THE UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY

TRAINING WORKSHOPS
WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY

BUILDING WORKSHOP

March 2017
This manuscript is intended for internal use only as teaching compendium at Building
Workshop-Department of Training Workshops, College of Engineering and Technology-
University of Dar es Salaam.
 PREFACE

This teaching manuscript was prepared to harmonize the teaching

notes and contents among the instructors at the building workshops. This
teaching compendium to a larger extent and within the scope of building
workshops syllabus is design to encourage students to self-study and
participate during practical and teaching sessions. The manuscript should be
considered by both instructors and students as a guide to exploration of
more new practical knowledge and technologies in building technologies.

Prepared by:

Dr. Gregory P. Makusa

Mr. Jabiri Said
Ms. Stella Kyabulla

March 2017

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ii
CONTENTS

PREFACE..............................................................................................I

1 READING AND INTERPRETING DRAWINGS......................................1

1.1 Introduction to Buildings..........................................................1

1.2 Classifcation of buildings.........................................................1

1.3 The building team....................................................................2

2 BUILDING DRAWINGS......................................................................5

2.1 Working drawings.....................................................................5

2.2 Scale drawings.........................................................................6

3 TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS.............................................................9

3.1 Basic instruments.....................................................................9

4 SITE WORKS..................................................................................21

4.1 Choice of site..........................................................................21

4.2 Ground investigation..............................................................23

4.3 Setting out.............................................................................24

5 FOUNDATIONS..............................................................................31

5.1 Introduction............................................................................31

5.2 Choice of the foundations......................................................32

5.3 Types of Foundations.............................................................33

6 WALLS AND BONDING...................................................................41

6.1 Walls.......................................................................................41

6.2 Bonding..................................................................................49

7 BRIDGING OF OPENINGS...............................................................56

7.1 Bricks/Blocks..........................................................................56

7.2 Timber....................................................................................58

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 7.3 Steel.......................................................................................58

7.4 Concrete.................................................................................60

8 FORMWORKS.................................................................................82

8.1 Materials................................................................................83

8.2 Examples of Formwork...........................................................85

9 ROOFS...........................................................................................93

9.1 Characteristics of good roof...................................................93

9.2 Types of roof..........................................................................95

9.3 Roofng materials.................................................................102

10 REFERENCES.............................................................................105

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 1 READING AND INTERPRETING DRAWINGS

1.1 Introduction to Buildings

A building is a permanent or temporary structure enclosed within

walls and a roof, and including all attached apparatus, equipment, and
fxtures designed to meet human needs of sheltering. Consequently,
building as a shelter is intended to protect humans and its properties
against natural hazards or harsh environments such as rain, wind, noise,
fre, heat moisture, dampness etc., and provide comfort to the dwellers.
Thus, a shelter maybe defned as any form of shed, cabin, or hut which is
used to provide comforts to the occupants. To make up, we classifed
building based on its primary use.

Figure 1-1. Building as a shelter

1.2 Classification of buildings

Building are either purposely built for a particular use or are

speculative. Infuencing all aspects of internal and external form of a
building there will be constraints arising from time and cost, town

1
planning, and building regulations; however, of primary importance, is the
building use and the associated schedule of basic accommodation
including the number and nature of the intended occupants. Thus, we
classify buildings based on their use or purposes as outlined in the
following examples:

 Residential buildings: These are either apartments in which more

than half of the foor is used for dwelling purposes or a single or
duplex-family homes of houses or villas.
 Industrial buildings: These are buildings designed and
constructed to serve a specifc industry.
 Commercial buildings: These are building designed and
constructed for commercial use. Examples are ofce building,
warehouse, shopping malls, etc.
 Agricultural buildings: These are structures designed for farming
and agricultural practices such as growing and harvesting crops,
raising livestock and small animals. Examples are barns and
greenhouses.

For simple building, the design of the total building, including its
internal and external environment, has traditionally been the
responsibility of an architect. However, for a complex building, a
multidisciplinary involvement is necessary whereby engineering,
surveying, services and other specialist skills are integrated with those of
the architect, forming the ‘building team’ to achieve consistent quality
throughout the project.

1.3 The building team

The building team is a team efort in which each member has a role
to play (Table 1 -1). The building team comprises of diferent people of
diferent professional qualifcations and background. The number of
members in the building team is determined by the type and size of

2
project. The building team in a philosophy of building design views
employees as members of mutually dependent teams of professionals
instead of as individual workers. The philosophy gives ability to identify
and motivate a team that works together and achieves together. A typical
building team is shown in Figure 1 -2.

Figure 1-2. The building team

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 Table 1-1. Professional names and qualifiations as used in the
building team

4
 2 BUILDING DRAWINGS

Building drawings or sketches are used to explain or convey building

details in easy way than words descriptions. Drawing therefore, forms an
efective means of communications. Thus, drawings constitute an
essential working basis for any building project. Consequently, a building
drawing is expected to presents a complete graphic description of:

 the structure to be erected,

 the construction site,
 the materials to be used, and
 the construction method to be followed.

Working drawings plus specifcations are the sources of information

for supervisors responsible for the constructional works.

2.1 Working drawings

The working drawings form one of the most efective ways of

conveying the designer’s requirements to the contractor, to assist him/her
in carrying out the work on the site. Thus, the working drawings comprises
of all the necessary information to make the building constructed. A set of
working drawings general consist of the following components:

 Plans (i.e. block plan or site layout plan),

 Elevations, and
 Sections.

These drawings are normally drawn to scale by orthographic

projection, where they are all in planes. Each of which serves diferent
purposes of functions as described in Table 2 -2.

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 Table 2-2. Description and purpose of components of working
drawings*

Drawin Desiription and Purpose

g

Plan  A view from above of an object drawn on a

horizontal plane.
o Drawn of each fow at about 1m above foor
level.
o Drawn looking down at the foor and cutting
through walls, doors, and windows.
 It gives horizontal dimensions of the building to
facilitate setting out and partitioning.

Sectio  A vertical view across a building cutting through

ns the:
o foundations,
o walls,
o foor,
o roofs,
o windows, and
o doors.
 It reveals vertical dimensions of the building
showing sizes of structural and non-structural
members and type of material and properties.

Elevati  Represent an external face of the building

ons including windows and doors, and roof coverings in
diferent viewpoint of:
o Front elevation
o Rear elevation
o Sides elevation
 They give building perspective in diferent
directions as desired by an architect and approved
by client.

2.2 Scale drawings

Scale drawings enable building details to be drawn in direct

proportion to the work to be undertaken on site and in convenient form for
extraction of relevant information. Thus, the choice of drawing scale is

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often infuenced by the need to communicate information accurately and
adequately to secure maximum output, the nature of the subject and the
desirability of producing all drawings for a particular project of uniform
size is shown in Table 2 -3. A scale of 1:100 is very popular for plans,
sections and elevations of new buildings. For instance, 1:100 means that
one unit on the drawing represents one hundred units on the site.

Table 2-3. Common types of drawings, functions and recommended

scales

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 3 TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS

Construction tools and equipment varies in size and usage. The

tools and equipment are constantly being developed to meet construction
industry needs for easy, quicker, cheap and safe construction, and data
acquisition. Generally, regardless of the size and type of building project,
the basic tools and instruments applies.

3.1 Basic instruments

The building basic site tools and instruments maybe divided into
three groups, namely:

a) Measuring Instruments: they are used to measure distances.

They include folding rulers (either steel or wooden Figure 3 -3) and
measuring tapes (either linen or steel).

Figure 3-3. Example of Metal (Left) and Wooden (Right) folding ruler

b) Leveling Instruments: they are used to run lines, layout angles

and ascertain various diferences in elevation during construction of
a building and its foundation. They include:

 Spirit level

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 Spirit level, is an instrument designed to indicate whether a surface
is horizontal (level) or vertically upright (plumb). Spirit level are available
in various lengths ranging between 225mm to 1.2m. The shorter lengths
spirit levels are used for adjusting small works or individual bricks. The
longer levels are used for plumbing the work vertically and leveling the
courses horizontally.

Figure 3-4. Example of Linen (Left) and Metal (Right) tape measure

Figure 3-5. Spirit level

Before utilizing the spirit level it is important to check for accuracy.

The following simple steps can help in checking the accuracy of spirit
level:

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 Checking for the accuracy of spirit level:

A properly working spirit level shall respond positive to the following

checks.

• Place the spirit level on a fat or nearly fat surface.

– Observe that the horizontal bubble's position is at the center.

• Turn your spirit level around, through 180 degrees.

– Observe that the horizontal bubble should be in the same

position.

• Put one end of spirit level at elevated height.

– Observe that the horizontal bubble should move in the

direction of elevation.

Don’t use the spirit level if the spirit level response is negative to
the checks above.

 Hose pipe (transparent for leveling).

A hose pipe is a device used for matching elevations of points that

are too far apart for a spirit level to span. It works under the principle that
water always fnd its own level. Water levels are used to measure an
exact level height across a surface, such as a wall or a board. To use the
hose pipe:

• First fll the long fexible tube with a water.

• Hold or clamp one end of the tube at the starting elevation and
the other end at the point where you like to transfer that
elevation.

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 • The liquid at both ends will be at the same level irrespective of
their distances apart.

Appliiations and limitations of hose pipes

• Simple construction and easy to set up.

• It is just as accurate and even more adaptable.
• Can level around corners or over obstacles without afecting the
accuracy.
• Requires no kinks or fat spots in the tubing, and no air bubbles.
Bubbles in the fuid ruin a level's accuracy. To get rid of them,
simply refll the tube. Kinks are bad, too, so don't step on the
hose.

Figure 3-6. Priniiple of hose pipe

 Plumb bob

A plumb bob is a simple tool that employs law of gravity to establish

verticality. Two functions of plumb bob are:

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 Figure 3-7. Vertiial alignment using Plumb bob

• To get vertical alignment for a wall, door jamb etc.

• To transfer measurement e.g. to get the foor coordinates from
the ceiling points, or to mark center points on mason string etc.

Figure 3-8 Vertiial alignment of wall using Plumb bob

 Dumpy level, transit level, automatic level or total

station:

These are precision instrument incorporating a telescope, leveling

devices, horizontal and vertical cross hair and vertical angles. The dumpy

13
level turns only in a horizontal circles while the transit level can turn in a
vertical as well as horizontal circles.

3.1.1 How dumpy level works

Procedures:

 Establish the temporary bench mark (TBM) at an arbitrary height.

 Set a tripod stand in the center of the site area, or somewhere that
one can see all of the site as well as the TBM. The tripod stand
should be at a similar height or higher than TBM.
 Level the instrument.
 Take the frst reading on the TBM (back-sight) to calculate the
height of the instrument/level (HI) from which all other levels are
calculated.
 Calculate the instrument height i.e. height of level.
 Take the foresight reading at the top and bottom of the slope.
 Calculate the reduced level or diferent in height.
 Measure the horizontal distance between the top and bottom of the
slope.

Rationalize horizontal distance (H) by vertical height (V) i.e. H/V to

ascertain inclination of the site.

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3.1.2 Parts of Dumpy level

Figure 3-9. Dumpy level

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 c) Instruments and methods for setting out right angle: these
include
 Optical square
 3:4:5 method
 Builders’ square

3.1.3 Optical Square and How the Optical square works

An optical square is a compact hand instrument used in setting out

right angles with greater accuracy than any other instruments and
methods for setting out right angle. It consists of a circular box in which
two prisms are ftted at right angles to the plane of instruments. There are
four openings on the sides of the box: the pin hole for eye, a small
rectangular slot placed opposite to pin hole and two slots placed top right
and bottom left.

Figure 3-10. Optiial Squares

There are two main operations of optical square including:

• Ranging long straight lines on the ground.

• Setting out a line at right angles to another line.

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 The instrument is usually installed on a tripod stand and three
ranging poles are needed when setting out a right angle.

• First, place the instrument vertically above peg C on the base line
AB from which a right angle has to be set out.
• Rotate the instrument slowly until pole A is seen through the
bottom slot.
• An assistant should hold pole B in such a way that it can be seen
when looking through the top right slot of the prism.
• At the indication of the operator, pole B is slightly moved so that it
forms one line with the image of pole A. The base line AB is a
straight line.
• The assistant holding pole D will search the right position under
the guidance of the operator at C.
• The line connecting pole C and D is a line perpendicular to the
base line AB.

Figure 3-11. Use of optiial square to set right (90 degree) angle

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3.1.4 3:4:5 method principals

The method is based on Pythagoras theorem, which states that if a

triangle has sides measuring 3, 4 and 5 units; it must be a right triangle
with a 90º angle between the short sides. By using this method, builders
are able to set out right angles using just a rope or tape measure.

Figure 3-12. 3:4:5 method of making right angle

3.1.5 Builders’ square

Builder’s square is a right angled triangular timber or steel frame

with sides varying in length from 1.5 m to 3.0 m. The square is placed
against the building line and two pegs are driven. By sighting across two
pegs, a third peg can be driven in the same straight line, and a
bricklayer’s line stretched between them.

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Figure 3-13. Setting right Angle by using builder square

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 4 SITE WORKS

4.1 Choice of site

Buildings (depending on usage as discussed in chapter 1) can vary

from residential to industrial. Depending on the building type, there are
several factors such as aesthetic, size and economic to take into account
when considering the construction of the building; however, of the
foremost important, is the choice of a site. Thus, during planning, the
Architect can either

 Make a choice of suitable site to suit client requirements or

 Plan the building structure to suit the available site.

The choice of suitable site to suit client design requirement has

been difcult and nowadays it has become even more limiting due to
scarcity of land and increasing urban population. Thus, the later
alternative applies in many cases. Thus, the Architect has to plan the
building to suit the available site. In order to achieve this objectives, the
basic site factors to consider include:

 Purpose of the building in relation to neighborhood: Site

location and characteristics will determine or may dictate type if the
building to be founded. Thus, the site should be selected taking into
account the general scope or purpose of the building and on basis of
extent or privacy.

For instance, Site for residential purpose will generally consider

places which are fully developed or is fast developing. It can be benefcial
to consider neighborhood living conditions. To secure happy living
condition, building in the neighborhood of equal status can assure a new
resident social and friendly society.

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 On the other hand, the site for industrial purposes will consider
availability of raw materials, labor, power and fuel, transportation and
communications, markets, the government politics and policy, among
others.

 Facilities: The site should be in locality where the appropriate

facilities and services are readily available or there is a potential
plan to bring the facilities.

For instance, a site for residential building should consider

availability of:

o Community services such as police, fre protection, waste

management etc.
o Utility services such as water supply, gas, electricity and
drainages.
o Amenities such as school, hospitals, library, recreational
areas, worshiping centers etc.
o Shopping centers, and
o Reliable public transport etc.
 Ground Condition: To provide economical foundations, the ground
soil should be of sufcient bearing capacity at relative shallow
depth. For most common residential and low storey building, the
subsoil should have rock, gravel, or sand, at a depth of 50 cm (i.e.
0.5 m). However, due to limitation of sites, ground improvement
may become necessary to obtain the required subsoil
characteristics.
 Ground water table to foundation design. Building should be
erected well above the highest ground-water level.
 Government Laws: Reserved government area or public reserved
area should be avoided. However, a site which comes within the
limits of an area where the by-laws of the local authority enforce
restrictions regarding proportions of plots to be built up, vacant of

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 spaces to be left in front and sides, heights of the buildings, etc.
should be preferred than squatter.
 Size of the site: Keeping in view of local authority restrictions and
meeting the client requirement the shape and size of selected plot
should allow for future extensions. In other words, the plot should be
big enough to accommodate today and future demand.
 Terrain Condition: Aspect of site in order to determine orientation
of elevation. Being drier and easier to drain, elevated sites are
generally preferable to low-laying ones. Elevated site ensure also
natural light and air.

 Environmental Condition: the building site should be available in

the locality where the natural and manmade features create healthy
living and or working conditions.

4.2 Ground investigation

The knowledge about the site forms a vital role in building

economical and safe building. It is advisable to obtain some idea of what
maybe encountered below the ground. Thus, a thorough investigation of
the site is an essential preliminary to construction of the building. The
science of soil mechanics is now well developed; and site investigation
should clearly be the frst priority when dealing with heavy industrial
structures, tall building, deep basements, power stations, and the like. It is
important to note that without adequate ground investigation, clients are
always exposed to the risk of iostly delay, redesign and late projeit
delivery arising out of unforeseen ground conditions. “You pay for site
investigation whether you have one or not (Littlejohn 1994)”. The
followings are the objectives for site investigation: to

 access a general suitability of the site for proposed building.

 understand the nature of stratum and engineering properties of the
soil and rock as they may afect the design and mode of
construction of a proposed building.

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  achieve a safe and economical design of a foundation and
temporary works.
 foresee and provide against difculties that may arise during
construction due to ground and other local conditions.
 investigate the occurrence of all natural and manmade changes in
conditions and the result arising from those changes.
 ensure the safety of surrounding existing struitures.
 design for the failed struitures or remedial measures for the
struitures deemed to be unsafe.
 locate the ground water table and possible corrosive efect of soil
and water on foundation material.

4.2.1 How to do it

For simple residential buildings, the following are generally sufcient

to determine the soil conditions.

 Excavate several trial holes to about 2 meters deep with hand

auger and evaluate the subsoil conditions.
 Driving a pointed steel bar about 1.5 meters into the ground and
assess the resistance to penetrations.

For large buildings or more difcult sites, other elaborative methods

are applicable, e.g. excavating trial holes about 1.5 metres deep outside
the perimeter of the building, drilling boreholes for laboratory testing, or
in-situ load testing of the building site.

4.3 Setting out

Setting out is the act of transferring and marking of a building

plan on a ground. The main objective of setting out is to level the site,
clearly defne the outline of the excavation and the center line of the
walls, so that to defne the footprint of a building.

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4.3.1 Establishing levels on site

It is necessary to set out the building(s) and to establish a point of

known level on the site before building operations can start. The known
level is used to determine foor level and invert levels. The basis for
levelling operation will be the nearest ordnance bench mark (OBM). The
OBM value should be obtained from the latest edition of the appropriate
ordnance survey map.

Levels are transferred from the OBM to the building site using

 Dumpy
 Tilting
 Automatic level and levelling staf.

All normal precautions should be taken, such as ensuring that the

levelling staf is fully extended and is held truly vertical in both directions
when taking levels. The instrument must be accurately set up and the
levels properly recorded on either the collimation or rise and fall method.

4.3.2 Setting out procedures

Step 1: Establish a building line

A building line is an imaginary line determined by highway

authority to demarcate the outer face of the front wall of a building.

• It is a prescribed distance measured from the roadway or public

footpath.
• The area between the building line and the roadway boundary
must not be encroached.
• Alternatively, the building line could be set out with reference to
existing buildings.

Step 2: Position the front of the building on the building line

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 This is done by checking the dimensions between the new
building and the side boundary. The front line of the building encloses
the building footprint.

Step 3: Peg out corners of the building

• The frst peg A, is chosen at a corner where two mutually

perpendicular building lines meet.
• The remaining corners B, C and D are set with reference from
Peg A by using either builder’s square, optical square or 3-4-5
method.

Step 4: Check for the square of the corners

• Measure the dimension of the diagonals. The diagonals must be

equal.

Step 5: Erect and level profiles

A profle consists of pegs (stacks) driven into the ground and

boards (battens) nailed across them.

• Erect profles at each corner to secure permanent line markers.

• Profles are established to provide level and line control.
• They are positioned at a convenient distance from the pegs, to
allow for manual excavation work.
• To level profles, choose a profle close to the ground at the
highest point of the set out (preferably, a datum level). A datum
level is the basic level from which all the measurements of the
building on site is taken.
• Use any of the leveling instrument to transfer a height
measurement from this profle to all other profles to maintain a
constant height (level).

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Step 6: Transfer measurement to the profiles

• Position string lines between profle boards.

Figure 4-14. Establishing profle and transferring measurement to profle

Figure 4-15. Typiial Profle board

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Step 7: Re - check measurement and diagonal

Step 8: Mark widths of excavation, foundation and walls using nails or

saw-cut at appropriate positions

4.3.3 Foundation trenches

1. Foundation trenches level pegs can be established individually with

either a
 Dumpy level
 Tilting level or
 Automatic level from a temporary bench mark on the site.
2. Another approach is to set up sight rails at the ends of each trench
and fx intermediate levels by means of boning rods.
3. Another method is to use a straight-edge about 2.5 to 3.0 m long
and not less than 25 x 150 mm in section, and a spirit level.
a. Peg A is driven in to the correct level and another peg B is
driven in almost the length of the straight-edge way.
b. The straight-edge is placed across the two pegs with the spirit
level on it and peg B is lowered until the correct level is
achieved.
c. Check on the accuracy of the spirit level and straight-edge.
d. Peg C is driven in and the levelling process is repeated.

A quicker method is to use water level or hose pipe:

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 EXERCISE I: SETTING OUT

 Obtain the site plan

 Visit the site
 Clear the site and level it
 Establish the building lines
 Fix the front line of the building
 Measure the dimensions and diagonals
 Erect profle and level them
 Transfer the measurement to the profles
 Re-check the measurement and diagonals
 Mark the width of the walls and foundations by using nails or saw-cut.

 Site clearance involve:

- demolishing existing building,

- grubbing out bushes and trees,
- Removal of vegetative soil,
- leveling to remove anthills, minor slopes etc.

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 5 FOUNDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

A foundation is the base on which a building rests. Through this

base (which is in contact with the ground) the loads are transmitted to the
soil or rock. To perform satisfactory, the foundation should transfer loads
to the soil or rock which have:

- sufcient bearing capacity and

- acceptable settlement characteristics.

Thus, the primary purpose for the foundations design is to safely receive
and transfer the design load of a structure to a suitable subsoil, evenly
and without excessive settlement among other functions. To achieve the
primary goals, the foundations must thus, be able to:

 spread loads over a sufciently large area in order to reduce load

intensity.
 distribute the non-uniform loads of the super structure evenly to
the subsoil to avoid undue settlement.
 provide leveled and hard surface over which the superstructure
can be built.
 increase lateral stability of the building due to horizontal forces.
 provide the structural safety against undermining or scouring
due to burrowing animals, nearby excavations and food water.
 bridge weak point in the grounds.

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5.2 Choice of the foundations

The choice and design of the foundations for domestic and small
types of building depends mainly on the total load of the building and the
bearing capacity of the soil.

5.2.1 Total loads of the building

The type and magnitude of loads depend on the form and type of
the building to be constructed.

- In case of low rise buildings with large span, shallow foundation is

preferred.
- For high-rise building with short span and high design loads, deep
foundation should be considered.
- In case of concentrated loads, the use of pads and piles are
common.
- In case loads of the buildings are uniformly distributed, rafts or strip
foundations are preferred.

5.2.2 The nature and bearing capacity of the soil

The type and bearing capacity of soils is normally obtained from

planned soil investigation. Soils can be of diferent type such as clayey
soil, sandy soil, gravel soil, etc. For instance, the settlement in sandy soil
is immediate and may occur even before the building construction
completed. On the other hand, settlement in clays is large and very slow.
Clay soil is the most difcult subsoil to deal with as it is subjected to
seasonal movement.

5.2.3 Terminologies

- Bearing capacity: The maximum pressure (load per unit area)

which the soil can bear. Alternatively, the bearing capacity is the load
carrying capacity of the soil. Derivative of it includes

32
 o Ultimate or Gross Bearing Capacity: It is the lowest total
pressure which will cause shear failure of the supporting soil
immediately below the footing.
o Net Bearing capacity:
- Bearing pressure: The pressure produced on the ground by
building weight or loads from the building.
- Settlement: Ground movement which may be caused by:
o Deformation of the soil due to imposed loads.
o Volume changes of the soil as a result of seasonal conditions.
o Mass movement of the ground in unstable areas.
- Backfill: Materials excavated from site and if suitable used to fll in
around the walls and foundations.
- Made ground: Refuse, excavated soil deposited to fll in a
depression or to raise the site above the natural level.

5.3 Types of Foundations

Foundations can basically be categories into two based on the depth

of load transmission as shown in Figure 5 -16.

Figure 5-16. Classifiation of foundations

33
5.3.1 Shallow foundations

Shallow foundations refers to the type of foundations which transfer

loads relatively near the ground surface such as strip, pads and rafts.

Figure 5-17. Examples of shallow foundations

Figure 5-18. Strip Foundations. Left: Deep, Right: Stepped

34
5.3.1.1 Strip foundations

Strips foundations are generally designed and build to tie the

building together. It has the following characteristics:

o Provides a continuous ground bearing under the load bearing

walls.
o Suitable for light weight buildings (up to four storeys) where
soil bearing capacity is good.
o The width and depth of the foundation will depend on the
nature of ground and building loads.
o Where the load bearing capacity of the ground is low, wide
strip foundation is recommended.
o A deep strip foundation is used to reduce the width of a
foundation in shrinkable clay soils, to counteract the efects
of seasonal volume changes.
o Stepped strip foundation is economical to use on sloping site
because it reduces amount of excavation, backfll, surplus
soil removal and trench timbering.

Figure 5-19. Typiial Example of Strip Foundations

35
 Figure 5-20. Seitions of some iommon strip foundations

5.3.1.2 Pad foundation

The pad foundations refer to an isolated foundation designed to

carry a point load from a column, post or a pier. Pad foundations can be
made out of stones, bricks, steel or reinforced concrete. These include
columns footing of a framed structures, piers of bridges etc. often square,
rectangular or circular in plan.

Figure 5-21. Examples of Isolated Pads Foundations

36
 Figure 5-22. Some typiial seitions of Isolated Pad Foundations

5.3.1.3 Raft or Mat foundations

Raft foundations cover the whole area of the building footprint and
usually extends beyond it. They consist primary of thick reinforced
concrete (R.C) slab up to 450 mm thick, which is thickened under load
bearing walls. Raft foundations are:

• Useful where column loads are heavy thus requiring large bases.
• Best suited on light weight building on soils of low bearing
capacity and structures having basement storey.
• Used when uplift is larger than spread footing can accommodate.
• Used when the use of isolated pads cease to be economical (i.e.
total area of isolated pads exceed 30% of the building footprint).

37
 Figure 5-23. Example of Reinforied Raft foundations showing iolumns

5.3.2 Deep foundations

Deep foundations transfer loads to a suitable subsoil at several

distance below the ground surface to a suitable subsoil and to give
stability against lateral movement. The most well-known deep foundation
is such as a pile.

- Pile foundations: Pile foundation is a foundation system that

transfer loads to a deeper and competent soil layer. Piles are
required where:
o Deep strip foundation is uneconomical.
o Heavy concentrated loads such as towers, bridges etc.
o Loads to be transmitted through very weak soil or
problematic soils.
o Construction in the urban areas.
o Ofshore constructions.

The choice of piles depend on soil conditions, economic

considerations, method of installations and structural requirements. In

38
many cases, piles are linked with pile cap or beams to carry load bearing
walls. Piles may be classifed in several ways depending on the
mechanisms of load transfer.

 End bearing piles

The pile shaft passes through the soft soil deposit of unsatisfactory
bearing capacity and the base or point rests on the bedrock, dense sand
or gravel where the load is transmitted. The end bearing capacity piles
may include pre-drilled piles or driven piles of concrete, timber or steel.

 Friction or shaft pile

The friction piles are used where the bedrock, dense sand or gravel
do not exist or are located at the far depth beyond an uneconomical end
bearing piles design. The pile are normally embedded in cohesive soils
and obtains its support or bearing resistance mainly by adhesion or skin
friction of the soil on the surface shaft. Friction piles are commonly of
driven piles of concrete, timber or steel.

39
Figure 5-24. Types of Pile Foundations (a) End bearing pile (b) Friition pile

40
 6 WALLS AND BONDING

6.1 Walls

A wall is a vertical continuous construction made of either masonry,

wood, steel or other building material serving to enclose, divide or protect
an area; with a length and height much greater than its thickness.
Depending on the primary functions, walls may be classifed as load
bearing walls or non-load bearing walls.

6.1.1 Function of walls

Walls are designed and build to serve some or all of the following:

i. Support upper foors and roofs: Walls must be strong enough to

resists loads imposed on them e,g superimposed loads or lateral
loads and transmit the same to the foundation below it.

ii. Resists damp penetration: Dampness can cause deterioration of the

wall, damage the fnishing and can also afect the health of the
occupants.

iii. Provide adequate thermal insulation: To prevent excessive loss of

heat from within the building or large gain of heat from outside hot
weather. The wall should be able to prevent condensation.

iv. Provide sufiient sound insulation: To provide reasonable resistance

to the transmission of airborne sound

v. Offer adequate fre resistanie: The spreads of fre over a surface

can be restricted by providing the surface materials of low rates of
surface spreads of fames.

41
vi. Provide privaiy and seiurity to users and property: External walls
should provide sufcient privacy and security against burglar

vii. Divide and enilose the spaie: The wall defnes areas and encloses
the spaces within the building.

6.1.2 Load bearing wall

Load bearing walls are designed to carry vertical loads in addition to

their own weight. These are usually exterior wall or some interior walls
and those supporting upper foors and roofs or other components in a
building. It braces from the roof to the foor. They are usually consists of
thick, heavy masonry walls of brick or stone that support the upper parts.
Thus, removing a section of load bearing wall to create a pass-through
requires adding a new beam and column to support and carry the load
from foors above.

42
 Figure 6-25. Typiial example of exterior load bearing walls

6.1.3 Non-load bearing wall

A non-load bearing wall or free standing wall which doesn’t support

other loads except its own weight. Non-load bearing wall appears where
loads are carried by other members, as in framed building. The main
purpose of a non-load bearing wall is to divide and enclose the space thus,
giving privacy.

43
 Figure 6-26. Creating a pass-through load bearing wall

Figure 6-27. Load versus Non-load bearing wall

6.1.4 Walling material

Walls can be made of burnt clay bricks, concrete blocks, either mass
or reinforced concrete, timber, wood, steel, etc. The construction material

44
should be durable, appealing and provide comfort to the dwellers or users.
In Tanzania, bricks and blocks are commonly used as building materials.
The Bricks are mostly used in small towns and villages, whereas Blocks
are commonly used in cities and big towns.

6.1.4.1 Briiks and bloiks

Bricks and blocks basically are of the same species and are
manufactured from the same material. In general, the size makes the
diference between bricks and blocks. In construction industry, the
maximum thickness (in imperial unit) of brick or block bears the size of it.
For instance, a 4” block and 6” block has the thickness of 100mm and
150mm, respectively with the length of the other sides remaining
constant.

 The usual brick size is 215 x 102.5 x 65 mm. Allowing for mortar
joint of 10mm gives an overall walling unit size of 225 x 112.5 x 75
mm
 Blocks are made to various sizes, a common size being 450 x 230 x
150 mm.

Figure 6-28. Bloiks versus Briiks

Due to their sizes and easy manufacturing, bricks are cheaper than
blocks.

45
 Types of bricks/blocks

 Solid: Shall not have holes, cavities or depressions. Suitable for

both load bearing walls and non-load bearing walls.

 Perforated: Holes not exceeding 25 per cent of the gross volume

of the brick. They are suitable for non-load bearing wall but also can
be used in light weight building as load bearing wall.

 Cellular: May have frogs or cavities exceeding 20 per cent of the

gross volume. They are suitable for non-load bearing wall.

Figure 6-29. Example of types of briiks/bloiks

6.1.4.2 Mortar

To construct a wall, bricks or blocks are bedded in and jointed with

mortar, which is a workable paste of binding agent mixed with sand and
water. The proportions of binding agent and sand determines the strength
of the mortar.

Characteristics of a good mortar

 spreads easily and remains plastic while bricks/blocks are being laid
to provide good bond between bricks/blocks and mortar and
acquires early strength.

46
  should not be stronger than necessary as excessive strong mortar
concentrates the efects of settlements in fewer and wider cracks.

Figure 6-30. Mortar and appliiation of mortar for briik lying

Types of Mortar

Mortar are named after the binding agent (s) and used for binding
building blocks of stones, bricks or blocks in walls constructions. The ratios
between the binding agent and sand various depending on usage. The
common ones are 1:3, 1:4, 1:6, etc.

i. Lime mortar
 Composed of 1 unit of lime in ‘X’ units of sand
 Develops strength slowly.
 Generally weak mortar.
 Their use is limited to temporary jobs.
ii. Cement mortar
 Composed of 1 unit of cement in ‘X’ units of sand
 Stronger than lime mortar.
 Suitable for heavy loaded brickwork or in extremely wet
situation.

iii. Cement lime mortar

47
 Also described as gauged or compo mortar.
 Composed of 1 unit of cement and 1 unit of lime in ‘X’ units of
sand.
 Deliver the best properties of both cement and lime.
 Suitable for the general purpose mortar.

Figure 6-31. Briiks/Bloiks terminologies

Figure 6-32. Walls terminologies.

48
6.2 Bonding

Bonding is a systematic ways of arranging bricks or blocks in

brick/blockworks so as to avoid straight vertical continuous joints. Walls
are bonded to give maximum strength whilst distributing the loads evenly
throughout the wall. Un-bonded walls contain continuous vertical joint
resulting into a wall having little strength and stability. To achieve
bonding requirement, bricks are cut to diferent shapes (Figure 6 -34).

Figure 6-33. Bonded versus un-bonded walls

Figure 6-34. Different briik iuts for ensuring bonding of walls

49
6.2.1 Types of bonding

The choice of bond is infuenced by situation (appearance i.e.

external or internal wall), function (load bearing or non-load bearing) and
thickness of the wall. The most common types of bonds are stretcher
bond, header bond, English bond, Flemish bond and Dutch bond.

6.2.1.1 Stretiher bonding

Stretcher bond consists of all bricks laid as stretchers on every

course. Half bat is introduced as the starting brick to alternate courses.
The bond is used in walls of half brick in thickness such as partition walls,
boundary walls and garden walls. In Tanzania, stretcher bond is
considered the most economical and yet strong wall, thus it is frequently
used in strip foundations for most domestic buildings.

Figure 6-35. Walling in a stretiher bond

6.2.1.2 Header bonding

Header bond consists of all bricks lain as headers in all courses. The
bond is formed by three quarter bat at the quoin in the second course and
repeats after every course. The bond is satisfactory for walls of one brick
thick. Generally used in footing courses or walls curved in plan.

50
 Figure 6-36. Walling in a header bond

6.2.1.3 English bonding

English bond has an alternate courses of headers and stretchers.

Headers are laid centered on the stretchers in course below and each
alternate row is vertically aligned. The lap is formed with queen closer
placed next the quoin header. English bond is a combination of Stretcher
and Header bond.

Figure 6-37. Walling in English bond

6.2.1.4 Flemish Bonding

Flemish bonding consists of alternate headers and stretchers with

the header in one course placed centrally over the stretcher in the course
below. A queen closer is placed next to the quoin header to form a lap.

51
 Figure 6-38. Walling in Flemish bond

6.2.1.5 Dutih Bond

Dutch bond is a modifcation of the English bond and consists of

alternate courses of headers and stretchers. Unlike English bond, Dutch
bond has no queen closers in the header course instead three quarter bat
is used to form a bond. The stretcher courses are laid half bond to each
other with the help of header placed on alternate stretcher courses next
to three quarter bat. In another words each stretching course starts at
quoin with a three-quarter bat and every alternate stretching course has a
header placed next to three-quarter brick bat.

Figure 6-39. Walling in a Dutih bond

52
53
 EXERCISE II: A QUOIN IN STRETCHER BOND

TASKS:

 Construct a wall of three courses in stretcher bond with one toothed

end and stopped end (See fgure below)
 Use 3:4:5 method to set a right angle.
 Observe fnishing time.

Assessment Criteria

 Correct dimensions
30%
 Plumbing and levelling 20%
 Accuracy in setting right angle
30%
 Neatness and self-organization during work and after work.
20%

54
55
 7 BRIDGING OF OPENINGS

Openings in the buildings refer to windows, doors and vents. They

are required for the reasons of:

 lighting,
 access, and
 ventilation.

The primary purpose of bridge over opening is to carry loads above

openings and transmit them safely to the wall abutments, columns or
pies. Openings in the walls are spanned by arches or lintels, beam, or the
combination of both. The simplest method of bridging an opening is by
using a lintel to support the brickwork above the opening. Beams or lintels
are designed to carry load without undue defection. The most common
materials used in bridging the openings are:

 Bricks/stones,
 wood,
 steel,
 concrete.

7.1 Bricks/Blocks

Bricks can be used to span the openings in both forms, as an arch or

as a lintel. Wedge shaped bricks are joined together with mortar in form of
an Arch or lintel to span an opening so as to carry the weight above it and
transmit the same to the nearby support. An arch is the arrangement of
wedge shaped bricks mutually supporting one another in the form of an
arch (Figure 34, left). A lintel is a solid horizontal member spanning the
opening to carry the load and transmit it to the wall on either side (Figure
34: Right). A beam unlike lintel spans between the vertical structural

56
supports members such as columns. Brick lintel/soldier arches are popular
and superior to wood lintels.

Figure 7-40 Arih and Horizontal bridging of Openings using briiks

 Brick Arch lintel: Loads are transmitted around profle of an arch

to the abutment on both sides.
 Bricks Horizontal lintel: Loads is taken as rectangle of wall above
the supporting lintel. Due to bonding of brickwork area to be
supported by brick lintel is assumed to be an equilateral triangle.

The characteristics of bricks for bridging of openings are:

- attractive appearance.
- no corrosion or decay.
- similar appearance as walls.
- weak tensile strength thus, requires steel bars to take tensile
loads.
- require a wooden center to temporary or permanent support
them.
- suitable for small span.

57
7.2 Timber

Timbers are one of readily and locally available bridging materials.

The quality and durability of timber depends on nature of trees. The
following are overall characteristics of timber for bridging of openings:

- Satisfactory for spanning the openings provided that timber is

free from any large knots, splits or shakes.
- Easily available and simple to construct.
- Tends to sag if constantly subjected to heavy load.
- Easily decay if not properly treated.
- Suitable for short spans.

7.3 Steel

Steel is the most widely used metal in construction with applications

ranging from structural support to reinforcement and decorative uses.
Consists of rolled steel joist singly or in a combination of two or three
joined with bolts. Rolled steel joist are available in various commercial
forms such as billet, I–beam (universal beam), an angle beam, T-beam, H-
beam and U- beam (channel beam) as shown in Figure 7 -41. An example
of steel lintel is shown in Figure 7 -42.

Steel has the following characteristics in building constructions:

- Provided at large opening where superior imposed loads are

heavy.
- Steel lintels may be corroded when exposed to atmospheric
agents. Thus, they should be painted with red oxide or
aluminium paints to protect them from corrosion.
- May contribute to increased load, therefore, should be used on
load bearing wall or columns.

58
Figure 7-41. Example of steel seitions

59
 Figure 7-42. Example of steel lintel

7.4 Concrete

Concrete is one of the oldest building materials. Concrete is also

known as manmade stone, which is a mixture of:

 Cement: Various types are available. Commonly used is Ordinary

Portland Cement
 coarse aggregates: these are natural or crushed stones or gravel
ranging in size between 5 mm to 25 mm
 fne aggregates: these are usually natural sand in the size ranging
between 0.6mm to 2.0mmm.
 Water: Fresh water which is suitable for human consumption.

Concrete is graded according to their strengths. The grades

indicates the compressive strength of the concrete that will be attain after
28 days of curing. However, various factors may afect the desired
strength and quality of concrete. To achieve such specifcation several
factors must be considered during preparations. These include:

60
7.4.1 Quality of Ingredients/components

Types of iement

Cement binds the concrete mix together. There are numbers of

types of cement. The most common, used for general construction is
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC). Another variation used in construction is
white Portland cement. It is light-colored and used chiefy for architectural
efects. White Portland cement is made from carefully selected raw
materials and develops the same strength as the normal gray colored
Portland cement. Types of cement include:

 Type I, Normal Cement (most common, OPC)

 Type II, Moderate Sulfate Resistance (slow-reacting)
 Type III, High alumina cement or Early Strength cement(fast-setting)
 Type IV, Low Heat of Hydration (low heat generation)
 Type V, High Sulfate Resistance

These and other types of cements, along with aggregates and

admixtures are available to produce special types of concrete. For
instance, Type IV is low heat generation for large construction building
foundation projects such as dams. Other types of cements have high early
strength to produce concrete that sets faster than normal permitting
earlier formwork removal and thus speeding construction. Still others are
more resistant to deterioration caused by sulfates and alkalis in the soil.

Nonetheless, to achieve these strengths in Table 8-1 above, the

following good characteristics of materials used applies regardless of type
of cement.

Charaiteristiis of good iement

 Cement should be fresh from factory (i.e. within expiration period).

 Should be free from lumps and should have four like consistency.

61
  Should be stored in a dry ventilated place. Cement bags should not
be stacked on the foor.

Table 7-4. The strength of concrete as afected by type of cement

Type of Cement Normal Compressive strength N/m2

Mix

3day 7day 28day

s s s

Ordinary Portland 1:2:4 9.65 17.2 26.8

Cement, OPC

Rapid Hardening, 1:2:4 17.2 24.1 34.4

OPC

High Aluminum 1:2:4 48.2 49.0 55.0

Cement
Charaiteristiis of good aggregates

 Should not contain mud or dust.

 Fine aggregates should be free from organic/decayed impurities and
dissolved salts.
 Coarse aggregates should be well sized with rough surface, not
faked or polished round surface.

Charaiteristiis of good mixing water

Water for concrete making should be clean, colorless, odorless and

tasteless. In other words, water which is ft for drinking is recommended
for concrete mix. However, water not ft for drinking as long as is free
from chloride or sulphates can be utilized.

7.4.2 Water-cement ratio

A concrete mix should be designed to produce the desired

consistency of concrete. Characteristics and properties of concrete

62
depend on the materials, and their proportions, that make up the mixture.
This will determine the workability, strength, durability, economy, volume
stability, and appearance of the fnished hardened concrete. Enough
water is added to make the mix plastic, so that it will fow into the forms.
Too much water, however, will reduce the strength and durability of the
concrete. On other hand, too much little water may not sufce to dissolve
cement. This may cause cement to remain in a dry solid state and hence
failure to undergo hydration reaction. A typical mix would consist of 10%
cement, 15% water, 25% fne aggregates, 45% coarse aggregates, and
1% to 5% entrained or entrapped air. Depending on the desired strength,
the water-cement ratio ranges between 0.4 and 0.6.

7.4.3 Admixtures

Any material added to the concrete mix other than cement, sand,
aggregate, and water is known as an admixture. Admixtures are used to
make the mix more workable, retard or speed up hardening, or increase
chemical resistance. Other admixtures are have no chemical efect but
are used for aesthetic of fnished concrete work. The common admixtures
to concrete include:

 air-entrainment: These are used to improve durability in

freeze/thaw environments.
 retarders: These are used to slow down the initial set of fresh
concrete, especially in hot weather.
 Aiielerators: These are used to speed up the initial set of fresh
concrete in cold weather.
 water reduiers: These are used to reduce the amount of water
required for a desired workability and water-to-cement ratio for
strength, and
 ioloring agents: These are used for altering the color of the
concrete mixture for general appearance of fnished concrete work.

63
7.4.4 Placing

Concrete should be cast or placed in a formwork in a manner that

will not cause segregations of ingredients. Increased height from the point
of discharge will normally cause separation. Depending on mixture
consistency, when the point of discharge is high, water will fow out
followed by course aggregate. Fine aggregates will be discharged last.

7.4.5 Curing

Curing is the gain in strength which occurs with time under

favorable conditions for continuing hydration reactions. Concrete when
frst mixed, it is plastic (able to fow and be shaped) and can be cast to
take the shape of the provided formwork. Hardening of the concrete is
caused by a chemical reaction between the cement and water known as
hydration reaction. Most mixtures of concrete set within 4–12 hours
depending on the temperature, the volume of the discharge, type of
cement, and admixtures. When the temperature is below 20°C (70°F), the
hydration reaction slows. Very little chemical reaction takes place below
4°C (40°F), and almost none occurs at 0°C (32°F). The rule of thumb is: if
you are comfortable, the concrete is comfortable. Concrete
continues to harden for months after the initial set but most placements
reach their compressive or design strength within 28 days. Formworks can
be removed after one to several days or when the concrete can support
itself. This should be determined by an engineer.

The hydration process, which is important for chemical

reaction in production of concrete requires the presence of water. Thus, to
preserve the initial water-cement ratio, the concrete surface should be
covered by plastic sheet, suitable material to keep the concrete surface
moist. Excessive direct sun rays or dry wind to concrete surface can cause
evaporation of moist and result in thirst of concrete and termination of
hydration reactions.

64
 The hardening is not dependent on the concrete drying out
but on the moisture available. Thus, it is more important that the concrete
is properly cured to maintain the moisture in the concrete while the
hydration reaction is still active.

Figure 7-43. Conieptual ionirete strength development iurve

7.4.6 Batching

Batching is the measurement of basic ingredients of concrete. The

proportions of each material control the quality and strength of a
concrete. Batching can be done by volume or by weight/mass. Batching
by volume carried out using a gauge box, with its size related to quantity
of aggregate required for a bag of cement. Batching by mass involves the
use of a weigh balance. Some common proportions of ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) and associated strengths are:

 Blinding concrete of grade C10 1:4:8

 Mass concrete of grade C15: 1:3:6
 Reinforced concrete of grade > C20: 1:2:4
 Reinforced concrete of grade > C25: 1:1.5:3
 Reinforced concrete of grade > C30: 1:1:2

65
7.4.7 Compaction

Air entrapped during mixing should be expelled out as they tend to

reduce densifcation and result in poor strength. The strength of concrete
can be reduced by up to 30% simply because of presence of 5% air voids
due to poor compaction. Therefore compaction of concrete immediately
after placing is important for ejecting of air in the voids and to achieve
maximum density. This can be achieved by use of:

 Steel rods (20 mm to 25 mm).

 Rammers (i.e. rati, as it is known in Swahili), these are made of
timber and are mainly used for levelling, compaction and expulsion
of air from superfcial voids in concrete.
 Vibrator machines:
o Poker vibrator: This consists of fexible shaft, poker/vibrator
head and motor. The vibrator head is inserted into the
concrete mass to vibrates, and the shaft provide fexible
movement or penetration within the reinforced bars.
o Plate compactor:

66
 Figure 7-44. Compaition of ionirete using Porker vibrator

7.4.8 Setting time

When the ingredient of concrete (i.e. cement, aggregates and

water) are brought together, the cement and water chemically react and
set to form a stif mass which adheres to and binds the aggregates
together to form what so called Concrete. Thus, setting is the stifening of
cement paste which is accompanied by binding of the aggregates. Setting
takes time, it can be divided into two:

 Initial setting time, which refers to the time between end of mixing
and casting prior to loss of consistency. The time for initial set
various among types of cement and presence of admixtures. It
takes approximately 30 minutes for concrete made of OPC cement
to lose its consistency and stifen to fow during placement. This is
refers to as initial setting time. Prior to 30 minutes, the consistency

67
 of cement is fresh and concrete can fow to take the shape of the
mould.
 Final setting time, which refers to the time of no disturbance and
hardening of concrete. It is the period of strength development and
re-working of concrete will cause irrecoverable damage of concrete.
As the concrete undergo fnal setting, although it is still weak and
can be easily damaged, the workability reduces and the concrete
steadily become more difcult to compact or mould.

7.4.9 Mixing and workability

The concrete ingredient should be well mixed so that the resulting

concrete has proper workability and uniform mix from batch to batch
within a single day and throughout the entire concrete work for given
proportions.

Workability is the measure of relative easy or difcult of placing and

consolidating the concrete. Thus, mixing should be such that it produces
intimate mixture of cement, water, fne and coarse aggregate of uniform
consistency throughout the concrete work. The mixture should be such
that during placement, the concrete should be workable, yet maintain the
homogenous and void less mass. Too much stifness makes it difcult for
the concrete to fow between reinforced steel bars. On the other hand, too
fuid concrete results into bleeding and segregations. The workability and
consistency of concrete is determined by slump test.

SLUMP TEST

The consistency of concrete mix and uniformity depends on mixing.

Slump test is the mostly used in determining the workability and
consistency of concrete before it sets. It can also be used in detecting the
variations of a mix in a given proportions. Concrete slump test should be
carried out from batch to batch to check the uniformity of concrete during

68
construction. The slump test is performed on fresh concrete. To perform
slump test one needs:

 a cone of about 300mm height with a based opening of 200mm

diameter and top opening of 100mm (Figure 7 -45).
 Tamping rod of rounded steel of 16 mm diameter and length of
60cm.
 Non-porous base plate.

Figure 7-45. Proiedures for slump test

Procedures for slump test

i. Clean internal surface of the mould and apply grease oil to reduce
friction.
ii. Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non-porous base plate.
iii. Take representative sample of fresh concrete, and within 2 minutes
fll the mould with prepared concrete mix in four approximately
equal layers.
iv. Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of tamping rod
in a uniform manner over the cross section of the mould.
v. Strike of top level, remove excess concrete and clean of any
leakage around base of mould and without delay.

69
 vi. Clean the out surface of the mould and water leaked out between
the mould and the base plate.
vii. Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in
vertical direction.
viii. Measure the slump as the diference between the height of the
mould and that of height point of the specimen being tested. If
shear or collapse slumps occur repeat the test with another sample.
ix. Record results.
x. Clean and dry the mould. Do not oil.

Figure 7-46. Step by Step Conirete Slump Test Proiedures

There are three type of slump, namely; (i) collapse (ii) shear slump
(iii) true slump as shown in Figure 7 -47.

Figure 7-47. Conirete slump test results

70
 Interpretation of slump test results:

Generally, concrete slump value is used to fnd the workability which

indicates water/cement ratio.

 True Slump: The only measurable slump. It indicates good

consistency and uniformity of mixing and gradation with balanced
water-cement ratio.
 Zero Slump: Indicates a very low water-cement ratio which result
in dry mix. These type of concrete mix is generally used for road
 Collapsed Slump: Indicates a very high water-cement ratio or too
wet concrete of which the slump test is not appropriate.
 Shear Slump: indicates poor uniformity during sampling or mixing
or compaction/tamping. The test can be considered incomplete and
need to be repeated.

Factors afecting slump value

The following are factors that can afect the concrete slump value

i. Material properties such as:

a. Fineness
b. Chemistry
c. Particle size distribution
d. Water content and temperature of cementitious materials
e. Size, texture, combined grading
f. Cleanliness
g. Moisture content of aggregates

Grading - The coarse the grading (excess of coarse particles) the

better the workability. A fner grading (excess of fne particles) will yield a
stif and less workable mix.

71
 Size - Larger sizes gives better workability while smaller sizes have
greater specifc surface and greater inter-particle friction, hence less
workability.

Shape - Smooth rounded aggregates such as natural river gravel

gives better workability as compared with crushed aggregates having
sharp edges and rough surface.

ii. Chemical admixtures

iii. Air contents
iv. Concrete batching, mixing and transportation
v. Sampling of concrete and slump testing technique and condition
of equipment
vi. The amount of free water in the concrete
vii. Time since mixing of concrete and testing (setting time)-rapid
hardening cement will give less workability as compared with
ordinary Portland cement.

7.4.9.1 Types of Mixing

The average strength of concrete increases with an increase in

mixing time as it improves the workability. It is practice to mix concrete as
rapidly as possible. However, good consistency of concrete is not a
functional of time rather the number of revolutions of mixing. There two
methods of mixing concrete, namely, (i) hand mixing and (ii) Machine
mixing.

HAND MIXING

Hand mixing traditionally is suitable for small scale batching. A

ground is prepared by blinding with weak concrete or cement mortar to
avoid dust or soil to come in contact with concrete. Alternatively, a steel
plate can be used depending volume of mixing.

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 During hand mixing, sand (fne aggregates) are thoroughly mixed to
attain uniform mixture. Coarse aggregates are then placed on top of the
mix and water is poured. The mixture is turned from one side to another
until uniform mixture is achieved. The number of revolutions in hand
mixing is undetermined. However, it is important to maintain speed,
turning number and uniform color of consistency. The uniformity of hand
mixed concrete tend to vary between diferent gangs and time of day.
Nonetheless, compressive strength of hand mixed concrete increases with
in degree of mixing which is measured by number of turning.

MACHINE MIXING

Machine mix produce uniform and consistency concrete. For a

particular mixer a relation between mixing time and consistency is
provided. An exact value for mixing time is also a function of size of
mixture. Machine mixing can be achieved by use of:

 Concrete mixer
 Mobile Concrete Mixer Truck
 Plant Mixer

For 1cubic meter drum mixer, mixing time between 1 and 1.5
minutes is sufcient. Mixing less than 1 minute may result in non-
uniformity. On the other hand, prolonging mixing time has no signifcant
improvement on uniformity and the resulting strength.

73
Figure 7-48. Conirete Hand Mixing

Figure 7-49. Conirete Drum Mix

74
 Figure 7-50. Conirete Drum Mix Truik

Figure 7-51. Conirete Mix Plant

7.4.9.2 Type of ionirete

7.4.9.2.1 Mass concrete

Mass concrete (also known as Plain concrete) is produced by mixing

of concrete ingredient without incorporating any other materials to
enhance concrete tensile strength. The common mix ratio of mass
concrete utilized in construction is 1:3:6 or grade C15. It is suitable in

75
  Retaining walls,
 Over-site concrete,
 Road or parking lots.

7.4.9.2.2 Reinforced Concrete

Mass concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but very

low tensile strength. On the other hand, steel reinforcing bars has
relatively high tensile strength compared to compressive strength. To
overcome concrete tensile stress steel bars are usually introduced at
positions where tensile stresses are likely to occur. Concrete is cast
around steel reinforcing bars (commonly referred to as reinforced bars or
“rebar”). As the concrete hardens, it grips the steel bars to form a bond.
Reinforcing bars are round in shape with projections (called deformations)
formed in the rolling process to strength bonding with the concrete. But
also plain bars can be used. Sheets of wire mesh also are used for
reinforcement. Welded wire fabric (WWF) is a prefabricated material used
to reinforce concrete slabs, foors, and pipe. It consists of a mesh of steel
wires welded together. It is available in sheets and rolls. There are two
types of welded wire fabric: smooth (or plain), designated by a W; and
deformed, designated D. The “D” fabric has deformations along the wire
to better develop anchorage in the concrete.

Figure 7 -52 and Figure 7 -53 show a typical examples of

reinforced concrete beams and foor slabs, respectively on top of two
openings. The most likely places include at middle span and support,
where bending and hogging moment respectively is maximum.

76
 Figure 7-52. Longitudinal Seition through RC beam showing steel bars
positions

Figure 7-53 RC Floor Slab on top of 2 openings showing main and

distribution bars

These rebar and spacer blocks service diferent functions as

described hereafter:

 Main/Tension bars: to prevent tensile stress and limit the

defection to within the acceptable limit. The main bars are placed in
the direction of the shortest span.

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  Distribution bars: To hold main bars in positions and to take care
of tensile forces in the direction of longest span.
 Stirrups/Links bars: To defne the shape and size of the concrete
member and hold bars in position.
 Bent up bars/Shear bars: To prevent diagonal shear forces at
supports.
 Top/compression bars: To give shape and keep the stirrups up
right or in position. They serve also as compression bar to increase
compressive strength of concrete.
 Spacer blocks: Provide the thickness of concrete cover.
 Concrete cover: To provide space for concrete to fow and cover
the bottom steel bars. Concrete cover also provide protection
against exposure of main bars to air, which may cause moist attack
and corrosion and rust. Concrete cover also acts as fre resistance to
rebar, which are vulnerable to fre attack.

7.4.9.2.3 Pre-stressed concrete

Pre-stressed concrete are made by incorporating pre-tensioned steel

wires in concrete. The high tensile wires also known tendons are pulled by
a jack to get maximum tension and concrete is poured on them to form a
concrete block. When the fnal set is reached, the high tensile wire is then
cut/released and stopper fxed. This which induces compression into the
concrete member and compressive strength of concrete member is
enhanced. The pre-stressed concrete will carry more load then normal
reinforced concrete.

78
 Figure 7-54. Sequenies of operations during manufaiture of pre-stressed
ionirete

7.4.9.2.4 Post-stressed concrete

Post-stressed concrete are made by incorporating pre-tensioned

steel wires in existing concrete. Sheaths are prepared in which the high
tensile wires will be inserted and a throat for injecting grout is prepared as
well. The high tensile wires are inserted and pulled by a jack to get
maximum tension. The fne mass concrete or cement paste of high
strength at high pressure is injected in throat to fll the sheaths to cover
the tensile wires while at maximum tension. The high tensile wires are
then cut/released and stopper fxed. The release of high tension force
induces compression into the concrete and compressive strength of
existing concrete member is enhanced. The post-stressed concrete will
carry more load then normal reinforced concrete but less than pre-
stressed concrete. However, this will depend on the bond formed between
cement grout and tensioned wires and old concrete.

79
 Figure 7-55. Sequenie of operations during post tensioning of ionirete

EXERCISE III: LONG WALL WITH OPENINGS CONSTRUCTED

IN DUTCH BOND

TASKS:

 Construct a wall with openings of four courses in Dutch bond (See

fgure below)
 Observe fnishing time.

80
ASSESSMENT:

1. Correct dimensions 30%

2. Plumbing and Leveling 30%
3. Interpretation of the drawings 20%
4. Neatness and self-organization 20%

81
 8 FORMWORKS

Formwork is a temporary structure or mould into which wet concrete

is placed to harden. It is used to retain wet concrete in a specifc shape
and location until the concrete has developed sufcient strength to stay in
a position and maintain the desire shape without support.

Formwork is critical element in construction as it afects safety of

the workers on the job as well as overall construction costs. Thus,
formwork is sometimes related to ‘false-work’. False-work is defned as
the temporary structure which enables the permanent structure to be
constructed, and which must be retained until the permanent structure is
self-supporting. Thus, a good formwork should satisfy the following
requirements:

 It must be built and erected so that the required shape, size,

position and fnish of the concrete are obtained.
 It must be strong enough to withstand pressure or weight of fresh
concrete without distortion, leakage, failure or danger to
workmen.
 It should be of sufcient strength to withstand dead loads and
live loads of workmen and equipment.
 It should be sufciently rigid to prevent signifcant movement
during placing of concrete.
 It must have tight joints to prevent leakage of cement grout.
 It should be set accurately to the desired line and levels.
 It should be designed such that erection and stripping should be
easily and quickly performed.
 Formwork material should be cheap, easily available and suitable
for re-use.

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8.1 Materials

Formworks can be made from various materials of diferent

strengths. Timber and plywood are the most commonly used materials for
formwork because of the ease with which they can be cut and assembled
on site. Steel is used in a number of diferent ways, (a) in proprietary
systems, and (b) as special purpose-made forms.

Proprietary systems usually consists of steel-framed panels, with

either a plywood or steel facing, telescopic centers, adjustable props,
strong backs and a variety of ties and items of ironmongery for securing
the formwork into place. They ofer a simple means of dealing with
repetitive work and can be re-used quickly. These types of formwork can
be bought or hired for use for foors, walls, slabs, columns and beams etc.

Purpose-made forms are usually specially designed and made for a

particular section of work, such as in-situ tunnels and culverts, table forms
and awkward shapes.

The following are specifc characteristic of materials used for

formworks:

8.1.1 Plywood

Plywood is an artifcially manufactured wooden material used for

making concrete formwork. Typical characteristics of plywood include:

 It is strong, durable and light in weight.

 Plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels
of required sizes.
 The standard thickness and size of plywood used on site are
18mm and 1220 x 2440 mm respectively.

83
  They are used for facing panel where good quality surface
fnishes are required.

 By using large size panels, it is possible to efect saving in the

labour cost of fxing and dismantling.

 If handled and stored carefully, it can be re used many times

typically 20 to 25 times.

 For curved formwork, a thinner plywood is used to facilitate

bending.

8.1.2 Timber

Timber is a popular formwork material used for bracing members to

the form face. Timber is, easy to cut and fx to the required shape and size
on site.

 Both rough and smooth fnish can be obtained by using planed or

unplanned timber.
 Leaves a dusty fnish as there are sugars in the sap of soft woods.
 Tends to absorb moisture from concrete if not well seasoned.

8.1.3 Steel

Consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stifened along

the edges by small steel angles.

 The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired shape

or size.
 They are considered most suitable for circular or curved structures.
 They are used in large projects or in situation where large number of
re uses is possible.
 They are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber
formwork.

84
  Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and
speed.
 The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good
and such surfaces need no further treatment
 Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.

8.1.4 Plastics

Glass reinforced plastics (GRP) and vacuum formed plastics are

used when complicated concrete shapes are required (e.g. wafe foors).

 Plastics are light in weight, easy to handle and stack.

 Plastic formwork can be re-used many times (up to 100 times),
depending on the plastic quality.
 Plastic pipes can be used for column formwork.
 They can be used for small precast concrete items, e.g. garden
ornaments.

8.2 Examples of Formwork

Formworks are designed and named after the name of desired

permanent structure to be produced. Some of the common formworks
are:

8.2.1 Foundation Formwork

Foundation formworks can be designed as isolated foundations, and

strip foundations. The formwork for isolated foundation is similar to
column formwork and that for strip foundation is similar to the beam
formwork. Normally sheeting panels with formwork bearers in the form of
wales are used for foundation formwork.

 Isolated foundations are also secured by means of walers but of rim

type.

85
  Bracing is by squared and round timbers as well as boards
diagonally arranged.
 Tie wires as well as metal screws are used as formwork ties.

8.2.2 Wall Formwork

Wall formwork consists of vertically arranged upright bearers to

which sheeting boards (Prefabricated sheeting panels) are nailed at the
concrete side.

 The bearers are diagonally braced by means of boards at both sides.

 On cleats situated at every third bearer, there are horizontally
arranged walers.
 The opposite walers are tied at specifed distances.
 Cleaning holes are to be provided at the foot of the formwork.

86
Figure 8-56. Strip footing Foundations

87
8.2.3 Slab Formwork

The formwork sheeting may consist of sheeting boards or

prefabricated sheeting panels. The formwork sheeting lies on squared
timber bearers which are arranged on main bearers carrying of the forces
to round timber columns. Slab formwork is mostly found in framed
structures/buildings

 Consists of props which support tows of stringers spaced roughly at

2m apart depends on the thickness of the slab.
 Between these stringers, joists are positioned roughly at 30cm upon
which boards or plywood are placed.

88
 Figure 8-57. Slab formwork

8.2.4 Beam Formwork

Beam formwork consists of a box which is supported by cross

members called bearer. Soft board should be fxed inside the beam side
so that the latter can be removed. This also speed up the release of the
formwork for re-use. The box should be strongly fxed in position by using
cleats, braces and ties to prevent side sway during compaction. In the
latter case, the round timber column or support is located under the
center of the beam. Additional formwork tying by tie wires or steel screws
is not necessary. The distances of the clamps are specifed in the
formwork project. Normally they are approximately 700 mm. A typical
example of beam formwork is shown in Figure 8 -58 and Figure 8 -59.

89
Figure 8-58. Cross-seition view of beam formwork

Figure 8-59. Example of detailed beam formwork

90
8.2.5 Column formwork

The column in the formwork is laterally tied by diagonal board

braces or steel yokes.

Figure 8-60. Timber Column formwork

91
EXERCISE IV: COLUMN FORMWORK

92
 9 ROOFS

A roof can be described as a protective covering of the building.

Together with primary external walls, roof provide shelter to the internal
parts of the building. Generally, the term roof refers to the roof structures
and covering.

9.1 Characteristics of good roof

A good roof thus, should have the following characteristics:

 Weather resistance
Regional roof design and construction is an important to the
engineer. A good roof should provide resistance to all kind of nature
weather conditions such as rainfall, sun, wind, earthquake, acidic
conditions etc. It is important that the roof structures is kept on the
house when such extreme condition attack the building.
 Strength
Roof structures and covering should be strong to carry
designed load with allowance for unexpected load. Permanent dead
load such as self-weight of roof structures and periodic dead load
from snow and wind should be considered. Roof structure should
also be strong to support live load such as humans and equipment
during construction and maintenance over life time.
 Durability
Although the term durability is very relative. Roof structures
and covering should last long without frequent maintenance. It is
therefore, important to use material that has high degree of
resistance to change in weather or climatic conditions. Thus, roof
covering should be able to withstand atmospheric pollution, heat
and other harmful weather conditions.
 Fire resistance

93
 A good roof will act as resistance to spread of fre in case the
building catches fre. The roof should be able to resist the spread of
fre over the roof and from one building to another. While timber
and grasses can accelerate spread of fre from one room to another
and from one building to next building, natural slates, clay and
concrete tile can confned fre within the area of break out. The
aforementioned covering are designated as roof covering with good
fre resistance.
 Thermal design
Thermal design in the roof refers to the fow of both heat and
vapor/water in the roof. A good roof structures and covering design
will consider the amount and type of insulation that will be required
to control both heat loss and condensation. Thermal insulation of
roof is necessary during cold weather to reduce heat losses to an
acceptable level, and to prevent excessive heat gains during hot
weather, thus ensuring a reasonable standard of comfort within the
building.
o Condensation

Reasonable provision should be made to prevent excessive

condensation in the roof voids above the ceiling. When warm
moist air meet a cold surface it is cooled, if it’s temperature
drops below the dew point (the temperature at which air become
fully saturated), it will give up moisture in the form of surface
condensation.

In cold weather the temperature under waterproofng will

fall and create a zone in a roof structure where the temperature
is below the dew point. Moisture will condense in this zone to
form interstitial condensation.

 Appearance

94
 The roof is a primary landmark of the building, it should
therefore, be attractive. It should be designed to refect the shape
and elevation views of the building.
 Economy
It might be difcult to obtain roof structure and covering that
will have all the above mentioned characteristics of good roof.
However, the choice of good roof structure and covering will remain
the choice of client with the help of architect. In all cases, good roof
should not very expensive.

9.2 Types of roof

Roof can be categorized based on the ratio between the raise and
run (Figure 9 -61). This ratio is also known as Pitch. If the angle of pitch is
less or equal to 10°, the roof is termed as Flat roof. If the angle of the
pitch is more than 10°, the roof is referred to as Pitched roof. Figure 9
-61 indicates the pitch, run and rise.

The choice of the roof will basically depend on:

 Size and shape of the building

 Appearance
 Economics
 Easy of accommodating services in the roof space, weather-
proofng, maintenance etc.

95
 Figure 9-61. Rise, Run and Span in Roof Design and Construition

Rise Rise
NOTE:
Pitch=
Run
→∠ Pitch=tan−1 ( Run )
9.2.1 Flat roof

In a fat roof, the waterproofng is always supported by a structural

roof deck. This can be timber boarding, which is in turn supported by
joists. Flat roof can be classifes into three categories, namely;

1. Warm fat roof

In warm roof construction, thermal insulation layer is placed
above the structural decking. In this case, the structural deck and
support structure are at temperature closer to that of interior of the
building.
A vapour control layer beneath the insulation helps to prevent
moisture vapour from penetrating through the insulation by thermal
pressure from within the building.

96
 Figure 9-62. Warm Flat Roof Design and Construition (Bauder Magazine-
Flat Roof Design Consideration)

 Cold fat roof

In cold construction, thermal insulation layer is located below
the structural decking. This is because the roof is constructed to
have independent ceiling to support the insulation. Adequate
ventilation between the insulation and the roof deck must be
provided to avoid condensation.

Figure 9-63. Cold Flat Roof Design and Construition (Bauder Magazine-
Flat Roof Design Consideration)

 Inverted fat roof

97
 In an inverted fat roof construction, thermal insulation is located
both on the roof structure and above the waterproofng. In this case, both
the waterproofng, structural deck and support structure are at
temperature close to that of the interior of the building. Ventilation is not
needed in this type of fat roof. This type of fat roof is generally used for
fat roof applications to concrete support structures due to the weight
loading of the ballast that restrain the insulation against wind uplift and
foatation.

Figure 9-64. Inverted Flat Roof Design and Construition (Bauder

Magazine-Flat Roof Design Consideration)

9.2.2 Pitched Roof

Pitched roof can be classifed based on primary support. Below are

the three main categories of pitched roof.

1. Single Pitched Roofs

Single roof consists mainly of rafters as the primary support to roof

covering. In single roof, the rafters are supported at the ends only. The
upper ends of the rafters are normally supported by a ridge board, which
is plugged to the wall or a plate resting on corbel brackets. The lower ends
rest on wall plates. Figure 9 -65 and Figure 9 -66 present various form of
single pitched roof.

98
 2. Double Pitched Roofs

Double pitched roofs are also known as Purlin roofs. These are used
in large spans where single roofs are no longer suitable. Purlin are
introduced at design interval (e.g. 3m center to center) to give an
intermediate support to rafters. The purlin may in turn be supported by
struts which bear on the loadbearing partitions or ceiling beams or by
stepped internal partitions.

Figure 9-65. Lean-to and Couple Single pitihed roof

Figure 9-66. Couple ilose and Collar Single pitihed Roof

99
 Figure 9-67. Double or Purlin Pitihed Roof

3. Trussed (Framed) Roof

Trussed or framed roof are used over large spans. Further support
to Purlin is provided in the form of trusses, which consists of three sets of
members, i.e. rafters (Figure 9 -68) that are partially supported by purlins
(Figure 9 -69), which are in turn carried by trusses. There are several
types of pitched roof timber trusses (Figure 9 -70):

 King post roof trusses

 Queen post roof trusses
 Mansard truss (combination of King and Queen post roof trusses).

100
Figure 9-68. Trussed rafter

Figure 9-69. Timber roof trusses

101
 Figure 9-70. Types of pitihed roof

9.3 Roofing materials

There are several roofng structures and covering materials

9.3.1 Roof structures

Roof structures ranges from timber to steel and depend on whether

the roof is fat or pitched. Steel roof structures are very popular for use in
pitched roofs of industrial, commercial and agricultural buildings. They are
made up of members of small sections, and are preferably used for spans
which would be beyond the economical capacity of timber. Steel is more
dependable than timber in character and quality.

Timber fat roofs are popular in small buildings such as domestic

garages and stores. They normally consist of roof joists, 50mm thick and
spaced between 400 and 450 mm centres, carrying tapering frring pieces
to give the necessary fall and support to the boarding which carries the
roof covering. Concrete roof structures are designed and constructed in a
similar manner to reinforced concrete foors.

102
9.3.2 Roof covering

The range of roof covering various from that of grasses to tiles and
aluminum of diferent quality and materials. Flat roofs are usually
provided with covering to prevent them from deterioration and also to
prevent roof leakages when raining. Several of the roof covering are
available in the market. Some of most utilized tropical fat roof covering
includes

 Bitumat
 Mastic asphalt, which is highly suitable for covering concrete roofs.
 Built-up bitumen felt
 Lead sheeting, Zinc sheeting and copper sheeting.

103
 10 REFERENCES

1) Ivory H Seeley. (1993), “Building Technology” Macmillan Building

and Surveying Series.

2) S.G Brighty., D.M Stirling. (1989), “Setting out, a guide for site
engineers” BSP Professional books, Oxford.

3) W.G Nash. Brickwork 1

4) Innovative creative professional training series (2006),

“Construction Workshops” Industrial Centre, Hong Kong Polytechnic
University.

5) Eskimo A/S (2016), “BRICKLAYING TOOLS” Avnvej 11 · DK- 7400

Herning · Denmark

6) Ivory H Seeley. (1993), “Building Technology” Macmillan Building

and Surveying Series.

7) W.G Nash. Brickwork 1

8) R Chudley (1987). “Building site works, substruiture and plant”

Longman Group Limited

9) R Chudley (1981), “Construition Teihnology” Longman Group

Limited, Volume

105