CONCRETE

You employ stone, wood and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces.
That is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good, I
am happy and I say: "This is beautiful." That is Architecture. Art enters in.
Le Corbusier.

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 Contents

Einführung

History

Methodologies

Literary Review

Fazit

Annex

Introduction
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 When placed in the hands of talented architects concrete is beautiful. The combination
of sand, gravel and lime mixed with water was first successfully exploited by the Romans more
than 2000 years ago, but the more recent addition of steel reinforcement has allowed
architects to build higher and span further than ever before. The material that starts its life as a
soup of grit and rubble has been transformed into some of the most beautiful, elegant and awe
inspiring buildings that the world has ever seen. Architects that create the most exquisite
concrete buildings exploit the intrinsic qualities of the material, creating daring forms of both
structural and sculptural beauty.

The Romans were aware of the tremendous capabilities of concrete when used in
compression, and used their Pozzulana brew in arches, vaults, and domes throughout the
empire. In the late nineteenth century concrete was given structurally another dimension,
when steel reinforcing bars were embedded in the wet mix, giving the final product impressive
tensile qualities as well. Concrete construction techniques have evolved to take advantage of
the structural capabilities of the material. Architects and artistically minded engineers like
Santiago Calatrava, and Pierre Luigi Nervi have designed buildings where the structural qualities
of concrete are the main concept of the design, whilst other architects have created elaborate
structural systems that are a combination of concrete and other materials. The tensile qualities
of reinforced concrete have been expressed in daring designs by architects such as Alvaro Siza
and Eero Saarinen. Often due to innovative exploration of the structural capabilities of concrete
these buildings have immense elegance and beauty.

Although concrete is not the only material that sculptural buildings can be built from, it
is one of the best materials for communicating the form of a building due to the monotonous
color and texture of its surface. A concrete building is rarely interpreted as an exploration of
materiality; rather one is able to focus entirely on the building’s form. Concrete comes in an
extremely large module, in fact it is an infinitely large module that is limited only by the
continuity of the pour, and disrupted only by expansion joints. The lack of joints in the material
makes the resulting concrete form uninterrupted to the viewer, and hence more
comprehensible, so the sculptural form of the building is more successfully communicated. The
lack of joints means that the conspicuousness of an expansion joint can be used to emphasize
or separate volumes. Weather cast or applied; concrete is the ideal material to convey the form
of a building.

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 Something is beautiful if it is strong and durable, functional and practical, and
appeals to our senses. The very nature of concrete means that it is strong and beautiful, and it
can easily be built into something functional and practical, but concrete becomes truly beautiful
when it appeals to our senses. Whether it be smooth, highly polished and slick, or rough brutal
and poetic, in the hands of a true artist concrete can become sculpture. For a building material
that is widely regarded as cold and ugly, concrete is a seminal part of some of the world’s finest
pieces of architecture. It has the ability to be the shell, skeleton, or skin of a building, the roof
walls or floor. It is a practical durable material that has the ability to become sensually
appealing. Concrete is indeed beautiful.

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 History

Concrete is a material used in building construction, consisting of a hard, chemically

inert particulate substance, known as an aggregate, that is bonded together by cement and
water.

The Assyrians and Babylonians used clay as the bonding substance or cement. The
Egyptians used lime and gypsum cement. In 1756, British engineer, John Smeaton made the
first modern concrete by adding pebbles as a coarse aggregate and mixing powered brick into
the cement. In 1824, English inventor, Joseph Aspdin invented Portland Cement, which has
remained the dominant cement used in concrete production. Joseph Aspdin created the first
true artificial cement by burning ground limestone and clay together. The burning process
changed the chemical properties of the materials and Joseph Aspdin created a stronger cement
than what using plain crushed limestone would produce.

The other major part of concrete besides the cement is the aggregate. Aggregates
include sand, crushed stone, gravel, slag, ashes, burned shale, and burned clay. Fine aggregate
(fine refers to the size of aggregate) is used in making concrete slabs and smooth surfaces.
Coarse aggregate is used for massive structures or sections of cement.

Concrete that includes imbedded metal is called reinforced concrete or ferroconcrete.

Reinforced concrete was invented by Joseph Monier, who received a patent in 1867. Joseph
Monier was a Parisian gardener who made garden pots and tubs of concrete reinforced with an
iron mesh. Reinforced concrete combines the tensile or bendable strength of metal and the
compressional strength of concrete to withstand heavy loads. Joseph Monier exhibited his
invention at the Paris Exposition of 1867. Besides his pots and tubs, Joseph Monier promoted
reinforced concrete for use in railway ties, pipes, floors, arches, and bridges.

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Historical Timeline of Concrete

3000 BC Egyptians used mud mixed with straw to bind dried bricks. Also
furthered the discovery of lime and gypsum mortar as a binding agent
for building the Pyramids .

3000 BC Used cementitious materials to hold bamboo together in their boats

and in the Great Wall.

300 BC Romans used slaked lime a volcanic ash called pozzuolana, found near
Pozzuoli by the bay of Naples. They used lime as a cementitious
material. Pliny reported a mortar mixture of 1 part lime to 4 parts
sand. Vitruvius reported a 2 parts pozzolana to 1 part lime. Animal fat,
milk, and blood were used as admixtures.

193 BC of PorticuHouse s Amelia made of bound stones to form concrete .

200 AD The Pantheon.

After 400 AD The art of Concrete was lost after the fall of the Roman Empire .

1678 Joseph Moxon wrote about a hidden fire in heated lime that
appears upon the addition of water.

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1756 John Smeaton, British Engineer, rediscovered hydraulic cement
through repeated testing of mortar in both fresh and salt water .

1779 Bry Higgins was issued a patent for hydraulic cement (stucco) for
exterior plastering use.

1796 James Parker from England patented a natural hydraulic cement by

calcining nodules of impure limestone containing clay, called Parker’s
Cement or Roman Cement.

1812 -1813 Louis Vicat of France prepared artificial hydraulic lime by calcining
synthetic mixtures of limestone and clay.

1818 Maurice St. Leger was issued patents for hydraulic cement.

1818 Canvass White, American Engineer, found rock deposits in Madison,

County, New York, that made hydraulic cement with little processing

1820-1821 John Tickell and Abraham Chambers were issued more hydraulic
cement patents.

1822 James Frost of England prepared artificial hydraulic lime like Vicat’s
and called it British Cement.

1824 Joseph Aspdin, bricklayer and mason in Leeds, England, patented what
he called Portland cement, since it resembled the stone quarried on
the Isle of Portland off the British coast.

1825 Erie Canal created the first great demand for cement in the US

I. K. Brunel is credited with the first engineering application of

1828 Portland cement, which was used to fill a breach in the Thames
Tunnel.

1850s Jean-Louis Lambot was the first to use reinforcing in boats

1854 William B. Wilkinson erected a reinforced concrete servants cottage

1859-1867 Portland cement used in the construction of the London sewer system

1867 Joseph Monier patented a design for reinforces garden tubs, beams
and posts
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1868 The first recorded shipment of Portland cement to the US

1850-1880 Francois Coignet, a builder in France, responsible for the first

widespread use of concrete in buildings

1871 David O. Saylor established the first Portland-cement plant in the US

in Coplay, PA

1871-1875 William E. Ward builds the first landmark building in reinforced

concrete in Port Chester, NY. Designed by Architect Robert Mook

1883 Ward delivered a paper on the house to the Society of Mechanical

Engineers.

1884 Earnest L. Ransom patented a reinforcing system using twisted rods.

1885 F. Ransome patented a slightly tilted horizontal kiln which could be

rotated so the material moved gradually form one end to the other

1887 Henri Le Chatelier of France established oxide ratios to prepare the

proper amount of lime to produce Portland cement. He named the
components: Alite (tricalcium silicate), Belite (dicalcium silicate), and
Celite (tetracalcium aluminoferrite). He proposed that hardening is
caused by the formation of crystalline products of the reaction
between cement and water.

1889 The first concrete reinforced bridge is built.

1891 George Bartholomew placed the first concrete street in the USA in
Bellefontaine, OH. which still exists.

1904 Ingalls bldg. using the Ransome system, was the first concrete
skyscraper.

1870s Francois Hennebique patented the Hennebique system. He was

responsible for the widespread acceptance of reinforced concrete.

1902 Thomas Edison was a pioneer in the further development of the rotary
kiln.

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1903 August Perre makes concrete an acceptable architectural material
Perre builds 25 bis Rue Franklin and the Theatre Champs Elysee

1904 Ingalls building, probably the beginning of high-rise concrete const.

1916 Portland Cement Association founded

1917 The US Bureau of Standards and the American Society for testing
Materials established a standard formula for Portland cement

1919 Meis van der Rohe proposes concrete high-rises

1922 The tallest concrete building was built – 230 ft., the Medical Arts bldg.,
Dallas

1922 Notre Dame du Raincy

1927 Eugene Freyssinet develops successful pre-stressed concrete

1930 Eduardo Torroja, designed the first thin shelled roof at Algeciras

1935 Eduardo Torroja, designed the Madrid Hippodrome.

1936 The first major concrete dams, Hoover Dam and Grand Coulee Dam,
were built.

1935 Pier Luigi Nervi built the hangers for the Italian Air Force using thin
shell construction .

1931 Le Corbusier builds Villa Savoye.

1936 Frank Lloyd Wright was the one of the first to exploit the cantilever at
Falling water.

1940s Portland Cement Laboratories perfect air-entrained concrete.

1947 FLLW builds on Meis’ ideas at the Johnson wax tower.

1956 FLLW builds the Guggenheim made of reinforced concrete .

1957 Le Corbusier builds Ronchamp.

~1958 Felix Candela masters the concrete shell.

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1958 Felix Candela builds the restaurant at Xochimilco.

1958 Executive House Hotel, Chicago, exceeds the Medical Arts record at
371 ft.

1959 Le Corbusier builds La Tourette .

1960 Bank of Georgia Building in Atlanta beats Executive House at 391 ft.

1961 Le Corbusier builds the government complex at Chandigara India .

1962 Bertrand Goldberg’s twin towers at Marina City marked the

beginning of the use of reinforced concrete in modern skyscrapers and
set the height record to 588 ft.

1964 1000 Lake Shore Drive beats Marina City at 640 ft. 6000 psi concrete
in the lower columns was used for the first time.

1964 Place Victoria in Montreal, ht 624 ft. using 6000psi concrete columns .

1967 First concrete domed sport structure, the Assembly Hall, was
constructed at The University of Illinois, at Urbana-Champaign.

1968 Lake Point Towers, 70 stories, 645 ft. 7500 psi concrete.

1970 One Shell Plaza, Houston, ht 714 ft., using 6000 psi concrete .

1970s Fiber reinforcement in concrete was introduced.

1975 Water Tower Place, 859 ft., 9000psi conc. using super plasticizers .

1985 Peak shipment of Portland cement to the US increased to nearly 3

million barrels .

1985 The "highest strength" concrete was used in building the Union Plaza
constructed in Seattle, Washington.

1989 Scotia Plaza Building, Toronto, 907 ft.

1990 311S Wacker and Two Prudential Plaza in Chicago sets new height
record at 920 ft.
World Book Encyclopedia

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 Methodology

Concrete Composition
Concrete is made up of three main ingredients: water, Portland cement,
and aggregates. The ratio of the ingredients changes the properties of the final product, which
allows the engineer to design concrete that meets their specific needs. Admixtures are added
to adjust the concrete mixture for specific performance criteria.

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Water: The water in the concrete mix should be clean and free of impurities. The amount of
water relative to the amount of cement changes how easily the concrete flows, but also affects
the final strength of the concrete. More water makes for easier flowing concrete, but also
makes for lower strength concrete upon curing.

Portland Cement: Cement hardens when mixed with water, which binds all of the ingredients
together. Portland cement is the most common cement used and is composed of alumina,
silica, lime, iron, and gypsum. Small amounts of other ingredients are also included.

Aggregates: Sand, gravel, and crushed stone are used as the aggregates in concrete.
Aggregates make up the majority of a concrete mixture.

Admixtures: Admixtures accomplish a variety of goals. This can be as simple as adding a

pigment to color the concrete. Other admixtures are used for faster curing times in cold
weather, creating extremely high-strength concrete, or for increasing the flow able nature of
concrete without compromising the strength. Unfortunately, admixtures can generate
unwanted results such as poor adhesion of finish-flooring. For this reason, many structural
engineers and architects are hesitant to use admixtures.

Proportioning: The key to achieving a strong, durable concrete rests in the careful
proportioning and mixing of the ingredients. A concrete mixture that does not have enough
paste to fill all the voids between the aggregates will be difficult to place and will produce
rough, honeycombed surfaces and porous concrete. A mixture with an excess of cement paste
will be easy to place and will produce a smooth surface; however, the resulting concrete is
likely to shrink more and be uneconomical.

A properly designed concrete mixture will possess the desired workability for the
fresh concrete and the required durability and strength for the hardened concrete. Typically, a
mix is about 10 to 15 percent cement, 60 to 75 percent aggregate and 15 to 20 percent water.
Entrained air in many concrete mixes may also take up another 5 to 8 percent.

Portland cement's chemistry comes to life in the presence of water. Cement and water
form a paste that coats each particle of stone and sand. Through a chemical reaction called
hydration, the cement paste hardens and gains strength. The character of the concrete is
determined by quality of the paste. The strength of the paste, in turn, depends on the ratio of
water to cement. The water-cement ratio is the weight of the mixing water divided by the
weight of the cement. High-quality concrete is produced by lowering the water-cement ratio as
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much as possible without sacrificing the workability of fresh concrete. Generally, using less
water produces a higher quality concrete provided the concrete is properly placed,
consolidated, and cured.

Other Ingredients: Although most drinking water is suitable for use in concrete, aggregates are
chosen carefully. Aggregates comprise 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete. The
type and size of the aggregate mixture depends on the thickness and purpose of the final
concrete product. Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or
odor may be used as mixing water for concrete. However, some waters that are not fit for
drinking may be suitable for concrete.

Excessive impurities in mixing water not only may affect setting time and concrete strength, but
also may cause efflorescence, staining, corrosion of reinforcement, volume instability, and
reduced durability. Specifications usually set limits on chlorides, sulfates, alkalis, and solids in
mixing water unless tests can be performed to determine the effect the impurity has on various
properties. Relatively thin building sections call for small coarse aggregate, though aggregates
up to six inches (150 mm) in diameter have been used in large dams. A continuous gradation of
particle sizes is desirable for efficient use of the paste. In addition, aggregates should be clean
and free from any matter that might affect the quality of the concrete .

Hydration: Soon after the aggregates, water, and the cement are combined, the mixture starts
to harden. All Portland cements are hydraulic cements that set and harden through a chemical
reaction with water. During this reaction, called hydration, a node forms on the surface of each
cement particle. The node grows and expands until it links up with nodes from other cement
particles or adheres to adjacent aggregates.

The building up process results in progressive stiffening, hardening, and strength

development. Once the concrete is thoroughly mixed and workable it should be placed in forms
before the mixture becomes too stiff.

During placement, the concrete is consolidated to compact it within the forms and to
eliminate potential flaws, such as honeycombs and air pockets. For slabs, concrete is left to
stand until the surface moisture film disappears. After the film disappears from the surface, a
wood or metal hand float is used to smooth off the concrete. Floating produces a relatively
even, but slightly rough, texture that has good slip resistance and is frequently used as a final
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finish for exterior slabs. If a smooth, hard, dense surface is required, floating is followed by steel
troweling.

Curing begins after the exposed surfaces of the concrete have hardened sufficiently to
resist marring. Curing ensures the continued hydration of the cement and the strength gain of
the concrete. Concrete surfaces are cured by sprinkling with water fog, or by using moisture-
retaining fabrics such as burlap or cotton mats. Other curing methods prevent evaporation of
the water by sealing the surface with plastic or special sprays (curing compounds).

Special techniques are used for curing concrete during extremely cold or hot weather
to protect the concrete. The longer the concrete is kept moist, the stronger and more durable it
will become. The rate of hardening depends upon the composition and fineness of the cement,
the mix proportions, and the moisture and temperature conditions. Most of the hydration and
strength gain take place within the first month of concrete's life cycle, but hydration continues
at a slower rate for many years. Concrete continues to get stronger as it gets older.

The concreting process

Placing the concrete into the formwork: The correct placing of the concrete into the formwork
is essential for achieving a high quality concrete finish. There are a number of aspects to be
considered when concreting: Dropping height/layer depth Concrete is placed in layers. The
layer thickness should not exceed 50 cm. The free fall height should not exceed 2 m (for flowing
concrete 0.50m). Tremies have to be used if the concrete is dropped over greater heights. Piles
of concrete should not be allowed to build up. The concreting process must not be interrupted
for longer periods. The size of the section of the component being poured must take into
account the duration of the concreting operation. The placing tube must be able to fit between
the reinforcement layers.
Horizontal wall slots in concrete walls, generally inserts fixed to the formwork face, are
problematic when placing the concrete. One way round this is to install placing tubes that pass
through the formwork of the horizontal inserts. After the concrete has set, the placing tubes
and the inserts for the slots are removed.

Premix: With high walls it is advisable to introduce a cement rich mix with a softer consistency
before the rest of the concreting takes place. If the concrete falls over a great height it can
segregate and result in the bottom layer containing more coarse aggregate. There is then not

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enough cement paste to fill all the voids in the aggregate structure. This results in honey
combing. The extra cement paste in the premix counteracts this effect.

Compaction: Compaction removes the air that enters the concrete during mixing and placing.
For in-situ concrete this is down with high frequency vibrating pokers. The vibration heads
should be inserted at points close enough that their effective zones overlap. Depending on the
diameter of the vibrating head the distance between insertion points is between 25 and 70 cm.
The vibrating head is inserted quickly and with drawn slowly. The vibrating head should be kept
a distance of at least 10 cm from the formwork face. It should not be allowed to touch the
reinforcement as vibrations can displace the reinforcement and destroy the bond with the
compacted concrete elsewhere. For columns the vibrating head is inserted at the start of
concreting and brought up slowly as the pour progresses.

Weather Dependence: Weather can have considerable influence on the results of the
concreting process for high quality exposed concrete finishes.

Rain: Concreting should not take place in the rain. In extreme cases rain increases the
water/cement ratio and this can badly effect the texture and structure of the concrete.

Concreting in summer: Concreting in high temperatures (outside temperature) carries the risk
of too rapid hardening and of drying out (insufficient water). Direct sunlight is to be avoided.
Therefore when concreting in hot weather, the effects of solar radiation and air movements on
the delivery equipment and the fresh concrete should be mitigated by suitable means (covers,
mats).

Concreting in low temperatures and frost: Cold weather concreting requires special
precautions to be taken as cement paste sets more slowly as the temperature drops and ceases
to set at – 10 C. From the beginning of stiffening to the beginning of hardening the concrete is
scarcely affected by being frozen. After thawing the voids are filled with crystals created by the
continued hydration of the cement. Frozen water in insufficiently hardened concrete on the
other hand can result in loosening or even bursting of the concrete structure because of the
increase in volume of the ice. Therefore during the colder months of the year, concrete must be
placed at a specified minimum temperature (e.g. by warming the added water) and protected
for an adequate period against heat loss, drying out and freezing.
Attention should be paid to the fact that frost protection agents can affect the color of the
concrete.

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 As a general rule expose concrete should not be placed when outside temperatures are
around freezing point.

Wind: Even wind can have a considerable effect on the evaporation of water from fresh
concrete. Wind and draughts should be kept away from fresh concrete surfaces. This is
normally achieved using plastic sheeting or covers.

Stripping and Curing: A component must not be stripped before the concrete has gained
adequate strength. Approval to strip is given by the site manager after he has satisfied himself
that the concrete strength is adequate (if necessary in consultation with the structural
engineer). The length of time the component stays in the formwork has an effect on the color
of the concrete. In special cases this is tested on a sample wall. In order to achieve evenness of
color over all the concrete surfaces it is important to ensure that the time is the formwork is the
same for all components. If admixtures are used that have a retarding effect then this may
entail longer periods in the formwork.
Until the fresh concrete has hardened enough it must be protected against drying out,
extreme temperatures, severe changes in temperature, mechanical loads, chemical attack and
vibration. Curing includes keeping the concrete surface continuously moist, covering with
sheeting or damp mats and tarpaulins, protection from rain, drying out and cooling.

TYPES

REINFORCED CONCRETE: reinforced concrete, Concrete in which steel is embedded in such a

manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces. The reinforcing steel—rods,
bars, or mesh—absorbs the tensile, shear, and sometimes the compressive stresses in a
concrete structure. Plain concrete does not easily withstand tensile and shear stresses caused

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by wind, earthquakes, vibrations, and other forces and is therefore unsuitable in most
structural applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the compressive
strength of concrete work together to allow the member to sustain these stresses over
considerable spans. The invention of reinforced concrete in the 19th century revolutionized the
construction industry, and concrete became one of the world’s most common building
materials.

PRECAST CONCRETE: Precast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete

in a reusable mold or "form" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to
the construction site and lifted into place. In contrast, standard concrete is poured into site-
specific forms and cured on site. Precast stone is distinguished from precast concrete by using a
fine aggregate in the mixture, so the final product approaches the appearance of naturally
occurring rock or stone.
By producing precast concrete in a controlled environment (typically referred to as a
precast plant), the precast concrete is afforded the opportunity to properly cure and be closely
monitored by plant employees. Utilizing a Precast Concrete system offers many potential
advantages over site casting of concrete. The production process for Precast Concrete is
performed on ground level, which helps with safety throughout a project. There is a greater
control of the quality of materials and workmanship in a precast plant rather than on a
construction site. Financially, the forms used in a precast plant may be reused hundreds to
thousands of times before they have to be replaced, which allows cost of formwork per unit to
be lower than for site-cast production

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CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS:
Since 1882, when the first concrete block was molded, concrete masonry has become a
standard building material. Concrete blocks create structures that are economical, energy
efficient, fire-resistant, and involve minimal maintenance. In addition, concrete masonry allows
architectural freedom and versatility.
The standard concrete block is a rectangular 8X8X16-inch unit (200X200X400 mm) made
mainly of Portland cement, gravel, sand, and water. The concrete mixture may also contain
ingredients such as air-entraining agents, coloring pigment, and water repellent. During the
manufacturing process, a machine molds moist, low-slump concrete into the desired shapes.
These blocks then undergo an accelerated curing process at elevated temperatures inside a
special chamber. This is generally followed by a storage or drying phase.
Concrete masonry is widely used to construct small and large structures. The most
common application of concrete masonry is walls for buildings. However, other uses for
concrete masonry units include retaining walls, chimneys, fireplaces, and fire safe enclosures of
stairwells, elevator shafts, and storage vaults.
Concrete masonry units can be manufactured for virtually any architectural or structural
function. Split-face block units have been fractured lengthwise or crosswise by machine to
produce a rough stone-like texture. The split face exposes the aggregates in the various planes
of fracture. A patented slotted concrete block provides high sound absorption, making it ideal
for use in gymnasiums, factories, bowling alleys, or other places where noise generation is high.
Glazed concrete masonry units are used in swimming pools where sanitation and a durable,
attractive finish are needed.

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RAMMED EARTH: Rammed earth is a technique for building walls using the raw materials
of earth, chalk, lime and gravel. It is an ancient building method that has seen a revival in recent
years as people seek more sustainable building materials and natural building methods.
Rammed-earth walls are simple to construct, noncombustible, thermally massive, strong, and
durable. They can be labor-intensive to construct without machinery (powered tampers),
however, and they are susceptible to water damage if inadequately protected or maintained.
Rammed-earth buildings are found on every continent except Antarctica, in a range of
environments that includes the temperate and wet regions of northern Europe, semiarid
deserts, mountain areas and the tropics. The availability of useful soil and a building
design appropriate for local climatic conditions are the factors that favor its use.

FIBER CEMENT: Fiber cement siding is a building material used to cover the exterior of a
building in both commercial and domestic applications. Fiber cement is a composite material
made of sand, cement and cellulose fibers.
In appearance fiber cement siding most often consists of overlapping horizontal
boards, imitating wooden siding, clapboard and imitation shingles. Fiber cement siding is also
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manufactured in a sheet form and is used not only as cladding but is also commonly used as
a soffit / eave lining and as a tile underlay on decks and in bathrooms. Fiber cement siding is not
only used as an exterior siding, it can also be utilized as a substitute for timber fascias
and bargeboards in high fire areas.

ADMIXTURES
Admixtures-material other that wate, aggregate and cement that are added before or
during the mixing process-can greatly improve the quality of concrete by increasing its strength,
workability and durability and helping it cure under poor environmental conditions. In addition
to improving the performance of concrete, admixtures can also add color or change its final
appearance.

Air-entering ad mixtures: admixtures increase concrete's workability and are considered one of
the most common and beneficial admixtures. They also protect concrete from freeze-thaw
damage by having thermal insulating properties. In high concentrations, concrete with these
admixtures is lightweight and non-structural, given its proportion of air to mass. These
admixtures reduce concrete's strength, so one should consult with engineers to ensure the
concrete will meet the needs of the application.

Accelerating: admixtures make concrete cure or harden more quickly, thereby reducing
construction time and project costs. These admixtures allow for formwork to be removed sooner
and, in colder climates. may give the concrete needed strength before the onset of freezing
temperatures. However, they can also cause shrinkage and discoloration to the concrete as it
cures. Calcium chloride, a common ingredient in accelerating admixtures, can corrode any
embedded ferrous metals in the concrete. Therefore use of this chemical must be carefully
monitored.

Retarding: admixtures slow the curing or hardening process down, allowing more time to place
and finish the concrete. Retarders are commonly used in massive engineering applications,
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especially in the construction of bridge decks, dams, and very large foundations. They offset the
normally high temperatures given off during the hydration process and complications when
unavoidable delays between mixing and placing occur. Due to the longer timeframe for setting,
concrete containing retarders may be vulnerable to environmental conditions during the curing
period. It may be more vulnerable to creep, a permanent deformation in a material caused by
structural stress.

Super plasticizers: are organic compound admixtures that transform a stiff concrete pour into a
more fluid and workable mix. They also can permit a reduction of the water content to increase
the concrete's strength. Slag cement, fly ash, and micro silica are some ingredients that can
plasticize the concrete to make it more workable, keep the water content low, without sacrificing
the concrete's compressive strength.

Water-reducing: admixtures allow for a five to 10 percent reduction in the amount of mixing
water needed while retaining the same amount of workability for the concrete. These different
chemicals can produce a higher strength concrete and aid plasticity, but may slow the hydration
process and decrease the early strength of the concrete. Different types of chemicals added to
concrete can be called water-reducing ad-mixtures; their advantages and disadvantages vary
demanding on particular chemical used.

Fly ash: admixtures are made from powered waste product of coal-fired power plants and can
increase concrete's strength and decrease it's permeability. They can also improve a mix's
workability and reduce the required amount of mixing water.

Pozzolans: admixtures are minerals admixtures that include cementations materials and natural
pozzolans such as volcanic ash, fly ash, and silica fume. Thee admixtures improve the
workability of the concrete and reduce the internal temperature during the curing process. If the
internal temperature of curing gets too hot, the pour will not cure properly, possibly comprising
its structural integrity and causing shrinkage or cracking.

Pigment admixtures: can be added to concrete to achieve a desired color. There are three
primary methods to color concrete. The integral method mixes the coloring agent throughout the
concrete mix, usually done while the concrete is in the batching silo or mixing truck. The
resulting colors are generally muted but are uniform throughout. The dry method of coloring is
applied to exposed surfaces after the concrete has been placed. The coloring agent is troweled
into the surface and forms a thin veneer of color on the slab. These colors are generally more
vibrant than the integral method because ether concentration of pigment on the surface is
typically greater. Finally, concrete can also be colored with a chemical stain that penetrates
cured concrete surface, generally producing an uneven and variegated color effect due to
varying absorbencies of the concrete surface. Chemical stains react directly with the existing
concrete's mineral and pore structure.
In addition in these admixtures there are many others, all of which have particular
purposes. Freeze-protection admixtures allow concrete to cure at temperature below 20
21
degrees F(11.1 degrees C). Fibrous admixtures short fibers of glass. steel or plastics-- give the
concrete added reinforcement at a micro-level. Shrinkage-reducing admixtures [SRAs] decrease
the effects of drying shrinkage by reducing the concrete's surface tension, and corrosion-
inhibiting admixtures contain calcium nitrite to protect reinforcing steel, and bay other ferrous
metal within the concrete, against corrosion.

MOVEMENT JOINTS
Buildings move due to many factors, including thermal change and environmental stress.
Movement is often accommodated by separating sections of a building to move independently
within a prescribed range. Building movement joints are the flexible connections between these
sections.

There are four basic types of concrete joints:

 Control joints allow for controlled cracking along a formed, tooled, or cut joint. They
allow for shrinkage of the sections of concrete.

 Construction joints occur when successive concrete pours about one another.
Seams between successive pours, called cold joints, often a point of weakness,
reinforcement bar and interlocking keys may be used to tie the two concrete
members together.

 Expansion joints are engineered joints that allow two adjacent structural elements
to move independently of each other when subjected to stresses. The allow for both
contraction and expansion of the concrete sections.

 Isolation joints, which are a type of expansion joint, are used to separate concrete
into individual structural elements or to isolate the concrete from other construction
materials.

The size and frequency of joints varies depending upon many factors, including thermal and
moisture conditions, loading conditions, and strength of the materials.

APPLICATION

Applications of Concrete: Concrete has been used for construction since ancient times. Modern
day concrete application include dams, bridges, swimming pools, homes, streets, patios,

22
basements, balustrades, plain cement tiles, mosaic tiles, pavement blocks, kerbs, lamp-posts,
drain covers, benches and so on….

It is interesting to note that over six billion tons of concrete is produced each year, and is
the second most widely used substance. Concrete is specific to different applications like
rebuilding, mending and construction. Concrete building components in different sizes and
shapes are also made before hand and later applied. They include wall panels, doorsills, beams,
pillars and more. Post-tensioned slabs is a preferred method for industrial, commercial and
residential floor slab construction.
Ready Mixed concrete is durable and hard wearing and is used for variety of applications
owing to its crack-resistance and durability. Situ concrete is cast in place, on site. Precast
concrete finds application in concrete curtain walls, exterior cladding and structural walls, as it
monolithic and can be easily used for two-way structural systems. It is also adjustable to post
tensioning and easily adapts to any building shape.

Cast-in-place concretes: Cast-in-place concrete is an unhardened state, like ready-mix, and is

placed in moulds. Ready mixed concrete is proportioned and mixed off the project site. It finds
application in foundations and slabs-on-ground, walls, beams, columns, floors, roofs, bridges,
pavements, and other infrastructure.
Controlled-density fill is used as structural fill, foundation pillar, pavement base an pipe
bedding. It is also known as flow able mortar.

Decorative purpose: The life expectancy of concrete flooring materials is much more than
other flooring material. It is used to enhance concrete applications and to add color and texture
to interiors, driveways, pathways and patios

Fiber Cement: Fiber cement is made using a mixture of sand, cellulose fibers and cement. It has
a wood-like appearance, is durable and used for decorative shapes and trim applications.
Green roof: Vegetative roofs are used in residential societies, office buildings, hospitals,
schools, recreational facilities, shopping centers and airports.

Building design: Concrete is used to provide prolonged building benefits by functioning as

thermal mass, acoustical barrier and durable structure

White Topping: It is a Portland cement concrete overlay on existing asphalt concrete pavement
and used in airport pavements, highways, secondary roads, and other pavements.

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Other Applications:
Beams, drain tiles, piers, steps
Post, Beam and Deck
Pilasters and round column forms
Brick ledge application
Hardscape < Pavers
High Performance Admixtures
Masonry
Soil solidification
Stucco < Tilt-up
Insulating Concrete Form
Motorways/roads, overpasses and parking structures
Brick/block walls and bases for gates, fences and poles
Building structure, fences and poles
Over the years, concrete has established itself as a sturdy building material used for different
applications. The inherent benefits of using concrete as a construction material are durability,
fire-resistance, low maintenance, energy efficiency and environmental friendliness. Owing its
generic qualities, it is not surprising that concrete is used more than any other man-made
material on earth.

LITERARY REVIEW

THE GREAT CONCRETE ARCHITECTS

The use of concrete as a building material, both in the engineering and artistic sense, has a long
history throughout every country of the world. Today there are architects and architect-
engineers everywhere who have adopted concrete in all its many forms as their medium. The

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work of these men has done much to emphasize the opportunities concrete provides for
creating works of true beauty a beauty that can be natural, classical or ultra-sophisticated

Pier Luigi Nervi

Probably the first name that would spring into the minds of many of us, if asked
for a great concrete architect, would be that of Pier Luigi Nervi. Here, in one man, is the genius
of an architect, the efficiency of an engineer and the ingenuity of a contractor. Nervi's work—
notably his exhibition halls and stadiums and most recently the New York bus terminal—has
probably been subjected to more critical public appraisal than that of any other designer.
Correct construction, according to Nervi, depends on three factors: first, the training of the
designer; second, the rationalization of building methods aimed at the greatest economy and
based on the intimate collaboration of contractor and designer; and third, the understanding
and sense of responsibility of the client.
One of Nervi's earliest jobs was the Florence Stadium opened in 1932. It is still noteworthy
for its twisting staircase, then without precedent in concrete shapes. From this job, and the
intricate curves of the staircase, Nervi concluded that there is a necessity to eliminate timber
formwork. Again and again in his writings and lectures he deplores the restrictions imposed by
the straight lines of timber on the free development of reinforced concrete. "Here, in effect,"
he says, "is a material which, by its monolithicity (in which it differs from every other known
material) and its wonderful plastic adaptability, has widened beyond imagination the
range of form in architecture."
For his next major job, two Italian Air Force aircraft hangars built in 1935, he had not yet
put his theories into practice. Economy of steel was at that time a prime consideration in Italy.
The reinforced concrete structure was designed by Nervi with this in view, as a geodetic frame
of intersecting curved ribs carried on a massive splayed support at each corner and acting
together as a monolithic whole. As the calculations were so complicated, an approximate
estimate was made and tested on a model—probably the first time that the method was used
on a structure of this size.
By 1939, Nervi had developed "Ferro-cement" which provided a practical way to
dispense with timber formwork. The first experiments with Ferro-cement were made in 1943
when Nervi built three small ships for the Italian Navy. Since that date Ferro-cement has played
an important part in all of his work. Ferro-cement consists of close packed layers of lightweight
mesh reinforcement and small-diameter bars, injected and coated with high quality cement-
sand mortar to form a member generally from 2 1/4 inches to 4 inches in section. This was the
material used for the units forming the roof of the Turin exhibition halls, the first of which was
finished in 1949.

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 The years 1949 to 1951 were supremely active ones for Nervi. In general these years
show a progressive trend towards his famed "light and airy" concept. The central circular roof
for the rotunda at Ostia, for example, is carried like a lotus flower, petal between petal, on a
single stem, and the independent peripheral roof is cantilevered from an exterior circle of
columns. In another project—the Gatti wool factory—Nervi used prestressed concrete which is
notable because he rarely makes use of prestressing. With his doctrine of "strength through
form," leading to curved and corrugated shapes, Nervi believed that prestressing should seldom
be necessary, but if it is, it should serve an essential purpose in achieving the desired result with
the greatest economy of means.
The 1960 Olympics provided another opportunity for Nervi's imaginative designs. Three
outstanding structures were built by him a stadium, and two sports halls. The Flaminio stadium
accommodates 50,000 people and is constructed entirely of reinforced concrete.
An unusual feature of the stadium is the external access gallery. This is cantilevered from the
rear portal columns around the entire perimeter. Attractive staircases of bent planes of
concrete lead from one level to the other and down to the ground; in addition, broad staircases
lead directly to the entrances of the various sections.
The finish of the whole structure is superb. The main portals were cast against timber
formwork made up of narrow, carefully prepared boards. The concrete was left as it came from
the forms, except for a very light sand-blasting to remove any small superficial defects.
The Palazzo Dello Sport in Rome is probably Nervi's greatest achievement to date. It consists of
a flattened dome 330 feet in diameter, carried above superimposed galleries encircled by slim
tapered peripheral columns which contain glazing. The building can accommodate 14,000
spectators in three banks of seats. The topmost bank is designed as a balcony; its top floor
cantilevers outwards, roofing the main gallery, and itself forming the upper gallery. The curved
underside is constructed of precast reverse-box-shaped Ferro-cement units, the ribs of which
give a lotus-like pattern to the gallery ceiling. The interior of the dome is a huge spreading
flower, radiating from a central point of light. The thrust of the dome is taken by fan-shaped
buttresses, three corrugations converging to form each of the fans which spring from the
topmost gallery. Restraint comes from the inner column supports to the gallery roof. An
expansion joint between the precast dome units and the fan members provides for thermal
movement in the dome units.
Of perhaps more current interest is Nervi's dramatic winged roof over the George Washington
Bridge bus terminal in New York City. The scheme comprises two large reinforced concrete
lattice beams along either edge of the building, and a longitudinal spine beam supported on a
central row of columns. Spanning diagonally between spine beam and edge beams are lattice
trusses, each a right angle triangle in elevation, so placed that their high points meet on the
edge beam. The triangular spaces thus formed between them are infilled by the roof slabs
26
alternately flat, carried on the lower flange of the trusses, and uptilted, carried on the top
flange. Each of these large triangular roof units is made up of a series of smaller triangles,
carried on a network of inter- secting beams, and topped with a continuous 4-inch-thick
concrete slab. The roof structure is a complex of triangles.
All the concrete is left as it came from the forms. Very great care was therefore taken in
the choice of mix and the choice of formwork. Form- work for the columns and trusses was
designed to give the concrete a definite board-marked pattern, using butt-jointed pine boards.
The roof covering units, on the other hand, were given a smooth surface by casting them
against the plastic-coated plywood.
The New York bus terminal represents the culmination of Nervi's many years of
experience. His enthusiasm for concrete seemed more like that of a sculptor than of the
immensely practical contractor he proved to be.

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LE CORBUSIER

CHARLES EDOUARD JEANNERT, who called himself Le Corbusier, was often during his life- time
acclaimed as the world's greatest architect. He will long be remembered as one of the most
controversial figures of the building world. Le Corbusier was an architect in the true sense of
the word. He saw and used concrete in full exploitation of its form, texture and color. He lived,
and apparently thrived, in an aura of controversy in which he angered, shocked, outraged and
offended influential groups and potential clients throughout the world.
The record shows that Corbusier actually erected only about 75 buildings, as against
some 500 for Frank Lloyd Wright. Why, then, was he a great architect? The answer is keyed to
Corbusier's advanced thinking; he was a man who kept right on developing, regardless of public
taste.
His early work mostly reflects a geometric approach to design. Only in his later years did
he begin to use concrete to create effects of almost explosive force. His first United States job,
the 112million dollar Visual Arts Center at Harvard, falls less violently into either style. It reflects
a blending of line and texture that is one of the most powerful and impressive pieces of
architecture to be seen in North America.
His early work is most noteworthy for a couple of chalets, a movie house with a bare
concrete facade and cast-in blue mosaics, and an exotic dwelling of screaming yellows, which
he called a "Turkish Villa." The chalets are remarkable in that Corbusier scornfully abandoned
the traditional Swiss peaked roof in favor of a practical, wash-basin-shaped roof of reinforced
concrete. This was linked to (and heated by) the central heating system of the house so that the
snow melted and ran off to drainage. At the time this was a very bold innovation which soon
proved to be the first of a series of departures that were to startle the architectural world.
Later Corbusier left for Paris, but not before he completed, in 1914, the design of his famous
"Domino" house. The design of this house was based on a realization of the possibilities for site-
precasting.
In 1925 an industrialist gave Corbusier a free hand to design a village for his workers
in the Bordeaux suburb of Pessac. The village is still as "modern" today as when it was built.
Corbusier's next major project didn't even get off the drawing board. He submitted a complete
plan for the League of Nations center at Geneva. Of 360 schemes, it alone received four votes
out of nine. One judge rejected the plan because "it wasn't drawn in India Ink."
The turn of the decade began to show improvement with private clients, however, and
from 1930 on, his fortune began to change. His work was largely concerned with the
construction of villas for people who were receptive to new ideas. He originated his "Five Points
for a New Architecture," made possible by the availability of reinforced concrete. Briefly, these
can be stated as follows:
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1. Columns. Reinforced concrete offers the chance to raise a building above ground rather than
to sink it, dark and humid, into the ground.
2. The roof. With a house on columns, the garden can pass both beneath it and be on top of it.
Central heating has made the conventional roof obsolete; it should no longer be convex but
concave to cause water to flow towards the interior rather than the exterior. Reinforced
concrete provides the modern means for realizing a homogeneous roof; by retaining water on
it, rather than attempting to drain it away, the concrete can be kept at a regulated temperature
to avoid expansion and contraction problems. The provision of a roof garden then follows as a
matter of course.
3. Free plan. The use of columns means that the confines of a building need no longer be
limited by loadbearing walls.
4. Long windows. Windows are essential in any house. Reinforced concrete has brought about a
revolution in windows. They can now run from one edge of the facade to the other.
5. Free facade. With columns set back from the facade and floor slabs cantilevering outwards,
the facade of a building becomes free for any treatment desired.
The beginnings of this hypothesis was seen in Corbusier's first Swiss chalets; it was
subsequently reflected in all his work, large and small. Throughout the thirties, villas were built
throughout France, Switzerland, and in Stuttgart, Germany, which are still recognized as
architectural treasures. Perhaps more important was the fact that Corbusier's style was
beginning to be copied.
While villa construction gave Corbusier his first real break, he never slackened his interest
or attempts to get into the field of big building. His first big chance came from Moscow with a
contract to design the Centrosoyus Building in 1930. This called for modern offices for 3,500
employees plus a theater, lecture halls, a club and gymnasium.
In 1932 he built a dormitory at University City, Paris, to be known as the Swiss Pavilion. This
consisted of a 4-story slab block raised on a central row of abutments; the longitudinal walls
were almost entirely of glass and the end walls blank. The Swiss Pavilion became the model for
countless other buildings including the United Nations building in New York. Public reaction to
the Pavilion was still restrained, however. One Swiss newspaper even predicted that the
building would "corrupt the
youth who lived in it."
One of Corbusier's clients, the Salvation Army, proved to be progressive. The project
was a city refuge in Paris and consisted of a reinforced concrete column-and-slab frame with
terra cotta infilling. It was founded on reinforced concrete piles driven to a depth of 45 feet
because of the unstable subgrade which was infiltrated by the waters of the Seine. Corbusier
was given a free hand to exploit his air-conditioning ideas, and this became the first building for

31
human habitation to be completely hermetically sealed. It contains some 10,000 square feet of
glazing devoid of opening sash. The cost was extremely low.
By about 1933, Corbusier had become extremely popular, and ideas that had been locked away
for years began to tumble from his mind on to paper. In 1936 Corbusier flew to Brazil to lead a
team in the design of the Ministry of Education building in Rio de Janeiro. The building, of
column and slab construction, had a glazed longitudinal wall built as a honeycomb of sun-
breaking concrete vanes. This single example set the pattern for all the major cities of South
America, and particularly for Brasilia, to create their present excellent reputation for clean,
high, and colorful business centers.
The war years put a stop to European architectural adventures. In 1959, however, he
built a Museum of Western Art in Tokyo. Set on columns, this building is remarkable for the use
of attractive exposed aggregate cladding panels.
After World War II, Corbusier's name cropped up next in connection with the design
for the United Nations building in New York in 1947. Corbusier alone completed the overall
design for the project, but since this had been entrusted to an international panel of architects,
his design was naturally not entirely acceptable to all. The result was a somewhat compromised
version of the original plan and, true to the artistic temperament, Corbusier was miffed.
The situation changed, however, in 1952 when he was commissioned to design a Unite
d'Habitation for the city of Marseilles, a project which again brought him into the controversial
limelight. For the first time, Corbusier was given complete freedom of expression to plan
middle-income housing. The project has since become world famous as the basic example of
how suck dwellings can be built. From the contractor's viewpoint it is noteworthy as the first
major example of the use of board-marked finishes. While busy with the Marseilles project, he
had already begun work on the Chapel of Rouchamp, on one of the foothills of the Vosges
mountains. The chapel was completed in 1954 and is already a renowned mecca for both
religious and architectural pilgrimages. For its construction, Corbusier returned to his early
experiments with guniting. Even the doors are unconventional; one is of enameled sheet steel,
the other of precast concrete with a bronze handle. One of the chapels is painted on the
interior in an intense red, the other in violet.
By 1955, however, Corbusier was beginning to look for entirely new fields to conquer
and he turned his attention eastward. First project was a commission from the Government of
Iraq to design a stadium and sports center for Baghdad. This is designed to be an all concrete
eye-opener with a roofed stadium for 22,000 spectators, gymnasium, tennis courts, and above-
ground swimming pools that include wave formers and rock diving areas. A subsequent move
was into Ahmedabad, India, where Corbusier designed and built two villas and a 3-story office
block with pedestrian and traffic ramps. Returning to France, Corbusier was promptly given

32
another major commission the monastery of La Tourette, near Lyon, world famous since its
completion in 1960.
In the meantime, public attention had been seized by the Ahmedabad structures,
which received world-wide acclaim. Despite the fact that these buildings were expressed in
exposed concrete in the strongest vein of Corbusier's characteristic style, they were largely
instrumental in getting Corbusier his biggest commission.
This was the chance to design from scratch, on a virgin site, a new capital for the
Punjab to replace Lahore which had been handed over to Pakistan. The new capital of
Chandigarh has been under construction for several years. In its first stage it will provide
accommodation for 150,000 inhabitants; in the second stage this will be increased to 500,000
inhabitants. Corbusier, on the basis of his past experience and frustrated city-planning designs,
was all set to go after a week on the site. Final plans include an administrative center,
commercial buildings, a university, hospitals, theaters and every other conceivable modern
cultural facility which promises to make Chandigarh the world's concrete showplace.
Architects throughout the world are unanimous in their praise of the new Indian capital, and
perhaps more important, the Indians that live there are equally enthusiastic. The project as a
whole has been compared to perfectly balanced sculpture, in the relationship between the
spacing of the buildings and the mountain background.
Under pressure from other architects, Corbusier was persuaded to leave his
philosophy of architecture to posterity at Chandigarh. It is now planned to include a 400- yard-
long esplanade between the Palace of Justice and the Assembly Palace, which will include
various concrete figures to symbolize the art of city design as Corbusier saw it.
So ended one of the stormiest careers in history. Corbusier designed in concrete what
he thought to be right and refused to compromise with the wishes of either his clients, his
contemporaries or any official group. One thing is certain he proved to be the greatest single
setter of examples the building world has ever seen.

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TADAO ANDO
Tadao Ando is seen as the one among contemporary Japanese architects who more than any
other, has led Japanese tradition and new architecture into a symbiosis. Nature becomes an
important element in the conception of space. The contrast of light and dark and the precise
separation of the indoor and outdoor worlds are just as much part of the language of his
architecture as a complex route to and circulation with in a building. This way fundamental
elements of the Japanese tradition of Rikyu are transformed.
The outside symbol of this transformation is the pattern of the concrete formwork that
is inspired by the 180cm*90cm tatami mats. These mats are each divided by a group of 6 tie
bar holes. Around this group are small nail holes for fastening the panels-8on the short side,16
on the long side. These special details were developed from the traditional Japanese aesthetic,
its expression in concrete and the associated implicit architectural language.
It can be seen particularly in Japanese timber construction. Traditional Japanese
timber buildings are actually pieces of furniture, built with a precision unimaginable in the
European context. The tatami mat rooms and sliding doors, verandas and wall cupboards
constitute a discreet compendium, which is there only to serve. All surfaces are clear, pure and
complete. How and what holds the construction together is completely invisible and reduced to
the minimum. The typical tatami size forms the modular basis of all Ando's buildings even
though the panel size is difficult to use as a module for room heights, door and window
openings. Moreover, the six tie holes in the boards are not necessary on engineering grounds.
The question of the sense of the grid pattern, which has such a profound effect on the surface
structure, must be raised.
Ando frees himself from this dilemma by his unconstrained manipulation of the
dimensions that relate to board size and the arrangement of tie bar holes. The arrangement is
developed from formal and artistic points of view. terms such as grid, structure, axes lose their
sense and meaning. This grid must be thought of as a "pattern". In the European context the
word pattern is associated with wallpaper, decoration and surface. The German word for
surface ,"Oberflache", can also hint at something superficial, rather doubtful, something not
high quality, polished or varnished as it appears.
The formwork panels are sawn and fitted together exactly. The panels are butted
together so that they are tight but will allow a small quantity of water to pass through; enough
to mark and wash out into the joint, to highlight it and give it color. The rounding of the tie bar
holes is exactly conical and precisely sealed with concrete dowels, which are consistently
positioned and carefully arranged. The marks of the fastening screws are evenly arranged
around the panels, nothing disturbs the quiet rhythm of this small but important component.
The type of nail or screw head is important in deciding how deeply it should penetrate the
surface of the wood. Nothing is left to accident. Things that for us would be considered
36
extremely trivial become important, just like the green algae sheet wrappings of sushi. The
giving of gifts is of considerable importance in Japanese culture. The importance is not so much
the content of the gift but rather the care in wrapping and the ritual of handing it over. This
explains the importance of the packaging, outward appearance and surface.
According to the French philosopher Roland Barthes:" This precision has nothing to do
with rationality or morality: the thing is not in a puritanical sense clear(similar to the vision
which hashish produces, according to Baudelaire) or based on an incision that removes the
garland of sense from an object and denies any excuse for its presence or its place in the world.
This context is invisible however the Japanese thing is not included or coloured.it has no
powerfully defined outlines, no shapes that can be filled put by colors, shadowing or an artist's
brush strokes. Around it is nothing, an empty room with a featureless effect (and therefore
reduced in our eyes, minimized, small).") The texture of Japanese houses is based on treating
surfaces as equally as possible. If you turn a picture of a Japanese room upside down, you see
nothing more, nothing different, nothing. That could be one of those secrets why concrete is so
pleasant a material in Ando's work. As is the rule here, top and bottom are interchangeable. In
combination with the spatial continuum, concrete achieves the quality of surface of such a
phenomenological uniqueness that leads the visitor to stroke the walls. Form is emptiness,
according to an old Buddhist saying. How else could one explain that in the wonderful
Markgrafler county side between orchards and hillside vineyards the center of this building is a
sunken court which focuses the intrinsic features of this place on the sky and a few cherry tree
crowns.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION:

The building is a monolithic reinforced concrete structure. The external walls are
double-skinned with a core of insulation. The wall surfaces are generally exposed concrete with
the modular grid of tatami mats. The impression of the 180cm*90cm formwork panels(the
same size as the tatami mats) with 6 tie bar holes and 8 or 16 precisely positioned nail heads
form the basis of the overall architecture concept. The "pattern size" of the formwork panels
does not always correspond with the room dimensions. This gives rise to differing end
distances. Which are filled with various sizes of panels. The arrangement of the tie bar holes
and nails have to be determined for the customized panels.
This principle also applies to the division of formwork panels in the ceiling. Atleast one ceiling
joint direction is always taken from those in the walls.
Each wall has to be fully and carefully designed and every detail needs to be considered. As the
structural concrete all forms the finished surface, all the necessary installed elements such as
light fixtures, electrical outlets and switches are installed in such a way that they are flush with
the wall surface. The same requirements apply to the connections with floor coverings, door
37
frames and the transitions between the windows and walls ,and windows and floors. All joints
in the concrete e.g. ceiling and wall joints, are clearly highlighted. The building with the high
quality of its exposed concrete is therefore defined by the structure of the casting segments
and the close arrangement of the expansion joints. The construction and connection joints are
carefully positioned to be in accord with the room heights and plan sizes. The double skinned
design of the external walls is not apparent anywhere as the insulation is covered in the areas
of windows. The external walls and parapets at their tops have a slight inward fall and are left
uncovered.
Construction of the wall, ceiling and the roof. The load bearing internal skin with its
inside face of exposed concrete was cast in a two-sided form as 17.5cm thick wall. The ceiling
slab is supported on the internal wall. The 5cm thick PU foam insulation core was attached to
the external face of the internal wall. The external skin was cast using a single sided form. The
roof parapet is cast on top of the external skin. The cover to reinforcement is 3.5cm for external
faces and 2.5cm for internal faces.
BUILDING PHYSICS:
The insulation core runs around all sides of the building and is connected to the roof insulation
at ceiling level. This arrangement provides the building with efficient and even heat insulation.
CONCRETE QUALITY<FORMWORK TYPE ANDFACING MATERIAL:
The formwork panels consist of 21mm thick plastic coated laminated boards. The requirements
for flush aligned formwork panel joints were fulfilled by a combination of visible nailing at the
edges and concealed fastenings. Self-screwing nails with hardened points and full alloy coating
were used deep recessed cones were used for the tie bar holes. The number of tie bars
required on structural grounds was much less than that specific in the formwork pattern.
Therefore a combination of structurally necessary real tie bar holes and blind holes was used to
achieve the specified pattern.
The use of triangular strips was generally not permitted. Sharp edged corners had to
be sealed at the points to prevent cement paste from leaking. A high level of craftsmen was
essential for fitting together the formwork. A special solution had to be found at almost every
corner .This included miring the panel joints at internal corners to prevent the edges of the
ends of the panels from leaving a mark. A trapezoidal strip was attached at the horizontal edge
of a pour in the area of the ceiling slab. This strip was taken out after the next section was
concreted. The high quality of the wall surfaces required three classes of formwork:
Class A-single use of the formwork panel for internal walls.
Class B-maximum 2 uses for external wall.
Class C-maximum 3 uses for walls in secondary rooms.

38
Louis Kahn
Kahn decided to make his main building of concrete, a material that would have to be imported
and with which the local workers had limited experience. It was risky decision, not least because the
damp climate tended to coat exposed concrete will mold over time. The architect had seen enough
concrete buildings in Dhaka to know this well, but he was apparently determined to make a
monumental statement with his central building, and he felt that brick, even if treated in the "stone like"
fashion he was then using in Ahmedabad, was not up to the task. “I knew concrete would be a complete
failure, “Kahn said rather dismissively in an interview published in the Penn architectural journal. “But
still my love for concrete couldn't be denied, so I tried to make these people make apurse, let's say, out
of a sow's ear."
Kahn assigned Gus Langford, the brother of the construction engineer who had overseen the
Salk project, to train a workforce that eventually numbered some 2000 laborers. Using bamboo
scaffolding lashed together with lengths of crude Jude rope, they formed human chains that operated
continuously throughout the construction. The scaffolding, which eventually enveloped the structure,
was so flexible that one kick would send a ripple around the entire building. As Kahn described the scene
when walls began to rise:"...they have no machines. They just have a swarm of bees, people, and you
don't see what the work has been during the day until you leave!"
The conditions were primitive. The workers carried the concrete in metal pans balanced
precariously on their heads, and the maximum amount they could pour on a given day raised the walls
only about five feet. The joints between one pour and the next were all too evident so Kahn nimbly
chose to celebrate the imperfections by marking the gaps with thin strips of marble. The technique had
the added advantage of camouflaging the slight variations in color from one pour to the next caused by
differing sources of concrete.(The material came from Korea, China, Poland, and the Philippines.)So
pleased was Kahn with the effect that he extended the marble strips vertically, creating a frankly
decorative grid that also served to break up what would otherwise have been an overwhelming mass.

39
 Conclusion

Since its discovery, concrete has brought a major shift in the ideas that govern the

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books
Exposed Concrete- Technology and Design, Birkhäuser, 2005
Victoria Ballar Bell, Materials for Architectural Design, Laurence King Publishing 2006
The Great Concert Architects, 1968 The Aberdeen group.

Websites
http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blconcrete.htm
http://www.auburn.edu/academic/architecture/bsc/classes/bsc314/timeline/timeline.htm
http://architectureinsights.com.au/media/uploads/resources/Clancy_Mears_Report.pdf
http://www.cement.org/masonry/block.asp
http://www.lampus.com/application/assets/images/products/concrete-block/masonry-units/
Gray-Block_nc.jpg
http://ecofriend.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/clip-image0012_E1Zoj_1333.jpg
http://archtoolbox.com/materials-systems/concrete/49-concretecomposition.html
http://www.cement.org/basics/concretebasics_concretebasics.asp
http://www.howconcreteworks.com/application_of_concrete.html

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