulting quite in agreement with approximated computations.
The seal behavior at very high speed and pressure is at present tested for use in high-pressure angina ap-
plications.
Because of the inadequate tecnology of the inexpensive construction of our self active pad seals, it is
not possible at present compare the first results obtained to the actual performances of existing sealing
system. From the other hand, advantages in sealing leakage capacity have been evident in comparing laby
rinth seals and self acting seals, both realized inexpensively in our laboratory.
Starting, in our experiments, with labyrinth seals, apitched serrated bushing (stationary) closely encirce
ing a rotating cylindrical piece was realized. Nine serrations vetr formed by one continuous groove. The
diamstral clearance between the seal rotor and stator was 0.002 to 0.006 inches, depending upon the toler-
snce stackup. The seal stator was held in place by two spiral-wound retaining rings and was locked agaist
rotation by a pin. This seal was very reliable and inexpensive. However, it was felt that the leakage
rate could be reduced, improving performance of the unit, A reliable low leakage seal was required at no
overall increased codat. No commrcial seal was found to fit both the technical and economical constraints
of the application. A now labyrinth seal concept, with lower leakage characteristic, was therefore under
development with the rotor constructed from a carbon steel, hast treated to a Brinell hardeness of 200.
The seal stator was a base carbon grade impregnated with a filler to make it more impervious to air flow.
The carbon was shrunk fit into a steel retaining ring in order to minimize thermal differential expression
between the rotor and the stator.
Now, our first experience on combined labyrinth and self acting seals is proceeding with the choice of suilt
able composite material, with adequate thermal expansion coefficient tohold a constant cleatance and a self
acting face separation on the range of 0,0005 inches. A successful self acting face seal design requires
a detailed accounting of all thermal as veil as mechanical distortions with corresponding design features
to maintain parallelsm between the primary sealing faces.
Our air leakage experienced with the face seal design appear to be abnormally high. The erratic leakages
observed suggest either coning of the primary sealing faces, insufficient force balance, or excessive sec-
ondary seal leakage.

XKFUiiU
1. D.F. Wilcock and 1I.. Bousoer, " Bearing Design and Application", McGrw - Hill look Co. Inc., let
Id., 1967.
2. L.P. Ludwig and P. Lytwander, "Mainhbaft Seals for Small Gas Turbine eginesa". ASLI Transactions.
Volume 19, 1, 33-47.
3. J. Zuk, "Inliugl Sealing and Lubrication System". The Proceedings of a Conference held at Lewis
Resarch Center in Cleveland, Ohio, on Hay 13 and ii. 1975.
4. J. Zuk, "Analysis of Yace Deformation gffectson Gas rilm Seal Performance", 27th Annual ASIA Meeting,
Houston, Texas. May 1972.
5. D.h. Kuppermsn, "Dynowic Tracking of Noo-contacting Face Seals", ASLI/JAI Lubrication Conference,
Montreal, Canada, October 1974.
6. L.P. Ludwig and W.I. ady, "New Circumferential Seal Design Concept Using Self-Acting Lift Geoomtries",

" i I - I 1I I I I-
 17-7

NASA TN D-6805, 1972.

7. L.P. Ludwig and R.L. Johnso., "Design Study of Shaft Face Seal with Self-Acting Lift Augmentation.
III - Mechanical Components", NASA TN D-6164, 1971,
8. L.P. Ludwig, J, Zuk and I.L. Johnson, "Design Study of Shaft Face Seal with Self-Acting Lift Augmmn-
tation.IV - Force Balance", NASA TN D-6568, 1972.
9. J. Zuk, LP. Ludwig and R.L. Johnson, "Design Study of Shaft Face Seal with Self-Acting Lift Augeen-
tation.I - Self-Acting Pad Geometry", NASA TN D-5744, 1970,
10. J. Zuk, L.P. Ludwig and R.L. Johnson, "Design Study of Shaft Face with Self-Acting Lift Augntaion.
11 - Sealing Dam", NASA TN D-7008, 1970.
11. L.P. Ludwig and R.L. Johnson, "Sealing Technology for Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines", AIAA Paper
74-1188, Oct. 1974.
12. 0. Reynolds, "Papers on Mechanical and Physical Subjects", Vol, 2, The MacMillan Company, New York,
1901.
13. P.R. Trwipler, "Design Film Bearings", The Company, Now York, 1966.
14. M.L. Adams and A.A. Raimondi, "A Centrifugal Compressor Seal", ASLE/ASMX Lubrication Conference,
Boston, Massachusetts, October 5-7, 1976,
15. H.S. Stephens and C. Richardson, "Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Fluid Seal-
ing", The British Hydromschanics Research Association, Cranfield, Bedford, England, Munich 1973.
16. R.A. Burton, "Bearing and Seal Design in Nuclear Power Machinery", The American Society of Machanical
Engineer, New York, 1967.
17. RJ. Parker, "Bearings and Gears for Advanced Turbine Engines and Transmission@", Aeronautical Pro-
pulsion Conference, Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, 1975,
18. D. Dini, "Macchine" Vol. 1 and IX, Editrice Teenico Scientifica, Pisa, 1976.
19. HN. Kaetola and J.M. McGraw, "Theory of the Partially Wetted Rotating Disk", British Hydromechanics
Research Association, Proc. of 3rd International Conference on Fluid Sealing, April 1967.
20. 3.M. McGrew and J.D. McHugh, "Analysis and Test of the Screw Seal in Laminar Turbulent Operation",
Trans. ASM4Journal of Basic Engineering, Series D, Vol. 87, 1965.
21. J3.. McGraw and A.J. Oraino, "Non-Contacting Dynamic Seals for Space Power Alternator", Bearing and
Lubrication Unit, Research and Development Center of General Electric Company, Schenectady, New York,
1967.
22. V.P. Povinelli and A.H. McKibbin, "Development of Mainshaft Seals for Advanced Air Breathing Propul-
sion System, Phase 11", Pratt & Witnay Aircraft, Rep. PWA-3953, June 1970.
23. V.P. Povinelli and A.H. NcKibbin, "Development of Mainshaft Seals for Advanced Air Breathing Propul-
sion Systems, Phase III, Pratt & Witney Aircraft, Rep. PWA-4263, July 1971.
24. N.J, Wilkerson, C.J. Blism, T.W. Blalock and C.R. Brooks, "Basic Research in Dynamic Sealing, Tennes-
see University, Knoxville, December 1974.
25, J. llofman, "Preliminary Investigation of a Magnetic Seal for a Hydrodynamic BearIng", Holldue Signeal
apparaten N.V. Heagelo, Netherlands, April 1975.
26. L.P. Ludwig and W.,. Hody, "Nigh Speed, Self-Acting Shaft Seals", NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleyv-
land, Ohio, April 1975.
27. T.N. Strom and L.P, Ludwig, "Development of Circmferential Seal for Helicopter Transmissionst Result
of Bench and Flight Test, NASA Levis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, September 1975.
28. W.W. Buchanan and L.I. Wicks, "High Pressure Quasi-Static Seals Configuration", Naval Surface Weapons
Center, Dah1gren, Va, September 1975.
29, G.A. Turner, "Result of Helicopter Flight Tests of a Circumferential Carbon Oil Seal", Bell Helicopter
Co., Fort Worth, Teax", June 1975.
30. L.T. Shiembob, " Continue Development of Abradable Gas Path Seals", Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, Rest
Hartford, Conn., November 1975.
31. J. Zuk, "Gas-Path Seal Technology", PAA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, 1976.
32. L.I.C. Ruskell, "Metal Seals. Results of a Theoretical and Experimental Study of their Elastohydrody-
namic Lubrication", Royal Aircraft EstablJshmnt, larnborough, June 1976.
33. W. Wagner, "Rxperiematal Investigation on Clearance Seals with Radial Outward Flow", British Library
Lending Div. Boston S.p.A. Ronland, May 1976.
34. C.M. Taylor, "Thermal Streass Analysis of a Graded Zirconia/metal Gas Pakh Seal System for Aircraft
Gas Turbine Ingines", .NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio. April 1977.

In
1748

35. T.3. Podgoreki, "Method of Forming Shrink-Fit Compression Seal", NASA Langley Research Center, Lang-
lay Station, Va., April 1977.
36. I.C. Bill and L.P. Ludwig, "Gas Path Se.l.", NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, M;ky 1977.
37. N. Dirchak and W.F. Huges, "Simplified Computer Program for the Analysis of Phase Change in Liquid
Feea Seals", Final Report, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, May 1977.
38. W.F. Kady and Ludwig, "Shaft Seal Assembly for High Speed and High Pressure Applications". NASA Levis
Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, July 1977.
39. L.P. Ludvig and H.1 Greiner, "Design Considerations in Mechanical Face Seals for Improved Performance.
Ii: Lubrication", ASiE Ibeting. Atlanta, 1977.

The author vishes to grateful acknowledge the contribution made by Mrs G. Cei and Mr. S. Fiorini in type-
writing and drawing the present paper and further development studies.

DISCUSSION

Refer to the last questkt -.)I the Discusion Molowing Paper 16.

Pig. 1 - Two-spool gas turbine engine

fea
tii. 3 - Schematic of meal test rig.
 17-9

ýflFig. 2 - Self-acting lift pad seal.

A A

2 ~w-j-4 "eve

SW &OMAN

tm. ra
I#k w NIu

Pi .4 - Sh mt coUh odd so el n i .5 - Md l o d a ai lf o ih ee
 17-10

AW AAW hW~r W.

Fig. 6 - Possible oil seal premsuritation Fig. 7 Possible oil seal pressurization vith
vith air, by a combiaatiot of air of No. 2 bearing in figure 1.
labyrinths anid el*f acting lift
seal, of No.1 bearing in figure

SIM.

Fit. 9 - Possible oil seal ptessurisatton

with air of No. I bearing in figure S.

X A IA

isi. 10 - Possible oil seal prowturiaatioa

urn 8.
vhh
i fi ir f R~. 'beadg

71
 18-1

GAS TURBINE DISC SEALING SYSTEM DESIGN

D A CAMPBELL
Technical Design Group (PTr)
Rolls-Royce Limited
PO Box 31
Derby DE2 8BJ, U K

SUMMARY

This Paper reviews thm design of Gas Turbine Disc Sealing and Cooling Air Systems.
The turbine sealing system must seal the disc spaces against ingress of hot turbine gases,
and absorb windage And conducted heat with limited air temperature rises. Air leakage
in the system must be controlled to minimise engine performance losses, to avoid loss of
blade cooling effectiveness and to maintain the integrity of associated shaft and bearing
cooling systems.
The effect of the required bleed flow on engine performance is considered and found to be
fairly small provided that an accurate assessment of this offtake is made at the beginning
of the design process. Subsequent increases of the air bleed during the development
phase can bring substantial penalties in turbine entry temperature.
The various factors to be considered when determining the sealing and cooling flows are
briefly reviewed and the areas where further research would be useful are indicated.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Secondary Flow Systems

The secondary flow system of a gas turbine engine has four main features.
a) Turbine Aerofoil and Working Annulus Wall Cooling.
This includes blades, nozzle guide vanes, rotating and static blade
shrouds and nozzle guide vane platforow.
b) Disc Sealing and Cooling Systems.
These systems protect turbine discs and blade roots from excessive
temperatures and are used to control the rotor thrust bearing end
loading.
c) Beaiing Sealing Systems.
These mystevas interact with the disc sealing systems to maintain
a satisfactory environment for the engine bearing chambers.
d) Parasitic Leakage.
This is unwanted leakage between parts without relative motion
such as blade and nozzle guide vane platform gaps, shroud segment
gapu etc.
1.2 Disc Sealing and Cooling Systents - General Considerations

The purpose of this paper is to dAicuas the problems of Disc Sealiug and
Cooling System und the iesign solutions to these problems. Such systems
depend very much on the good porformance and reliability of labyrinth-type
see Le.
1.3 system Obiequves
Disc air systems have four main functions.

aM Ninimising unwanted leakage between rotating and static parts.

b) Protection from the hot ga*en in the wowking, annulus. Items to be

 18-2

protected are

Blade cooling air supply

Blade fixings
Disc Rims
Disc Bores
c) Protection of blade cooling systems from leakage. This is particularly
important for systems using a pro-swirled cooling air supply.

d) Balancing of rotor end loading to obtain satisfactory thrust bearing loads.

e) Interface with the bearing sealing systems.

2.0 QUANTITY OF AIR USED - EFFECTS ON ENGINE PERFORMANCE

By using large quantities of air bled from the engine compresoor the above objec-
tives could be met fairly easily. However, increase, air bleed causes corresponding
increases in turbine entry temperature (TET) and specific fuel consumption (sfc), and
so we must reduce the bleed to the minimum required to obtain satisfactory design
conditions for the engine parts affected. When designing such systems it is impor.
tant to know the effects of air bleeds in detail, using data from engine cycle per-
formance calculation.

Figs. 2.1 to 2.4 show the effects of disc sealing and cooling air bleeds on engine
performance. For a typical transport engine cycle the performance was calculated
at a constant cruise thrust per unit intake flow giving a by-pass ratio of about 4.5.
The TET, jet velocity ratio and component efficiencies were kept constant at the
cruise design point for the range of assumed bleed. The assumed disc flows were
distributed through the turbine stages in typical proportions. Two types of system
have been considered:

a) All bleed from HP compressor delivery.

b) Bleeds taken from four different compressor stages to minimise cycle losses
caused by secondary flow throttling.

In the RB 211 Engine, for example, bleeds for disc air systems are taken from

IP compressor 4th stage 5th stage overall

IP compressor delivery 8th stage overall
HP compressor 3rd stage llth stage overall
HP compressor delivery 14th stage overall

Fig. 2.1 shows the effect of these bleeds on sfc.

The beneficial effect of multistage bleed is clear. The normal range of total disc
air bleed is 2 to 4% and at 3% an sfc penalty ofZ2% for a single HP compressor delL-
very bleed point system is reduced to 0.97 for a system with four bleed stages.

Fig. 2.2 shows the effect on take-off TET. This is quite small, as with increasing
bleed level the core engine size was increased to obtain constant cruise TET. This
effect on core engine size is shown in Fig. 2.3.

There is a further advantage of multistage bleed in that bleed air from lower stages
ig cooler; this allows either smaller flows or lighter, more economical turbine disc
designs. The bleed stage must be chosen so that there is a minimn but adequate
pressure drop between the bleed point and the highest pressure in the turbine to
which the bleed must flow. The design conditions for the air system must be chosen
carefully to avoid unforeseen deficiencies at some flight conditions.

Fig. 2.4 shows similar data for a military reheated turbofan engine with a by-pass
ratio less than 1. TET and dry thrust per unit intake flow were kept constant by
reducing the by-pass ratio and fan pressure ratio as the bleed was increased. In
this case the bleed was all from HP delivery and the effect on sfc is somewhat less
than that for the transport engine.
Figs. 2.1 to 2.4 assum constant
turbine efficiency.

In fact turbine efficiencies are reduced by sealing flows entering the annulus

" I I _ _ _ _ _-i I I I I-. _

 18-3

immediately in front of the rotor. With care in design of ihe Blade and Nozzle
platforms this loss can be kept to less than 0.3% of efficiency for a oealing flow
of 1% of the turbine flow. The sealing flow is, however, not included in the
turbine flow for pexformnance calculation purposes.
When the core size of a projected engine is fixed the effect of bleed on TET
increases, as any deterioration of core engine performance cannot be compensated by
an increase in size. For the transport engine the e~fects on afc are about the
same as before, but the effect on TET is now about 10 K per 1% of bleed. This
emphasises the importance of making realisti( rather than hopeful initial estimates
of sealing air requirements and the necessity of ensuring that these flows are not
exceeded iinthe production engine.
3.0 FACTORS DETERMINING QUANTITY OF AIR REQUIRED FOR DISC SEALING

3.1 Flow required to prevent hot annulus gas ingestion at the blade-nozzle gap.
This is determined by

a) Circumferential variation of static pressure.

b) Radial flow produced by the pumping action of friction between the

air and the disc face.
3,2 Flow required to absorb windage heat with a suitably limited temperature rise.

3.3 Flow required to supply the relevant labyrinth seal.

4.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR GAS INGESTION

4.1 Circumferential Static Pressure Variation

a) The Problem

It is clear that appreciabll static pressure variation around the annulus

exists. This has been long apparent from turbine blade vibration problems
associated with variations of pressure upstream of a nozzle guide vane row.
There are also fluctuations of pressure caused by variations of Blade and
Nozzle throat area and by flow curvature effects near blade and nozzle
trailing edges. Where the static pressure drop across the annulus seal
is less t-han the range of pressure variation at the seal exit, some Inges-
- tion of turbine gas is to be expected.

The objective of the designer must be to minimise the flow required to

prevent gas ingestion with a given static pressure variation. Fig. 4.1
shows a typical turbine nozzle-rotor gap. What features are desirable?

b) Reduction of Pressure Variation

' Clearly large values of I r and I will reduce the static pressure variation
at the sealing air exit and are bietefore desirable. Circumferential
variations of Nozzle and Blade throat area should also be minimised.

) Design of the Clearance at the Annulus

A shall clearance c will reduce the flow required for a given pressure drop
aross the gap. The overlap h and the shingle height a tend to reduce the
flow of annulus gas caused by a local increase of the annulus static pressure
However, these features also tend to increase the discharge of sealing air
for a given pressure drop, thus reducing the pressure drop available from a
given sealing flow. The overlap and a slight shingle allow the sealin3
air to enter the turbine with minimal disturbance to its efficiency; this
arrangement is therefore preferred.

d) TwoStaae Sealing
It is difficult to have a sufficiently small clearance c, owing to manufic-
turing limitations. In any case, a small clearance would be subject to
relatively large variations due to manufacturing tolerances, working deflec-
tions and thermal expanrions, end in some cases this would cause difficulties
18-4

with rotor thrustbalance. It is therefore often desirable Lo design the

blade root region for a temperature allowing for some turbine gas ingestion
and to incorporate an additional seal as shown in Fig. 4.1. The Space A
allows equalisation of the static pressure and eliminates the possibility
of inwards flow through the inlier seal. Thus the disc rim is completely
protected from annulus gas by a very small sealing flow through the inner
seal.

a) Data

This is an area where few data are available and research is therefore
dcairable.

4.2 Disc Pumping

a) Theory and Test Data

The frictional drag of the disc on the air in the disc space generates an
outwards flow near the disc. If this flow Is allowed unobstructed access
to the working annulus as in Fig. 4.2 then a sealing flow of about the same
level must be supplied to avoid the ingestion of annulus gas. The approxi-
mate magnitude of these flows can be determined. The conventional non-
dlmensioual functions u.ied are

w - W~ Flow Coefficient .. .. (4.1)

Re = -- Reynolds Number .. .. (4.2)

Using Von Kvrm~ns 1/7 power law analysis we have

C ' 0.22 Re0 ' 8

.. (4.3)
w 6
This applies to a free disc without any influence from static parts.

The case of a disc with shrouded stator as in Fig. 4.2 has been investiga-
ted by Bayley and Owen (Ref.l) who propose the correlation

Cw - 0.61 Ro g/r .. .. (4.4)

Here, the flow is that just sufficient to prevent ingestion of fluid from
the Outer ipace. The experimental data uaed cover the ranges

Re up to 4.106

G/r from 0.0033 to approximately 0.06

The most ýmportant pan turbine sealing situations involve Reynolds numbers
around 1.0 which are beyond Owen's experimental data. There are two further
considerations which make it difficult to accept Owen's flow criterion in
gas turbines.

i) High Axial velocity os the annulus flow.

This makes it much maore difficult for external fluid to penetrate the
dij space.

.i) Projections on the rotor.

These are assumed to deflect the pumped flow from the direct path to
the annulus and thus reduce the gas ingestion caused by the pumping
effect.

Further experimental work is therefore needed to clarify the situation

with more realistic conditions,
 18-5

c) Design Features

The effects of disc pumping will be reduced by the sealing arrangement

shown in Fig. 4.1. The use of swirl nozzles to Introduce the sealing air
tends to suppress the pumping action and also to reduce windage and is
therefore beneficial.

4.3 Windage

a) Discs

The frictional heating of sealing air by the adjacent rotor is an important

factor in system design. Enough air flow must be provtded to limit the
temperature rise due to this effect to an acceptable value. For normal
clearances between the disc and the adjacent static parts the windage drag
is not more than the value for a free disc rotating in a large space, and
data for this case may be used for design purposes.

Projections such as nuts and bolt heads greatly increase the windage heating
and should be avoided or covered by a fairing unless the tangential speed is
relatively small.

Windage can be appreciably reduced by admitting the sealing air through

pre-swirl nozzles.

In estimating windage we use a moment coefficient defined by

C - ½p jr2 . . (4.5)

This can be correlated with Reynolds number by the equation

-2.58
Cm - 0.982 (logloRe) .. .. (4.6)

This is ttken from Ref.2 and agrees with test data for Reynolds numbers up
to 7 x 10 . Engine Reynolds numbers run up to about 3 x 107 so some extra-
polation is required.

b) Shafts

For cylindrical rotor parts a correlation from Ref.3 can be used

Define a friction coefficient Cf =/kpr .. (4.7)

External surface windage drag is given by

4.07 log 1 0 (ReI. f) - 0.6 (4.E)
Cf

Cm Cf .2il/r
C .. .. (4.9)

c) Pre-Swirled Cooling Air

Some test data for the effects of pre-swirl are available from Ref.4 but
have not been entirely successfully correlated. Fig. 4.3 shows test data
for a disc and shaft plotted as Em/E, Vs. Vs/U. The data used have been
published in Ref. 4.

E is the measured windage power

Ec is the windage power calculated from equations 4.6 and 4.8

Vs is the swirl nozzle exit tangential velocity

U IAsthe disc tangential speed at the swirl nozzle radius.

d) Conclusion

Design calculations using these data are generally satisfactory. However,

 18-6

further research into the effects of cooling throughflow, cooling air pre-
swirl and discrete projections in the rotor would allow significant improve-
ment.

4,4 Seal Leakage

a) Effect of Seal Leak

Each disc space has one or more flows controlled by labyrinth seals, and
unless the seals are of very small diameter, they have a very important
affect on the system design.

A seal may either supply flow or take flow out of the disc space. In
Fig. 4.4 for example the seal A is removing flow from space 1 and supplying
it to space 2.
The pressures in spaces 1 and 2 are determined primarily by the nozzle
guide vane inlet and outlet pressures, since the pressure drops at the
annulus seals are relatively small.

Seals B and C are removing some of this flow from sptce 2 and leaking it
into the turbine bearing chamber sealing system whi:I, is part of a lower
pressure system which also supplies sealing air to the back of the icond
turbine. Sealing air is supplied to the space 1 through slots at •.

b) Seal Failure

Any increase of clearance of seal A, increasing the flow through it, will
reduce the flow available for sealing at the annulus. Deterioration of
such a seal can therefore lead to overheating due to gas ingestion. The
leakage flow itself will then be hotter t•:&.1 normal and the overheating
problem will spread to other parts of the ýjystem; this effect is particu-
larly likely to be troublesome in systems where there is maximum utilisation
of seal leakage air for sealing subsequent turbine stages. It is a
requirement of the British Civil Aviati.on Authority that the system should
withstand a degree of seal failure. This requirement is normally met by
supplying sufficient flow to feed a failed seal with zero annulus sealing
flow. The failed seal is usually taken to have about twice the normal
running clearance.
This criterion establishes the basic design flow requirement.
Additional flow is then provided if the basic flow is insufficient to deal
with windage and annulus gas ingestion..

Note that with the type of system shown in Fig. 4.4 the bleed flow for
sealing is controlled by fixed metering orifices (eg slots X) and seal
- deterioration in service will not in-rease the total bleed. The associated
engine performance deterioration Jistherefore restricted to the effect of
changes in the turbine stages to which the same total bleeds are exhausted.
Both orifice controlled and seal controlled types of system suffer from
increased disc space temperatures if the seals deteriorate. This can lead
to reduced turbine disc life and the possibility of failure hazard.
* c) Seal Dmsign
It should be noted that the seal design objective here is not always mini-
mum flow, since the leakage is often required for sealing subsequent suages.
However, reliability of flow control is always extremely important and the
hirhest possible standard of thermal and mechanical design is required.
T•, will only be achieved if the seal rotor and stator design is considered
as a single problem.
d) Seal Leakage Data

The correlation of seal leakage data is difficult and complex. Many

experimental data are available but not all have been adequately correlated.
Detailed consideration of this problem is, however, beyond the scope of
this paper.
 18-7

More comprehensive correlations of existing data would be useful, particu-

larly for seals with textured liners and for stepped seals.

Inaccuracies in the estimation of running clearance are often greater than

data correlation errors. Greater technical effort is required here,
particularly in the prediction of transient thermal behaviour of static
seal assemblies.

5.0 BLADE COOLING AIR SUPPLY SEALING

The objective is to pass pre-swirled cooling air to the blade with the minimum
addition of leakage air. Leakage air mixing with the pre-swirled air adds windage
heat and reduces the cooling air whirl velocity. Both effects increase the cooling
air temperature relative to the rotor and it is desirable to avoid them.

Leakage that would otherwise mix with the pre-swirled cooling air can be diverted
through a by-pass passage as shown in Fig. 5.1. Three problems must be overcome
when using this method.

1) Pressure Drop

Sufficient pressure drop must be made available both to drive the leak flow
through the passage and to overcome the vortex pressure rise between the inner
and outer vadii of the swirl chamber. This tends to give an increase of
leakage flow.

2) Space

It is often difficult to find space for these passages in the region of the
heavily loaded HP turbine nozzle location features.

3) Increased Flow Requirement

As the leakage flow no longer enters the turbine blade, additional flow is
required, causing a performance penalty. It is therefore important to find a
use for this air and thus avoid losses. The following methods may be used.

a) Split Feed Turbine Blade.

This type of blade uses cooling air at two pressure levels, the lower
pressure air being supplied from leakage.

b) The leakage air can be bled away for use in dioc sealing systems.

c) The leakage air can be used for turbine nozzle guide vane platform and
trailinS edge cooling.

Disc pumping can also reduce pre-swirl system performance, and it is therefore
good practice to have a seal at the inner boundnry of the swirl chamber to
prevent the pumped flow circulating into it. See Fig. 5.2.

6.0 ROTOR WlRUST BALANCE

Turbine and Compressor end loads combine to give a net rotor thrust much less than
the individual component loads. The residual thrust can however be large enough to
give thrust bearing problems. This particularly applies to HP thrust bearings in
multi-shaft high by-pass ratio engines, which have a very high centrifugal loading
on the bearing balls, giving a reduced thrust capacity.

It is therefore necessary to adjust the end lchds by altering seal radii, and this
will tusually give increased leakage flows. Larger capacity thrust bearings can
therefore give engine performance improvements.

Rotor thrust balance should be investigated as early as possible in the engine

design process so that this factor can be considered when deciding the compressor
and turbine design parameters.

7.0 CONCLUSIONS

Research and Development in Gas Turbine Sealing is mostly directed towards reduction
 of Leakage Flows. In the design of Turbine Disc Sealing and Cooling systems,
obtaining the lowest possible design leakage flow through individual seals is,
however, not always the most important objective.

In the high pressure turbine stages, annulus static pressure variation and disc
windage often determine the required disc sealing and cooling flows. At the initial
design stage the disc sealing and cooling air bleeds have a relatively small effect
on engine performance. If we reduce a transport engine's disc sealing air require-
ment from a typical 3% of core engine flow to half this amount the sfc saving is
about )% (See Fig. 2.1). The effects on TET can be virtually eliminated by choice
of by-pass ratio.

However, once the engine cycle parameters are fixed, the efftct on TET of bleed
changes is quite large. To increase that 3% bleed by 50% would cost a TET increase
of around 15 K, reducing the HP turbine blade creep life by roughly 30%.

This indicates the importance of making realistic and accurate estimates of disc
sealing and cooling air requirements at the earliest stage of design. These flow
levels must be carefully monitored and adhered to during the engine development
process. in-service deterioration of seals can contribute to worsening of engine
TET and sfc, and may cause increased turbine disc rim temperatures. This empha-
sises the importance of seal durability and long term reliability as well as design
performance.

8.0 NOMENCLATURE

c Radial Clearance (see Fig. 4.1)

2
Cf FricLion Coefficient : Cf -v/7(pWr 2) for a Rotating Cylinder

C Moment Coefficient : C - M/P 2 r5 ) for a Rotor

Cm in
C Flow Coefficient C - w/gr
w w w/p
E Moasured Windage Power
N
mI
E Calculated Windage Power
c
g Axial Gap (see Fig. 4.2)
h Turbine Platform Axial Overlap (see Fig. 4.1)
1 Length of Rotating Cylinder
n
) See Fig. 4.1
r )
H Windage Drag Moment from both sides of a Disc or the outer surface of
a Cylinder
mCE Core Engine Flow at Cruise
r Outer Radius of a Disc or Cylinder
Re Reynolds Number : Re %mp~,r /2 I
S Turbine Shingle Height (see Fig. 4.1)
sfc Specific fuel consumption
TET Turbine Entry Temperature
U Disc tangential velocity at the pre-swirl nozzle radius
V Pre-swirl Nozzle Exit Tangential Velocity

w Air Mass flow

p Dynamic Viscosity
p Density
V Surface Sheac Stress
Angular velocity
 18-9

9.0 REFERENCES

1) Bayley and Owen. The Fluid Dynamics of a Shrouded Disc System with Radial
Outflow of Coolant. ASME 70-.GT-6. Journal of Engineering foL Power.

2) L A Dorfman. Hydrodynamic Resistance and the Heat Loss of Rotating Solids.

Book Translated from Russian, Published by Oliver and Boyd London.

3) Theodorsen and Regier. Experiments on Drag of Rotating Discs, Cylinders and

Streamline Rods at High Speeds, NACA TR 793 1944.

4) A Moore. Gas Turbine Internal Air Systems: A Review of the Requirements and
the Problems.

ASME 75-WA/GT-1.

10.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Directors of Rolls-Royce Limited for permission to prepare
and present this paper. My thanks also go to colleagues in the Advanced Projects
Department for the data in Section 2.0 and to the Rolls-Royce Engineering Illustra-
tions Department and PSG Limited for their invaluable assistance in executing the
diagrams.
18-10

TRANSPORT ENGINE: EFFECTS OF DISC

SEALING FLOW ON S.F.C. AT CRUISE
MO TEUR DE TRANSPOR T;EFFETS DU DEBIT D'AIR
Dk97ANCHtrrI DU DISQUE SUR CONSOMMA TION
SPECIFIGUEEN CROISIMRE

ti s.f.c. 4 -- -- _
5AC. 4

TOTAL SEALING FLOW: ZOF CORE ENGINE FLOW

DEBIT TOTAL D'AIR ItTANCHIIIT&: %.DUDEBIT flU MOTEUR DE BASE

Figure 2.1

TRANSPORT ENGINE: EFFECTS OF DISC

SEALING FLOW ON T.E.T. AT TAKE-OFF
(CONSTANT CRUISE TEX)
xMoTEUR DE TRANSPOR7 EFFETS DU D0#8IT D'AIR
D '*TANCHIT•t DU DISQUE SUR TEMPERA TURE D ENTRIE
!TUflBINE AU DtCOLLAGE(T.'E. T. CONSTANT EN CROISI&RE)

ATET -

4 I
TOTAL SEALING FLOW:' OF CORE ENGINE FLOW
DEBIT TOTAL VAiR 11TANCHIITA %DU DEBIT DU MOTEUM DE IAGE

Flvre 2.2
 TRANSPORT ENGINE: EFFECTS OF DISC
SEALING FLOW ON CORE ENGINE FLOW MCE
MQTEUR Df TRANSPORTrEFFETS DU DtBIT D 'AIR
DETANCHEITt DU DISQUESUR LE DtBIT DU MOTEUR DE
12- - -BASE

10-i

L&MCE 10* - - - - __.,

TOTAL SEALING FIrOW: %.O)=COREENGINE FLOW

DEBIT TOTAL DlAIR ETANCHEIT: • DU I'M8t U MOTEUF DE BASE

Fiaure 2.3

MILITARY REHEATED TURBOFAN ENGINE

EFFECT OF DISC SEALING FLOW ON
S.F.C. AT S.L.S. ALL H.P. BLEED
TURBOSOUFFLANTE MILITAIRE A VEV POST COMBUSTION
EFFETS DU DEBIT D'AIR D1'TANCHEITt DU D0ISUE
SUR CONSOMMA TION SPECIFIGUES.L.S. PRISE D'AIn H.P.
3-

2-

L~s.

0 2_ 30 4 5

TOTAL SEALING FLOW: %OFCORE ENGINE FLOW

DEBIT TOTAL O'AIR ITANCHIITE: %DU DEBIT DU MOTEUR DE BASE

FiSum 2.4

. ... . -...
. -•. . . .. .. _ _ _ _- ; : ' . .. ... • 'i4- ........ -
18-12

TURBINE NOZZLE-ROTOR GAP

JEUl ENTRE TUY&RE ET ROTOR DE TURBINE

Figure 4.1

DISC PUMPING: RESEARCH MODEL

POMPAGE DUDISQUE:MAQUETTEDE RECHERCHE

__?-,
.-. . -_ - - --
AXE .....

Pfilum 4.2

III
 DISC AND SHAFT WINDAGE: EFFECT OF PRE-SWIRLED
COOLING AIR
PERTES DE POMPAGE DU DISQUE AVEC ARBRE: EFFET DE L 'AIR DE
REFROIDISSEMENT PRE- TOURBILLONNt

Ec
Em

2 ----

0 ,20 0.68 1Z l.2 1 16 1.8

YA
U

Figure 4.3

SEAL
LEAKAGE
EFFECTS
EFFETS DEFUITE
AU NIVEAU(
DU JOINT

Figum 4.4

11,
 PRE-SWIRLED TURBINE BLADE COOLING
AIR BY-PASS
BY-PASS DE L 'AIR DE REFROIDISSEMENT DE PALE
TURBINE PRE-TOURBILLONNt

Figumre 5.1

ISOLATION OF DISC PUMPED FLOW FROM

PRE-SWIRLED TURBINE BLADE COOLING AIR
DtBIT POMPtDU DISQUE ISO& DE L 'AIR DE
REFROIDISSEMENT DE PALE TURBINE PRMt-TOURBILLONNt

Filure 5.2

'.1
'
; 1i ,.

- .#.•,,
'i4
ROTOR THRUST BALANCE
EQUILIBRAGE DE LA POUSS'EDU ROTOR

Figure 6.1

I II II I II
 18-16

DISCUSSION

I1.L.Stocker, US
I would like to reinforce Mr Campbell's comment regarding the need for improved data correlation relative to the
*. calculation of seal leakage performance.
* What information do you have that shows there Is a circumferential static pressure gradient in the turbine - nozzle
rotor gap of sufficient magnitude as to cause hot gas in-flow locally?

Author's Reply
Measurements in cold flow turbine rip show considerable circumferential variation of static pressure immediately
downstream of the nozzle. Variation upstream of ttroine nozzles is apparent from vibration problems associated
with excitation of the rotor blades by these variations. Considerable further work needs to be done before we can
predict the effects on disc space temperature of these variations in any particular case.

A.Moore, UK
So far this meeting has considered the scaling between rotating and static members only. There are flow losses in
gas turbines caused by leakage between two nominally static parts. Attempts to seal these leakage paths are not,
In general, satisfactory. Would you like to comment on this problem please.

Author's Reply
This iscertainly an important problem, particularly in the high pressure regions of engines. Leakage between parts
in rotor assemblies can also be considered in this category, Sealing devices using small wirms and strips are used in
modern engines to minimize this sort of leakage and are thought to be reasonably effective, but more investigation
should be done to verify their effectiveness under running conditions of load and temperature. Heavily loaded
multipl- flanges and nozzle igude vane locating features remain a problem. The potential for this kind of leakage
should always be remembered when deciding the method of engine constniction at the initial design stage.

H.Zlmmermann, Germany
Could I extend this question? What experience have you got with piston rings? Do you use them or do you
generally try to avoid them?

Author's Reply
Sealing rings of various types can be used, including piston rings, These can be designed to accommodate a
considerable amount of relative movement using multiple rings with overlapping gaps. However there is concern
over the possibility of these more complex rings sticking in the compressed pogition and thus leaving a large gap.
Generally, it is felt to be preferable to replace or supplement sealing rings with a positively clamped joint where
possible.

GQW.Fairbairn, UK
You refer to the difficulties experienced in estimating the transient running clearances In labyrinth glands. Do
you fi•d that predicting the transient behaviour of the disc space to annulus seal is also a critical problemI
What success have you achieved in predicting running seal clearances?

Author'u Reply
The disc space to annulus seal clearance is normally rather larger than labyrinth seal clearances ard so can
potentially be estimated with better proportional accuracy. It is felt, however that we do not know enough about
pressure variation and pumping effects to make much use of this information except to peedict the mean pressure
drop across the annulus seal. This pressure drop is usually small but often has a significant effect on rotor thrust
balance.
The prediction of disc labyrinth seal clearances has not so far been very satisfactory owing to the difficulty of
estimating the transient thermal behaviour of static assemblies with complicating features such as bolted joints.

*1
 19-1

"A COM •'I•aC.' TW•L FOR MECHANICAL OEAL DESEIN"

Dr. B.S. Nau. Group Head,

Mr. R.T. Rowlen, Research Engineer,
DHRA Fluid Engineering,
Cranfleld, Bedford, WK43 OAJ
England.

Summary

Rotary mechanical seals are used for many rotary sealing duties, gas turbine
engine fuel pumps for instance. The factors affecting performance of such seals
have been intensively studied in recent years, so that it is now feasible to incor-
porate thin knowledge Into a copmputer program as a design tool. The paper
describes how thin ham been done at DRlA in a program which takes account of.
surface topography; interfacial film dynamics, with cavitation allowed for; self-
generated heat; thermal distortion; and distortion due to the sealed pressure.
The significance and treatment of the various factors are discuissed and the pro-
gram structure outlined.

1. FACTCU AFFECT= MECHANSCAL SEAL FEB ORMANCE

A typical mechanical meal is ilustrated in Fig. 1. The factors affecting design and performance of mechan-
teal seals have been discussed in detail in Rof. 1, the physical (and chemical) processes influencing seal performance
can be summarised as:-

lubrication of the eliding interface

heat transfer of frictional heat
structural distortion of the sealing faces
compatability of the seal components with the sealed fluid.

Several lubrication modes occur under different operating conditions but under the steady running conditions
with which this paper is concerned the hydrodynamic lubrication mode, combined with some hydrostatic support, ts
generally believed to be predominant. Questions of material compatibility are outside the scope of the present paper.
Early experimental work (Ref. 2) established that hydrodynamic films are generated in the sliding interface

of the seal and this has been confirmed by several subsequent workers. The film thickness in typically about 0.001 mm
and In generated by viscous shear interacting with residual waviness of the nominally flat faces. Any structural stresses
causing seal face displacements of this order of magnitude produce significant changes in the hydrodynamic situation,
and hence In seal performance. Any design procedure must take this into account, particularly strains resulting from
the sealed pressure on the one hand and thermal stresses on the other, Thermal stresses arise particularly from the
temperature variation through the seal resulting from the generation of heat in the sliding interface - typically a fow
hundred watts for a 00 mm diameter seal. The effective heat sank is usually the sealed liquid although heat is also
lost to the shaft and housing and hence to the outside environment,

2. SEAL DZUCiK CONSWIDZeRATIONS

In the present work attention is concentrated on the main design parameter which cannot be readily deter-
mined by simple means, this is the interface loading. In goner .1this load derives partly from hydraulic pressure
acting on the rear of the floating seal ring and partly from the spring(s) acting on this member. It is required that the
load should mintmise the interface film thickness whilst avoiding physical contact between the sliding faces. Part of
the applied load is carried by the hydrostatic pressure field in the interface film and the balance by the hydrodynamic
pressure field, and both components are modified by ay change in the profile of the interface film due to the causes
already mentioned. Clearly it is not a wlmple matter to evaluate the optimum load, In practice the load is evaluated
by some combination of experience and more-or-less approxhuate estimates of the load component carried hydrostatic-
ally. The present work was undertaken to eliminate some of the uncertainties inherent in current design procedures,
the approach followed being to apply the results of earlier experimeltal studies to the generation of a computer program
which would predict the seal loading required for individual applications.
I: $oS COMPUTERI PRWRAQM DXWIN COMMIESLATIXMB

2.1Gees

Technical considerations apart, certain geneal considerations were given particular emphasis in the design
of the computer program : it should be reasonably eeonomia in torms of computer processing time and computer gtore
demands; the Input data presentation and information output should be in a form faoilitating use by the designer as
 19-2

opposed to the lubrication scientist or computer specialist.

To meet these requirements the approach adopted was one in which general purpose programs for stress
analysis or thermal analysis were avoided in favour of purpose-written routines tailored to the particular requirements
of the mechanical seal geometry. The policy has also been to aim for simplification rather than generalisation. Thus,
for example, axisymmetric distortion modes are known to be very important (Ref. 3) and are included whereas asym-
metric modes, though possibly of significance in some circumstances, are regarded as second-order effects and
neglected with useful simplification of the analysis (reducing stress md thermal analysis to two dimensions). 'he use
of a modified ring theory (Rof. 7) provides further simplification at the expense of limiting validity to seals with
radial thickness small relative to the mean radius, a not unreasonable assumption for most seals.
3.2 Diaoeiacs

For the purpose of the numerical analysis a computational grid has to be imposed over the seal cross-section.
In the present came, a two level grid system is used. Typical seal rings can be visualised as comprising a series of
rectangular-ecotion rings which, In reality, are joined to form a continuous body. These rectangular "parts" form the
is
high-level grid for the analysis, and each part is permitted different physical properties. Each rectangular "part"
next subdivided by a finer rectangular mush, at the nodes of which temperatures will be evaluated. This low-level
mesh can vary from part to part, provided there is continuity across part-boundaries, this It a useful facility for
dealing, with regions of rapidly changing temperature. The high-level grid is used both in the strems analysis and to
simplify the computer Input Ouata presentation. An example of a seal with the two-level grid it shown in Fig. 2.

3.3 Teniperre. m thramal mumeg.

It will be noted that the grids in Fig. 2 extend over both seal rings and also the interface film, the latter
being treated as a heat source in the thermal analysis. Another feature of Fig. 2 Is the presence of additional external
"parts" on wetted surfacec. These external parts facilitate the treatment of the heat transfer boundary conditions. The
internal nodes in these parts have a specified temperature which is that of the bulk liquid, which being in a turbulent
state Is assumed to be effectively of uniform temperature. The half-thickness of the part is taken to represent the
laminar sub-layer of liquid attached to the seal rhg, heat transfer from seal to bulk liquid being controlled by conduct-
ion through this laminar sub-layer, In general, the thermal analysis permits two boundary condition types : specified
temperatare and specified flux.

A temperature map is computed from Poisson's equation using the appropriate interface flux and external
boundary conditions. From these temperature values thermal moments about the centrold of the floating seal ring are
evaluated to be added to the hydraulic moments calculated elsewhere in the program. The total moment is then used
to evaluate the axisymmetric ring distortion which modifies the seal face geometry, An iterative procedure (Fig. 3)
it used to take account of the interactions of dirt, jIion, heat flux and film pressures,

3.4 Face Distortim

The axisymmetric moment (M) producing face distortion includes the above thermal moments plus an hydraulic
moment duo to the fluid pressures acting on the various wetted surfaces of the seal. The hydraullo moments are
stralghtforwardly calculated in the program once the coordinates of the overall centroid of the floating ring have been
determined from the geometricA Input data. Tne thermal moments are evaluated by regarding thermal stresses as
equivalent to distributed body forces (Ref. 8).

The stflness of the floating seal ring ip its axisymmetrio ring distortion mode is dependent on the second
moment of area (I) about a radial axis through the centroid. This quantity, like the centroid coordinates, is quite
simply evaluated by summing the contributions of the individual "lparts". Given the valums of M, I, elastic modulus
E, and mean radius rm, the angular distortion is given by.-

S4.5 Mrm'aeRIM press".

The apprpriate equation for evaluating the film pressures , and hence the losd-oapaoity of the film. in
Reynolds lubrication equation in polar coordinates (Ref. 9).

where all variables have been non-dimensionalised. The quantity a N(r,$) is the dimensionless film thickness
and it obtained by combining the initial seal face profile with any modifltution due to the distortions described above.

The solution of the Reynolds equation 01 not r•mple since account must be taken of 'cavitation' in regions
where film pressure falls below the pressure at which the liquid is saturated with gas. Effectively the uavitatlon region
has an inflially undetermined boundary which i. one of the boundaries of the region In which Reynolds equation is to be

-I
 solved.

The procedure employed to )-feroome thin difficulty involves a finite difference procedure in which the film
Is scanned radially for each incremental 9-value inturn, solving forp along the radial row of computarional nodes, until
the cavitatio, region is veached (indicated by p f. p.. ). The procedure around the cavitation region is similar except
that the radial scan is only between the cavity bourd'iales and the saal edges. Assumption of a tentative radial co-
ordinate for the cavity boundary location permits calculation of `.he liquid film pressures for the current value of V
and hence the net flow into a control volume, Fig. 4. If the net flow is not effectively zero the tentative position of the
cavity radial coordinate at & is adjusted and the process releated. This procedure is employed separately for the
radially external and internal cavity boundarien at the current 9. By this merins the cavity boundary is generated auto-
matically as the computation proceeds circuinferentially.

The efficiency of this solution procedure for Reynoldo equation is such that sde.,uate convergence is usually
obtained within a few circumferential sweeps of the seal.

The importance of ai effective treatment of the cavitation region is illustrated by Fig. 5. This shows the
extent of the cavitation regions for the two extremes of cavitation pressure (zero absoluteand ambient) and in both
cames a large pror-ortion of the film is cavitating, this is due to the high rotational speed combining with the nurf..44e
waveferm to produce very iltense hydrodynamic pressures. Fortunately, Ahice tC.e value is not easy to define, the
value of the cavity pressure has only a minor effect on the total load capacity and, therefore, on the required closing
force.

4. EXAMPLM OF INPUT iýND r"TPUT

Typical inpiit data lists are tIlustrated in Fig. 6. Input Tables 1-5 relate to t,,e thermAl and deflection comput-
ations with the size of the problem defined in Input Table 1 and the mesh and dimensions for each ')part" in Input Table
2. Physical properties of the seal are tabulated in Input Table 3. The topology it defined by Input Table 4, which lists
for each part the neighbouring part and boundary condition (type and value) to left and right, and above and below the
part in question. For example, part 1 has neighbours 53, 2. 4 and 52 with temperature boundary values of 60 C on
two (wmtted) sides and a value- "zero" on the remaining sides, Indicating internal interfaces. The next input table sets
the initial guess for the part temperatures.

Information required by the lubrication equation is set out in Input Table 6. Items of particnl!s..r Interest ir.
this list are the minimum film thick~iess, surface wave amplitude and number of waves which together define the film
profila.

Examples of output are shown in Fig. 7 and 8, part of the thermal map, and the final design and performance
parameters respectively. The section of the thermal map shown in Fig. 7 relates to two 'parts" forming the interface
fllmthin is useful a" an indication of the risk of vaporisation due to elevated film temperature. The key item of
information fn the output is, of course, the seal closing load required to operate at tho specified minimum film thickness.

6, DI3UNSION AND CONCLUBIOIU

The program dsacribed iWin the final stage of testing, although much running has ilreo,..., achieved for
major segments such a" the thermal and lubrication elements. These, io ,ist independently as ontained
programs.

Tue va).,dity of a program rnch as this Ic not easily established but in the present case a pArallel project
involving an experimental program on high-speed fuel pump seals is in progress and will be used for validation purposes,
Cnes confidence has been established in the program it can be expected to be of great value in speeding up the design
of mechanical seals,

-,, 6. M•4FEBNCUm

1. Fern, A.G. and Nan, B.S. 'Seals". Oxford . Oxford University Prese. 36 pp (1976).

2. Denny, r, F. "BSome measurements of fluid pressures between plane parallel thrust

surfaces with sp; cial reference to the balancing of radial -face seals"
BHRA report DR613, 27 pp (January, 1959).

3. Nau, B.S. and Turnbull, D.E. 'Some allects of elastic deformation on the characteriu~cs of balanced
radtal-Face seals". Proc. let Intmrnational Conference of Fluid Bealing.
Kvarlow. WIRA. Paper no, D3 (17th - 19th April, 1901).

4. Fisher, M.J. "An analysis of the 2'mformation of the balancing ring in high pressure
radial-face seals". Proc.*1t International Conference on Fluid Sealing,
Harlow. BHRA. Paper no. D4 (17th.- 19th April, 1961).

6. Watson, P.D. "Effect of seal ring deflection on the characteristics of face-type

mechanical shaft seals in high pressure water". Atomic Energy of
Canada Lid, AEC L - 2242, 18 pp (October, 1963).

!A
J•_.,-••. . . . .. .. . .. .. ........ , ..... ,,• '.'=.---;. ..... ... . .. • .•...... .. ... ..... , ..... . . • . ...... . .. ... • - " ":
 19-4

6. Cheng, H.S. Castelli, V and 'Performance characteristics of spiral - groove and shrouded Rayleigh
Chow, C.Y. stop profiles for high - speed non-contanting gas scals". ASME Paper
68 - LUBS - 38 (1968),

7. Gill, B.S. "The stress analysis of pressure veassal and pressure vessel compon-
ants" section 6.4.1 : 'Stress analysis of ts~ar hub flanges : cylindrical
vessel" Oxford : Pergamon Preoms. pp 290-297 (1970).

8. Boley, B.A. and Weiner, J.H. 'Theory of thermal strewioem", Chapter 3 : "Alternate formulations of
thermoelastlo problems'. Noew York : John Wilo, & Bonn pp. 75 - 100
(1960, 1966 reprint).

9. Nan, B.S. "Review of the mechanism of hydrodynamic lubrication In face seals".

Proo. 3rd International Conference on irluid Sealing, Cranfleld, BItRA
Fluid Engineerlng. Paper E5 (1967).

7. ACKNOWLXD M rNT

The work dot-ribed was carried out on behalf of the Ministry of Defence under contract A/62B/887. Miss.
K.M. Me Gowan is thanked for assistance with programming.

.1

',I

I jI
 19.5

Housing

- - ompnen nsprts' l

Fin
................... meshfrchmuation el(iarmai)

boundal outin
wComponents "pa-s
Fine meh
......... for omputa ion il

- - - - -- - -- -- - Zeoboubunay--
- -- - - -- - -

wette if 2 hetw-evl onpta ua gi

ap~~li.. iclmsal
Foamca

4- 4-

-. +
19-6

floww Pressure
Control PoueSae ressure
fo

Shear flow Cvt

Fig.Pesur ieaiv
f loww rceu Shear flow

Fi.3Fo-hr hwngieaiepoeue

of t. f bundry
te 'vboundarryon

C AVIT
 19-7

meanimum

edg

essur
prck (athrickness() .1M~ a
Minmu 0.15M minimum

cavit

p=PCAV
 INPUT CATA YARLI' I - NUMAIR OF PARTS

THIRE ANN 42 INTRAPAI. PAN?%

TWERF ANN 41 PART%IACLOPITke WOU40NAIts
TWO FIL04CONA ISYSnf PANTI

PA? ATALINKRAIATL,
NUMBER ~ OF 01691
0loTL40?%
AIAL RADIAL PART
NUNDIR AVIAL IN PANT
"PIM RADIAL
LENNY" 0P 61018
AXIAL RADIAL

1 3, ? I I? 501
$il 4 4 4,1J63 1,196
1 4 24,763 :1.7As 4 3 2 ,71IS
a 1.175 1,780 6 1 4 3,3 3,311
9 1 3171? 1,166 10 4 a 3,11 176

INPUT DATA lADA.F 3 - PPOPDPDTto

PRP OMI*mAL VOUN41 TONOWAL PANT TUIIO1AL VOUNIN THPPMAI,

%UNION CONPUCTIVRTY MODULUSI INPANSION *UNDER CONDUCTIVITY MODULUS fIP444Iow
WIMMW Nile0ON CONIRICIVA"T WIN",% "$$a HN toaPPICIEPT
IC IC

~ n'1039o
l311 06 O160op-04 a 6.011%70 0.19311 06 0:160010004
3 ,110 P100111 13 0.160010-04 4 0MP ,19311 06 0 16001004
,I1170
V 0,19315 A6 0.1600N-04 0.117 *0,131@ Rl01
7~~O
0.117 0,91 6 01010 ,110 19311 06 4,6000006
v 0:011,70 0,10310 no6 1644FO.04 10 4.01191 ,Dl 6 Ol010

* IA 2r AD,000I A6 0 1 0 .000 IS 0.0107 20 0,000

II a700U0.0 0.000 %a a S
54 4 a
2 000 600,000 a a .0
0 1104 1
a .0 0,000 $1 1 6.0
*ln 0,0 So a 630.000 1 a 0,0900

IS 70 in il a0.0 11,00 I 1 0.900 9 a 0,000

10P11 "A~TA TAPlil I ITIMATIP PART TRMPP0*TUlls AND C0PY.A'L DATA
1

PART PITIMATPIW PART 1211"APab PANT PITIMAYID PANT LISINATIS

OUMIR TIMPRRATUNI NII0510 TIEPPPATUO1 NMURIN TFMPIPAIURI NUNDER TINPIRATURI

I A1:AflO y $01000 40.000

TON.KNOIUM NUMBER AP ITERATIONS TO Of CAN1115 OUT 15 SW0

INTIOIODIATI RESULT$ WILL BE PRIATRO OUT too IVIRATIONI ~IVOR
TOP SOLUTION IS C04610FOIS TO 61 C04VINIOE WOON TOE LAPGSESTIPPIRATPR0
SIRPREINCI 6ETWONN ITE0ATIOWP IN ANY PANT If fl,001 9140011 C1*TI0UAPO
TNE fILM CONSISTS Of PARTS a 27 to

INN 0INALI PLUtO 1S 04 THE IWO0oP 6P TOO SIAL, PRISSUNI *0.6001 00 01/10,010

1I#UT DATA 1IWKS 6 - SLIDING IN'AthFAC& PfiNNPXETEAS

UEAL rACr 00 0 .01794 M

r "14 ' .401110 "R

mlNlpoNO rILw THICKNLSSUIO4NIN *00-

WAVEM LIIYU0oRAP a S0-
TILT MATIoPE a .333
mAKIIIJP rILp AT AIWoJsPSi: a .0000 viAoxA~
FAet DISTORTIONPISS v .0000 pFADzM0S
20 0
VISCOSITY a *I -ft PIos.'
VI~rT S~tO a 1369+06 rPvo
tio, or WAvC'SeIw it 3
IWS11DIAV~sIOISP.IN a 91*60
PACSSORCSI ITCPIIE1AW1P a .00000 WI/a M4
£XTOIA'f" O " :31400+06gIIIgaM4
CAVIETAT1IiOI'#CAV -. 10000+g0 II/LuC H

Fig. (I Input daa for computer progrwzr

(Namplo Only).
 19-9
OUTPUT TAILE I - TEMPERATUMRFIILOAIEDERI1 CXNTIORAAR

CORVERIENCY CRITERION Is 0.001 &GAINES CENTIGRAME

MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE 0IFFRE4NCA BETWEIN I1ERATIONS IN ANY OKI PART

TEMPERATURES IN PART 2? - FILM

WNATSOURCE0.4051 02 WATTiSUNIT VOLUME

1".96
132.0@

TEMPERATURES IN PART 28 - FILM

SlMAT SOURCE .0.9161 02 WATTSIINIT VOLUMI

TEMPERATURES IN PART 29 - FILM

........... mmm................u.

WEAT SOURCI 4,.9411 @3 WATT$IUNIT VOLUME

134.91
136.14
155.92

OUTPUT TABLE 2 C EiNTROIOS AND SECOND MOMENTOF ILAITICITY

................

PART CENTROID CENTROIO PART CINTROO SCENTROIO PART CENTROIO CENTROIN

NUMBIE AXIAL RADIAL NUMNIR AXIAL RADIAL RUIBIE AXIAL RADIAL

1 1.17 0.794 a 1.587 2.4o8 3 19561 4.995

47 5.$56
9.05$ 0.194
2.4?6 $0 $.536
9.525 2 .40
48
4.003 9
9 .521
il•,|
*.P9 4
0.4

GLOBAL CINTROIP PING I - AXIAL 14.051 - RADIAL 0.901

OLOSAL CINTNOID RING 2 - AXIAL 30.0Ol - RADIAL 5.566

SMORI a 0.02304 10 INO92 a 0.1312E 09

OUTPUT TABLE 3 - MOMENTSAND DISTORTIONS

TEROPIATURE AT THE GLOBAL CENIROID. RING I 73.9t RING 2 90.4

THERMAL MOMINTI R1IG 1 a-0.2054E 03N.NM/MM ¢IRC. RING 2 " 0.15381 CIC.
[email protected]/MMN
................

S
PRESSURE IIOHRITa
1 1 IRi 1 -- 0.18849 02R.MM'I4M CINC, RING 2 * 0.39671 O42NM/HIN CIRC,

THE PISIRTION Il RING 1 IIs$ NASIAMS

THE PiS TOTI11 RIAl 2 I 0.1990,-02 RIAHA
POSITIVE MfIIEN(IS AND bFLECTIONS ARE CLOCRAISI

Fig. 7 Output from computer program c sail tenmpraturss

(sample only) and variouo intermediate parameters.

rrwI9.y5 ^r%AIUjLy'rTy

.!9? .3 3• 1 20

AVIMA04 FILM PRES-St 9 .33096+06 n/SO#.I CLOSIli rOrCE koUnr: : .34634u2 H4

FlIRICYt;li rOpcc .311,16+01 11 OVLRALL LCAKAGI! N #•1984¢a #4Ljjhl, iPOW0t .1931103 WAIT~S

Fig. 8 Output from computer program I seal

desip mad performane parameters.
19.10

DISCUSSION

AJ.B.Jaekson, UK
What are the limitations of the technique you describe in respect of film thickness? You dascribe a minimum
thickness - is there a maximum thickness?

Authors' Reply
The upper limit on our analysis is determined by the assumption of negligible fluid velocities normal to the plane
of the film, one would imagine this to be valid to the upper Ihnit of typical bearing films, say 1.0 mm. TIre lower
limit is fixed by the transition from hydrodynamic to boundary lubrication and, hence, by surface roughness.
For a face seal the latter might be about 0.0002 mm.

A.Pautot, France
Quelle eat l'lnfluence de ]a rugositi des surfaces sur l'Ntablissement du film d'huile, Spdcialement dana le cu 1'une
rugosit6 this faible on observe un 6chauffement des faces. Avez vous vArifM ce falt?

Authors' Reply
We believe that waviness is normally more important than roughness in mechanical seals, since it provides an
efficient hydrodynamic mechanism for separating the two surfaces and so keeps apart the roughness asperities.
Most of our test work has been with seal faces pollihed to permit examination under an optical flat, we have not
observed overheatintj with such seals.

LP.Ludwi, US
Would you comment on the existence of liquid to vapor interface developing because of high speed shear of the
liquid film?

Authors' Reply
A vapour interface is predicted by our computer model of the film hydiodynamics but this has certain limitations
since it is assumed to be at a pressure Peav which has a single value input as data. In practice there would be a
range of values corresponding to different liquid temperatures and since, of course, the temperature varies radially
over the sealing gap this too must be taken Into account, Our total flow conservation method of handling the
prediction of the cavity boundaries could in fact be adopted to treat this more general situation.
 RTD-1

ROUND TABLE DISCUSSION

Mr A.J.B.Jacksora, as the moderator of the Round Table Discussion, opened the Session and introduced the Round
Table Panel Members:
Mr A.J.B.JACKSON, (Moderator) UK
ProfJ.CHAUVIN Belgium
Ing,G~n.A.JOURNEAU France
Prof, F. WAZELT Germany
Mr B.WRIGLEY UK

AJoursaou: Je prdf~re quoa Von n'emploie pas lo torme d'expert Amon saujet 6tant donni quo Je no suis pas du tout
4 ~spdcialiste des Joints et qua j'en al surtout antendu parler au cours de cetta session qul a dtd tres Instructive pour mol,
car ella ma'a fait prendre conscience de l'lmportance de poursulvre des recherches dans cc domaine. Je me contenteral
done do faire quelgues remarques g.~nirales,
Si Jo ne me trompe, c'est le premier meeting organis6 par le PEP sur cc sujet at si P'on compare cette situation aux
nombreux meetings qul ont dt6 consacr6s aux 6coulenients principaux dans Ics compresseurs ot dana les turbines, on
peut dire quo le rapport du nombre de communication eat peut-etre proportlonnel au rapport des diblts do fluide dana
les deux cas. Alors qu'on arrive Aitudier ce qul se passe dans las dcoulemonts secondaires des turbomachines, c'est-A-dire
dans lea coins, dans les bords do l'dtuoulement principal, IAoýt interviennent lea ph6nom~nes do couche limite, tridimen-
sionnels, at cadl surtout en vue d'accrottre lea performances des M'ages d'aubages, 11me semble qu'on a encore pea 6tudid
les 6coulenients dana lea joints Apassag do flulde. Ce suJet a heureusement dtd abordd au cours do cc meeting, en
particulier au cowus do Ia session IV d'hier oU~ nous avona eu deux dtudas scientifiques trbs Intiressantas.
Si on consid~ra l'importance des Joints dans les coats d'exploitation, las iconomics d'dnergle, Iasdcurit4 d'emploi
des turbomachines, comma celA a dtd mis en dvidence par lea expoads des utllisateurs opdratlonnels, en particulier par
Mr Smith, 11me semble que I'efl'ort de recherche devrait 6tre accru. Des recherches do base devraient 6tre mendes tant
ance qul concerna las syst~mes avec contact solide (probl~mes de matdrlaux, recherche sur le frottament) que lea
syst~mes A&Joints gazeux, Alabyrinthes avec une 6tude apprefondla de ces 6coulaments enti~roment tridimonsionnels,
ainii qua des dtudas aur Jos phdnom~nes vibratoires et lea transferts thermiquas.
Je W'en diral pas plus; je ponse seulement, qu'au cours de cette table rondo, il saralt bon qu'un ichange do vue
entre chercheurs d'une part et utilisataurs d'autre part permette do mieux, ddgager lea objectifa de recherche at de
d~finir des priorit~s parmi ceux-ci,

LP.Ludwlg: As we got into the meeting It became apparent that we had a very complex subject and our research
efforts should be stepped up. I certainly was Impressed with these papers and this AGARD meeting, In general, it was
gratifying to see the number In attendance and the interest shown by the people present.
As has bean pointed out by a number of comments, we did not get Into all the subjects, e.g., static seals (we only
skimmed over thenm); and we also did not got Into the very important subject of wear, We need to know more aboutI
wear mechanisms because we have been talking about running very close clearances which lead to rubbing contact.
The subject o1' wear theory and experiments would take another whole meeting. I might just mention that we are
doing some work on the theoretical and experimental aspects of wear. A number of new theories have surfaced within
the last couple of years that are Interesting and suggest that we might now be in a position to put together a better
wear model. This w.iar model would involve the surface instability inechanism which I mentioned was first Investigated
by Barber (Reference S0 of Paper No. 1) and Is now being studied by Burton (Reference 51 of paper No.1). Also the
wear model would probably need to take into account some of the aspects of machining theory, both cutting and
Wrinding, For example, in the compressor there are high speed blades cutting into abradabla materials; and there are
some aspects of grinding when abrasive blade tips rub against ceramic materials in the high pressure turbine, or when
vanes rub against the abrasive coating on drum rotors. Some of these machining mechanisms are currently being
investigated at Ohio State University in the USA under a NASA grant.
In addition, there have been some theories developed involving the thermally affected surface layer, some call It
the "frictionial energy affected layer". (R.BiII of NASA Lewis Research Center and L.Roseanu of Technion, Israel
have published work on these surface layers.) We suspect that this thermally uffected surface layer may be responsible
for the ?,ometimes very destructive blade metal transfer (to the shroud) In a high presuum turbine. In a turbine the
blade passing frequencies are greater than ten thousand bludes a second and if transfer starts on the shroud we can
quickly machine a very large gap. With ten thousand blades per second even if each blade contributes a very thin
layer, ,he trangf or would quickly build up.
4 ~Also when we talk about friction and wear, we have to be concerned with the dynamics of the whole system.
There is a possibility of indu%;ng backwiurd whirl, which is part of the rotor dynamics problem mentioned In the
first paper, and I was pleased to see the paper by Ben ckert and Wachter on the effects of non-uniform clearances and
Its relation to shaft dynamics; thiA is a very Important subject especially in the vory high pressure machines.
As fir as the labyrinth seals are concerned, we will always have a large number of labyrinth seals in engines.
And cortainly tho systematic study which Allison presented will go a long way towards clarifying some of the questions
regarding effects of mikting materials, such as honeycomb and porous meterials, and the labyrinth transport phenomena
which was the subject of thu p~aper by Boyman and Suter was very interesting and informative.
 in relation to the wear study, there are some other comments which relate to some other questions asked yesterday
on labyrinth thermal stability. This is related to the thermal transfer and heat split into the shrouds and down into the
rotor. This is a very complex situation and some very odd things may happen. Sometimes the contact on a labyrinth
seal will only be a small arc - maybe 5 degrees. I think there is a picture in the first paper showing what can occur
when the shroud rubs into the rotor. The first point on the labyrinth knife-edge which happens to contact grows
thermally -- it forms a macroscopic tooth on the knife-edge outside diameter (or hot spot) and this eventually wears
down and some other point makes contact. So we get a whole series of small contact events. Thus the heat transfer
down into the rotor is very different in this case as compared to its rubbing all the way around the knife-edge. And
certainly more research should be made into this question of heat split and thermal transfer.
The paper we had this afternoon by Campbell, brought up a subject which we have somewhat ignored for quite a
while, and that is the secondary flow system design, and in particular sealing to prevent the ingestion of hot gas down
into the turbine cavities, As engine design advances to higher temperatures and pressures, the secondary flow system
"will assume even more importance, and more attention should be given to this subject, particularly in the turbine
where hot part life and thermal cycling are critical factors.
F.Wazelt: Now comes the view of a non-expert again and it will be a view from some distance. I am not actively
involved in the development of seals and if this is a handicap or an advantage we will all know in a couple of minutes.
First, let me give some of my personal observations and impressions on the current status,
Air PathSerat
Deformations between rotor support and rotor under mechanical and thermal loads are observed resulting in
:¶, transient relative movements between those two components and leading to occasional contacts, rubs. These contacts
seem to me to be currently accepted, Much of the effort and work we have heard about tries to minimize the damage
done during such contacts and to absolutely prevent catastrophic failures. The measures which are used are design and
material selection for the seal surfaces. In essence, it looks to me at this stage that we allow our machines to adjust
the required clearances themselves by working at it.
During engine operation we observe performance deterioration - a portion of it is identified as being due to seals,
I had the impression that it is not entirely clear if under different loads different rubs out deeper grooves, what part
erosion plays in this change of clearance and which part is due to distortion of the stationary seal supports,
One thing impressed me very much: that these seals cannot very easily be repaired and I believe further work on
suitable repair techniques is being required.

Shaft seals
Primarily they serve to retain oil in bearing packages. It seems to me that an additional objective is to avoid
contamination of engine parts. Preventing oil leaks into the gas paths reduces accumulation of dirt on profiles and
channel walls and helps to reduce corresponding performance deteriorations. Oil contamination of cavities inside
rotating components could lead to serious unbalances. I got the impression that the deterioration of such shaft seals
in actual operation seems to be less than that of gas path seals. They seem to live longer, however their repair is
always a costly undortaking,
Progress seems to be in the offing by incorporating self-action seals. I also welcome the efforts of increasing the
tolerance of such shaft seals against radial excursions, Interesting phenomena like the migration of small oil droplets
against the blockage airflow and the possible problem of creating periodic lateral excitation forces in eccentric seals
might receive further attention.
We have heard about clearance measuring techniques, and I believe those techniques are of extreme importance,
And we have heard about two ways of measuring running clearances in operation with instrumented engines and In
particular with non-instrumented engines. These techniques will be of extreme Importance for a while to come.
Especially since they allow us to measure clearance during the steady state at various power levels, but also at extreme
transients.
Now some general remarks regarding the current status.
I was glad to hear that the sealing of cooling air supplied to turbine rotors was not reported to be a serious
problem area. And miaybe this is due to the very systematic studies which apparently have been done and are in
progress about which wc have heard this afternoon.
I was somewhat surpri.pid that aside front the subject of balancing axial loads -. bearings in connection with
providing the concentricity far seals did not receive much attention during the meeting and if I have to speculate then
I would guess that bearing effects and wear of bearings could be completely shadowed by the displacement of the
bearing support structures which may be predominant in this aspect.
We have heard about problems with stationary and rotating seals. I always wondered why ordinary flanges are
not a problem, especially if I think that through flanges compressor discharge air can leave the cycle completely and
these flanges also distort; now in most applications probably this problem is well in hand. I am myself somewhat
plagued by the memory of problems we have had with the regenerative engine where turbine components are very
small compared to the flanges surrounding the heat-exchanger due to the dimensions of the heat-exchanger casing,
I would like to point out that in such situations compressor discharge air can leak Inside the engine directly to the
 RTD-3

exhaust and not participate in the cycle. And I think with regenerative engines that type cf sealing problem with
distortions under different loads and thermal expansions may also be an interesting problem and not an easy one.
That much to the current status, If you permit me, I would like to give my personal outlook on future work,
And I am not thinking of near-term development but of some long-term research subjects.
First, some remarks to the system aspects. I believe we need further refinement of all clearance measurement
techniques suitable for application in actual operation. And I would like to see those applied while actually putting
the engine under external mechanical loads.
Second, I believe parallel to this we nhould make every offort of .omputing and measuring the deflections under
mechanical and thermal loads of the stationary structure and of the rotating structure separately and then join them to
get a feeling about the influences on relative distances between those parts, the required clearances, I think the objective
of this type of effort should be to derive reliable development tools and prediction methods for those deflections under
various thermal and mechanical loads. And third, it would help if one could clear up the question: Are bearings and
bearing wear really unimportant for the location of the rotor in relation to the stationary supports?
From the result of such activities, I hope that we receive quantitative information on the required clearances.
Now some seals aspects. I would like to call one aspect a clearance control. By that, I mean to maintain a more
or less constant gap between the two parts under all loads and operating conditions.
We have heard about self-acting seals - one could think of displacible ulastic or pneumatic supports of the
stationary seal surfaces, I think a confirmation and extension of the work which is already initiated should prove to
be helpful. Such approaches seem to me quite promising for shaft seals.
Now I would like to propose a second activity which is still surely in the category of the preliminary brainstorming -
I would like to call that a leakage control. By that I understand to maintain flow rates at a constant level through gaps
of varying size. I think in that sense the beginnlngs of the flow studies (we have heard about them) could lead further
and we could even consider to take active counteractions against the leakage flows. I am thinking of using bleed flows
to suppress and control the leakage. I would as a layman really hope that such approaches could also be applicable to
gas path seals.
Now in concluding my remarks I would like to address myself to the engine design. Eliminate seals whenever it is
possible. A seal which is not there, does not cost anything, does not weigh anything, does not wear nor fail.

B.Wrigley: I would like to take one of Professor Wazelt's points first of all, and that is the question of flanges and
leakages between static parts. It is one of the points I was going to bring up anyway. I don't think I'll be overestimating
the significance of the point if I point out here that it was a crucial factor in failing to achieve the performance of the
RB 211 in the early stages or its development, ILe, prior to 197 1, and I am sure we all recall the consequences of that.
In particular it is important to pay attention to sealing in the vicinity of nozzle guide vane locations, and one of the
features that was eventually introduced into the RB 211 was a conwept called chordal sealing, where the circumferential
flange was in fact produced as a series of chords rather than a complete circumference, Any rotation that took place
then was about a straight line which did not open up the flange,
During the conference I have seen considerable emphasis placed on sealing in the main flow path of the engine,
particularly compressor and turbine blade tips. It does raise the question whether the unshrouded HP turbine blade
is the best solution, and perhaps, coming from Rolls-Royce (Derby), I am a little bit prejudiced (in favour of the
shrouded blade). Nevertheless, we have convinced ourselves I think, at Derby, that there are very good points in
favour of the unshrouded turbine. The lower stress levels reduce the requirement for cooling air for example, Those
good points are worth striving for, and we must develop solutions to reduce overtlp leakage.
I think designers must also distill the best features of our current engines, and I refer mainly to the high bypass
engines. I think it is important to have short rigid rotor systems with strong casings. This may cause weight penalties.
There Is no doubt that the three spool concept adds some weight to the engine, but we have demonstrated that short
rotor systems minimise carcase deflections, We must also have strong casings which stay round. Engines of this sort,
I am sure, can be demonstrated to have less in-seivice deterioration than the figures that we have seen during the list
two days. I would draw your attention at this point, to the graphs that were shown as part of thr X-ray lecture
yesterday, which were for the industrial version of the RB 211, but which showed quite small relative excursions of
the rotating to the static part.
A the-me of the conference has been performance deterioration in service and the impression has been given,
unwittingly, that all of the current generation of high bypass ratio turbofans suffer to the same extent. This Is not so.
Firstly analysis of RB 11I flight certification engine performance shows that performance is not lost over the first few
flights whereas other engines suffer about I%irreversible specific fuel consumption deterioration. Factors contributing
are:
(a) Small relative deflections of rotor to casing In the HP compressor. In circumstancce which cause the engine
carcase to bend, e.g. manoeuvres, 'thrusl mnodulation and heavy landings. The short axial length between
bearings which the 3 spool concept provides and isolation of casings from structural carcase are beneficial
in reducing these deflections.
(b) Strong bearing support structures, which by proximity and by remaining circular under carcase deflection,
provide a higher degree of roundness in critical casings of the engine.
F RTD-4

Secondly, the situation with higher in-service hours can be analysed from the annual in-flight fleet audits conducted
by one of the major operators of the engine, These data show that after 4 years of service the fleet average deterioration
of the RB 211 is about 1%specific fuel consumption and although the time between overhauls of the HP module
containing the hot section of the engine, has been quite short, sufficient data are available to demonstrate that the rate
of deterioration of this module is slight.
Factors contributing in addition to (a) and (b) above are:
(c) Careful attention to matching the axial and radial thermal growths, particularly of the HP compressor and
the turbines. This was achieved partly by design calculation, supported by extensive transient measurements
of disc and casing temperatures and partly by development action, using X-rays and other techniques, A
particular example was additional mass of metal in the vicinity of HP turbine casing flanges, which has allowed
very accurate matching of radial growths throughout the engine operation.
(d) Axial positioning of bearing and support structure to minimise relative radial clearance excursions, from
deflection and tolerance build-up.
(e) Shrouded HP turbine blade, which by providing seal knives and perhaps easing the design problems of the
overtip shroud, has reduced the variation of clearance and the sensitivity to clearance simultaneously.
These RB 211 data provide in my opinion an approach to minimise performance deterioration in the design of
future energy efficient engines, at least as for as sealing in the main gas path is concerned.
If I could be provocative for a moment, I think that I might suggest that from RB 211 and RB 401 experience
(the RB 401 is a small business jet-engine), I don't see a strong case for active clearance control.

Still staying with the main flow path, a possibility for improving the effect of over-tip clearance is to change the
hub-tip ratio ai the back of the HP compressor. It is interesting to speculate on this .--that if hub-tip ratio is changed
from 0.92 to 0.9, we would estimate that it might be worth about I%efficiency for a given level of clearance. But
such a change can react adversely, In changing the hub-tip ratio by that amount, the rotational speed rises by nearly
30% and as the turbine bore is constrained by shafting within that bore, the tangential speed rises, and it has less
capability for supporting the blade and other parasitic loads that are applied at the rim, If there is freedom in the
turbine region, change of compressor hub-tip ratio could be helpful, If there isn't, there may be as much lost HP
turbine efficiency as the gain on the compressor.
David Campbell showed us that in the design of secondary dlow systems, the flows are quite often determined by
fixed orifices and the consequence of a seal failure is not necessarily a deterioration of SFC, but one of loss of integrity
or reduction in integrity margin.
Nevertheless air is discahrged at a different point into the flow path as he has pointed out. That raises a question
which has hardly been touched on during the conference, that is the effect of air leaking into the main engine flow path,
and the effect that it has on component efficiency. This I think, is a subject that needs much more attention. In fact
I would like to ask Harold Stocker and David Campbell, who presented information on the effect of leakage on SFC,
whether they have made any allowance for the effect of the flow on the component efficiency, or whether it was a
straight-forward thermodynamic calculation.
We have had tremendous emphasis put on cost of ownership. Not only are the airlines of the world pressing in
this direction, but we know that the Air Forces are as well. Designers might well give attention to commonisation of
bearings throughout an engine, and this might help to commonise seals too, which would allow smaller spares holding
to be maintained.
I agree with Professor Wazelt with respect to the emphasis he put on better measurement tools. There is a
complementary role for the two systems that have been discussed during this conference. I think that the probe
system has some advantages in cases where one may be doubtful about roundness of the static component. It is
probably easier to place several probes at different points around the periphery.
Finally, a plea to the compressor specialists to agree on the sensitivity factor due to tip clearance over annulus
height ratio. We have seen the values presented by Mr Ludwig yesterday with reference to a paper by Mr Mahler
which were quite different in shape from the ones that Rolls-Royce normally see, and I think that the compressor
specialists might take this up for discussion. It would be very helpful for us to know really how significant this
particular point is.

AJ.B.Jackson: Thank you Mr Wrigley.

The Round Table is now open to tho floor and perhaps I would like to start the ball rolling with a question: do
we think that seal technology is keeping up; is it keeping pace with the work that goes on in other parts of the engine?

Has anybody any comments or questions?

DC.Wldtlock: I cannot answer the question directly but I would like to make this comment with regard to oil sealing.
Rolls-Royce's approach to oil path sealing is different to that of our American competitors. I suspect that this
difference is maintained because none of us like to divert significantly from our previous experience.
We have, however, heard from Mr Ludwig and also Professor Dini about rig test worx on advanced oil seals; work
that has been proceeding for several years. Before such advances can be incorporated in production engines, the engine
 RTD-5

manufacturers must accept the risk of extending the rig work into engine research. They must weigh the time and
financial risks on research engine programmes against the possible improvements to be gained.
Perhaps Mr Ludwig could comment on proposed engine test work?

L.P.Ludwig: I would like to add the comment that self-acting seals are being put into prototype engines, and these are
small diameter types (6,44 cm dis). I believe that there Is a size -ffect, in small sizes it is easier to keep the faces flat,
But as you go up in size, the flexibility of the rings starts to give you trouble, The largest size on which we have some
operation is 25 centimeters, beyond that, keeping ring flatness within a reasonable weight is becoming very difficult.
And I should emphasize that keeping the sealing faces flat is the .ecret to success in self-acting seals.

F.HMahler: I think the question you have posed is central because in addition to improving seals, per se, we are
endeavoring to effectively apply new sealing techniques in engines now being developed and In the design of advanced
engines for higher performance. To do this, we will have to work hand-in-hand with the aerodynamicist to achieve
improved component efficiencies. Optimistic predictions of better perfoimance based on advanced aerodynamics may
prove illusory without the benefit of an equally efficient sealing system. We are in a period of transition that in a way
is similar to that we went through when axial flow machinery was first adapted for flight, focusing on clearances as one
of the major losses in the overall system,
Seal technology is advancing rapidly, as the material presented at this meeting illustrates, attempting to match the
pace of engine development toward fuel economy. To meet reduced fuel consumption goals, the planners and managers
of engine development programs are learning to approach sealing in a fundamental sense comparable to compressor and
turbine aerodynamics. Seal specialists are becoming more involved in the development process and in preliminary
design so that the proper seal philosophy is in the engine at the start rather than as a band-aid. To judge whether seal
technology is sufficiently mature and whether the process of system integration can be successfully implemented, is,
I think, very difficult at this time.

A.J.B.Jsckscn: I would like to endorse your remarks very much. An obvious link between the compressor
aerodynamicists' work and the work of the seal engineer is in the simple matter of choice of the reaction In the
compressor and turbine, This choice of reaction can alter the end load very substantially and therefore the seal
diameters and therefore the difficulty in the seal. That is just one example. Can I quote another one perhaps: the
shrouded and unshrouded turbine tip seal is another obvious case. And I certainly feel, as perhaps a man brought up
more In the aerodynamic side than in the seal side, that the aerodynamics of seals is still incredibly old.fashioned and
in its early stages, as we say, relative to the state-of-the-art in rotating machinery. This Is really why I asked the
question. I feel the answer Is that there Is much further to go in the art of seal design, We are still at an early stage
compared with rotating machinery and I think that the objective that we can go at -- a figure of 4% of specific fuel
consumption has been mentioned is very well worth pursuing, and it is there to be achieved at a much lower capital
investment than getting the same improvement by attention to the details of the rotating machinery,

LP.Ludwlg: I want to add just a comment about the probes which were mentioned by Professor Wazelt, I think here
is something that might be the key element. We need, of course, to find out what the transient clearance changes are;
there we suffer because of the lack of small probes. And we probably have only several people here in the UK and
maybe several in the USA trying to develop probes. In general, probes arc very large and capacitance probes suffer
because of thermal drift. So I think maybe here is an area which we should really concentrate on, We need a strong
effort to develop transient clearance measurement devices which are small and easily put into an engine. And prefer-
ably an engine which is flying and not one run Just on a test stand,

H.Stocker: I will tr/ to combine Mr Jackson's inquiry regarding "has seal technology kept up with the rest of the
components" somewhat with Brian Wrigley's comment about losses associated with seal leakage. I approach this
subject from the standpoint that over the years there has been a lot of money spent on improving and pushing up the
level of demonstrated compressor and turbine efficiency. The performance gains that may be possible, beyond the
levels denionstratMd in advanced gas turbine engines, will be more difficult to achieve since the gap between demon- j
strated and ideal efficiencies has been subsiantially reduced with Improved aerodynamics. The performance gains are
also becoming much more expensive in dollar per point of efficiency gain. And I just wonder If the aerodynamicists
have gotten to the point that they are going to have to turn their attention quite strongly to the question of how does
seal leakage keep them from achieving higher component efficiencies. There must be potential turbine blading
efficiency improvements to be gained when I look at the amount of flow that enters the turbine either coming in
through a cooling circuit mechanism or through labyrinth seal leakage. There are certainly thermodynamic losses and
momentum losses depending on how the flow Isbrought back into the turbine flow path, And there are probably
windage losses of a magnitude we have yet to verify. I believe similar effects in a reverse fashion are present in the
compressor. You are certainly having an effect on the downstream aerodynamic performance when you have leakage
around the tip and hub of the airfoils and create a profile distortion for the next compressor stage to handle, In
discussions with compressor specialists on the subject of leakage, I believe that I could supplement Brian Wrigley's
comment about the shape of the sensitivity curve for the compressor and add a third curve, representative of Allison
experience, to the two mentioned.
In the turbine regions, I believe the magnitude of the identified loss mechanisms have yet to be completely
qualified as to what the amounmi and method of bringing flow back into the turbine flow path really does to

II
 RTD-6

performance. I do not believe that engine cycle accountability is giving complete credit or blame to seal leakage effects
on performance deterioration within the gas turbine. There is, in the amount of flow by-passing the combustor, a
certain amount of work that is lost depending on where and how the flow is returned to the gas path. And certainly
there have been studies done - I know - by Rolls-Royce and also by Allison, on the loss effects when you bring the
flow back in to the turbine flow path. I believe this is why you see some of the treatment in the hub region of the flow
path. There has been an effort by designers to get the flow back into the main gas path with as little cost to the energy
of the main gas path as possible. However, I am not convinced, since I am seeing some conflicting magnitudes of results,
that sufficient knowledge is available on the penalty of seal leakage or cooling flow re-entering the turbine region.
In my opinion, the arta of sealing technology covers a broad spectrumu of difficulties that still exist in the gas
turbine engine and they certainly have not been adequately addressed. If you were to take a survey of gas turbine
related technical publications for the past ten years and compare the amount of work dune on compressors, tuibines,
combustors, heat transfer, etc., to the number of reports published on improved gas turbine sealing technology, I
* believe that you will get a reasonably clear picture of the lack of technology development in the gas turbine sealing
area. Just a casual glance at any annual technical publication summary will also give you an indication as to whether
seal technology has or has not kept up with the rest of the gas turbine component technology efforts.

D.A.Campbell: I would like to complement H,Stocker's remarks by first answering a direct question from the top
table about my assumptions in my paper on disc sealing, about the effects on engine performance. The answer is that
In fact the effect on turbine efficiency of the flow re-entering the turbine was neglected. This could have been worked
out but in fact I did not do so because of the lack of time. But I have remarked in the full version of the paper that
this effect can be kapt fairly small by appropriate design of the Interface with the annulus. And I suggest a quantity of
about 0.3% of turbine efficiency for each 1%of cooling air.
Now I do have to admit that this is based on very few data and there Is certainly scope for obtaining more data
of this sort from turbine rig testing.
In Professor Wazelt's summing up I think I detected an implication that I have given the impression that everything
was under control in the disc sealing design area, I did not mean to do this. And in fact I did outline several areas
where we need more research and more data in order to do good design , .jrk,
Now the question has also been asked: Do we think that seal technology Is as advanced as the other technological
aspects? My feeling is that the amount of money spent on testing and research in the seal technology area Is
disproportionally small compared with the resources allocated to the testing of major aerodynamic components,
And that If we are to improve the performance standard of engines we must spend much more on seal technology
and this will still be a small amount compared with what is spent on conventional main component technology.
This also applies to the preparation of such things as computer applications programmes, where I feel that we in
systems design are starved of resources compared with those allocated to main turbomachinery applications,
I was impressed in an earlier paper by a diagram showing the effects on direct operating costs of various parameters
related to engines and I was very Impressed by the smallness of the effects on engine weight. I think we have an attitude
to engine weight which comes from a time of much lower fuel costs, I think it is time now for us to reappraise our
attitude to engine weight and to see where we can add features to engines that will Improve sealing performance and
the reliability and durability of that performance, perhaps at the expense of some weight, with only a small offsetting
penalty on operating cost due to that weight Increase itself.

D.K.Hennecke: I would also like to point out an area where seal technology has not kept pace with the rest of technology
and that Is the area of heat transfer in seals, The knowledge of heat transfer to compressor or turbine casing above the
rotating blades is still very limited. Also, the heat transfer to the rotating and static members of labyrinth seals has not
been Investigated thoroughly. Yet this has to be understood quite well IfIone wants to achieve a good thermal match
between the rotating and stationary parts which Is Important as we have heard many times during this meeting. So, I
would plead that future research Is also directed to the seal heat transfer problem and that people who study the flow
in seals also ask themselves whether they could extend their research by studying the heat transfer too.

A.J,BJdckson: I think that we have in fact covered in the discussion all of the major points that have come out of the
F meeting. And so if you think that there are no other comments to make I would like very briefly to sum up as I see
the situation.
First of all, I think this has been a good conference and it is really just the next step in the historical evolution of
the importance of seals which was referred to by Mr Ainley in his opening address, We have had papers on a number
of subjects and I do feel that having heard them that the general state-of-the-art is not as advanced as In other areas in
the engine particularly the turbomachinery. However, I think there is one encouraging aspect of the work shown at
this conference which is that very clearly at all times has the relevance of the work to an engine been kept in mind.
I feel that in some of the more esoteric research areas that we have had conferences on that it has not been always
quite so clear what the relevance of the work to the engine is. But in the case of seals we have had at least three papers
and many other comments about the gains to be obtained from improved seal design. I refer once again to the incentive
of' 4% of SFC. Four percent perhaps does niot sound much to somebody not used to dealing with specific fuel consump-
tion and direct operating cost; but It Is an enormous amount, particularly in view of the developing fuel situation which
has been referred to, again, during the conference. I think the comments also at the end by Mr Campbell regarding the
relative importance of fuel and weight should be borne in mind.
 RTD-7

It may alto be argued that this could be described as a rather mundane subject for a scientific conference. The tact
that you are all here and the quality of the papers has shown that this is clearly not the case and that this conference
has been very well worthwhile having.
The key items out of each of the sessions are - in my view - as follows:
in the field of materials much has been done but there is still a great deal to do. The fact that one paper on
ceramics was cancrll6d is sure'y a good indication where we might go in some areas,
The question of the users; they the users said that there ought to be more communication. And I appreciate that
from first hand experience of talking to Service Engineers (Field Engineers).
They are extremely vociferous in their views of the designs of the engines which they have to maintain in the
fEld, and I would recommend that each of you does talk to a Service Engineer for about 10 minutes in the near future
and get that input; it will be very firm. I ask the users however, whether there is anything they can do in the way they
use the engines to maintain the performance of seals, We have seen latterly the use of flexible ratings and generally
rather more care of the engine being taken by the Pilot than has been, perhaps, sometimes the case in the past and I
feel that this line could be developed ftirther,
Regarding measurement techniques, there can be no doubt whatever that this limits the basic standards of data,
and so anything that can be done to imnprove measurement techniques is bound to have a fundamental effect on the
rate at which the technology advances.
Regarding laboratory experiments, I was very encouraged to ste that there was a whole session of six papers (out
of the total of 17 papers actually presented) on this snbject, and it is only an indication of what is going on. There is
clearly other work going on and I feel here that the I ý.nction of a Conference such as this is to bring this kind of work
out into the open and to help the communications problem between seals engineers which has also been referred to
many times at this Conference.
Regarding design aids, these papers merely emphasised the need for more data and this is where the work on
experimental tests is so important.

The work shown therefore at this Conference is only a small part of everything that is going on. The need for
more communications is obvious on the subject of seals; there has in fact been noted (just as a result of this Confeience)
some duplication of work due to lack of communication. Conferencer on this kind of subject are all too rare,
So in concluding I would say please continue the good work, which is very important In view of the developing
fuel situation.
Thank you all very much indeed.

L
 REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE
1.Reciplent's Reference 2.Origlnator's Reference 3.Further Reference 4.Security Clamification
,/ of Document
AGARD-CP-237 ISBN 92-835-0218-3 UNCLASSIFIED
5.Origlnator Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
7 rue Ancelle, 92200 Neuilly sur Seine, France
6. Title
SEAL TECHNOLOGY IN GAS TURBINE ENGINES

7.Presented at the hi pulsion and Energetics Panel's 51st

(B) Specialists' Meeting
in London, United Kingdom 6-7 April 1978.
8 Author(s) 9. Date
Various August 1978

10.Author's Address 11.P22

Various 286

12.)Itribution Statement This document is distributed in accordance with AGARD

policies and regulations, which are outlined on the
Outside Back Covers of all AGARD publications.
13.Keywords/Descriptors
Seals (stoppers) Gas turbine engines Gaskets
Gas seals Maintenance Test facilities
Oil seals Design criteria
14. Abstratt
These Conference Proceedings contaln 17 papers presented at the 51st (B) Specialists'
Meeting of the AGARD Propulsion and Energetics Panel, held at Church House, Westminster,
ndon, UKon 6and 7 April 1./'8.

"epapers were grouped into six sessions: Survey, Material Technology, 1.'.1r's View of
Seal Technology, Measurements of Seal Behaviour, Laboratory Experiments, and Design
Aids. The meeting was concluded with a Round Table Discussion. This discussion as well
as those after each presentation, and .:he "'1echnica! Evaluation Repoit are included in the
Conferencc Proceedings.

The purpose of the meeting was to provide a forum to discuss technology of gas turbine
engine seals. The discussion was limited to cases where relative motion exists between parts
of seals. Both gas path .,id oil path seals were covered. Due to relevant and timely contribu-
tions an overview on the present status and the shortcomings of seal technology is reached
as well as on the current developments. Various aspects were taken into account like
engine o;'erating aid maintenance costs, and the engine design procedure. Within the Round
Table Discussion and even more extensively in the Technical Evaluation Report conclusions
are drawn and recommendations are given whereto future Interest should be directed.
 '42 ýf
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