History & Social Science Class 9 English Version

Developed by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board as a textbook according
to the National Curriculum 2022 for Class Nine from the academic year 2024
History and Social Science

Class Nine
(Experimental version)
Writers
Abul Momen
Professor Dr. Aksadul Alam
Professor Dr. S.C. Majumder
Professor Dr. Atikur Rahaman
Dr. Masud-all-Kamal
Jarin Akther
Dr. Mir Abu Saleh Shamsuddin
Muhommod Nijam
Siddipue Belal
Uma Bhattacharjee
Shaikh Md. Enamul Kabir
Editors
Professor Abul Momen
Professor Dr. Aksadul Alam
Translated by
Mian Md. Naushaad kabir
Ahmed Karim Hasnain
Abdullah Al-Mamun
Fatema Zohra Haque
National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Bangladesh

Published by:
National Curriculum and Textbook Board
69-70, Motijheel Commercial Area, Dhaka 1000
[All rights reserved by National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Bangladesh]
First Published: December, 2023
Art direction
Monjur Ahmed
Cover
Rasel Rana
Illustration
Tamanna Tasnim Supti
Rehnuma Proshoon
Graphics
Noor-E-Elahi
K.M. Yusuf Ali
For Free Distribution by the Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh

Printed by:
Preface
In this ever-changing world, the concept of life and livelihood is changing every moment. This
process of change has been accelerated due to the advancement of technology. There is no
alternative to adapting to this fast changing world as technology is changing rapidly ever than
before. In the era of fourth industrial revolution, the advancement of artificial intelligence has
brought about drastic changes in our employment and lifestyles that will make the relationship
among people more and more intimate. Various employment opportunities will be created in near
future which we cannot even predict at this moment. We need to take preparation right now so
that we can adapt ourselves to that coming future.
Although a huge economic development has taken place throughout the world, problems like
climate change, air pollution, migrations and ethnic violence have become much more intense
nowadays. The breakouts of pandemics like COVID 19 have crippled the normal lifestyle and
economic growth of the world. Thus, different challenges as well as opportunities, have been
added to our daily life.
Standing amid the array of challenges and potentials, sustainable and effective solutions are
required to transform our large population into a resource. It entails global citizens with knowledge,
skill, values, vision, positive attitude, sensitivity, adaptability, humanism and patriotism. Amidst
all these, Bangladesh has graduated into a developing nation from the underdeveloped periphery
and is continuously trying to achieve the desired goals in order to become a developed country
by 2041. Education is one of the most crucial instruments to attain the goals. Hence, there is no
alternative to the transformation of our education system. This transformation calls for developing
an effective and updated curriculum.
Developing and updating the curriculum is a routine and important activity of National Curriculum
and Textbook Board. The curriculum was last revised in 2012. Since then, more than a decade
has elapsed. Therefore, there was a need for curriculum revision and development. With this
view, various research and technical studies were conducted under NCTB from 2017 to 2019 to
analyze the current state of education and identify the learning needs. Based on the researches and
technical studies, a competency-based and seamless curriculum from K−12 has been developed
to create a competent generation capable of surviving in the new world situation.
Under the framework of this competency based curriculum, the textbooks have been prepared for all
streams (General, Madrasah and Vocational) of learners for Class Nine. The authentic experience-
driven contents of this textbook were developed with a view to making learning comprehensible
and enjoyable. This will connect the textbooks with various life related phenomenon and events
that are constantly taking place around us. It is expected that, through this, learning will be much
more insightful and lifelong.
In developing the textbooks, due importance has been given to all− irrespective of gender,
ethnicity, religion and caste while the needs of the disadvantaged and special children are taken
into special considerations.
I would like to thank all who have put their best efforts in writing, editing, revising, illustrating
and publishing the textbook.
If any errors or inconsistencies in this experimental version are found or if there is any suggestions
for further improvement of this textbook, you are requested to let us know.
Professor Md. Farhadul Islam

Chairman
National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Bangladesh
Introduction
In the new year, congratulations and welcome to your new class.
You have moved up to the ninth grade this year, and you are among the fortunate ones who will
experience the new teaching methods in this class. We hope that even if you did not study in
the previous class using this method, the ninth-grade curriculum has been arranged in such a
way that you can easily adapt. As a result, you will be able to deeply understand the differences
between the new and old methods. Due to real experiences, you can surely understand that now
acquiring knowledge is not limited to reading textbooks and memorizing answers to specific
questions. Under this curriculum, you will directly engage in the tasks of studying and acquiring
knowledge. Sometimes your teachers, parents and elders in the family will also help. Many plans
and activities in these lessons will be completed by you. You will work on many tasks as a team,
and sometimes you will work on individual tasks. In this way, what you will learn and understand
will directly contribute to your knowledge and skills. You can now ask questions, and you will
be able to find the answers on your own. As a result, you won’t have to perform the tedious and
exhausting task of handling the questions prepared by others and providing prepared answers. On
the other hand, you can use your own intelligence, search, explore books, and with the help of
teachers, create your own learning. Through this kind of experience, the knowledge and success
that come together make the process of learning a joyful and enjoyable work.
The various types of new lessons in the new class undoubtedly present a challenge for you.
However, we believe that you have sufficient self-confidence to face these challenges. Alongside
you have curiosity, sense of wonder, vitality, and the ability to be joyful. Your senses play a
supportive role. And the interesting thing is that these qualities are not like money; they do not
diminish with use but rather increase. Because, the more you use them, the more they shine and
make you skillful. The inspiration from these senses will bring forth new capabilities in you. First,
the challenge will be faced by your intellect. You’ll need to stimulate your intellect, and, when
it comes to thinking, reasoning will be necessary. This too does not diminish with use but rarher
becomes sharp. This is a thing of practice. For this, we encourage using the intellect, giving it a
task, and providing it with a foundation in reasoning. Also, it will be necessary to keep the senses
alert, as this will enhance your skills.
Some people are saying that there are no exams in the new system. This is completely wrong.
Now, throughout the year, just like the process of studying and learning, evaluations will also
be ongoing. In the new method, you will need to acquire specific competencies in each subject.
There is no room for exemptions; you must excel.
Many things may seem new and suddenly make understanding your current teaching method
difficult when compared to previous experiences. Assessing the new method with the mindset
of the past won’t work either. There is no need to condense your pleasure by various external
opinions. Come, let’s conquer the unknown this way. As you journey through the darkness,
lighting up with wonder and joy, you may discover that much is learned not through planned
efforts but by enjoying the journey itself.
Contents
Exploring Nature and Society 1 - 14
Self-Identity and Humane Behaviour 15 - 26
‘Bangladesh’ and ‘Bangabandhu’– Humanitarian

27 - 49
Ideals and Secular Spirit
Political Structure and Civic Responsibility 50 - 73
Global Context: In Search of

74 - 83
Political History
The Ways to Know History and the Problem

regarding the Division of Era 84 - 92
The Region of Bengal and Bangladesh: Diverse

93 - 114
Path of its Political History
Social Structure in Personal Life 115 - 124
Living Safely Together in Harmony 125 - 156
Principles of Production, Distribution and Equity

157 - 183
of Wealth
Exploring Nature and Society
In this learning experience we will first identify some natural and social elements
of our area. After that, we will analyze the historical and cultural background of the
population with two different geographical and social characteristics. We will identify
the influence of natural and social factors on both contexts. We will learn about methods
of investigation following the scientific method. We will then explore the influence
of natural and social factors in shaping the history and social context of our area
using the scientific method. We will present the results of the research by organizing
a seminar. After that, we will decide what to do to form the right view of people in
the conservation of natural and social elements of the area by taking opinions from
teachers and classmates in free discussion.
Let us fill in the table below by identifying some of the natural and social elements of
our area. We will do the work as a team. Let’s find out how to do it in groups.
Group work 1
Let’s form a team of 5 to 6 people. We will make sure that all the team members are
residents of the same area. By discussing in groups we fill in the table of natural and
social elements of our respective areas.
The natural resources of my area The social elements of my area
Influence of nature and society

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We will now read the story of two people from two different geographical and social
characteristics of Bangladesh. From these two stories, we will determine the natural
and social elements of the two different regions. We will explore the historical and
social contexts of these two regions.
1
Fishermen are busy fishing in the sea
Jabbar Hossain in the sea

Jabbar Hossain was born in a coastal area. His life and livelihood surrounded around
catching fishes from the sea and selling those in the village market. His family consists
of his wife and three children.
Jabbar Hossain dreams that his children will one day become educated. He often comes
across accomplished people from the city in the fish market. They come to buy the fish
and then leave. Their language is not like that of the common fishermen.
He heard from his grandfather that once upon a time ships anchored here. These ships
carried salt and clothing items from here to other countries. Foreign people also used
to come in these ships.
He likes to see accomplished gentlemen from the city wearing shirt, pants and coats.
He tells his wife that this time he will have a few shirts, pants and coat made by the
tailor once he could save for money. Hearing him, his wife laughs. Where will you go
wearing such clothes, she asks. Jabbar also realizes that there are hardly any places
he can go to wearing such clothes. He cannot even jump into the ocean wearing such
clothes. It dawns on him that there is no such comfortable dress as a ‘lungi’. It is easy
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to wear and dries up fast when wet.

Jabbar Hossain’s small straw-roofed hut is often destroyed in cyclonic storm. He
struggles to repair the damages each time. Even then, his condition is now better than
it used to be. He heard from his mother that once upon a time many people used to die
during such storms. It was during such a storm that his mother lost his younger sister.
2
At present, when such big storms approach, they get cautionary signals and along with
wife and children, they take refuge in safe shelters.
Jabbar Hossain’s life is quite like the sea. Where ever his children go, he wants to spend
his last days near the sea. Sometimes, he sits on a fishing trawler and sings a mystic
song aloud in a rich voice.
Anwesha is standing in front of the mirror in her wedding dress
Today is Anwesha’s Wedding Day

Annesha Sangma has grown up in Haluaghat under Mymensingh district. The vegetation
and the small hills around her have always protected her. Standing in front of the mirror
today, she is failing to recognize herself. She is too decked up. She has tidied up her
room well by removing old things. After marriage, she will live her husband here.
The house is full of guests. Everyone is keen to see the groom. Besides, relatives and
neighbours are preparing for presentation of dance and song. Food has been arranged
for everyone. But Annesha is unable to rejoice like everyone as she is thinking how to
start her new life.
Suddenly, her mother entered into the room and closed the door. She said the newly-
wed groom has to work outside. He has to look after the land. So, she wants to introduce
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her son-in-law with their cultivable land day after the marriage. Annesha was a little
annoyed. She told her mother that it was not right to send a man out to work immediately
after entering a new life. To this, her mother said to her that all her properties belonged
to her Annesha. But if she did not inspire her newly-wed husband to work, he will
eventually become lazy.
3
Annesha paid heed to her mother. To change the topic, she asked her mother how she
looked. Her mother again gave her an unsatisfied look and said, “I thought you would
wear ‘Dwokanda’ at your wedding.” To this, Annesha said, no one wears this dress
during wedding these days. Her mother replied that she believed that Annesha was not
like everyone else. Annesha assured her that in all the occasions following the wedding
ceremony, she will wear Dwokanda. But since the wedding day comes only once in
life, she would like to dress as she wanted on that day. The mother left without saying
anything more.
After a long time, today Annesha felt like writing something. She has a diary where
she notes down all her special experiences and moments. But whenever she writes,
she cannot write in her own language. Because the Garo language has no alphabets.
Ah … If she could write in her own language! Even then, she will write and write in
Bangla, the language she learnt at school and college. As soon as she opened the diary,
she recollected her maternal grandmother. Grandmother wanted to see her married.
Various cultural programs including Ray-Ray song were held at the wedding. As per
the tradition of the Garo community, one has to marry into a different caste. Mintu was
also from another caste.
During her childhood, Annesha had once asked her grandmother what she had gifted
her grandfather during marriage. Her grandmother showed her a beautiful ring.
Annesha said the ring was gorgeous. Then her grandmother asked her how will it be
if Annesha gave the same ring to her husband as wedding gift. That day, Annesha was
very embarrassed. But today, she will wed her husband with that ring in the church to
begin her new life.
Exercise work 1: If we assess the lives of Jabbar Hossain and Annesha Sangma,
we observe that in both their lifestyles and cultures the impact of nature and society
are evident. There are differences in their lifestyles, culture, history and societal rules.
Let us now explore the natural and societal elements in the context of the regions they
live in and fill up the box below.
A coastal fishing
Context Garo ethnic group
community
Historical context
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Cultural context
4
Exercise work 2: Let’s fill in the two tables below by identifying how the natural
and social elements of the region have influenced the respective histories and cultures
of the fishing community and the Garo people
Fishing community Historical context Cultural context
Natural elements
Social elements
Garo ethnic group Historical context Cultural context
Natural elements
Social elements
For example, the natural elements of the fishing community is the sea, due to which
goods were once sent by ships across the country and abroad. This sea also influences
the profession, language, music and the celebrations of festivals of the fishermen. Thus,
the lifestyle and history of the people of each region is influenced by the elements of
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nature and society of that particular region.

That’s why we will learn about the scientific research method. We will learn to make
logical decisions by gathering information using this method. Let us then know about
the different steps of this method. Here we will look at the different ways to investigate
changes in the social elements of your area as an example.
5
Table: Steps in the Scientific Inquiry Method

Brief description of the
Step Example
step
Changes in the social component
of my area.
The scientific Our Locality
I will determine the
method determines
subject for investigation
the subject matter for
using scientific method.
inquiry.
Social Element
Time Example: Streets
I will create a series 1. How were the roads in our area

The scientific before?
method formulates of questions to gather
questions for inquiry. information about the 2. How are the current roads in our
content. area?
I will appoint the elderly people of

the area to know the previous and
The scientific method current condition of the roads in
requires choosing the area. We will also determine
Selecting data how many people we collect
sources where to gather the
information needed for information from.
research. Also, I can collect information
from books, journals, magazines,
museums. sources etc.
We may adopt group We will prepare a questionnaire to

Determining the discussion/interview/ get information about the changes
method of data observation methods to in the roads and streets in the area
collection collect data. and decide the interview method.
We will determine if any funds

will be required to conduct the
Determining whether investigation. If money is required,
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Time and budget we need any funding we will make an estimate of the
determination to conduct the minimum amount of money we will
investigation and how need to carry out the investigation.
long it may take. We will also plan the timeframe to
complete the research work.
6
In this step, we will

collect data by adopting
the selected data source
and data collection
method. To get information about the
changes in the roads and streets
Collecting We may use tape of the area, we will collect
information recorders or keep information through interviewing
written notes while the elderly people through set
collecting data. questionnaires.
However, this must
be done with the
permission of the
informant.
Collected data is The informant provides

to be read, selected information by answering
and arranged from questions. He may give a lot of
Analyzing data the required data irrelevant information. So, we will
or calculated and find and organize information that
expressed in the form is relevant to the content of the
of graphs or charts. search.
The answer we get about the past

The answer that is
and present condition of the roads
found by analyzing the
in the area by analyzing the data we
Results and decision data is the result of the
collect is the result of our research
making research method. We
method. Based on these results, we
will make decisions
will decide how the roads in our
based on these results.
area have changed.
We can present our From the data we collected, we can

results through graph write a short report to highlight
papers, posters, plays, how the roads in the area were
Present and share pictures, charts etc. before and how they have shaped
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results with others Also, we can submit up now. Also, we can make oral
the results in the form presentations by drawing pictures
of magazine or class or writing on posters or short
report stories.
7
Note that the person from whom the information is to be collected is called the
informant or the respondent. Consent is required from the informant or respondent
while collecting data. If we record the informant’s statement, she must also be told
about it before the interview. So, let us know some rules to follow while collecting data.
Things to do while receiving information
1. Consent must be obtained from the respondent.

2. If the informant is to be recorded, permission must be obtained.
3. Know whether the identity of the informant should be kept secret or not.
4. The informant must be assured that the answers collected will only be used in
this scientific research process. Not for any other purpose.
5. The respondent should be informed of the amount of time it may take. Knowing
whether he can give that time or not.
6. Stop questioning immediately if the informant shows reluctance to answer at
any point during the response.
7. Not to mention the right or wrong answer of the respondent, so that the respondent
can fully express his/her opinion.
Questionnaire Development
Questionnaires can be developed to collect data. Where there will be questions about
how the social element of the locality was before and how the social element is now.
Below is a questionnaire containing some questions.
Changes in the social element of the area

1. How were the roads in the area 30 years ago?
2. How are the roads in the area now?
3. How were the houses in the area 30 years ago?
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4. How are the houses in the area now?

5. ……………
6. ……………
8
We can use the table below to understand whether or not the questions we have
articulated is useful for searching. We give the symbol (∙/×).
It is possible
We don't
We are Understanding We will do to find the
know the
interested in what to do, who whatever it answer to
answer
question knowing the or where to go takes to get the question
to that
answer to to get answers the question within the
question
the question to questions answered specified
yet
timeframe
If all the columns in the table above are ticked, then we will know that the questions we
have developed are suitable.
Data Source (Informant/Respondent Identification)

Data Source (Informant/Respondent Identification)
While determining the informant will observe:
1. Whether the informant is able to answer the question. Whether s/he is properly
aware of the matter.
2. In the context of our country, informants are not comfortable answering about
their age or income. In that case, we can be a little trickier by not directly asking the
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informant’s age or income. For example: To learn about past events, we can find out
whether the informant was studying somewhere at that time or what his friends or
playmates were doing at that time. By asking in this way, we can get an idea about the
age of the informant. From this idea, we may understand whether the informant was
of a suitable age to provide historical information.
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Methods of data collection

Various methods can be adopted for data collection. Eg: interview, group discussion,
observation etc. We will learn about these three methods.
Interview Group discussion Observation
We can collect This method forms a group In this method, observations

information from an of 5-8 informants and we are made by creating an
informant through a can get answers with the observation list.
questionnaire in the help of questionnaires.
interview method.
Let us now learn how Raju, a friend of class Nine, investigated the changes in the social
elements of his area using scientific methods.
Raju’s method of scientific inquiry

Raju made the change in the social elements of his locality the subject of his scientific
inquiry. He then planned to collect data on changes in roads, houses, vehicles in his
area as social elements. He decided to find out what the social elements of the area
were like 20 years ago and how they are today. Knowing about the two contrasting
conditions he will determine the changes. So, he created a questionnaire with questions
about changes in roads, houses and vehicles in the area.
He went to four elderly people in the area and collected information. He followed all
the rules to be followed while collecting the data. He analyzed the data obtained from
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four individuals. The results obtained from data analysis are presented in the form of
reports.
Want to see the report written by Raju? Let’s take a look at the report. We will also write
a report similar to this.
10
Report 24.01.2024
Subject of the investigation: The changes in social elements of my locality.
Questionnaire for the investigation: How were the social elements of my
locality 20 years ago? What are the present social elements in my locality?
Method of data collection: I have collected data through the interview
method. I have selected four adults for this. I have collected answers from
each of them taking 20-30 mins. During collection of answers, I have taken
the informant’s permission. I created a questionnaire for data collection. The
questions were related to the changes in the housing, roads and transportation
before and after 20 years in the locality.
Data analysis: After data analysis, we have found that 20 years ago the roads
were muddy in this locality. It became slippery during the rainy season. Ten
years ago, through the initiative of the town council chairman, the roads were
constructed using concrete. Now the communication system has developed
between my locality and the district. Along with that, 20 years ago there were
much more tin-shed houses. Nowadays, the number of single and double storied
houses have increased. On the other hand, the local people still commute using
the same mode of transportation that they did 20 years ago. However, these
days the use of rickshaws have increased.
Result: The social elements of the locality have changed. The design of roads and
housing has changed and the demand for rickshaws have increased as transportation.
Rationality: The social elements of the locality have changed with time. These
changes have also improved the living standards of the people in this society.
Group work 2
Now, we will do a group investigation We will, therefore, plan to search with all
of the pre-formed teams. Following the scientific method, we will investigate the
changes in the natural or social resources of our area. For this reason, we will discuss
as a group and decide which natural or social elements we will search for. We should
be careful that not all groups in the class choose natural or all groups social elements.
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If necessary, we will take the help of the teacher to split the group.
Therefore, before collecting information from the informant, we fill the answers in
the table below by discussing those in groups.
11
Table: Before collecting data in research work
question the answer
What is the content of our inquiry?
Are the questions useful for

searching?
Are the questions useful for
searching?
Who are the sources of our search
data?
What is our search data collection
method?
How much time and budget do we
need for our search?
Information for our search
Have you taken permission during

the data collection?
We may share tasks to collect data. For example, anyone can collect information from
an informant. Again, we can collect data in pairs or together. We will discuss it in
groups to decide how to collect data. Also, we can collect data from 5-6 informants
together through a group discussion.
Collect the data and analyze the data obtained. We must verify that any information
is relevant to the subject matter of our inquiry. Unnecessary information should be
omitted. Also, the informants should find similar answers and write those in the report.
We will collectively make logical decisions based on the results obtained from data
analysis.
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Group work 3
Now, we will fill in the table below by discussing how the social or natural elements
of the area form the historical and cultural context from our collected data.
12
Historical context Cultural context
Social Factors/Natural
Factors
“Seminar and Open Discussion”

Each group investigated how the natural or social resources of their area formed the
historical and cultural contexts. We will present our findings by organizing a seminar.
We can present in various mediums like poster paper, powerpoint presentations etc.
Other teachers of the school will be invited to attend this seminar.
At the end of the presentation, we will decide what to do to form the correct view of
the people in preserving the natural and social elements of the area by taking opinions
from the teachers and classmates through open discussion.
To be done in conservation of natural and social elements

◊
◊
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Reflective Diary: We will create a reflective diary where we will write down what we
have experienced during our research work. How did we work as a team there? What
could have made the investigation even better? Who did what type of work in the group
etc.
13
Reflection diary
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14
Self-Identity and Humane Behaviour
In this learning experience, we will write about our self-identity. Then, sitting together,
we will make a list of the similarities and differences in each other’s identities. We
will explore our own identity in geographical, social, cultural, and political contexts.
We will determine how geographical, social, cultural, and political perspectives from
various sources shape human behavioral patterns. We will identify the differences in
human behavioral patterns in different perspectives. By considering the geographical,
social, cultural, and political contexts of our own area, we will scientifically explore
behavioral patterns. We will present the results obtained from the research through
panel discussion.
All of us have self-identity. We have a name. There’s a family, an area, a society we
belong to. We have dreams, beliefs. If we consider, we will see that despite having many
things in common with many people, there are still some things that set us apart. Even
among siblings born to the same parents in the same family, there exist differences.
Conversely, within the same family, people speak the same language, wear similar
clothes, follow the same customs, and celebrate festivals together. In this mixture of
differences and similarities, we become unique. So, let us now search for our self-
identity.
Exercise 1: Let us write our self-identity. While writing about self-identity, we will
include the following issues.
My name
My age
My gender
My ancestor
My family
My home
My country
My language
My favourite food
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My favourite song
My favourite sport
What I like to do
Picture: Self-identity
15
After finishing writing our self-identity, we will select a classmate/friend to discuss our
self-identity with. We will discuss our own and his/her self-identity.
Pair work: Let us fill the following table after discussing our and our classmate’s
self-identity.
Exercise 2: Similarities and dissimilarities between self-our self-identity and our

classmate’s self-identity.
Similarities in our preferences Dissimilarities in our preferences
Group work 1
Now, let us form a new team consisting of 5-6 people. Within the team, we will
discuss which aspects of our self-identity are influenced by geographical, social,
cultural, and political contexts. We will identify which aspects of our self-identity
belong to which contexts.
Context Subject
Geographical location and characteristics, weather,

Geographical identity
climate etc.
Social status, professional identity, family

Social identity
background, etc.
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Cultural identity Language, clothing, customs, festivals, etc.
Political identity National or ethnic identity, political awareness, etc.
16
Exercise 3: Let us write our self-identity considering geographical, social, cultural

and political contexts.
Geographical
Social
Various
aspects of our
self-identity
Cultural
Political
Now, we will learn about the lifestyle of the Arab Bedouins and understand how their
behavioral patterns have been emerged.
Life of Arab Bedouins

The Arab Bedouins are inhabitants of the desert. They lead their lives amidst the
scorching heat and battle with sandstorms. They have no specific dwelling place; they
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roam across different locations in the desert. Hence, they know all the remote paths
of the desert. They serve as guides for any caravan involved in trade, commerce, or
transporting goods. Dates are their primary food source obtained from the desert. They
also rear various animals like camels, cows, and others. Wherever there is grazing land
for these animals, they temporarily settle. The Bedouins travel swiftly on their horses
17
from one part of the desert to another part. Their tireless, uncertain lives seem incredibly
dynamic, always seeking new possibilities. The harsh climate and geographical
characteristics of the desert have made them hardworking, resourceful, and resilient.
Although Arab Bedouins nowadays aren’t entirely leading the same nomadic lifestyle.
Still, some aspects of their ancestors’ lifestyles, social and cultural practices, resonate
among present-day youths. That is how geographical, social, cultural, and political
perspectives play a role in shaping the behavioral patterns of Arab Bedouins.
We have already gathered information about certain behavioral traits of Arab Bedouins.
Now, let us find out some behavioral characteristics of Arab Bedouins considering the
information from different sources like books, magazines, and other publications.
Exercise 4: Identification of the behavioral
characteristics of Arab Bedouins
In this way, similarities in the behavioral traits of people living in a region, dependent
on geographical, social, cultural, and political perspectives, create a resemblance. It is
these similar behavioral traits that form a region’s behavioral pattern. We have learned
how our identity has been shaped as Bengalis. Based on that, we will identify our
behavioral patterns.
Bangabandhu: The architect of Independent Bangladesh

We know that the language movement started in 1948, as we know, the people of this
region gradually awakened from the language movement of 1952. In this movement,
young Bangabandhu played a significant role. During the language movement in 1952,
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although he was in jail, he provided necessary guidance to the leaders. The language
movement is considered the first step towards independent Bangladesh. This is where
our journey towards independent Bangladesh began. However, it did not happen
overnight, not just with one movement. Since then, there have been continuous political
and cultural movements.
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Students and teachers participating in Peoples gathering in language movements

the language movement march
At that time, politics was very eventful, but there was a lack of unity, courage, sacrifice
among the senior leaders on the one hand, and various disturbances and conveniences
among them on the other hand, resulting in the unsuccessful outcome of the dauntless
movement of the student-youth movement. Even among the common people, there
was a crisis regarding their national identity. Just after breaking away from India, the
region split into three parts, forming a Muslim-majority Pakistan, with East Pakistan
(present-day Bangladesh) and West Pakistan, and a Hindu-majority India between the
parts of Pakistan. As a consequence of this religion-based partition, many people had
to leave their ancestral land. At that time, Bangabandhu expressed his disappointment
with the contemporary political leadership. Even after the formation of the United
Front government through the historic elections of 1954, the Pakistani conspiracy did
not stop and within a few days, the Pakistani government overthrew the elected United
Front government of the province through conspiracy. In the context of the failure of
the leaders to prevent it and take appropriate political action against it, Bangabandhu
wrote in his autobiography with great anger-
“From this day, the days of sorrow for the Bengalis began. Incompetent leadership,
policyless leaders, and selfish politicians collaborating with each other have never come
together for the sake of the country. Instead, the destruction of the country and the people
has always been greater than serving the country. (The Unfinished Memoirs,, p. 273)”
The Tale of Transformation

Now, let’s hear about the turn of politics. The military rule that began in 1958 was
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withdrawn in 1962. After that, student movements started. Even during that time,
various political leaders and parties had various conflicts with Pakistan. However, it
did not bring about any results. During those days, Bangabandhu was the president
of the Awami League. In 1966, he declared the Six-Point Movement including the
demand for autonomy. From then on, Bangabandhu emerged as the central figure in
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all movements and struggles in Bengal. Considering him the opponent, the Pakistani
government consistently kept him in custody. You know this history.
Now, let’s talk about 1971- the transformation of the Bengali. The significant reason
behind the emergence of a brave nation is the right guidance and leadership of a
competent leader. It can be said that under Bangabandhu’s magical leadership, that
day the Bengalis transformed into a brave nation. A true hero doesn’t just fight; when
required, they are prepared for the ultimate self-sacrifice. The Bengalis, crossing the river
of death, secured the independence of the motherland when they found Bangabandhu
to be the dependable, courageous, and determined leader.
It is important to find out various transformations that occurred among Bengalis under
Bangabandhu’s leadership as they erased the prevalent identity of the Bengalis and
established a new positive identity.
The Literary and Cultural Conference

The 2-day long literary and cultural
conference in East Pakistan (then
Pakistan) was organized twice on
December 31, 1948, and January 1,
1949 in Curzon Hall, Dhaka. Although
the initiative was taken by Habibullah
Bahar, the Health Minister of the
East Pakistan government, many
intellectuals, including language
Dr. Muhammad Abdul Karim
scholar Dr. Muhammad Shahidullah
Shahidullah opposed any kind of religious division
in Bengali language and literature.
Dr. Shahidullah, the main convener of the conference, was also the chairman of the
main session. In his speech, he made several directional statements. At that time, there
was a discussion of writing Bengali in Arabic script instead of the Bengali script. Dr.
Shahidullah commented, “If we write Bengali in Arabic script, we will be deprived
of the vast reservoir of Bengali literature.” In an article during this period, he wrote,
“If Urdu or Hindi is accepted in the courts and schools of East Pakistan instead of
the Bengali language, it will only be a kind of political subjugation.” Subsequently,
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‘Pakistan Cultural Conference’ was held in Chittagong in March 1951, ‘East Pakistan
Cultural Conference’ was held in Comilla in August, 1952, ‘East Pakistan Literary
Conference’ was held in Dhaka in April, 1954. The cultural Conference was held
under the leadership of the then Awami League President Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan
Bhasani in Kagmari, Tangail in 1957.
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These conferences and the celebration

of Rabindra birth centenary organized
across the country including Dhaka and
Chittagong, ignoring the military rule
in 1961, got a huge response among the
educated people and students and youth
of the whole province. In Chittagong and
Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani Comilla conferences, veteran researcher
speaking at the Kagmari conference and punthi (book of verses of a kind)
collector Abdul Karim Sahityabisharod (a
title given to Abdul Karim, meaning the literary expert) expressed the non-sectarian
humanitarian tradition of Bengali and the liberal humanitarian trend of literature and
culture in the speech of the chief guest. On that day, the elderly literary expert said
particularly emphasised, ‘You should develop the culture of all people. ... Today you
are rich in the wealth of four hundred years of culture.’ Later, the essayist Badruddin
Umar, referring to the speech of this late scholar, wrote, ‘It will not be an exaggeration
at all to call the sppech of Abdul Karim the declaration of the cultural movement which
developed in East Bengal for twenty years after the Chittagong Cultural Conference.’
(Language Movement of East Bengal and Politics at that time page-97)
Movement for Cultural Autonomy

The decade of the sixties marked the beginning of the celebration of Rabindranath’s
centenary (1961). Despite the challenges and bloodshed under Ayub’s military rule,
week-long celebrations took place in Dhaka and Chittagong. Similar events were
orgnised in various district towns and were welcomed warmly. These events not only
encompassed poetry and songs by various poets but also included cultural seminars on
Rabindranath and Bengali culture. After the centenary celebration of Rabindranath, the
cultural awakening and widespread cultural activities among the Bengalis continued
throughout the decade. This led to a decade-long movement for cultural autonomy.
The cultural organization “Chayanot Played a significant role in this movement.”
Attempts were taken to establish the organisation after the centenary celebration of
Rabindranath. The organization initiated various programs round the year, including
discussions on Rabindra Sangeet (songs of Tagore) and standard Bengali songs and
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their practices in 1963. Though many of the then progressive people were associated
with the founding of this organisation, journalist Wahidul Haque and Dr. Sanjida
Khatun played pivotal roles in shaping the organization and guiding its activities. Later,
Chayanot initiated the celebration of the Bengali New Year’s Day in the early morning,
starting the tradition of Pohela Boishakh” in Ramna’s Botomul (under the banyan tree
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of Ramna). Although New Year celebrations had been taking place in many districts
earlier, this marked the beginning of a national-level celebration with a common vision.
Following this, the Institute of Fine Arts (now the Faculty of Fine Arts at the University
of Dhaka) started the colorful Mangal Shobhajatra (Well-being procession). In recent
times, this has received recognition from UNESCO as a world heritage.
Poet Sufia Kamal Artist Kamrul Hasan
Poet Shamsur Rahman Literary figure and filmmaker Zahir Raihan
In the 1950s, the progressive writers, artists, and

students of Dhaka University formed the “Sanskriti
Sangsad” (Cultural Council). This was later joined by
contemporary poet Abu Jafar Obaidullah, literary figure
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and filmmaker Zahir Raihan, educationist Anisuzzaman,

and many others. Subsequently, pioneering students and
scholars with creative disposition actively participated in
these organizations. Throughout the ’60s, organizations
Gurusaday Dutt like Sanskriti Sangsad, DUCSU (Dhaka University
22
Central Students’ Union), and the Bangla Department of Dhaka University, along with
many other student organizations, played a proactive role in fostering cultural activities.
BAFA or Bulbul Lalit Kala Academy also played a role in creating a vibrant cultural
atmosphere in the country in music and dance during this period. Throughout this decade,
there was a trend of celebrating Rabindra-Nazrul Jayanti (celebration of anniversary)
in schools and colleges across the country. As a result, the practice of Bengali culture
spread almost across the country. At this time, colorful processions were held in the
capital on various occasions where many people including poet Sufia Kamal, artist
Zainul Abedin participated. Artist Kamrul Hasan used many motifs of our folk tradition
to create various garments and materials including bornomala sarees (sarees imprinted
with alphabet). A new dimension was added to this cultural movement by the addition
of Rabindra-Nazrul’s songs along with the performance from the traditional repertoire
of Bengali music by more virtuoso musicians. In this way, the general audience came
to know about the immortal creators of Bengali music like Dwijendralal Roy, Rajnikant
Sen, Atulprasad Sen. The political movement has also had an impact on the cultural
arena. At this time, many people were interested in performing songs of inspirational
awakening created at different stages of history, including the protestation of partition
of Bengal movement. As increased the music and practice related to the observance
of vows (brotochari), so did the songs of Gananatya Sangha. In this way, the general
audience also got acquainted with Mukunda Das, Gurusaday Dutt or lyricist Jasim
Uddin and Poet Shamsur Rahman. Gradually, the contribution of our indigenous artists
in the repertoire of this folk music was also increasing. Artists like Abdul Latif, Sheikh
Lutfur Rahman, Ajit Roy, composer Altaf Mahmud and many others contributed to the
rich genre of folk music. This trend continued during our Great Liberation War.
Thus, the cultural arena along with the revolutionary politics of the 1960s played a
key role in the struggle. It is termed as the Movement for Cultural Autonomy because
of this series of cultural activities carried out throughout the decade with the aim of
national awakening.
We have learned how our identity has been shaped as Bengalis. Based on that, we will
identify our behavioral patterns.
The name of our country is Bangladesh. It has a map that displays a geographical
boundary. The emergence of Bangladesh occurred in the context of various historical
events spanning thousands of years. Once, it was a part of the Indian subcontinent.
Several kings, emperors, and rulers came to this land and established their kingdoms.
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Thus, over time, there have been migrations and amalgamations of various communities.
The sacrifice of millions of people lies behind the independence of this country. Since
the arrival of the British East India Company, the people of this land have been severely
oppressed. Subsequently, they faced various forms of torture under the Pakistani
regime. At first, they targeted our language. In the Language Movement of 1952, Rafiq,
23
Shafiq, Barakat, Jabbar, and many others became martyrs. Because of the sacrifice of
these martyrs, we gained our mother language. Gradually, through various historical
contexts, our Bengali language has evolved as an inseparable part of our nature and
culture. Subsequently, we have repeatedly stood up for our civil and human rights
against the Pakistani rulers. We were led by the Father of the Nation, Bangabandhu
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Under his great leadership, after almost nine months of war,
we gained our beloved flag and an independent identity.
Exercise 5: Let us identify our self-identity as citizens of Bangladesh considering

geographical, social, cultural, and political perspectives.
Geographical perspectives
Political perspectives Social perspectives

self-identity
as citizens of
Bangladesh
Cultural perspectives
As citizens of Bangladesh, we carry an identity. There are certain similarities in our

behaviors as people of this country. We share customs, values, behaviors, language,
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food, and more. However, if we observe closely, we will see that the behavioral traits of
people across all regions of our country are not entirely the same. There are differences
in our geographical, social, and cultural perspectives. For example, the lifestyle of the
people in the Haor region of Sylhet differs from those in the hilly regions. Because
of the diverse geo-natural features, we find variations in songs, poems, and stories
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in different regions of Bangladesh for instance, the songs of Hasan Raja of Sylhet,
the bhatiali songs of the riveren Bengal, or the bhawaiya songs of North Bengal etc.
The characteristics of songs from different regions are influenced by the geographical
nature. For instance, in bhawaiya songs, there is a very frequent shaking in the tune.
When the singer sings riding on the back of a cow-cart along uneven roads, the
trembling of their throats reflects in the tune they produce. This is how the bhawaiya
songs become distinctive. On the other hand, there are differences in the language
spoken by the people of Sylhet region compared to the language spoken by the people
of Chittagong region. Additionally, the indigenous communities in this country have
their own languages, attire, customs, and cultural celebrations. Thus, within the same
country, the behavioral patterns of people from different regions are shaped by these
similarities and differences.
Group work 2
Now, let us be in our previous groups. Everyone in the group will collect information
from various sources and fill in the following chart. We will identify the behavioral
characteristics of the people from four different regions in Bangladesh, each with
distinct geographical features. Afterward, we will discuss and document the behavioral
patterns within the group.
Coastal area
Haor area
Behavioral patterns
Riverine area
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Hill area
Figure: The behavioral patterns of people in different areas of Bangladesh.
25
Group work 3
Now, we will scientifically explore the behavioral patterns by examining the
geographical, social, cultural, and political perspectives of the people in our own
area. We’ll do this task in groups. To accomplish this, we will form groups of 5-6
people with classmates from the same area. Then we will proceed with the following
tasks step by step.
Sample Questions for Data Collection
1. Where were you born?
2. Where are your ancestors from?
3. In which language does your family primarily communicate?
4. What is the main food in your family?
………………………….
………………………….
◊ Then, by gathering this information and analyzing it, we will identify the
behavioral patterns of the people in our own area based on similarities in
their behavioral characteristics.
Organizing panel discussion

Let us organize a panel discussion and present the behavioral patterns of the people
from our respective areas, obtained from our research, during the panel discussion. For
this, we can utilize pictures, posters, papers, PowerPoint, etc.
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‘Bangladesh’ and ‘Bangabandhu’–
Humanitarian Ideals and Secular Spirit
In this learning experience, we will discuss the patriotism and self-sacrifice of the Father
of the Nation, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. We will gather information
from textbooks and seek insights from any knowledgeable individuals, such as elderly
persons who know about the liberation war or freedom fighters. Analyzing the acquired
information, we will realize the importance of prioritising national interests over
personal interests. Afterwards, we will determine the actions needed from individual,
social, and national perspectives to give precedence to national interests over personal
interests. Especially, on the occasion of March 26, we will organize the ‘Bangabandhu
Mela’ and present a case study highlighting different events from Bangabandhu’s life
related to patriotism and self-sacrifice
Group work 1
We will form a team of 5 to 6 members. After forming the team, We will engage in
a discussion about Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s patriotism and sacrifice.
Subsequently, we will create an article/poem/picture/poster on the topic.
The Patriotism and Self-sacrifice of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
We have already learnt a lot about Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. In this learning
experience, we hope to discover new information about Bangabandhu. We will know how
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Bangabandhu spread his political ideals and the awareness of freedom throughout the
Bengali community. Along with that, we will know about examples that Bangabandhu
has set, always emphasizing the national interest over the interest of the individuals.
Today we will talk about a topic with which four words are closely related - ‘Banga’,
‘Bangladesh’, ‘Bangabandhu’ and ‘Bishwabandhu’. All of us love these 4 words very
27
‘Bangladesh’ and ‘Bangabandhu’– Humanitarian Ideals and Secular Spirit
much. One interesting thing to note– each of the four words mentioned above begins with
the letter ‘B’. In today’s talk we have to use one more word starting with ‘B’ - Bangiyo
Delta’ (Bengal Delta). We will explore the history of transformation from ‘Banga’ to
‘Bangladesh’ and from ‘Bangabandhu’ [Friend of Bangla ] to ‘Bishvabandhu’ [Friend
of the World] by finding the historical connection and relationship between these
words. While doing the research work, some examples of hamitarian spirit developed
in the Bengal region over a thousand years will be found and an attempt will be made to
understand some illustrative examples of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s life
and his struggle for the liberation of people as the bearer of that spirit. Our Bangabandhu
became a symbol of the liberation struggle of all the oppressed people of the world
beyond the territorial boundaries of Bengal. That is why, Bangabandhu was awarded
the prestigious ‘Joliot-Curie Medal for Peace’ by the World Peace Council on May
23, 1973 and he was conferred with the title of ‘Bishwabandhu’. The ‘personality’ of
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and his title of ‘Bangabandhu’ and ‘Bishwabandhu’ have a
deep connection with the history and tradition of our ‘Banga’ region. Our discussion
and inquiry will proceed with the necessary examples from the history and culture of
the Bengal region of several thousand years and the landscape surrounded by soil, mud,
water and greenery.
The geography of the Bengali region and some questions
Geographical issues play a very important role in the analysis of the history of a
sovereign state’s development and the role of an individual in the final phase of that
history. This is because, generally, a group of people who have settled in a specific
geographical area or region defined by natural boundaries, over various times, engages
in a complicated journey in the long course of history, facing challenges or opposition,
gradually forming society, culture, and politics based on accumulated collective
experiences. Identifying the geographical/regional predispositions of these societies,
cultures, economies, and politics is very necessary. The influence of geography is
undeniable in the formation of an individual’s personality. Therefore, it is necessary
to determine a geographical region at the beginning of the search for the history of
Bangladesh’s development. Understanding the geographical challenges and features of
that region is equally essential. It is necessary to identify a community that is capable
of fighting against adversity and survive. The geographical possibilities of the regional
landmass also need to be explored.
The region is named Bengal. It is a geographically distinctive landmass in the eastern
part of the Indian subcontinent, characterized by independent features. In the southern-
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western part of this region lies the world’s largest delta. The names of the two streams of
the Ganges River are Bhagirathi and Padma. Bhagirathi flows through present-day West
Bengal in India, while Padma is in Bangladesh. The interlacing land between these two
river channels of the Ganges is globally recognized as the Bengal delta. In this entire
Bengal region, there are numerous rivers, canals, creeks, and diverse water bodies.
28
Regional Bengal and Bangladesh (up to 1300 AD or CE)
r
ive
ar
p utr
ma Kamarupa (Pragjyotisha)
ah
Br
Sompur
Mahavih er
ara riv
utra
m ap
ah
Br
arh
ng
Ganga R
a
iver Shrihatta
sth
a
ah
M
Pundra
Ra
jm
ah
al
Jam
una
r
ive
(Y
Riv amu
aR
er na)
hn
eg
hi River
M
Bhagirat
Devparvat (Mainamati)
al)
ng
Be
a(
Ra
Mo rh ng
Ba
un
do
fK Samatata
ing
Ch
Pa
an
nd
dr
u
ad
wi
p
rh
ga
Harikela
etu
ak
Suh
dr
an
Ch
ma
Tamralipti
The Bay of Bengal
tan
kis
Pa
India
Rivers
South
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ion
Asia and
reg
Bengal Bengal region

al
ng
region The red marked part is the assumed

Be
natural border of Bengal region
29
Regardless, the people of this Bengal region, through approximately two thousand years
of struggles, experiences, conflicts, and coexistence with both natural adversities and
oppressive rulers, have acquired a rich reservoir of knowledge to survive. At that time,
there was neither any specific political identity for this land nor any defined boundaries.
Countless names and identities were created but no boundaries were found. It was a
land where various communities engaged in multifaceted activities, events, conflicts,
and harmonies, contributing to the awareness of society, culture, and politics in the
people of Bengal. At the end of this long journey of a thousand years, Bangabandhu
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman emerged as the first person from this Bengal region to rise
from the geographic and natural environment of water and land to fight for the freedom
of the common people. He succeeded. Bangladesh was established as an independent
sovereign state in 1971 in a specific land in the eastern part of Bengal. Because of
his love for all people, regardless of language, religion, or caste, and his fight for the
freedom of all oppressed and downtrodden people, Bangabandhu was honoured with
the title ‘Bishwabandhu’ in 1973.
Banga, Bangla, Bangladesh – The Evolution of Place and Name
In the current discourse, when we say ‘Bangladesh,’ we refer to the independent
sovereign state established in 1971, and when we say ‘Banga,’ it denotes the ancient
geographical-historical unit and Bangla or Bengal denotes a geographical unit or region
or entity. The term ‘Bangla’ was primarily used before 1947 to convey the circumstances
and local identity. The range of this geographical-historical identity includes the current
independent Bangladesh, and the following states of India - West Bengal, Tripura, and
parts of Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, Assam, and Meghalaya. It’s important to remember
that the evolution and development of the Bengali language occurred within this regional
landmass through various actions, reactions, and interactions. From ancient times to the
present, this land has witnessed diverse processes of nation and state formation. In the
context of both political and cultural perspectives, different ‘identities’ of this land and
its people along with the changes in political boundaries have emerged over different
times.
The discussed Bengal landmass has been shaped by natural processes hardly
accompanied by any human intervention. It features high mountains on one side, hard
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rock terrain on both sides, extensive seas on one side, and a balance of plains in the
middle. The land is somewhat sloping towards the south, like the edge of a saucer.
As a result, the water flowing down the mountains on three sides easily falls into the
southern sea. Geological processes have brought diversity to the region.
30
A large part of the sloping terrain to the south, surrounded by a band of high hilly
red soil on three sides, is the floodplain, the largest delta in the world, formed by the
alluvium of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna. In the words of Niharranjan Roy:
‘Gaud-Barendra-Radha-Suhma-Tamralipti-Samatata-Banga-Bengal-Harikel
etc. towns of ancient Bengal, villages, plain land, hill surrounded by rivers like
Bhagirathi-Karatwa-Brahmaputra-Padma-Meghna and many more rivers are
located within this naturally formed territory. This continent is the source of
historical Bengali work and religion-work-soft ground. This continent of soft clay
is the source of worldly and divine activities of the Bengalis historically.’
Historical Lag
The term ‘historical lag’ refers to the distinctiveness in daily life due to rivers or forests
in a particular region or sub-region. The Bengal region, divided into at least four
sub-regions due to major rivers, exhibits distinct characteristics in the formation of
society and culture in these sub-regions. The experiences of agriculture, for example,
might differ between areas, where people in one part may engage in farming with
a hoe while in another, the knowledge of agriculture might not be prevalent. In one
portion, an urban state may have emerged, but in another, there might still be a lifestyle
rooted in community or clan-based traditions. Monetary transactions may prevail in
one area, while in another, people may not be accustomed to using currency. While
learning about historical lag, you must have understood that simplifying the division
of eras creates various misconceptions. It is only a distortion of history to lump the
entire region together and to write or describe the same progress all over the region
under the same era without taking into account the different life experiences of the
people who settled in the sub-regions of Bengal.
Initial Phases of Identity Formation: Understanding the Essence of

Life and Nature in the Bengal Region
Over the millennia, the identity of ‘Banga’ and ‘Bongal’ has evolved continuously. In
ancient times, various rulers of Bengal region had their insignias in the form of different
pieces of land, and the name “Banga” is mentioned in many scriptures. However, there
is no clear mention of its specific boundaries. References to the name “Bengal” can
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also be found in the scripts of the Chola rulers of South India. Along with several less
familiar name references, these two names have persisted over the years.
31
Map: Bengal region, British Bengal and independent Bangladesh
u tra
map
Brah iver
Co
r a )
up ha
oc
ar tis
h
m yo
Ka j
Be
r ag
ha
(P
r
Ganga River
Sylhet
Pundra
uti
hna
Bihar Lak
Bhagir
athi R
iver
Benga Son
l arg
aon Tri
pu ra
r
a Rive
Meghn
Jh
ark
Sa
ha
ma
nd
Ta nd
m ar
ral
ipt
i The Bay of Bengal
tan
Bengaladesh
kis
Pa Rivers
India Husain Shahi dynasty’s sphere of influence in the Bengal region
South Asia Expansion of Akbar’s empire in the Bengal region
Bengal region
and Indian
Expansion of Aurangzeb’s empire in the Bengal region
subcontinent
Assam
Bihar
y
le
al
Jamuna River
aV
rm
Su
Gan
ga (
Pa
rive dma)
Riv na
r
r
er
agpu
gh
Me
ta N
Cho
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Odisha The Bay of Bengal
tan
kis
Pa British Province of Bengal (the British Province of
India
South Asia Bengal was formed out of a large part of the Bengal
and Bengal Bengal
region
region)
region
32
West Bengal
Emergence of independent
Bangladesh in Bengal region
Assam
Meghalaya
Bihar
iver
Jamuna R
sam
As
Padma
River
Dhaka Tripura
iver
aR
Mizoram
ghn
West Bengal
Me
Odisha
The Bay of Bengal
an
kist Myanmar
Pa
India
Bengal
South region
Asia and
Bengal
region
The Medieval Phase of Identity Formation: From Bangala to Bengal (Bangla)

In the medieval period, the separate identities of ‘Gauda’ and ‘Banga’ emerged during
the administration of ‘Lakhnauti’ and ‘Sonargaon.’ At this time, ‘Satgaon’ also became
a distinct administrative center. However, the influences of the names ‘Banga’ and
‘Gauda’ persisted. During the mid-14th century, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, who came
from Persia, invaded and established the administrative center named ‘Bangalah’
encompassing almost the entire region of Bengal. Thus, the transition from ‘Banga’
to ‘Bongal’ and from ‘Bongal’ to ‘Bangala’ took place. The historian of Delhi’s court,
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Shams-e-Siraj Afeef, identified Sultan Ilyas Shah as ‘Shah-e-Bangalah,’ ‘Shah-e-

Bangaliyan,’ and ‘Sultan-e-Bangalah.’ In the meantime, the names “Bangala” and the
inhabitants’ “Bengali” have spread far and wide. It is almost impossible to determine
the legal boundaries of this Bengal because with time happen the contraction and
expansion of royal power and authority.
33
In the 16th and 17th centuries, due to the Portuguese influence, some parts of the
Bengal region became known as ‘Bengala’ to European writers. Varthema (1510),
Barbosa (1514), and João de Barros (1540-1550) mentioned the kingdom and city of
‘Bengala. Caesar Frederick (1563-1581), Ralph Fitch (1586) and others also wrote
about the existence of the kingdom of ‘Bengal’. Even contemporary maps (such as
those directed by Rennell, van den Broucke) depicted the existence of the kingdom or
city of ‘Bengala.’ The Portuguese term ‘Bengala’ was transformed into ‘Bengal’ during
the English period. In 1905, a series of events led to the partition of Bengal, known in
history as the ‘Bangabhanga (Partition of Bengal).’ The partition did not last long, and
in 1911, the entire region was reintroduced as ‘Bengal.’
The Final Phase of Identity Formation- Final Stage: From Bengala to

Bangladesh
The name ‘Bengala’ underwent transformation to ‘Bengal’ in the hands of the British in
the 18th-20th centuries. This Bengal has been referred to as ‘East Bengal’ at times and
‘West Bengal’ at other times. History shows a clear trend that determining the specific
boundaries of Bengal from Banga has never been possible in the nearly two thousand
years of its history. Consequently, in the easternmost part of the Indian subcontinent,
geographers and historians consider a specific region with natural boundaries as the
‘Bengal Region.’ The history and culture of this Bengal region, after the leadership of
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in the Liberation War of 1971, gave birth to
the independent and sovereign ‘Bangladesh.’ A significant step in the thousand-year
history of Bengal led to the rise of independent ‘Bangladesh,’ creating a crucial phase
in the construction process from Banga to ‘Bangladesh.’ And it is during this phase that
the extensive and widespread participation of people is probably witnessed for the first
time.
‘From ‘Bangabandhu’ to ‘Bishwabandhu’: The Quest for the Humanitarian

Spirit and connection
In the course of this exploratory dialogue, it is evident that the terms ‘Banga’ and
‘Bangladesh’ are intertwined in a historical context and causal relationship. It won’t
be an exaggeration to say that the pivotal figure associated with the most recent phase
of this historical reality is Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, also known as ‘Bangabandhu,’ an
honorific title. In the backdrop of a rare land, enriched with natural boundaries of rivers
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and jungles, this region faced diverse challenges. In response, a group of individuals
undertook the task of safeguarding their existence and gradually contributed to the
creation of a society and culture. Through this continuous process of undertaking
initiatives, various characteristics and indications of the regional uniqueness and
tendencies of Banga and Bangladesh have been highlighted. The question arises
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whether there is any historical connection between these features and the ‘personality’
and ‘leadership’ of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. In this exploration, three books written
by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman have been referenced for information: The Unfinished
Memoirs, The Prison Diaries, and Amar Dekha Noyachin.
Bangabandhu spent his entire life in three phases: the national structures and political
circumstances of British India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In each of these phases of
political circumstances and identity, Bangabandhu’s life was marked by conflicts,
dynamic and constantly evolving challenges and transformations. In the three books
mentioned above and numerous speeches, Bangabandhu emphasised that he engaged
in politics for the liberation of humanity from all forms of oppression, exploitation,
and injustice. Accepting the existing political structure as a challenge, he actively
attempted to address it. As a democratic politician, he sought the path to freedom within
that framework. If we try to learn about his political life, we will find Bangabandhu
faced continuous challenges and conflicts from the contemporary political structures.
However, within the Bengali region, the signals of ‘non-communal’ and ‘humanitarian’
tones already described resonate with the water-soaked land, rain, soil, and struggle
of the Bangabandhu. This connection between the personality and leadership of
Bangabandhu who grew up together with the water-rain-soil-mud of Bengal or the
Bengal continent and the existing ‘non-communal’ and ‘humanitarian’ spirit in the
Bengali society has consistently manifested itself continuously.
Let’s chronologically analyze examining these three phases of Bangabandhu Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman’s life through several examples. This analytical study needs to be
done to understand the connection of the regional spirit and characteristics mentioned
in Bengal with his personality and to understand the construction and reconstruction of
his political thoughts and consciousness. This endeavour of exploration and analysis is
based on the critical in-depth study of his three books and various speeches given by
Bangabandhu.
First Phase (1921-1947)

In the initial phase of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s life, the presence of his first political
thoughts can be observed amidst the political circumstances and the national structure
of British India when he was only sixteen years old. The resonance of the Swadeshi
Movement was still present during this time. He was influenced by this movement and
the ideals of Subhas Chandra Bose. In 1936, the anti-British movement was intense in
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the Indian subcontinent. He wrote, “The English have no right to stay in this country.
Independence must be achieved.” He engaged with those involved in the movement. In
1938, during the visit of the then Labour Minister of Bengal and Muslim League leader
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy to Gopalganj, young Mujib organized a voluntary force
with school students. When Hindu boys started leaving the volunteer force following
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the advice of Congress leaders, Sheikh Mujib was surprised. He wrote, “To me, there
was no difference between Hindu and Muslim. I had very good friendships with Hindu
boys. We used to sing, play, and compete together.”
Second Phase (1947-1971)

The initiation of the second significant phase in Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s life occurs
in 1947 through the political circumstances and national structure of Pakistan, formed
through the partition of India. India and Pakistan emerge as separate states with the
end of British rule. Bangladesh, or Bengal, is divided for the second time, and a part of
its eastern region is incorporated into the geographically distant West Pakistan, 1500
years kilometres away East Pakistan. The creation of Pakistan involves the imposition
of artificial dividing lines, politically connecting the people with Bangladesh’s distinct
geographical area and its residents or separating them through fabricated partition lines
with India/Pakistan. Overlooking their shared experiences and a rich heritage spanning
thousands of years, Sheikh Mujib, during 1947-1971, perceives this newly established
structure as a political facade dominated by exploitation, discrimination, and a single
political agenda. In order to liberate people from this situation, he accepted the reality
of the Radcliffe Line between the conflicting political activities of the time to construct
the identity from ‘Banga’ to ‘Bangladesh’ and at one point crossed different stages
of identity formation to establish ‘Bengali’- nationalism. Noteworthy is that within
Pakistan’s national and political framework, Sheikh Mujib’s ‘personality’ is marked
by the regional qualities of ‘humanitarianism,’ ‘generosity,’ and ‘non-communalism.’
These features are already identified as the main components of his personality. His
actions were inspired by these qualities which provided the foundational basis for the
ideals of his actions.
In September 1947, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman left Kolkata for Dhaka. However, he was
deeply upset and dissatisfied with the process of Bengal’s partition in the name of
religion. Due to this division, the eastern and western parts of Bengal are damaged
and separated, affecting the minority Muslim and Hindu populations and others. He
was intensely disturbed by the profound impact on the people. At this juncture, he
established an organization called ‘Gonotantrik Zubo League’ with the aim of fostering
cultural harmony and maintaining communal amity among all people, irrespective of
their religious or ethnic backgrounds. Sheikh Mujib writes, “The sole agenda of this
organization will be to strive for communal harmony so that there is no riot or conflict.
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Hindus don’t leave the country, and for that, we should work towards what is called
‘communal harmony’ in English.”
In March 1948, Sheikh Mujib joins the Language Movement. Even in the face of
opposition from Muslim League supporters and activists, he did not withdraw from
this movement. Ignoring police restrictions and torture in the movement conducted in
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Dhaka, he took a firm stand in the movement that began on March 11, 1948, demanding
Bengali as the national language. In ‘The Unfinished Memoirs’, he wrote, ‘We were
arrested and sent to jail almost seventy-five to eighty people, creating a commotion
during the evening. As a result, the movement gained momentum. We also received
support from the people of Dhaka’. However, on June 23, 1949, Sheikh Mujib, while
imprisoned, became the joint secretary of the newly formed ‘East Pakistan Awami
Muslim League,’ and in 1953, he was elected as the general secretary. In 1955, under
his initiative, the word ‘Muslim’ was removed from the party’s name, and based on non-
communal consciousness, he immersed himself in politics involving all the people of
Bengal. This period marked significant turning points, divisions, and identity-building
in Bangabandhu’s political life.
Apart from active agitation on the language question since 1948, for protesting against
oppressive government orders issued to paddy workers in Faridpur, Dhaka and Comilla
districts, supporting the ongoing movement of Class IV employees of Dhaka University
(1949) and participating in a hunger march (1949) demanding food for the poor at
Armanitola, Sheikh Mujib came under the wrath of the ruling elite and was arrested.
Similar to the national structure of British India, under the national structure of Pakistan,
he continued to work towards liberating the people from exploitation, oppression, and
discrimination. Expressing his disillusionment with Pakistan’s national identity and
politics, Sheikh Mujib writes:
“I have a severe aversion to the Muslim League leaders. The dream I had seen
for Pakistan has now turned upside down. A change is needed. The people knew
and questioned us. The country has become independent, yet people’s suffering
continues. Corruption has increased, and the food crisis is evident. Political
workers are being imprisoned without trial. The Muslim League leaders are not
accepting Bengali as the state language. In West Pakistan, industrialization has
begun. However, East Pakistan is ignored. The capital is Karachi, and everything
is in West Pakistan. There is nothing in East Bengal.”
In 1952, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman visited Karachi, the capital of the newly formed
Pakistan, for the first time. After seeing the topography and weather of Karachi, he
deeply felt the distance between the land and the people of Pakistan and the thoughts
and physical structure of the people of the industrious people of Bengal, especially the
hardworking farmers and workers. He writes,
“This is the first time I have seen Karachi; I thought, this is our capital! How many
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Bengalis will get the opportunity to see their capital! We are born in the land of green,
wherever we see, we find greenery. Why would we like the stones and sands? There
is a connection between nature and the human mind. The minds of the people of the
sandy land also fly like the sand. And the minds of Bengalis are soft like the alluvial
soil, we are born in the unsparing beauty of green nature, beauty is what we love.”
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In October 1952, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman travels to China for a peace conference.
In June 1957, he visits China for the second time as a representative of the Pakistani
parliamentary group. During his speeches there, he chose to speak in Bengali instead of
Urdu or English. These two trips to China had a significant impact on Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman’s life, influencing his thoughts, philosophy, and political life, as reflected in
Amar Dekha Noyachin. Let’s look at a couple of examples. During his journey to China,
Sheikh Mujib had a meeting with the Pakistani ambassador in Rangoon, Myanmar.
After observing the luxurious and opulent lifestyle of the ambassador, he reflects, “It
would have been better if those who spend so much money had thought about the
condition of the people whose money they spend so lavishly. They have no rice, no
clothes, and no proper place to live. They wander around the streets without food.
Children die of starvation in front of them.” Throughout his trip to China, Sheikh Mujib
went beyond official protocols and extensively interacted with farmers, workers, and
ordinary people. He visited various places, factories, and universities in China, gaining
firsthand experience. He listened to their life stories, shared anecdotes, and even ate
with them at the same table.
Sheikh Mujib noticed that, in China, when a farmer dies due to a lack of food or
medicine, the government officials are inquired about it and measures are taken to
penalise them. However, describing the pitiful situation of farmers and laborers in
Bengal, he writes that in the villages, there may be one or two wealthy individuals,
zamindars, or talukdars. When the poor people in the village face any adversity, whether
due to lack of food, during a girl’s marriage, or in legal matters, they borrow money
from the landlords, mortgaging land or homes. Over time, the twelve anna of land in
the village gradually falls into the hands of these wealthy individuals, and the farmers
become landless or sharecropper. Then one day, due to “the harshness of time,” without
proper treatment and without eating, they die like helpless victims in the fierce grass
of destiny.
Before his second trip to China, on August 25, 1955, at the Pakistan Constituent
Assembly in Karachi, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman stated, “They want to name East
Pakistan instead of East Bengal. We have repeatedly asserted that you should call it
Bangla.” The word ‘Bangla’ has its own history and heritage. In 1956, when the Awami
League came to power, it declared February 21 as ‘Shaheed Dibosh’ (Martyrs’ Day)
and a government holiday. This continued until 1958, but in the same year, after the
declaration of Martial Law, government holidays and the construction of the Shaheed
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Minar were cancelled. In 1960, Sheikh Mujib established a secret organization called
‘Swadhin Bangla Biplobi Parishad’ (Independent Bengal Revolutionary Council).
Nuclear societies were formed in each district and police station. He never accepted the
name ‘East Pakistan’ for the eastern part of Bengal or Bangla. The second crucial phase
of his life (1947-71) witnessed the most significant event of building and rebuilding the
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identity as Bangladesh from Bengal in 1969. On February 23, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
received the title ‘Bangabandhu. On December 5, in a meeting of Awami League,
renamed it ‘East Bengal’ to ‘Bangladesh’ said,
‘At one point, there have been persistent attempts to erase the word ‘Bangla’ from
the heart of this country, from the pages of the map. ... Except in the word ‘Bay of
Bengal,’ the existence of the word ‘Bangla’ is found with any other name. ... On
behalf of the people, I declare - from today, the eastern region of Pakistan will be
called ‘Bangladesh’ instead of ‘East Pakistan’.
When Bangabandhu was asked about the time of the emergence of the idea of
‘Bangladesh’, he had said, In 1947. At that time, I was in Suhrawardy’s group. He
and Sharatchandra Bose wanted the United Bengal. I also desired one country for all
Bengalis. If Bengalis unite, there is nothing they cannot achieve. They can conquer the
world.
Morning rally organized in memory of language martyrs Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur

Rahman, Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani and Tajuddin Ahmad. Date of photograph:
21st February 1964
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In 1964, Sheikh Mujib formed the Riot Prevention Committee. In the same year,
the All-Party Struggle Council was formed, marking the beginning of the anti-Ayub
movement. He was arrested on charges of treason. After being released from prison, on
February 5, 1966, he presented a six-point demand.
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1. Pakistan will have a parliamentary system of government under a federal system.

Elections will be based on universal suffrage by adult voting.
2. The regional Government will have only two portfolios, the Ministry of Defense
and the Ministry of foreign Affairs. In all other matters the States shall have
absolute powers.
3. Either a freely investable two-tier currency, or the circulation of a similar currency
subject to special conditions.
4. The regional government will have the power to levy all types of taxes. There
will be a provision to give a fixed portion of the revenue collected by the regional
governments to the central government.
5. The states will own the foreign exchange earned by themselves, and they will
give their fixed share to the Centre.
6. Empowering states to form paramilitary forces for regional security.
He declared these six points as the “Charter of Freedom for the people of East Bengal
from the oppression of the Pakistani state conspiracy.” Although the democratic
movement and protests against Ayub’s regime were underway in West Pakistan, Sheikh
Mujib, in his speeches and writings, used the term ‘East Pakistan’ more frequently than
‘East Bengal’ at this time. His ultimate disillusionment regarding Pakistan happened
around this time.
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In 1967, Sheikh Mujib could rightly sense the true intention of the Pakistani government.
In a letter dated March 1967, he wrote,
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‘Whatever Ayub Khan says, the right to self-government must be granted one day. If
not, the consequences will be very bad. History has taught this to us. Whenever His
Excellency comes to East Bengal, a grand reception is arranged for him, spending
millions of taka. It seems he comes to see the people as a king. West Pakistan is his
country, and East Bengal is his colony.’
On February 23, 1969, in the event organized by Kendriya Chatra Songram Parishad
at Dhaka’s Race Course Maidan/ Ground (later renamed Suhrawardy Udyan),
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was honored with a massive public gathering, marking
the largest assembly in the history of early Dhaka. He was formally conferred the
title ‘Bangabandhu.’ The explanation given during the public gathering for the title
‘Bangabandhu’ was that, upon analyzing Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s political life,
the undeniable truth that stands out the most is his humanitarianism, especially his
compassion for Bengalis and Bangladeshis. Therefore, he was adorned with the title
‘Bangabandhu,’ meaning the Friend of Bengal.
Image: The public gathering conferring the title Bangabandhu
During the ceremony, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called the notorious
Agartala Conspiracy Case the ‘Islamabad Conspiracy Case.’ Additionally, he
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emphatically declared that they would not accept any restrictions on Rabindranath
Tagore’s literature, music, or any form of prohibition on radio and television, stating,
“We do not accept this arrangement. We will read the books of Rabindranath, we will
sing Rabindra Sangeet, and Rabindra Sangeet will prevail in this country.”
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The distance and distinct identities between Pakistan and East Bengal have been vividly
illustrated by numerous examples. Even a thousand miles away in West Pakistan, if a
government official saw the moon, it would be time for Eid in East Bengal; they had
to perform prayers! Conversely, Sheikh Mujib used to distribute roses and exchange
greetings in the prison on the first day of the Bengali New Year, Pohela Boishakh. These
descriptions provide clear indications of the separate identities of Bengal. Nevertheless,
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, within the contemporary political framework, has established
the political identity of East Bengal and has engaged in movements for the freedom of
oppressed people. He has been confined in jail multiple times. In May 1967, while in
prison, he wrote, “Within these prison walls, I may die, but with this belief, the people
will live, and they will achieve justice one day.”
It must be acknowledged that Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s political
ideology and consciousness underwent significant transformations, and an important
step in building his identity was taken through the Six-Point Movement presented
in 1966. The momentum of his movement aligns with Bengali nationalism, swiftly
transforming into the current of the nationalist movement. From February 1969
onwards, Bangabandhu emerges as an undisputed leader in this region. Sitting within
the framework of Pakistan’s national structure, within the confines of that structure,
through the constitutional opposition, he formulates the path of freedom for the people
of East Bengal, termed the “Path to People’s Liberation.” On January 11, 1970, during
a mass rally at Paltan Maidan, Bangabandhu challenged those who were against the
common people. On November 12, when almost 10 lakh people lost their lives in the
coastal area in Gorki, Bangabandhu canceled the election campaign and stood by the
victims, strongly condemning and protesting the indifference of the Pakistani rulers and
requesting the world for relief. Bangabandhu won the absolute mandate of the people
in the general elections held on December 7 amid this natural and human disaster of
the 1970s cyclone.
Third Phase (1971-1975)

In the beginning of the discussion about Bangabandhu’s life in the context of Bangladesh,
it has been mentioned that Bangabandhu navigated his entire life through three types
of political situations, national structures and identities, transcending the prevailing
norms. From within the existing framework, he engaged in humanitarian politics for the
liberation of people from oppression and injustice. The dialectics of politics, constant
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changes, and upheavals shaped the third and final stage of his political life under the
independent and sovereign state of ‘Bangladesh.
In ‘The Unfinished Memoirs’, it can be seen that Bangabandhu, during the time of
the communal riots in India, worked with a non-communal and humanitarian mindset,
along with a courageous spirit, to protect the people. After the creation of Pakistan,
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Bangabandhu actively participated in movements against the oppressive ruling elite of
Pakistan. Gradually, surpassing several levels of twists, turns, and identity building, he
emerged as a leader in March 1971. Bangabandhu realized that achieving freedom under
the governance of Pakistan was not possible, and since then, the idea of Bangladesh’s
independence took firm roots in his mind. Through regional autonomy movements,
he gradually shifted towards the establishment of an independent and sovereign state,
‘Bangladesh.’ On March 7, 1971, with a massive gathering in the historic Ramna Race
Course Ground in Dhaka, Bangabandhu called the 23-year old history of the concept of
Pakistan the ‘History of the Blood of Bengalis.’ He called upon all people to stand against
the exploitation of the ruling class of Pakistan. Even amidst the formidable positions of
the Pakistani military and air forces, Bangabandhu adeptly prepared for guerrilla warfare,
directing the people of Bengal to ‘build fortresses in every Bengal home.’
In the long course of history, the people of Bengal have always fought against the
adversity of nature, violent creatures, and at times, against discrimination based on
language, religion, and political power, preserving their identity. The indomitable
spirit of survival, acquired through the unique characteristics of this land and the
collective experience of its history, culture, and people over thousands of years, found
its profound reflection in the speech of the 7th March. This speech was a bold move
to liberate the people of Bengal and challenge Pakistan’s identity. Historian Professor
Abul Kashem said, “This speech was a green signal to the students, political leaders,
activists, military figures and freedom-seeking Bengali people to jump into the war of
independence.” The speech of March 7 is a significant event in building the identity
from Bengal to Bangladesh and Bangabandhu. The continuous struggle and experience
of the people of Bengal led to a new phase in March, where the awakened people of
Bengal, against oppression and discrimination, actively advanced towards building a
new identity through armed struggle.
On the night of March 25, the most brutal genocide in history occurred. It was on this
night that Bangabandhu declared Bangladesh’s independence directly and officially at
12:20 AM on March 26, 1971 before his arrest at 1:30 AM.
This may be my last message: From today Bangladesh is independent. I call upon the
people of Bangladesh wherever you may be and with whatever you have, to resist the
army of occupation to the last. Your fight must go on until the last soldier of the Pakistan
occupation army is expelled from the soil of Bangladesh and final victory is achieved.
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Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, ‘The Unfinished Memoirs’ (published year 2012, page-299)
Thus Bangladesh became independent through a 9-month armed war with the name
‘Bangladesh’ given by Sheikh Mujib and the slogan ‘Joy Bangla’.
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Image: The most brutal massacre of 1971

On January 10, 1972, Bangabandhu was released from Pakistan’s Mianwali prison and
entered into a new political situation and structure and identity of the country called
Bangladesh. On this day, in front of a massive crowd at the Race Course Maidan,
Bangabandhu delivered an emotional speech. (For details of this speech visit website
mujib100.gov.bd). At one point in this speech, he recited a stanza of a poem by
Rabindranath Tagore and said,
‘Rabindranath said, “O delightful Mother of seven crore children, you have created,
not humans, but Bengalis,.” However, today, the poet’s words have been proven
false; my Bengali people have indeed become humans.’
This statement by Bangabandhu became particularly relevant upon entering independent
Bangladesh. His emphasis on establishing the identity of ‘human’ over ‘Bengali’ stands
as an illustrative example. Bangabandhu’s articulation of the concept that in the history
of the world, there is no other example like Bengal, where the ‘self-sacrifice’ and
‘dedication’ of the people during the Liberation War, resonates deeply.
In the first two phases of his life, Bangabandhu engaged in politics, navigating the complex
terrain of political identity, circumstances, and national structure, primarily working
alongside the ruling class in conflicts and confrontations to serve the oppressed and
exploited people. However, upon attaining independence, Bangabandhu found himself
facing a new situation as the Prime Minister/President of Bangladesh. In a war-ravaged
Bangladesh, he confronted multifaceted challenges. Signs of communalism, religious
bigotry, corruption, theft, oppression, and various forms of malpractice even within the
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people of the newly born Bangladesh dimmed the dream of “Sonar Bangla [Bengal of
Gold]” envisioned by Bangabandhu. From 1972 to 1975, through various initiatives and
speeches, it is evident that Bangabandhu, in his own established Bangladesh, took a stand
against the injustice, oppression, and persecution done by some individuals. It is perhaps
due to this stance that he faced various tests and examinations in the socio-political arena.
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On February 20, 1972, during a public gathering in Bhola, Bangabandhu Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman provided guidance on the issue of granting land to landless farmers.
In the same year, in December, at a reception ceremony organized by the government
employees’ association. He stated-
“If the basic needs of the hardworking people are not fulfilled, the achievement of
freedom through numerous sacrifices will go in vain. ... The disparities between the
rich and the poor must be eliminated. In matters concerning the people’s interests,
I have never compromised in my political life.”
Bangabandhu not only opposed disparities between the rich and the poor but also
steadfastly worked towards building a society free from discrimination based on race,
caste, and religion, guided by the principles of ‘humanity,’ ‘secularism,’ and ‘tolerance.’
His political strategy in promoting ‘Bengali nationalism’ played a pivotal role in
liberating Bangladesh from the Pakistani regime. However, within a year of gaining
independence, in an interview in December 1972, Bangabandhu stated:
“As a strategy to eliminate communalism, I have followed the principles of
nationalism. If this ideology becomes effective, I believe that gradually, in the
future of Bangladesh, the people will overcome the shackles of nationalism and
transcend into a global humanistic perspective.”
In another statement on the occasion of Bangladesh’s first Independence Day at the
Race Course Maidan, he expressed his vision about himself, saying,
“Mujibur Rahman is a soft person, like the softness of the soil of Bengal; the way
the alluvial soil becomes soft when wet, I am also soft, and just as the soil of
Bengal becomes hard in the intense sun of Chaitra, I know how to be hard.”
From the above-mentioned two statements, a portrait of Bangabandhu’s mentality
emerges where there is evidence of the continued presence of the eternal humanitarian
tone or signs despite his political life, constant upheavals, twists and turns, and
contradictions. He chose nationalism for the liberation of Bangladesh. He believed that
this ideology would gradually lead the people of Bangladesh beyond the limitations
of nationalism to a global humanitarian perspective. He also achieved the recognition
of this destination. Joliot-Curie decorated Bangabandhu with the title ‘Friend of the
World’ when he was appointed the Secretary-General of the UN on May 23, 1973.
In September 1973, while addressing the Non-Aligned Summit held in Algeria,
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Bangabandhu directed his position towards the country, nation, and caste identities.
He said, “The world is now divided into two parts. One part is the oppressors,
and the other part is the oppressed. I am with the oppressed.” Changing the focus
from language or religion to class, he centralizes the discussion and declares his
position on behalf of all oppressed people around the world. In this conference,
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Bangabandhu had meetings with Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and Saudi King
Faisal. They proposed that if Bangladesh declared itself an ‘Islamic Republic,’ it
would be given recognition, and all kinds of opportunities and facilities would be
provided. However, Bangabandhu rejected this proposal, stating, “It is not possible
because Bangladesh is a country for everyone—Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists,
Christians, and people of other religions alike.” At this conference, Cuban leader
Fidel Castro met with Bangabandhu. Impressed by his personality and courage,
Castro remarked, “I haven’t seen the Himalayas, but I have seen Sheikh Mujib. In
personality and courage, this man is the Himalayas. I have thus got the experience
of seeing the Himalayas.”
When we explore the history of the identity construction of a humanitarian
Bishwabandhu or Friend of the World, we find that wherever Bangabandhu went, he
spread the ideas of global humanity, generosity, and non-discrimination. He aimed to
embody all these ideals and wanted to build the ‘Golden Bengal.’ On January 30, 1972,
during the ceremony of surrendering weapons by all the factions of the Liberation
Forces at Dhaka Stadium, Bangabandhu stated in his speech, “The marauding Pakistani
forces have destroyed our Golden Bengal. However, they could not take away the soil
of our Golden Bengal.” On December 15, 1973, on the occasion of the Victory Day,
Bangabandhu said in a speech broadcast on radio and television,
“As long as I do not see smiles on the faces of the poor farmers and labourers, I
will not find peace in my heart. True independence will only come to Bangladesh
when all the sorrows of the farmers, workers, and the distressed people will come
to an end.”
Afterwards, he sternly spoke against corruption, black marketeering, unethical business
practices, malpractices, and bribery. In the same speech, he further stated,
“We are overcoming the biggest crisis in history. Our country has been plundered
and oppressed for three hundred years. There are thousands of problems in its
society and economy. To build the Golden Bengal, we need golden people.”
In September 1974, when Bangladesh became a member of the United Nations,
Bangabandhu addressed a massive gathering of representatives at the UN General
Assembly in Bangla and introduced himself as a representative of more than seventy
million people of Bangladesh. In his final address to the UN, he expressed his belief in
the invincible power of man and the ability to confront any challenge.
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In January 1975, while addressing as the chief guest at the Comilla Cantonment,
Bangabandhu vividly described the sufferings of the distressed people of Bangladesh,
who were under the influence of bribery, corruption, black marketing and unlawful
business. He stated, “I have taken an oath, and you should take an oath too.” He vows
to overthrow those who oppress people. On March 26, 1975, in a speech delivered
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at the Suhrawardy Udyan, Bangabandhu emphasized establishing the dignity of the
common people and identifying the corrupt. He said,
“The educated class prefers employment. Your salary is provided by that poor
farmer. Your salary is provided by that poor worker. Your family runs on that
money. We ride cars with that money. Speak to them with respect, speak with
dignity. They are the owners.”
Bangabandhu, with a self-motivated effort to build the nation for the well-being of the
people, embraced numerous multi-faceted projects. The evidence of such numerous
endeavours can be found in the distinguished economist, Professor Anisur Rahman’s
book ‘Ze Agun Jolechilo’ [The Fire That was Lit]. During this pivotal and concise
third phase of his life, alongside the creation of the nation, Bangabandhu aspired to
establish a sense of ‘pride’ and ‘excellence’ in almost every aspect-religion, nationality,
land, language, and culture. He rose to foster an identity in the forms of ‘human’ and
‘global humanity,’ firmly grounded in the ideals of equality, generosity, inclusivity, and
humanity. During this time, he circulated these principles unequivocally wherever he
went. Crossing the layers of twists and turns of political life, Bangabandhu elevated
himself to a special level of self-identification as a ‘human’.
Group Work 2
We have learned a lot about Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from our
textbooks. Now, let’s gather information about an adult who knows about a freedom
fighter or the Liberation War and has ideals and awareness about Bangabandhu. For
the interview, here are some sample questions:
Questionnaire for interview

1.Was there any Liberation War?
2.Why was our independence from Pakistan necessary?
3.What role did Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman play in the Liberation War of
Bangladesh?
4.Who participated in the Liberation War of Bangladesh?
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…………….
………………
……………..
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Afterwards, analyzing the information gathered from the interview and textbooks, we
will create a timeline of different events in Bangabandhu’s life where he prioritized
national interest over personal gain. We can present the results of our research by
drawing a timeline similar to the one below if necessary.
Timeline of different events in Bangabandhu’s life

Prioritize national interest over personal interest
01 02 03 04
Group Work 3
Now, let’s discuss Bangabandhu’s ideals and awareness of the Liberation War. After
that, we will discuss “Our Responsibilities in Personal, Social, and National Spheres
to Prioritize National Interest over Personal Gain.” Following the discussion, we
will create a poster on a chart paper with the tasks outlined below, similar to the
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illustration:
48
Prioritize national interest over personal interest

What we have to do
Personal Spheres Social Spheres National Spheres
Group Work 4
Bangabandhu Fair Organization
We, the group formed earlier with 5 to 6 members, will continue working together.
Each group will choose any event from the life of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman and treat it as a case study. They will gather relevant information about the
event and prepare a drama/poster paper/powerpoint presentation. We will present the
drama/poster paper/powerpoint presentation created by us at the ‘Bangabandhu Fair’
on March 26. To organize this fair, we will decide on a venue and time in the school.
To ensure participation in the fair, we will invite various notable individuals from the
local community. If needed, we can seek assistance from teachers to write invitation
letters.
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Political Structure and Civic Responsibility
Humans are social beings. We all live in some society or another. The family is a crucial
primary structure of society. Basically, the family is created to manage our social life
beautifully and properly. Now, let’s look at the society or the state; individuals and
their roles are unique for the proper management of all the structures. In this learning
experience, analyzing social and political structures existing locally and globally, we
will define our position and role in each of these areas. With this goal in mind, in the
entire learning experience, we will engage in some individual and group activities.
A Scientific Method of Inquiry into The Management of Locally

Existing Social and Political Structures
We all know that a school is a crucial local social structure, and the Union Parishad/
City Corporation is a political structure. Just as in our families, every member has
a unique role to play through the division of tasks, our localities also have people
responsible for proper management. We now follow scientific research methods to
investigate the management of local social and political structures, starting with the
school’s headteacher and any elected representative from the Union Parishad/City
Corporation. We have already known about scientific research methods. If there is a
need to revisit this knowledge, we will do so by analyzing the first learning experience
more carefully.
◊ To carry out the task, we will create two separate questionnaires to gather
information through scientific research methods from any elected representative of
the Union Parishad/City Corporation and the headteacher of the school regarding
the local government’s administration and the school’s activities. We will divide
this task among a group of 5-6 individuals.
◊ Using the provided sample questionnaire below, we will create two questionnaires
for our research.
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50
Sample Questionnaire
Research on School Structure and Programs
Questionnaire
1. How is the academic curriculum managed in the school?
2. Who are involved in the administrative tasks of the school?
3. How are these responsibilities distributed?
4. In your opinion, what additional elements could improve the academic and
administrative aspects?
5....
6....
7....
Union Parishad / City Corporation Structure and Programs Research
Questionnaire
1. At what level of government structure is the Union Parishad / City Corporation

positioned?
2. Who or which entities allocate responsibilities here?
3. What are the primary tasks?
4. In your opinion, what other programs would be beneficial if implemented here?
5....
6....
7....
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◊ Analyzing the information obtained from the research, we will identify our roles in
the services available at the school and Union Parishad. Using the provided format,
we will present the information on a poster paper. We can use an old calendar or a
paper packet for the poster paper.
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Social Structure (School)

Types of Services
How it is Managed My Role
Available
Political Structure (Union Parishad/ City Corporation)

Types of Services
How it is Managed My Role
Available
Analysis of Social and Political Structures Existing Locally and Globally

We have learned about a local social and political structure. Undoubtedly, there are
many more social and political structures at both local and global levels! Let’s examine
and identify our positions in these structures by analyzing the locally and globally
existing social and political structures based on the information available in textbooks.
Next, we will discuss the possible roles we might play collectively.
◊ Using the provided format below, we can create a list.
Existing Social Structures My Position My Role
Adhering to school rules,

School Student cooperating in maintaining
cleanliness ...
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Existing Political
My Position My Role
Structures
Preserving the
Union Parishad/ City environment of the area,
Citizens
Corporation assisting those affected by
natural disasters.
Comparatively analyzing globally existing various political ideologies

to determine one’s own position.
The political history of the world is quite diverse. Let’s now delve into that diverse
political history. To accomplish this task, we will thoroughly study the political structure
and civic responsibilities (research section) mentioned in our textbooks and the global
perspective: In Search of Political History. These two learning experiences will be read
carefully. After that, by comparatively analyzing globally available various political
ideologies from textbooks and other sources, I will identify my position and conduct
an economic analysis for my position.
We will present the information obtained through the analysis following the format
provided below.
Globally existing political Arguments for my

My Position
ideologies position
Listing and implementing Tasks that impact locally and globally

existing social and political structures
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Through this learning experience, we have gained insights about our positions and
roles in the existing social and political structures both locally and globally. Next,
we plan to actively engage in the formation of a Civic Club by electing members
through democratic means for the ninth grade. By forming an active citizen club,
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we will take steps to implement some works, as an activity of this club, in the light of
the social and political structure in our area, which will affect the local structures as
well as the global structures.
Initially, we will identify the roles we have highlighted in the existing social and
political structures locally and globally. We will focus on implementing 1 or 2 of
these tasks through our newly formed Civic Club, which will have an impact on both
local and global structures. To carry out this task, we will seek the cooperation of
teachers and experienced individuals in the local area.
List of Tasks
Political Structure and Civic Responsibility (Inquire Part)

Today, when the history and social science teacher entered the classroom, it seemed
like he was a bit sad. Seeing his demeanor, everyone was a little surprised. Not being
able to stay silent, Seema said, “Sir, is everything okay with you?” Without saying
anything, the teacher took out his mobile phone from his pocket, and said, “Listen.”
Two verses were heard on the mobile phone - (or the teacher will recite)-
হিংসায় উন্মত্ত পৃথ্বী, নিত্্য নিঠুর দ্বন্দ্ব;
ঘো�োর কুটিল পন্থ তার, লো�োভ জটিল বন্ধ॥
Sultana said, “Wonderful song! Can we listen to the whole song, sir?”
“Before that, let’s do one thing”, said the teacher.
Everyone, in unison, asked, “What will we do?”
The teacher asked them to notice the lyrics. He said, “It seems the world is engulfed
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in violence, with relentless conflicts occurring everywhere every day. The path ahead
appears dark and deceitful, obstructed at every step by the barriers of greed.” Can
you mention the organization that plays an important role in stopping these wars and
establishing peace? Everyone said, It is the United Nations. So let’s all know about the
background and activities of the United Nations.
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Background of the Formation of the United Nations (UN)

War can never be a harbinger of peace. War brings destruction, suffering, and unrest.
Across the globe, there are cries of agony, oppression. At the beginning of the 20th
century and during the mid-twentieth century, the first World War (1914-1918) and
the second World War (1939-1945) profoundly scarred our beloved world. Some
individuals, with the intention of overcoming global conflicts and fostering a mindset
of peace, silently observed the horrors of war and sought a path to resolution. In the
pursuit of a solution, the League of Nations was established worldwide on January
10, 1920, following the aftermath of the First World War. However, due to various
reasons, the League of Nations failed to achieve its objectives. The Second World War
ensued. In this war, sixty million people lost their lives, and many were left wounded.
Numerous became homeless. Some embraced disability as a lifelong companion.
Many countries have suffered losses, losing their capable youth in wars. You should
know that in this war, the United States dropped atomic bombs on two small cities in
Japan, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In a moment, 66 thousand people lost their lives in
Hiroshima, and in Nagasaki, 40 thousand people lost their lives. Moreover, due to the
nuclear radiation, nearly two hundred thousand people suffered prolonged agony and
succumbed to death. On that day, both cities were instantly transformed into monuments
of destruction.
First World War

This war began with a singular event at the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Sarajevo.
The Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (modern Austria and
Hungary) was assassinated by Serbian nationalists on June 28, 1914. The side that
initiated the invasion was referred to as the Axis Powers or Central Powers. This side
included Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Turkey. The opposing side was called the
Allies. This side consisted of England, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro,
and Japan. Through the defeat of the Axis Powers, the war came to an end in 1918.
During these four years of war, more countries in Europe became entangled, and the
battlefield expanded across Europe. Nearly a crore (ten million) people lost their lives
in this war, and twice that number were injured. The power of Germany and Turkey
was weakened in this war.
Second World War

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It is said that among the treaties signed at the end of the First World War (especially
the Versailles Treaty), the seeds of the Second World War were sown. This treaty was
humiliating for Germany. Consequently, within just ten years, the National Socialist
Party, led by Adolf Hitler, came to power in Germany.
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From then on, preparations for a major war and the accumulation of power in Germany
began on a large scale. The war began with the invasion of Poland in September 1939.
Once again, both sides were gearing up for a powerful alliance. The Axis Powers, led
by Germany, included Italy and Japan. The Allies included England, Russia, and the
United States. Germany gradually invaded Poland, Holland, Norway, Denmark, and
France. They also conducted successful campaigns in the East. The Soviet Union, led
by Stalin, resisted German aggression. That resistance initiated the turning point in the
war. Under Churchill’s leadership, England showed strong morale and successfully
resisted in the resistance war.
This war increased the power and number of nuclear weapons on one side, while on
the other side, it paved the way for the emergence of independent nations in Africa
and Asia. The extensive loss of young lives in the war led to the entry of women into
the workforce in Europe, creating a new reality. This facilitated the empowerment
and establishment of rights for women. However, with the United States and the
former Soviet Union emerging as two superpowers within the war, new tensions
and divisions were created, leading to a new phase called the Cold War. Although
there was no direct war between the two sides, competition in arms, arms race, and
tensions persisted. Armed conflicts continue in various parts of the world, and the
threat of armed confrontation never ceases.
After the end of the Second World War, the renowned scientist Einstein said, “The
war is won, but not peace.”
The horrors of the Second World War seemed to awaken the global conscience.
However, some individuals recognized the need to ensure peace and security on Earth.
This necessity paved the way for the immediate formation of an international institution
by the world leaders during the war. From 1941 to 1945, several key meetings were
held to reduce global tensions. In August 1941, U.S. President Roosevelt and British
Prime Minister Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter. This charter emphasized the
right to self-determination, freedom from fear and want, and the establishment of
permanent peace for all nations. Based on these ideals, the United Nations Charter
was later formulated. However, the name ‘United Nations’ came into existence on
January 1, 1942, through the declaration signed by Britain, the United States, China,
and the Soviet Union. In this declaration, the four nations expressed their support for
the policies and ideals outlined in the Atlantic Charter. This commitment was later
known as the ‘United Nations Declaration.’ Subsequently, on January 2, another 22
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states declared their support for the initiative. The groundwork for the establishment of
the United Nations was laid during events such as the Moscow Declaration, the Tehran
Conference, the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, and the Yalta Conference. In October
1943, the foreign ministers of the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, and China
met in Moscow and issued a joint declaration known as the ‘Moscow Declaration.’
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This declaration stated the intention to create an international organization that would
be based on the principles of global supremacy and equality. It emphasized that this
organization would be open to all peace-loving nations, irrespective of their size, to
ensure global peace and security.
In November 1943, in Tehran, the three top leaders of world politics, Roosevelt (United
States), Stalin (Soviet Union), and Churchill (Britain), met in a historic summit. In a
joint statement, they announced that an invitation would be extended to all nations,
large and small, to join an international organization. They further conveyed their
belief that their collective efforts would succeed in safeguarding world peace. Through
the establishment of peace, they aimed to help all nations overcome the horrors of war.
The initiative for the formation of an international organization took a concrete shape
during the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in Washington in August 1944. The discussions
began at the first level among the Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain.
The second level of discussions started on September 29, 1944, and continued until
October 7. During the conference, a proposal for the creation of a global organization
and its framework was put forward.
The conference decided to name the global organization as the United Nations or the
United Nations. The conference also decided that the United Nations would have
four branches - a General Assembly with all member states, an 11-member Security
Council, an International Court of Justice, and a Secretariat. The composition of the
Security Council includes both permanent and non-permanent members. It is said that
five countries will be permanent members, and six countries will hold non-permanent
seats. The selection of non-permanent members was decided to be held every two years
through elections in the General Assembly. The Dumbarton Oaks plan was made a
reality at a summit in Yalta, Soviet Union, in February 1945. Roosevelt, Stalin, and
Churchill attended the conference. In that summit, the five major powers, the United
States, the Soviet Union, Britain, China, and France, were given veto power. They
made a unanimous decision that, in the interest of ensuring peace and security, an
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international organization should be quickly established.

According to the decision of the Yalta summit, representatives from 50 countries
gathered in the city of San Francisco in the United States from April 25 to June 26, 1945,
to draft a document. On June 26, a document consisting of 111 articles was approved.
It accepted the veto power of the Big Five. However, the document was unanimously
57
signed on October 24 of that year. A total of 51 countries signed the original document.
Therefore, we observe United Nations Day every year on October 24. All independent
countries around the world are members of the international organization ‘United
Nations.’ Currently, 193 countries are members of the United Nations. The list also
includes two observer states: Vatican City and Palestine. Notably, the headquarters of
the United Nations is located in New York City, United States. It has branch offices in
Geneva, Vienna, and Nigeria.
In Article 1 of the United Nations Charter, four objectives are mentioned.

These are-
1. Maintaining international peace and security;

2. Acknowledging the right to self-determination of every nation and establishing
friendly relations based on equality among them;
3. Increasing international cooperation for the solution of economic and social
problems, ensuring respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; and
4. Making the United Nations the focal point for all nations in achieving the above-
mentioned objectives.
In Article 2 of the United Nations Charter, seven fundamental principles are mentioned.
The objectives stated in Article 1 are deemed essential for implementation according
to these principles. The United Nations Charter expresses optimism that each country
will govern its national activities by keeping these seven fundamental policies at the
forefront. These seven principles are:
a) The United Nations was established on the principles of sovereignty and equality
of every nation;
b) Each member state is obligated to abide by the provisions and obligations imposed
by the United Nations in matters concerning the rights of other states;
c) In order to keep international peace and security undisturbed, each member state
shall strive to refrain from any actions against other states that might lead to hostility;
d) Each nation will respect the political sovereignty and territorial integrity of other
nations;
e) Every decision adopted by the United Nations will be supported by the member
states;
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f) UN will take initiatives to make non-member states follow the rules of UN for the
sake of global peace and security;
g) The United Nations cannot intervene in the internal affairs of any state. However, if
peace and security are disrupted, then the United Nations can intervene in the internal
affairs of that country.
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Branches of the United Nations

According to the charter, there are six branches of the United Nations.
They are:
(General
Assembly)
(Secretariat) Security
Council)
United
Nations
(International (Economic and

Court of Social Council)
Justice)
(Trusteeship
Council)
Bangladesh and United Nations

Bangladesh is the 136th member of the United Nations. As a result, our country has
had a longstanding cooperative relationship with the United Nations. On September 25,
1974, the Father of the Nation, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, attracted deep
international attention through his speech in Bengali at the United Nations General
Assembly. Additionally, the temporary membership of the Security Council for the
1979-80 period was a result of trust from the global community for Bangladesh. Since
1984, the use of the Bangla language in the UN’s practices has become a matter of pride
for us globally. In 1986, the former Foreign Minister of Bangladesh, Humayun Rashid
Choudhury, chaired the 42nd session of the UN General Assembly.
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In Bangladesh, various residential and non-residential organizations of the United

Nations are providing assistance in the socio-economic development of the country.
Post the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) era in the early 21st century, the main
focus of these organizations is to support or play a supportive role in achieving the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) by the year 2030.
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The initiation of the relationship between Bangladesh and the United Nations dates
back to the Liberation War in 1971. The Liberation War in Bangladesh was not just a
struggle for freedom; it was a fight against injustice, oppression, and the establishment
of fundamental human rights. The United Nations first joined the Liberation War in
Bangladesh to publicly condemn human rights violations.
In March 1971, during the historic non-cooperation movement, the leadership

participating in the movement sent a message to the then Secretary-General of the
United Nations, U-Thant, seeking support for the establishment of the right to self-
determination of the people of the then East Pakistan. At that time, they had a meeting
with the representative of the United Nations Development Programme in Dhaka. The
genocide perpetrated against the people of Bangladesh in 1971 elicited a strong global
reaction. On that day, U-Thant, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, along
with other international leaders, strongly condemned the genocide, referring to it as a
‘blemished chapter in human history.
After the formation of the government on April 17, 1971, one of its crucial tasks
was to garner global support and recognition for the cause of the Liberation War of
Bangladesh. For this purpose, a special delegation from the Mujibnagar government
was sent to the 26th session of the United Nations General Assembly on September
21, 1971. In October 1971, representatives of Bangladesh held a press conference
at the United Nations Plaza, using the opportunity to inform the world that we have
emerged from the possibility of oppression. On December 4, 1971, the statements of
representatives from Bangladesh at the United Nations Assembly were included as an
official document of the Security Council. This marked the first occasion when the
voice of the people of Bangladesh was presented directly through their representatives
to the United Nations.
Assistance to Refugee
The United Nations was active in providing assistance to refugees. Due to the inhumane
atrocities and genocide committed by the Pakistani military, millions of Bangladeshis
fled their homes and sought refuge in neighboring India. The management and financial
requirements to shelter these refugees were beyond the capacity of any single nation.
During that critical period, the involvement of the United Nations in assisting Bangladeshi
refugees played a significant role, contributing to the strategic advantage of Bangladesh
in its war of liberation. Pakistan and some other countries tried to portray the war as
Pakistan’s ‘internal affair’ or ‘India-Pakistan conflict’. The United Nations debunked
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the false narratives. The high-ranking officials of the United Nations, including Prince
Sadruddin Aga Khan, and other UN personnel, visited various refugee camps to observe
the conditions. Apart from the UNHCR, various agencies of the United Nations, such
as the World Health Organization, World Food Programme, and UNICEF, initiated
projects for the welfare of refugees under the umbrella of the United Nations.
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In June 1971, during a meeting in Paris initiated by the World Bank, efforts were
made to provide new assistance until the return to normalcy in Bangladesh. The donor
consortium refused to provide assistance until a stable government was established
in Bangladesh. The World Bank’s statement, ‘East Pakistan is currently without a
government,’ resonated strongly with the Bangladesh Liberation War. In 1971, the
refugee crisis in Bangladesh was also prominently raised in the discussions of the
United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
Relief and Rehabilitation
After the independence of Bangladesh, the United Nations initiated extensive relief
and rehabilitation programs. On December 21, 1971, the United Nations Secretary-
General, Kurt Waldheim, officially announced the relief operation in Dhaka known as
UN Relief Operation Dhaka (UNROD). The formal launch and responsibility for the
relief operation were handed over to the Under Secretary-General. Sir Robert Jackson
led the initiation of this relief work. Due to the expansion of the program’s scope,
UNROD was renamed to United Nations Relief Bureau (UNRB), later transformed
into the Bangladesh United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Program (BUNRRP).
General Secretary’s Visit to Bangladesh
The relationship between Bangladesh and the United Nations became stronger when
on February 9, 1973, the UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim visited Bangladesh and
met with the then Prime Minister Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Both leaders
discussed the development of the war-torn country’s infrastructure. This visit enhanced
diplomatic ties between Bangladesh and the United Nations. During this visit, with
the assistance of the United Nations, sunken ships in the port, a consequence of the
war, were salvaged. Additionally, in July 1973, the United Nations took initiative to
repatriate stranded Bangalis in Pakistan.
Organizations of the United Nations are working in Bangladesh

UNDP: (United Nations Development Programme)- This is a subsidiary body
of the United Nations General Assembly. Established on November 22, 1965,
this institution operates numerous programs nationwide for the economic and
social development of Bangladesh under the name UNDP.
By 2015, Bangladesh achieved eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
UNDP with the assistance of UNDP. Notable successes include the reduction of
child mortality, improvement in maternal health, reduction of poverty rates,
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and empowerment of women. In 2010, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina of

Bangladesh received the United Nations award for her significant contribution
to achieving the Millennium Development Goals, especially in reducing child
mortality. Currently, efforts are underway to achieve the seventeen Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) for comprehensive development.”
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UNICEF: (United Nations Children’s Fund)- It was established on December

11, 1946. After the Second World War, countless children were orphaned
in various countries around the world. This organization stemmed from the
UNICEF decision to create a fund to aid those children.
UNICEF is working towards ensuring the fundamental rights and provisions
for the disadvantaged children in our country, aiming to secure education and
healthcare.
UNESCO: (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)-
It was established on November 16, 1945 after the Second World War during
the London Conference. In 1946, this organization obtained recognition as a
subsidiary body of the United Nations. The organization is housed in France’s
UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
The main objective of this United Nations agency is the advancement of the
quality of life through the promotion of education, science, and culture globally,
including Bangladesh.
FAO: (Food & Agriculture Organization)- It was established in 1945. Its
headquarter is in Rome, Italy.
FAO
It is working with the Bangladesh government to ensure food security for the
country’s vast and growing population.
WHO: (World Health Organization)- It was established on April 7, 1948. The
headquarter of WHO is in Geneva, Switzerland.
WHO The World Health Organization (WHO) is implementing various programs
in the health sector in Bangladesh. In 2014, the World Health Organization
declared Bangladesh as polio-free.
UNHCR: (United Nations High Commission for Refugees)- It was established

on December 14, 1958. UNHCR received the Nobel Peace Prize twice, in 1954
and 1981. It is mediating on the Bangladesh-Myanmar issue.
UNHCR This organization is also making a big contribution in meeting the daily
expenses of millions of refugees around the world including Bangladesh. Apart
from this, this organization has contributed greatly to the housing of the Bihari
community in Bangladesh and other issues
UNIFEM: (United Nations Development Fund for Women)- It’s an affiliate

organization of the United Nations. This organization in Bangladesh implements
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various programs for the development of women.

UNIFEM
It plays a role in advocating for women’s rights and engages them in economic
activities. Additionally, it works on various issues concerning women, including
safe labor practices.
62
UNFPA: (United Nations Population Fund)- It works on developing national

healthcare skills and protocols, raising awareness about family planning,
ending child marriage, gender-based violence, and ensuring maternal care,
UNFPA among other things.
The organization is implementing various programs for the development of the
population in Bangladesh.
ILO: (International Labour Organization) -It is an international organization
established with the goal of promoting progress and equality in the workplace
for workers and employees. In short, it is known as ILO. Founded on April 11,
1919, according to the Versailles Treaty, the International Labour Organization
operates to ensure social justice, internationally recognized human rights, and
labor rights. Since its inception, the organization has been working towards
achieving its overarching goal of social justice, especially in the context
of long-term peace. Its main headquarters is located in the city of Geneva,
ILO Switzerland.
Actually, the International Labour Organization (ILO) tirelessly works
towards the goal of ensuring an 8-hour workday for workers, receiving fair
wages conducive to a decent life, and acquiring rights in a humane working
environment. The organization consistently addresses various issues faced
by workers worldwide and endeavors to maintain dynamic employer-worker
relationships to keep the production process efficient. As a result, the ILO takes
pride in being the first specialized agency of the United Nations.
In addition to the aforementioned organizations, several other development agencies

of the United Nations are also working on comprehensive development in Bangladesh.
One day, the teacher came to the class and said, “Have you noticed that we often discuss
Bangladesh in the context of the world stage? Let’s learn about the local initiatives in
the same way we work for peace, security, and development on the global platform.”
The students enthusiastically expressed their support, and the teacher then elaborated
on the details of local initiatives.
As we all know, every two years, elections are held to choose members for the school
Managing Committee (SMC). In this process, a president, several parent members,
the headmaster, and two or more teacher representatives are elected through votes.
Just as the School Managing Committee works for the improvement of education
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quality and overall development of the school, for the development of our locality,
examining amenities and inconveniences, there exists local government bodies like
the City Corporation, Municipal Council, or Union Parishad. By interviewing a
Councilor/Mayor/UP Chairman or Member, we will collect information to understand
the framework and activities of local government.
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Taking into consideration the number of students in a history and social science class
at a school in the area of the City Corporation, the teacher divided the students into 5/6
groups. Under Asir’s leadership, one group went to the Councilor of that area.
After greeting him, Sana asked, “What is the local government?”
Local government refers to the administration and management of governance and
activities at the grassroots or the municipal level, elected through direct and confidential
votes of the people. It is formed to meet the local needs of the area. Local governments
can provide various services promptly and efficiently to the citizens at the local level.
In our country, there is a three-tier system of local government. However, at the district
level, there is a Zila Parishad, at the Upazila level, there is an Upazila Parishad, and
at the village level, Union Parishads are generally formed, each comprising several
villages. In addition, in smaller towns or areas, there are Municipalities (such as
Nangalkot, Hathhazari, Lama, Kuthibari, etc.), and in larger cities, there are City
Corporations (such as Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Sylhet, etc.). These are part of
the local government. We know that in three hilly districts in Bangladesh, there are
Regional Local Government Councils alongside the Zila Parishads.
Shovon asked, “How can we know the structure of the Local Government?”
The councilor showed them a structure. The governance structure of

local government is as follows-
Ministry of local government
Ministry of Chattogram Hill tracts affairs
Local government a) Raja Circle
in Bangladesh b) Headman
c)karabari
Local government in Local government in

Local government in special region
rural area town area
a) Union Parishad
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a) Municipalities a) Regional Council

b) Upazila Parishad b) City Corporations b) Hill District Parishad
c) Zila Parishad
The chart shows the layout of local government structure in Bangladesh.
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Although Bangladesh is not large in terms of area, the population is significantly large.
Therefore, solving small and large problems at the grassroots level in the corners
of the country is not possible for the central government. Considering this issue, a
governance system has been established at the local level to address small-scale local
issues properly and efficiently. This decentralized governance structure in the local
context has two benefits: a) it reduces pressure on the central government, and b) it
ensures proper solutions to local problems. Local governance plays a crucial role in
the context of Bangladesh, and day by day, the local government system is becoming
familiar among the people.
A) Structure of Union Parishad: First, let’s learn about the history of the formation
of Union Parishads. It is the oldest local government institution in our country. If we
analyze the institution’s evolution from pre-British rule to the present, it becomes
evident that it functions with the goal of establishing local self-governance in rural
areas. During British rule, the Choudhury Panchayet Act of 1870 was enacted to
assist in maintaining law and order in rural areas. Through the efforts of a committee
consisting of five members, the institution was established to uphold peace and carry
out various socio-economic development activities in the villages. In 1885, the Bengal
Local Self-Government Act was passed to establish more responsible local government
bodies. Under this law, Union Committees at the Union level, Municipal Boards at the
district level, and District Boards at the district level were formed. In 1919, the Village
Administration Act abolished the Choudhury Panchayet and Union Committees,
renaming them Union Boards as the sole local government entity. During the Pakistan
era, it was known as the Union Council. After gaining independence, in 1976, with the
Local Government Ordinance, a three-tier local government system was introduced,
consisting of Union Parishads, Thana Parishads, and Zila Parishads. In 1997, extensive
changes were brought about in the structure of Union Parishads through amendments
to the Local Government (Union Parishad) Act.
We know that the Union Parishad is the lowest or primary level of local government. It
is formed by coordinating several villages. Currently, there are 4,571 Union Parishads
in our country. The local government in rural areas is represented by the Union Parishad.
Its main objectives are to provide services to the people in the village, address rural
issues, promote leadership development among grassroots individuals, and enhance
public awareness. The structure of the Union Parishad includes one elected chairman,
nine members (members) from nine wards, and three reserved seats for female members.
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Elected
Chairman
Three Union Nine

reserved Parishad members
seats for (from nine
female wards)
members
Function of Union Parishad

The Union Parishad plays a significant role in the development of the area. It performs
many responsibilities, including some primary tasks and some optional tasks. For
example:
a) Law and Order: The primary task of the Union Parishad is to ensure the overall
security of the village. To fulfill this responsibility, Union Parishad:
◊ appoints a certain number of guards and patrollers in each Union.

◊ takes measures to prevent indiscipline and theft.
◊ plays a role in resolving disputes, conflicts, and disturbances to maintain peace.
◊ executes responsibilities related to the village court.
◊ mediates family disputes.
b) Work and Services: In essence, the primary function of this organization revolves
around service, keeping the community informed about various government and non-
government services and programs related to agriculture, fisheries, animal husbandry,
and education. Its main tasks include:
◊ undertaking and implementing projects under the Rural Development

Organization’s work plan;
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◊ initiatives for poverty alleviation;

◊ sanitation, water supply, and waste disposal;
◊ self-employment and socio-economic development programs.
◊ In addition to these, Union Parishads are also involved in administrative tasks.
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c) Planning and Implementation for Economic Development: To promote

agricultural development in the area, various essential measures are taken, such as:
◊ developing rural industries;

◊ establishing markets;
◊ informing people about advanced methods of fish farming and animal
husbandry;
◊ ensuring proper distribution of quality seeds, seedlings, and fertilizers;
◊ providing advice on income-generating programs for the people;
◊ creating job opportunities;
◊ undertaking tasks such as construction of dams and similar projects.
In addition, there are optional tasks
◊ maintaining the roads in the area;
◊ assisting to orphans, disabled individuals, the poor, and widows;
◊ establishing of primary healthcare centers;
◊ ensuring access to primary education for all;
◊ preserving the environment in the area;
◊ keeping the Union clean and well-maintained;
◊ compiling a list of needy people;
◊ managing all types of statistics;
◊ monitoring and maintaining government’s assets such as roads, bridges, canals,
dams, telephone lines, and power lines;
◊ providing assistance to those affected by natural disasters and arranging for
resettlement;
◊ creating awareness about healthcare services;
◊ raising awareness about family planning to control population growth. Ensuring
easy availability and supply of birth control methods;
◊ providing scholarships to underprivileged and meritorious students;
◊ implementing literacy programs for adults and arranging for healthcare services.
taking practical steps to eradicate illiteracy among the local population;
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◊ implementing community-based initiatives to reduce illiteracy in the area;

◊ taking practical steps to eradicate illiteracy among the local population;
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◊ taking practical steps to eradicate illiteracy among the local population;
◊ implementing community-based initiatives to reduce illiteracy in the area;
◊ managing the collection and disbursement of local land revenue and motivating
the community;
◊ informing law enforcement immediately in case of accidents or criminal activities
in the area;
◊ taking awareness-raising measures against various social issues such as eve-
teasing and dowry;
◊ organizing meetings and gatherings to maintain peace, harmony, and goodwill
in the area;
◊ initiating efforts to establish libraries in each village for educational discussions;
◊ encouraging vaccination to protect the community from diseases;
◊ motivating students and the community to plant saplings during the monsoon
season, and more—all incorporated within optional tasks.
B) Structure of the Upazila Parishad: In 1983, Upazila was introduced. In our
country, a crucial level of local government is the Upazila Parishad. It is formed by
several unions. However, due to various reasons, this system did not gain permanent
status. Therefore, the Upazila Parishad Act, 1998, and subsequent amendments to the
law were passed, and on April 6, 2009, the Upazila Parishad Act 2009 was enacted.
This law is known as the ‘Upazila Parishad (Repealing and Amending) Act 2009.’
The provisions for the formation of Upazila Parishad through elections are outlined to
ensure the right to self-governance of the local population. According to the law, the
Upazila Parishad will be formed with the following components:
One
Chairman
Chairman of all
Upazila One male Vice
Union Parishads
Parishad Chairman
within the
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Upazila
One
Female
Vice
Chairman
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Function of the Upazila Parishad-

◊ The Upazila Parishad formulates development plans, including those for five
municipalities.
◊ It implements various government projects, ensuring coordination, management,
and execution.
◊ It oversees the construction and maintenance of connecting roads between different
unions.
The success of all these activities will depend on the active participation of the people
of the Upazila.
C) Structure of the Zila Parishad: Several Upazilas make up one district. On
July 6, 2000, the Government of Bangladesh enacted the ‘District Council Act 2000.’
Among the 64 district councils in our country, 61 operate under the Ministry of Local
Government. According to the law, Bandarban Hill District, Rangamati Hill District,
and Khagrachari Hill District– these three district councils are under the Ministry
of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs. According to the current law, each district council
consists of one chairman, 15 general members, and five reserved female members. The
term of the district council is five years.
Function of the Zila Parishad

The district council manages various developmental activities in the district. The tasks
of the district council are divided into two main categories: 1. Primary Tasks and 2.
Optional Tasks.
The notable primary tasks:

◊ monitoring various developmental projects in the district;
◊ coordinating and collaborating with development organizations and individuals;
◊ constructing roads and bridges outside the protected areas of Upazila Parishad
and municipality;
◊ constructing bridges and culverts;
◊ developing infrastructure in educational institutions;
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◊ constructing residential hostels;

◊ establishing training centers to empower unemployed groups;
◊ constructing orphanages;
◊ establishing and managing libraries and night schools;
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◊ establishing agricultural farms;

◊ constructing dams, and water irrigation management system;
◊ taking public health initiatives;
◊ assisting to Upazilas and municipalities;
◊ planting trees and preserving them;
◊ Developing communication and transportation facilities;
◊ Executing tasks assigned by the government.
Optional tasks
◊ ranting approval and providing assistance for the development of educational
institutions;
◊ organizing and promoting sports events and development for the general public;
◊ establishing information centers;
◊ celebrating national days;
◊ initiating efforts for the expansion of education;
◊ arranging housing facilities for the homeless;
◊ establishing widow homes, orphanages, and other necessary institutions;
◊ combating social vices such as drug abuse, gambling, juvenile delinquency,
etc;
◊ preventing child marriage;
◊ implementing measures to prevent domestic violence and abuse through
arbitration and mediation;
◊ establishing model agricultural farms;
◊ promoting modern agricultural methods and providing training to farmers;
◊ encouraging people to cultivate in the fallow lands;
◊ constructing and maintaining dams, as well as arrangements for repairs when
needed;
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◊ Supplying and controlling irrigation water;

◊ preserving district’s forest land;
◊ collecting and supplying raw materials for keeping cottage industries in rural
areas;
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◊ providing easy and favorable conditions for loans if needed to keep cottage
industries in rural areas operational;
◊ facilitating market-oriented production of goods;
◊ improving communication for easy market access to produced goods;
◊ development of religious institutions such as mosques, temples, Buddhist
viharas, and churches, as well as working for the expansion and promotion of
religious and ethical education.
D) Formation of Municipalities: The local government in urban areas is known
as the municipality. In Bangladesh, every urban area has a municipality. Currently,
our country has a total of 330 municipalities, ranging from small to large. A mayor is
elected through a public voting system. From each ward, one councilor is elected, and
the municipality is formed with reserved seats for female councilors too. The number
of members in different municipalities can vary based on the area and population of the
city or municipal area.
Function of Municipality
◊ ensuring the supply and purification of clean water;
◊ constructing of hostels for educational institutions;
◊ arranging training for teachers;
◊ providing scholarships to students;
◊ distributing books free of cost;
◊ managing compulsory and mass education;
◊ ensuring the sale of healthy and arsenic-free food;
◊ planning and implementing measures for environmental conservation in the
city;
◊ facilitating and regulating the construction of houses according to legal
provisions;
◊ constructing and and maintaining roads and bridges for transportation
convenience;
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◊ controlling the movement of high-speed vehicles;

◊ planting trees on both sides of the road, establishing parks and open spaces, and
preserving them;
◊ celebrating of various national days;
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◊ managing for relief and rehabilitation;

◊ maintaining orphanages;
◊ establishing libraries and clubs;
◊ preventing begging
◊ arranging sports and games;
◊ constructing and maintaining community centers;
◊ registration birth, death, and marriage;
◊ controlling epidemics and contagious diseases;
◊ establishing medical centers and providing services to raise awareness during
disasters.
E) Formation of the City Corporations: In Bangladesh, there are 12 City Corporations.

Dhaka North, Dhaka South, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Khulna, Barisal, Sylhet, Narayanganj,
Comilla, Rangpur, Gazipur, and Mymensingh, are City Corporations. The head of the
City Corporation is called the Mayor. The Councilors assist the Mayor in his work. The
number of Councilors in the City Corporation can vary based on the area’s population
and size.
The City Corporation performs various tasks, including

◊ waste management;
◊ ensuring quality education for all;
◊ promoting technical education;
◊ public health and safety;
◊ supply of clean water, drainage system;
◊ ensuring the sale of healthy and uncontaminated food;
◊ environmental conservation in the city;
◊ regulating construction according to legal provisions;
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◊ ensuring the harmonious practice of religious rituals for people of all faiths;
◊ road construction, maintenance, inspection, and traffic control;
◊ lighting system on roads during the night;
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◊ planting trees on both sides of roads, establishing and preserving parks and open
spaces;
◊ ensuring the harmonious practice of religious rituals for people of all faiths;
◊ road construction, maintenance, inspection, and traffic control;
◊ lighting system on roads during the night;
◊ planting trees on both sides of roads, establishing and preserving parks and open
spaces;
◊ providing trade licenses for business and commerce management;
◊ market management during specific times, such as the cattle market during Eid-
ul-Adha;
◊ a sound urban plan;
◊ public safety;
◊ organizing sports events;
◊ social welfare activities;
◊ facilitating self-employment opportunities, such as teaching sewing, driving,
dentistry, painting, and traditional crafts;
◊ utilizing information technology.
You have definitely noticed that there is some overlap in the work of various
organizations. It means that multiple organizations are involved in similar activities.
Even though there may be differences in the work, there is common ground among
them. The primary goal of all these activities is to benefit the general public and society,
as well as to achieve an improvement in the quality of life.
The Importance of Local Government

Bangladesh consists of 85,000 villages. The image of the sun is drawn on the chest
of green, representing approximately 170 million people. Our motherland covers an
area of 147,570 square kilometers or 56,977 square miles. Although the land area of
the country is small, the population is significantly large. Managing the development
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and addressing various issues of such a large country from a central location is not
feasible. Therefore, a governance system has been established to bring services closer
to the people and to ensure effective solutions to local problems. This system reduces
the pressure on the central government, making it easier to address local issues. Local
government is a significant part of the governance of Bangladesh.
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Global Context: In Search of
Political History
You have learned about nomads of ancient times in human history. People used to
travel from one place to another for a secure life and access to food. Through this
process, a deep connection was formed between the people of South Asia, including
Bengal, and those from different parts of the world. Warriors, rulers, merchant groups,
and occasionally fortunate individuals from various regions of the world came to the
Indian subcontinent and its eastern regions, infiltrating wealth and power, governing
and exploiting, establishing settlements, and playing roles in the construction and
deconstruction of language, religion, and culture.
People were in an existential struggle while giving the revenue determined by the rulers
and adhering to laws, people have fought to safeguard their existence. However, it
cannot be said that people always obediently followed the orders of power-hungry
rulers without protest. At various times, it was observed that people raised weapons to
remove oppressive rulers from power, engaging in revolutions and rebellions. Through
such resistance, people have gradually gained experience in establishing their political
rights.
Facts about the State and Monarchy

When was monarchy established for the first time in the history of the world? Based on
several research, historians assert that about seven to eight thousand years ago, humans
began to establish state governance, political organizations, and monarchy when they
initiated the formation of urban civilizations. The role of agriculture was extensive
in the emergence of this state or monarchy. When the hunter-gatherer people of the
primitive age started to establish permanent settlements and engage in agricultural
activities, their lifestyle underwent a significant change. The demand for agricultural
land increases. The establishment of individual ownership over the land and the need
to protect it became necessary. Wealth was generated in abundance through agriculture.
Development occurred in industry and commerce. When people roamed the forests,
hunting and gathering, each tribe had its own chief. However, with the establishment of
permanent settlements, large societies emerged, replacing the tribal tradition. Protection
from external threats, the creation and implementation of laws, became essential for
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their practical realization. This is how a strong framework is established. Someone

from the ruling or elite class gained more power from within and ascended to the throne
by enhancing their influence. Religious leaders also joined them. Together, the king and
religious leaders established a powerful political framework in the cities. Gradually,
they accumulated more power and wealth. They constructed advanced dwellings
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within secure fortresses for themselves. They ensured their safety with armed guards.
In this way, kings and religious leaders distinguish themselves from other classes and
professions in society. They collected taxes or revenue in the name of providing security
to the common people, laborers, merchants, and farmers in the city. They amassed
extensive wealth. Not only that, but after the death of a ruler or king, their offspring
often succeeded them, continuing the same system. This is how the origin of kings and
monarchy was established.
There is a deep connection between ancient civilizations like Egypt, Mesopotamia,
Harappa, and Greek-Roman civilizations and the evolution of monarchy. The earliest
forms of state and monarchy are observed in these civilizations. The ruler was a
warrior and the leader of warriors, living a life of boundless wealth and power. The
ruler’s associates included religious leaders, advisers, and military commanders who
were integral to the exercise of power. They belonged to the privileged class. Military
conquest was a significant means for the expansion of the ruler’s influence. By invading
new territories, looting wealth, and enslaving people, rulers enhanced their power.
They would bring captives from conquered regions, turning them into slaves for sale.
The slaves were employed for the ruler’s service. On the other hand, kings and priests
formulated laws for the common people, leading to an increase in people’s allegiance
to the ruler and the monarchy. As a result, people abided by the order of the king.
Pharaohs (kings) of the Ancient Egypt: Descendants of Gods
Based on agriculture, the establishment of cities and the inception of monarchy occurred
in ancient Egypt. The title of the Egyptian kings was Pharaoh. The term “Pharaoh”
means a great house, possibly given to them because the Egyptian rulers resided in grand
palaces. The establishment of monarchy in Egypt dates back approximately 7,000 years
ago, leading to the rise of several dynasties over time. Among the renowned Pharaohs
of Egypt, Menes, Khufu, Amenhotep, and Tutankhamun are particularly notable.
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Tutankhamun
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Global Context: In Search of Political History
Paintings on the walls of Nefertiti’s mausoleum show her seated and playing a game called
‘Senate’. Presumably, the game was similar to the modern game of chess.
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Pictures of Egyptian agriculture painted on the walls
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The Pharaohs of Egypt were authorities endowed with vast wealth and military power.
They considered themselves descendants of the solar deity ‘Re’. The Pharaohs claimed
dominion over all the wealth of the kingdom and the lives of all its people. To consolidate
their power, the priests or religious leaders in the kingdom played a special role. Religious
leaders spread positive narratives about the Pharaohs. The Pharaohs believed not only in
governing in this life but also in taking responsibility as rulers even after death. Due to
the propagation by religious leaders, the Pharaohs became so revered that ordinary people
hesitated to utter their names. To ensure that their bodies remained intact even after death
and that they could continue to rule in the afterlife, the Pharaohs were mummified and
placed within colossal pyramids. Valuable stones, gold, and silver were buried with their
dead bodies. The Pharaohs maintained a formidable army, high-ranking officials, and
were protected by religious leaders. They were all members of an affluent elite. These
elites, by exploiting the labor and toil of the common people, indulged in limitless luxury,
extravagance, and a life of comfort and pleasure.
Sparta: A Barbaric and Backward Military State
We have all heard the name of ancient Greek civilization. The ancient Greek civilization
emerged, focusing on several small city-states. Among these city-states, Athens and Sparta
are particularly notable. The development of these city-states occurred between 750 and
550 BCE. Sparta was a militaristic state, and the king of Sparta was the supreme leader of
the military forces. He held the ultimate authority in the state. The citizens of the state were
obligated to follow his orders as laws. Sparta was a city of warrior kings, and when a new
child was born there, they were first taken to an institution. If the child appeared healthy,
they were allowed to be raised. However, if the child was perceived as weak or unhealthy,
they were thrown off a mountain to their death.
In Sparta, the king and the aristocratic class assessed whether a child could become a
warrior through examination. Only if a child passed this test, they were allowed to live. At
just seven years of age, these children were taken away from their families and put through
military training. In the harsh conditions of the mountains, enduring extreme cold and heat
with minimal clothing and little food, these children were exposed to a tough and relentless
life. Once they grew older, they were integrated into the military. Engaging in invasions,
plunder, and acts of violence in different states, they accumulated wealth. With the wealth
thus acquired, the king and the aristocrats of Sparta lived a luxurious life. Compared to other
city-states in Greece, life in Sparta was austere and harsh. Due to excessive bloodshed and
militarization, they were backward in arts, literature, or intellectual pursuits. In the history
of civilization, they could not make minimal contributions to human welfare, knowledge,
and artistic development.
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Athens: The State that Introduced Democracy First in the Ancient World
In ancient Greek civilization, another contemporary city-state of Sparta was Athens. At
the beginning, Athens also had a monarchy and a hereditary monarchy. Society was divided
into four classes. Among them, only the wealthy aristocrats enjoyed political privileges.
Ordinary farmers, merchants, artisans, and slaves were excluded from political benefits.
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In the early 7th century BCE, a revolutionary change took place in the political arena of
Athens. The excess indulgence in luxury and wealth accumulation by the ruling class and
warriors made life difficult for the common farmers and labourers. All land ownership fell
into the hands of the ruling class, leading to harsh conditions for the landless, impoverished
farmers, and indebted laborers. As a result, the landless, impoverished farmers, and indebted
workers initiated a movement against the ruling class. The movement became intense,
demanding liberation from the burden of land ownership and debt, as well as the assertion
of political rights. Faced with the demands of the people, the rulers of that place were
compelled to bring about reforms in the political system. Leaders like Solon, Cleisthenes,
and Pericles introduced some rules and policies that led to a gradual decline in the political
power of the rulers and the aristocratic class. This, in turn, contributed to the increase in
the rights of the people.
In Athens, there was a law that prevented the enslavement of farmers to the ownership of
land and debts. Following this, an assembly was formed, comprising common farmers,
merchants, and artisans. The assembly held regular sessions every ten days in a designated
venue. In these assemblies, any citizen could propose resolutions on any subject related to
the laws, administration, domestic, or foreign policies of the state. Apart from the Assembly,
there was also a Council of 500 members, elected by secret ballot, responsible for ensuring
the proper functioning of laws and judicial affairs. Additionally, there was a Council of 10
military leaders. Although this council held significant power, it operated under the control
of the members of the Assembly.
In ancient Greece, it was in Athens that the first steps towards the administration of a state
and the promotion of laws involving the participation of common citizens began. Although
a considerable number of slaves and women in Athens were excluded from these rights,
Athens is still referred to as the cradle of democracy or the birthplace of democracy. The
system of governance that began in Athens nearly two and a half millennia ago, based on
the participation of the people, has evolved and is now established as a democratic system
in the majority of countries worldwide.
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Recent photo of Acropolis, the main center of the city-state Athens. (Source: history4kids.co)
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Athenian Acropolis: Temple of Athena (Source: history4kids.co)
Exercise
We have learned about the political organization, system, and the general condition
of the people in ancient Egypt, Sparta, and Athens. In the light of the above passages,
let’s complete the following chart, highlighting the main characteristics of the political
life of the people in these three places:
Egypt Sparta Athens
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The Era of Imperialism

As we delve into the political history of the Bengali region and South Asia, we
observe that, from ancient urban civilizations and community-based political entities,
imperialist powers rose. Subsequently, through wars and bloodshed, they expanded in
all directions, establishing vast empires. The Mauryas of South Asia, the Guptas, and
the Pala dynasty of Bengal are the examples of such hereditarian imperialistic powers.
Similar ambitious and power-hungry imperialist forces emerged simultaneously in
many regions around the world just like Bengal and South Asia. They engaged in
murder, plunder, and invasion for expanding their territorial boundaries. The ascent of
these powers has deeply influenced the political history of the world and the political
identities of people. Among those imperial rulers in world history, Alexander the Great
of Macedonia, Julius Caesar of the Roman Empire, Charlemagne of the Frankish
Empire, Mongol warrior Genghis Khan, Sultan Mahmud of the Ghazni, French Emperor
Napoleon Bonaparte, Germany’s Hitler, and Italy’s Benito Mussolini are notable.
In the early years of the fifth century BCE, Spartan warriors initiated a bloody war
against Athens to establish dominance. Sparta was a militaristic state, and driven by
the desire to conquer Athens and seize its glory and wealth, they orchestrated this
invasion. This conflict, known as the Peloponnesian War, engulfed all the city-states of
Greece. The entire Greek world became divided between Sparta and Athens, leading to
a prolonged conflict lasting for about 30 years. During this extended conflict, Athens
faced severe destruction. Its well-constructed homes, gardens, and agricultural fields
all fell victim to ruin. The scarcity of food and a widespread epidemic resulted in a
significant loss of life. Many were defeated and enslaved by Sparta. As this protracted
war unfolded, powerful city-states of Greece weakened. During this period, Macedonia,
situated in the northern part of Greece, began to accumulate strength. The Macedonian
ruler, Philip II, formed a formidable army and started conquering the weakened city-
states of Greece. Following the establishment of dominance over all of Greece, Philip
II prepared for an invasion of Persia. However, before the campaign could commence,
Philip II was assassinated. His son, Alexander, ascended to the throne at the age of
twenty. He is widely known in history as ‘Alexander the Great.’
Alexander was a highly ambitious, wealthy, and fame-seeking military leader. Following
in his father’s footsteps, he led a massive army and initially launched an invasion in
the minor regions of Asia. After defeating the Persians, he advanced southwards along
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the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The cruelty and severity of Alexander have been
a relentless indictment of imperialistic rulers’ high ambitions. Those who sought to
oppose him in his conquest faced either death or enslavement. After capturing a city
named Tyre, Alexander ordered the massacre of 8,000 people and enslaved 30,000
others for sale. Countless lives were lost, and numerous homes, cities, and agricultural
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fields lay in ruins due to Alexander’s conquest. The campaign extended from Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and Central Asia to ancient India, causing devastation along the way.
In a continuous three-year war, Alexander traversed vast expanses of Asia, spreading
terror in his wake.
In 323 BCE, he fell ill with a mild fever and succumbed to death. At that time, Alexander
was stationed in Babylon with his army and commanders. Before his body could be
laid to rest, a conflict over the ownership of the empire erupted among his commanders.
Over the years, through numerous wars, bloodshed, and atrocities, the vast empire
he had built disintegrated into factions among his generals. In many history books,
these imperial rulers are often glorified both before and after their names. The acts
of invasion by conquering rulers are presented with grandiosity. However, we must
critically think about the pride they seek to showcase through invasion activities over
human blood and corpses. Whether their portrayal evokes pride or shame, we must
reconsider the narrative. The attempt to propagate false and mythical glory distorts
history and deceives everyone from the truth.
Emergence and Development of the Nation-State

Nation-states are formed successively in England, Spain, France, Russia, and Prussia.
During this time, there is a transformation in political culture as well. The term ‘nation-
state’ essentially refers to a state formed based on a single national identity or national
ideals. Generally, nation-states emphasize the history, culture, and nationalism of the
nation. The national identity, history, culture, and idealism of the nation play the most
crucial role in nation-states. These nation-states establish connections with world
history by surpassing their own national philosophy and values. The concept of the
nation-state was primarily established during the French Revolution (1789), according
to political scientist Ernest Renan. As a result, a surge of independent nationalities
occurs among people in different countries. The nationalist movement spreads across
Europe and America. The concept of ‘One Nation, One State’ is the foundation for the
birth of independent nation-states. However, in the modern era, the idea of the nation-
state is not very relevant because in many countries today, there are multiple languages
and ethnic groups, for example, India and the United States of America.
French Revolution
The most significant event in the political history of Europe and Western civilization
is the French Revolution. This revolution abolished the absolute monarchy in
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France, adopted democratic ideals, and simultaneously led the country to renounce
all the shackles of the Roman Catholic Church. The French Revolution added a new
dimension to Western political history through which Western civilization got freedom
from absolute politics and entered the realm of political rights. Historians consider this
revolution as one of the most crucial events in human history.
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The fundamental principle of the French Revolution was ‘Liberty, Equality, and
Fraternity.’ This slogan became the driving force of the revolution and led to the
establishment of democracy in the Western world through the adoption of both peaceful
and nonviolent methods. Based on this, on August 26, 1789, a declaration of human
and civil rights was made. Its core content was, ‘All humans should be free, all should
enjoy equal rights, and, in the eyes of the law, all citizens are equal.’ Similar to the
Renaissance, the French Revolution also gave birth to a new trend in the political,
social, and intellectual world of modern Europe. During the reign of the French monarch
Louis XIV (1651-1715), France had become a powerful state. However, during the
times of Louis XV and Louis XVI, economic-social inequality and political weakness
occurred simultaneously and this situation led to the revolutionary situation in France.
The explosion occurred on July 14, 1789, during the attack and fall of the Bastille
fortress. It is noted as a new chapter in world history, known as the French Revolution.
The state of the French Revolution is compared to the sudden eruption of a violent
torrential river that mingles with many small and large tributaries.
The French Revolution was not limited to France alone; the entire Europe witnessed
a revolutionary uprising against privileged aristocrats, absolute monarchy, and the
Roman Catholic Church. The downfall of the monarchy occurred in France through the
fall of King Louis XVI. Simultaneously, the revolutionary spirit spread worldwide. In
politics, democracy, individualism (meaning every person is an independent individual),
and individual freedom became popular instead of monarchy. Some rights of ordinary
people were established, and power began to emerge in the hands of common people in
politics. In Europe, a transformation in political culture began. There was an entry of
common people into politics.
Let us write a short note on the significance of the French Revolution in the decline
of monarchy and the establishment of political rights for people.
Colonialism, World Wars and Struggle to Freedom

The emergence of nation-states, the French Revolution, and events like the Renaissance
marked the beginning of a new trend in Europe’s political culture. However, the light of
these events did not reach Asia, Africa, and America, rather, European states, through
their ruthless colonization, subjected these regions to governance and exploitation.The
competition of territorial conquest led to imperialist dominance, particularly, in Africa
and Asia.
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In the aftermath of this imperialism, the First World War unfolded among the European
imperialist powers. The gains and losses, destruction and devastation of the First World
War created mutual distrust in European politics, and gave rise to various political
ideologies in Europe, especially in the early 20th century. These political ideologies
turned into political systems in different countries.
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On the one hand, the impact of World War, on the other hand, how the political culture
became aggressive due to the establishment of various forms of governance, diverse
political ideologies, and the rise of totalitarianism in Europe. As a result, the entire
Europe experienced two devastating world wars during the first half of the 20th. During
this time, colonization or annexation took place, driven by the need for resources or
as a part of imperialist business. However, in political culture, they maintained their
uniqueness. In the general context, from 1939 to 1945, during the Second World War,
when Britain, France, Portugal, and especially the imperial powers withdrew their
political dominance from the colonized territories in Asia and Africa, independent
nations emerged. For example, South Asia or the Indian subcontinent witnessed the birth
of independent Pakistan and India in 1947. Similarly, in Africa, Sudan, South Africa,
and other nations gained independence. Besides, after the end of World War II, for the
sake of global peace and security, the United Nations, a representative organization of
all nations, was established.
History of the United States
We will attempt to briefly learn about another country of the present time. That is
America. If you look towards America, you will see that the powerful and prosperous
America of today. Peaceful America was entirely detached from the various civilizations
of Europe and Asia. They were not acquainted with advanced and modern military
tactics. The Americans, immersed in a simple way of life, were familiar with weapons
such as bows, arrows, spears, and clubs, and raincoats. As a result, it was relatively
easy for the Europeans to defeat the indigenous Red Indians and establish dominance in
America. In America, civilizations such as the Inca civilization, the Maya civilization,
the Aztec civilization, etc., flourished. After Columbus’ discovery of America, the first
blow of colonization in America came from Spain. The Spaniards subjugated the locals
and established political dominance.
In the same way, the British, from the early sixteen century to the eighteenth century,
established political influence in America. They established thirteen colonies, including
Virginia. France did the same thing. They created ports in two ports in America’s Port
Royal and Canada’s Quebec. After Columbus’s discovery of America, Europeans
began coming to new territories in America, exploring and establishing their power.
In these settlements, various oppressive laws, exploitation, and violations of political
rights led to gradual resistance and opposition from the Americans. On the other hand,
like in Asia and Africa, modern education developed in America. The development
of patriotic leadership, such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, resulted
in a rebellion in America towards the end of the eighteenth century. On July 4, 1776,
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America declared independence.

However, even though Europeans gradually established dominance in America,
political instability in America was not as prevalent as in Europe. From the attainment
of independence, America maintained a democratic tradition in its political culture - it
still exists today.
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The Ways to Know History and the
Problem regarding the Division of Era
‘Methods of Learning History and Division of Era’ and ‘Bangla Region and Bangladesh:
The Diverse Path of Political History.’ are the focal points in this learning experience. At
first, we will study a historical event and express our opinions. We will identify various
perspectives among classmates regarding the same event. We will learn the methods of
learning history provided in our book and gather information related to various historical
events. We will collect information on any historical event from multiple sources such
as books, newspapers, archived videos from TV or radio channels, online articles, etc.,
as provided in the book. After analyzing information obtained from various sources, we
will derive logical conclusions. Then, selecting a historical event from our locality, we
will gather opinions from several familiar individuals and information from different
sources. Analyzing that historical event based on the obtained results, we’ll arrive at
logical conclusions. Afterward, we will create a temporary document called ‘Evidence
in History’ where we will compile the history of the locality.
Now, let us know about a historical event. It is about Shubhankar Das, a mathematician.
It depicts how his designed algorithm goes astray in the education system during the
British Raj. Not just that, a proverb, ‘Shubhankarer Faki’ (‘The Deceit of Shubhankar’),
has been mistakenly interpreted for ages. Let us know about that event.
Did Shubhankar really deceive?
The phrase ‘Shubhankarer Faki’ implies deception or trickery through a false
narrative or misleading someone. It refers to the skill of deceiving authorities or
ordinary people by diverting attention from the real issue in financial transactions to
gain an advantage.
Many of us may wonder– who is this Shubhankar? What deceptive work did he
engage in? Let us know a bit about the history behind this.
He was an extraordinary mathematician. He provided solutions to complex arithmetic
through algorithms (several mathematical methods). Calculators didn’t exist before.
He was skilled at mental math, proficiently calculating large numbers in his head.
In 1855, the English educationist and missionary Reverend James Long’s statement
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highlighted that Shubhankar’s rhythmic formulae had influenced nearly forty

thousand Bengali schools over the past one and a half decades.
Who slandered such a great mathematician? We will know that. But before that, let
us know about one of Shubhankar’s rhythmic formulae.
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সরো�োবরে বিকশিত কমল নিকর।

মধুলো�োভে এল তথা অনেক ভ্রমর।
প্রতি পদ্মে বসি ভ্রমর যুগল।
অলিহীন রহে তবে একটি কমল।
একেক ভ্রমর বসে প্রত্্যযেক কমলে।
বাকি রহে এক অলি, সংখ্যা দেহ বলে।
It signifies that a lake where lotus or water lilies are blooming. Several bees are
collecting honey there. Two bees are sitting on each lotus. Consequently, one lotus is
vacant. On the other hand, on each lotus, there is one remaining vacant spot for a bee.
If we solve this mental math with modern method, it stands:
If the number of lotus X and the number of bees Y,
Y=2(X-1)……(1)
Y=x-1…..……(2)
By solving (1) and (2), we get-
X=3, Y=4
It means that there were 3 lotuses and 4 bees in the lake.
In this manner, he used rhythm to solve mathematical problems. His book ‘Chotrish
KarKhana’ contained around two thousand such shlokas. It includes many Persian
words. Even before the Battle of Plassey in 1757, it is known that Bengali students
studied Shubhankar’s rhythmic formulae.
During the British colonization, educated individuals influenced by English education

tended to criticize their own country’s education system. They often discarded
Shubhankar’s rhythmic formulae, expressing it as deception in solving math through
trickery. From that, the proverb emerged - ‘Shubhankarer Faki’.
After several hundred years, discussions have now emerged in historical research
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regarding his exceptional intellect and contributions to mathematics in Bengal.

Reports on this have been published in several newspapers in Dhaka and Kolkata.
(Source: Mohammad Mahmodujjaman, Associate Fellow, Royal Historical Society,
Manobjomin, Eid Edition, 2023)
85
The Ways to Know History and the Problem regarding the Division of Era
Exercise 1
Now let us write our opinions about the above event. After writing our opinions, we
will express our thoughts and listen to our classmates’ opinions. Then, we will find
the similarities and differences between our opinions and those of our classmates.
If we consider carefully, we will see that we explain the same event in different ways.
Moreover, it is not reliable to depend solely on popular sayings to know the true history.
Information must be gathered from various written sources like evidence, documents,
different historical books, newspapers, etc. Some aspects need attention while gathering
information about the actual historical description or event. Let us read the following
section for more details on this matter.
The reading and research of history is a very important and satisfying experience for
all human beings. The study of history enables people to derive objective and logical
information about their past. Where there is no past, there is no present. Besides,
past shapes the future of all humans. Therefore, it is of utmost importance for all
people, society, country and nation to analyze their past based on logically accepted
and scientifically researched findings. It becomes history when we can logically and
scientifically analyze the challenges and obstacles our predecessors encountered and
fought through their experience and activities to survive in their thousands of years of
existence.
We need to analyze in a systematic and scientific way how people have survived tens
and thousands of years braving against all odds and evolved agriculture, language,
culture, religion, urban revolution, formed state and nationhood to come to this stage. A
professional historian always follows the systematic and unbiased approach of scientific
research and investigation to script history. If a nation does not follow this systematic
approach to historical discovery, it is destined to be a misled and misinformed nation.
People’s future aspirations cannot be fully achieved if their history is replete with half-
truths and misinformation. This happens when historical facts are accepted without
research and scientific investigation. Such deviations also undermine people’s relentless
struggle and capability to establish a historical legacy.
Just by adding the word ‘history’ does it become history?

Only by adding the word ‘history’ does it become history? No. It does not. Sometimes,
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people try to sell concocted stories as history. Many professional historians may also
do this for some selfish reason or the other. So not all information, stories and incidents
cannot be qualified as history. Appropriate evidence backed up by scientific and logical
analyses can only qualify as history.
86
Citing from the book of famous historian Dr. Romila Thapar, she told the students that
any printed word in a book that mentions the word ‘history’ while describing a situation
or personal biography, cannot be called history. Only those past events occurring in
a society, culture, economy, politics or any individual’s life can be considered history
which adheres to the following –
◊ Followed the historical research process

◊ Carried out in-depth analysis and examination of information derived from
sources
◊ Maintained an unemotional and neutral process
◊ Incidents explained and analyzed objectively through scientific and logical
methods
History has to be known through different elements and sources. History is not limited
to the life stories of kings and monarchs, their successes, their triumphs in wars or
extension of their empires. The scope of history is much bigger. The main focus of
history is to record the struggle, capacity and skill of mankind against uncountable
odds.
History can be of different kinds. Historical investigation methods vary depending on
what kind of history is written. Likewise, historical elements and sources also vary. For
knowing and scripting history, one has to remain aloof from any kind of favoritism.
Therefore, it is essential to critically analyze and examine the elements and sources of
history. It has to be examined whether anyone’s personal opinion and liking have been
reflected in the scripted history.
Let us now try to understand this from two examples. In the 7th Century in ancient
India during the reign of King Harshabardhan, his poet laurette Banbhotta had written
“Harsha Charito” which was so full of praise of the king that it was far from the truth.
Such praise does not qualify as history. The process of digging out the truth from this
heap of praise through logical analysis is history. Only that much can be a part of the
history. It has to adhere to a strict process of scientific research and logical analysis.
History differs with the variation of time and place

Let us now try to understand the methods and techniques used in scripting history from
various parts of the world.
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Selecting time and place: In any historical exercise, the correct selection of time and
place is the prime responsibility of a historian. The history of a particular place varies from
time to time. Again, the history of one place is interconnected with the history of another
place. In such cases, history of one place cannot be explained leaving aside another.
Therefore, historians have to lay utmost importance to the selection of time and place.
87
Problems and hindrances of court/princely history: The lack of information
and evidence is a main hindrance to scripting history. The scripted or written history
that we find of the Indian subcontinent and Bengal, are mostly recollections of tourists
or scripted in royal court settings. These scripts are full of praises of the rulers of the
time. We, therefore, do not know about the life of the common people in these historical
accounts. These tales praising kings and emperors are dubbed as history. Things were
quite like this till the year 1800. After that, the period which had witnessed British
colonial rule, also reflected the interest of the colonialists. Therefore, the readers and
authors of history have to be very watchful about the selection of the source to get to
the actual history.
Unemotional and neutral viewpoint: Another important aspect of history is that

historians have to be totally unemotional and neutral while scripting history. While
scripting history, if the historians display weakness towards a particular language,
religion, region, king, political or economic authority, then the history does not remain
neutral any longer. True history should be the mouthpiece of all language and people.
It is not the task of history to glorify any particular group, language, religion, political
and economic entity.
Problems of generalization: The problem of generalization is very strong in history.

A historian lives in the present reality while working on an event in the distant past.
It is likely that one’s present-day influences, thoughts, language, religion and political
ideologies would influence the work. For example, while describing antient India or
Bengal, it is mixed up with present India and Bengal. Historical research needs to
objectively reflect the varying cultural aspects of every religion. There is absolutely no
scope to belittle anyone on account of their linguistic and religious differences. It is in
violation of historical norms to demean or belittle anyone.
It’s Good to Know

It is by ignoring diversity and difference that we fall into the trap of generalizing
history. We need to come out of this. We must remember that we cannot exclude anyone
on the basis of identity, class, profession, education, nature of work, attires, way of
speaking and differences in socio-cultural practices. We need to remind ourselves
that it is because of this diversity and difference that the world is so beautiful. Let us
just think if the world would be so beautiful if there had been only oner species of
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trees instead of numerous kinds that exist today? Therefore, we should always respect
and see diversity as we see and respect ourselves. Probably we don’t see much of this
respect in the society today. But though us, this respect for diversity can be nurtured
not only in our country, but also beyond our shores.
88
ভারতীয় উপমহাদেশ, বাংলা অঞ্চল ও বাংলাদেশের প্রাগিতিহাস

এবং ইতিহাসের যুগ বা কালবিভাজন
লিখিত উৎসের ক্ষমতা,দয়া, সাম্রাজ্্য,
উদ্ভব ও বিভিন্ন মত কতৃত্ব: কেন্দ্র ও প্রান্তের
ভেদাভেদ ও
ও পথের উৎপত্তি: সাম্রাজ্্যযের বিস্তার দ্বন্দ ও আঞ্চলিক
শাসনের শ্রেণিবিস্তার
লৌ�ৌহযুগ সংহতি
অনু. 1600-1800 সাধারণ

অব্দ
00 প্রাক স 300 সাধ
0- 1
ণ অব্দ-30
-3 া সাধার 0 ার
60
প্রাক
00
ধার
সাধ
ণঅ
অনু. 6
অনু.
ারণ অ
ণ অব্দ
অনু. 20
ব্দ
ব্দ
অনু.
00- ণ অব্দ
অনু. 2000-600 প্রাক- অনু. 300-200 প্রাক- 60 0 সাধার
3
অনু. 1300-1600 সাধারণ

সাধারণ অব্দ সাধারণ অব্দ অব্দ
যো�োগাযো�োগ আঞ্চলিক সাম্রাজ্্য
মহাজনপদ ও সংঘাত রাষ্ট্রগঠন, সংহতি অঞ্চল ও
মগর রাষ্ট্রের গঠন ও আঞ্চলিক পরিচয় ও তৃতীয় ইউরেপীয় বাণিজ্্যযের
ক্ষমতাবলয় নগরায়ণ শুরু
আদি ঐতিহাসিক যুগ আদি মধ্যযুগ মধ্যযুগ
আনু. ৩৫০,০০০- আনু. 8,০০০- আনু.5,০০০-

থেকে ১২,0০০ থেকে 5,0০০ থেকে 13,০০
প্রাক্‌-সাধারণ অব্দ প্রাক্‌-সাধারণ অব্দ প্রাক্‌-সাধারণ অব্দ
আনু. 12,০০০-
আনু. 4,০০০-
থেকে 8,0০০
থেকে 15,০০
প্রাক্‌-সাধারণ অব্দ
প্রাক্‌-সাধারণ অব্দ
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প্রত্নপ্রস্তর যুগ মধ্যপ্রস্তর যুগ নব্যয্যপ্রস্তর যুগ তাম্রপ্রস্তর যুগ হরপ্পীয় যুগ
89
আনু. 600 সাধারণ আনু. 1800 সাধারণ
অব্দ থেকে 13০০ অব্দ থেকে বর্্তমান
সাধারণ অব্দ
আনু. 2000 প্রাক্‌- আনু.1300 সাধারণ
সাধারণ অব্দ থেকে অব্দ থেকে 18০০
6০০ সাধারণ অব্দ সাধারণ অব্দ
আদি ঐতিহাসিক যুগ আদি মধ্যযুগ মধ্যযুগ আধুনিক যুগ
Division of time and age in history

In any historical discussion, division of time and age is of utmost importance. Through
time and era division, we can segregate history into various different time segments.
You have read in our previous classes that the history of Indian subcontinent and
Bengal lying in its eastern side has largely been divided into three ages – ancient age,
middle age and modern age. There are similar age divisions in European history also.
Age division is created based on revolutionary changes in the historical, socio-cultural,
economic and pollical areas that has totally transformed the life of the entire population
of a region. Not all transformational changes that have taken place in history, took
place at the same time. People’s life has been influenced by different factors at different
ages. Therefore, age or time division of history is also bound to be different.
Historian believe the when written sources and elements started to become available,
only then the ‘historical age’ started. The era before letters or alphabets were invented
was called pre-historic age. Some historical ages are named after rulers or monarchs
of the time. Some say instead of an era being named after monarchs or their dynasties,
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history should include all the common people.

Therefore, some historians instead of naming the Mourya era after the reign of the
Mouryas, Gupta era after the Guptas, Pal dynasty after the Pals, Sultani era after the
Sultans, prefer to divide these into antient age, middle age and British or modern era.
90
It’s useful to know

James Mill, who was a British historian, wrote the book British Indian History. For
the first time in his book, he used age divisions such as Hindu era, Buddhist era,
Muslim era etc. But the funny thing is without naming their era as Christian era, he
named it British era. Historian Romila Thapar made it very clear that this religious
communal trend in age division was the creation of the British.
You will probably know that based on the birth year of Jesus Christ, the era prior to his
birth is termed as Before Christ (BC) and the era after his birth is called Anno Domini
(AD). The modern historians are, however, against naming of historical time division
in terms of religious influence. They are more in favour of giving the time and age
divisions a more secular name.
We have learnt many new things as a part of studying history and social science. While
reading these subjects, we are becoming astonished by finding out many new things
about the past and this is very natural. Like us, many educationists and learned people
also become astonished while reading, working and researching on the subject. Do
you know why this happens? We all live in our present. While living in the present,
we read about the past, and we find many things that are uncommon to us. The idea or
reality that had one meaning or explanation in the past, varies completely in the present
context. That is why historians face a hard time researching about the past sitting in the
present.
It seems a little strange, right? An example will clear this confusion. If anyone asks
us what a ‘foreigner’ is, we will undoubtedly answer that anyone who has come to
Bangladesh from outside is a foreigner. But if the same question would have been
asked in the ancient times, can you guess what would have been the answer? They
would have replied that the person who does not belong to our village or region, our
society and culture, is a foreigner.
Again, as we stated that anyone coming from outside Bangladesh is a foreigner,
the question remains that the particular geographic location that we now recognize
as Bangladesh, was it the same in the antient times? The answer is no. Bengal was
different in different ages. The boundaries and maps of countries have changed over
the years due to political and geographical reasons. As we speak of maps, let us now
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see the map of antient Bengal. You can find this map on page 32 of your book. A person
who makes maps is called Cartographer. People who design and make maps are called
cartographers.
91
We regularly see local, foreign, colloquial, and words originated from outside in the pages
of our books and use those in our daily conversations. What do we really understand by
those? Many of those words were used in the world even before the creation of nation
states. But we need to remain cautious of the political misinterpretation and misuse of
these. Why someone should be local, someone foreigner and someone outsider? People
residing in a particular area at different times are sometimes considered different.
History is bound to differ with difference in time and place. Relation and thought
process also changes with time. This change has an impact on almost everything
including language, words, culture, habits and lifestyles. But what relation does this
change have with the reading of the text today? The title of our text today is Ways of
Knowing History. While going through the text, you have surely understood that we are
trying to arrive at a scientific and logical conclusion about how the people of Bengal
lived, experienced life, their socio-cultural reality and how they interacted with each
other starting from ancient historical times, ancient middles ages, middle-ages to the
modern times.
And much of this talk is about how the discouse of changing history, culture, mixing,
and the origin of new ideas is created. Which devious politics work behind the creation
of a specific discourse at a specific time in a specific place? The main reason we have this
ongoing discussion about ways to know history is to learn to find the right information,
discarding any misleading information. Understanding how to make logical decisions
in history is also one of the objectives of this discussion.
We certainly now understand that there are several things we need to keep in mind when
looking for history. Now we will identify any historical event. I will collect information
related to that event from textbooks as well as from various sources and make logical
conclusions.
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92
The Region of Bengal and Bangladesh:
Diverse Path of its Political History
Today we will examine the politics and political culture of the Bengal region and
Bangladesh starting from the antient times to 1971. Through this lengthy discussion,
we will try to understand how this institution called a Nation State was created and what
kind of evolution it went through. We will also understand the relationship between the
state, its rulers and the people it ruled in various phases of history and how the common
people overcame their struggles.
Emerging from the commoners, some among them led such popular revolts at various
times. They have liberated the common people from the tyranny of such rulers who
mostly came from distant lands and started to rule over them. These common people
were the actual makers of politics and political culture the last thousand years. They have
laid down their lives for ensuring the welfare of people. In the process of this thousand
years of political upheaval and evolution, independent and sovereign Bangladesh
was eventually created. The person under whose leadership the thousands of years of
struggle in the Bengal region culminated into independence was Bangabandhu Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman.
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the only ruler who emerged from this very
soil, and bloomed as a people’s leader from the rivers and canals, rains and the greenery
of the land. No leader before him in the political history of Bengal had fought for
emancipation and risked his life to ensure freedom through communal harmony among
the common people. Born into a very humble family of Tungipara in Gopalganj district,
Sheikh Mujib was the first man to lead the nation irrespective of religion and caste to
form a state for the common people and succeeded.
Ancient townships in Bengal region

In the Bengal region, situated in eastern part of Indian subcontinent, many small and
big geographical and historical areas and townships grew over the last 2,500 years.
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There wasn’t a single or a unified kingdom in the Bengal region. These small areas
were called townships or geographical and historical units. These townships grew long
before the arrival of the Aryans in Bengal. Let us try to know the names and identities
of few such townships from ancient documented Buddhist and Sanskrit scriptures.
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The Region of Bengal and Bangladesh: Diverse Path of its Political History
Barendra
Paunḍra
Gouda
Harikela
Samatat
Rar
Banga
Banga
The Banga township had evolved through the hands of the Banga population groups.
The meaning of this word is marshland or ‘Kapash Cotton’. But the inhabitants of this
geographical location displayed usual tenacity to survive in Bengal that was full of
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muddy waters and jungles. We know from the writings of the great poet Kalidas that
Bangas were very capable in riverine wars. It was in the great deltaic region, which
now forms a greater Dhaka and Faridpur, that the antient Banga township was situated.
Its boundaries sometimes stretched to the western side as well. The main part of Indian
state of West Bengal was a part of Banga during various phases of history.
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Pundra
Pundra was another most ancient township in Bengal. Its name also originated
from a population group known as Pundra. Its centre was called Pundra Nagar. The
archeological remnants of the Pundra Nagar can now be found in Mahasthan Garh of
Bogura district in present day Bangladesh. A part of the Pundra township was once
widely known as the Varind rea. You will be delighted to know that in the ancient times
Pundra meant sugarcane.
Rar
The Rar area was situated around the two banks of Bhagirathi River of the Indian state
of West Bengal. This township expanded to the sea in the South. It was 3,500 years
from now that the bronze-stone age had evolved in Rar. The place known as Pandu
king’s Dhibi hold testimony to the creation of first society and culture in ancient history
of Bengal. Again, it was in the Rar area that a naval and seaport named Tamralipi
was created nearly 2,000 years ago. From this oldest port in Bengal, grains, clothes,
perfumes and spices produced in Bengal was shipped to various European countries.
Samatat
Samatat was the south-eastern township. From the eastern bank of river Meghna, it
stretched to today’s Cumilla Noakhali, Chottogram and the main part of the Indian
state of Tripura. A Chinese explorer named Suan Jung (Hyuen Sung) came to Bengal
some 1,500 years ago. We know from his travelogues that Samatat was the main centre
for Buddhist religious and cultural learning. He saw many establishments here. These
establishments were called Vihara. The Buddhist preachers lived, and practiced religion
and knowledge in these Viharas.
We mostly come to know about the antient townships of Bengal from the Vaidik
Literature. The Aryans were the creators of the Vaidik Literature. Although these
literatures mentioned about the ancient townships of Bengal, these were, however,
not reflected in a respectful manner. In most instances, the Bangos and Pundras were
ridiculed as ‘pirates’ and ‘uncivilized’. Do you know the reasons behind this? The
pundits say that almost 2,500 years ago when the Aryans entered this land, they faced
resistance from them. Due to facing hurdles in dominance of power, they purposefully
belittled and ridiculed the people of Bengal in their literature.
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Anyway, it was from the Aryans that powerful dynasties like Mourya and Gupta
evolved. Holding the hand of these dynasties, culture of Aryan linguistic groups and
Vaidik culture developed. Gradually, in the population of these townships, the Aryan
and Vaidik linguistic cultural norms started to influence Bengal.
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The politics and power expansion of the Mourya and Gupta dynasties
in Bengal region
After the Mouryas, the Gupta dynasty ruled over North India. Among the emperors of
this dynasty Chandra Gupta, Samudra Gupta, Chadra Gupta II were most noteworthy.
Like the Mouryas, the Guptas too believed in expansionist policies. In the 4th century,
Samudra Gupta led military invasions and captured Banga, Pundro and other townships.
Various information sources on the Gupta dynasty reveals that during the reign of
Samudra Gupta’s second son Chandra Gupta, the influence of the Gupta dynasty
extended to the eastern banks of river Meghna.
The centre of power of these ambitious rulers were outside Bengal. They operated from
the centre and sent their soldiers and military chiefs to rule over Bengal. These high-
profile administrators started to live in Bengal region permanently. Along with them
came new religions and cultures, and intellectuals, priests and businessmen. Side by side
expanding their dynasty, they also worked actively to spread their religion and culture.
This trend continued for a very long time. At times, when the central rulers became
divided or weakened, the provincial administrators declared themselves as sovereign
and cut off all relations with the power centre. The names of most kings that you will
come across in the historical study of Bengal region, you will notice that majority of
them had entered this region from very distant regions. Do you understand the meaning
of this? The original inhabitants of Bengal region, never had the state power. They were
commoners. Their biggest challenge in life was to struggle against adverse nature and
wild animals for survival. Therefore, whenever a rule was established in the Bengal
region, its leadership was in the hands of rulers, such as, elite/ambitious administrators
and top soldiers, who came from distant and faraway regions.
The Bengal Region: The Post-Gupta Political Situation

It is during the last phase of the 6th century that the Gupta dynasty originating from
North India fell. Taking advantage of the weakness of the centre of power, the kingdoms
established away from the centre started to become independent. Like many other
parts of the Indian subcontinent, news came of establishment of small kingdoms in
the Bengal region also. Banga flourished as such a kingdom. Banga evolved in the
hands of a ruler named Gope Chandra during the second decade of the 6th century.
The centre of power of this kingdom was situated in present Bangladesh’s Kotalipara
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in Gopalganj district. In all probability, this kingdom was extended up to the middle
land area between the rivers Padma and Bhagirathi, both of which are tributaries of
the Ganges. According to the research of historian BN Mukherjee, the boundary of
this kingdom stretched from Bangladesh’s Dhaka, Faridpur, greater area of Jessore
district up to southern part of West Bengal. Apart from Gope Chandra, Dharmadittya,
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Shamachar Dev, Dwadoshadittya, Shudonyadittya were five prominent kings of Banga.
The bronze-rule and Mudra (currency) issued by them were later found. These kings
ruled Banga from approximately the years 525 to 600.
Holding the hand of King Shasanka, another royal entity named Goura had evolved
in beginning of the 7th century. The capital of Goura was situated in a place called
Karnasubarna, which now falls under the district of Murshidabad in West Bengal. The
areas that were annexed under the Goura kingdom included present day Bangladesh’s
greater Rajshahi, Bogura, Dinajpur and West Bengal’s western parts and Bihar. But by
no means the boundaries of Banga and Goura could be ascertained. With the increase in
the strength and power of the kings, the boundaries of the kingdoms kept on changing.
Sometimes these rulers annexed other regions through military action, while also lost
some of their own territories being overpowered by opposing kings.
Estimated extent of Shashanka’s reign
Besides, accounts from Bronze-rule, Mudra (currency) and other literary works testify
that to consolidate his power and strength, Shasanka carried out military invasions
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in power centres of the time such as Mogodh, Utkol and Kongod. Shasanka can be
termed as the first imperialist ruler of Bengal. Beyond his own kingdom, he led military
operations in North India to initiate his imperialist journey. After Shasanka, two heirs of
the Pal dynasty of Bengal, Dharmapal and Devpal also followed Shasanka’s footsteps
in fulfilling their imperialist aspirations. They spread their dynasty in Mogodh and
Konouj to display their power and supremacy.
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The politics and power structures of Matsyannayas and Pals

After the death of Shasanka, there wasn’t any powerful ruler in Bengal region for a very
long time. This resulted in frequent foreign attacks in Bengal. Even within Bengal, the
provincial rulers started battling with each other. This situation led to an anarchy. This
situation which continued for almost 100 years, was known as the Matsyannay era. It
was ironically named after the anarchic trend of big fishes in the ponds eating up the
small fishes. This word was first coined by Koutilya in his book Economics or Artha
Sastra. However, this anarchic era came to an end as a Gopal assumed the rulership
of the region with the introduction of the Pal dynasty. The kings of this dynasty were
followers of Buddhist faith.
Among the rulers of the Pal dynasty, Dharma Pal, Dev Pal, First Mohi Pal and Ram
Pal were the most illustrious. After the death of Gopal, his son Dharma Pal assumed
power in the year 781. He was acclaimed as one of the most powerful of the Pal kings.
During his reign, Pala dynasty became so formidable that for extending his power in
North India, he entered into conflict with the Rastrakut family of Dakshinatya and
Gurjar Pratihar family of Rajputana. This battle of power and expansion of dynasty is
known in history as the Battle of the Three Forces. Although Dharma Pal was defeated
to both in the first leg of this battle, he finally won against them within a short span of
time and extended the Pal dynasty up to Varanasi and Prayag situated in the middle of
the Ganges and Yamuna river basin. After the death of Dharma Pal, his son Dev Pal
assumed power. It was during the reign of Dev Pal that the Pal dynasty witnessed the
largest extension.
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The Kaibartya Revolt

After the death of Dev Pal, the power, influence and governance area of the Pal dynasty
started to shrink. During the rule of such of weak king, in the Varind Tracts of the
northern part of Bengal, a revolt called Kaibartya took place. The word Kaibartya means
fishing community. The leader of the fishing community Divyak was a feudal lord. It
was under his leadership that the king of the Pal dynasty Mohipal II was killed and the
Kaibartya rule was established in Varind region. The Kaibartya Revolt is considered to
be very important in the history of Bengal. It was during this revolt that the common
people were first seen to take up arms against the kings. Although Divyak had the
support from all other feudal lords, he mainly depended on the common people to take
control of the Varind region.
Even after losing control over the Varind region, the Pal dynasty continued. At a time
when there was Kaibartya’s rule in the Varind region, a descendent of the Pal dynasty
Rampal assumed power. Rampal attacked the Varind region with the help of kings of 14
nearby kingdoms including Rastraku, Mogodh and Rar. At that time, Divyak’s nephew
Veem was ruling the Varind area. A battle took place between the soldiers of Veem and
Rampal. In the battle, Veem lost and was killed. With this, the Varind region again came
under the rule of the Pal dynasty. Thereafter, Rampal became the last most powerful
king of the Pal dynasty. It was during the reign of Madan Pal that the Pal dynasty came
to an end.
The politics and power dynamics of Dev and Chanda dynasties
The Pal dynasty evolved in the north-western Varind region of Bengal. The centre of
the power was also located in the north-western parts and in parts of Mogodh. Just
when the Pal dynasty was ruling in the north-western parts of the Bengal region, some
different and sovereign kingdoms were ruling in the south-eastern parts. Among them
were Vadra, and Kharag. Dev and Chandra princely families were ruling with authority
in those parts which divided Bengal by rivers. The capitals of these princely states
were Karmanto-Basak, Deva Parbata and Bikrampur. The capital of the Dev dynasty
was Deva Parbata. The ancient Deva Parbata township evolved around a river named
Khiroda. Deva Parbata was situated somewhere around the Lalmai Hills in Cumilla. The
influential kings of this dynasty were Shanti Dev, Bir Dev, Anand Dev and Bhaba Dev.
Their power centre was located in the ancient Samatat. Chandra dynasty is assumed to
be the most powerful dynasty ruling over the south-east parts of Bengal region.
The kings of the Chandra dynasty ruled from the beginning of the 10th century to the
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middle of 11th century. The most influential kings of this dynasty were Troilokkya
Chandra and Sri Chandra. The Chandra dynasty rose from the Rohitgiri areas of the
Lalmai Hills of Cumilla. They expanded their kingdom from here to Banga and Samatat
townships. After Troilokkya Chandra, his son Sri Chandra became the ruler. During his
reign, the Chandra dynasty stretched to Kamrup in the north-east and Goura in north.
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Sri Chandra carried out a military invasion in Kamrup and captured it. The ancient
Srihottya (now Sylhet) was under the rule of the Chandra dynasty. It is known that there
were amicable relations between the Pal and the Chandra dynasties. During the reign
of Sri Chandra, the capital of Chandra dynasty was in Bikrampur under Munshiganj
district.
The politics and power centres of the Sen dynasty
The Sen dynasty evolved in the second half of 11th century in the Rar and Goura
townships of Bengal region. The Sens originated from South India’s Karnat region.
Among those who helped Rampal to reclaim Varind with soldiers and weapons, Vijay
Sen was one of them. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Pal dynasty, Vijay Sen
took control of some parts of the Bengal region after the death of Rampal. He also
defeated Madan Pal and took control of the north-west of Bengal. On the other hand,
by defeating the Burmese king he took over south-east parts. Moreover, he led military
operations in Kamrup, Kalinga, Mithila and gradually extended his empire almost all
over the Bengal region. After conquering the south-east part of the Bengal region, he
established the capital of the Sen dynasty in Bikrampur (now in Munshiganj district).
After the death of Vijay Sen, his sons Bollal Sen and Lakshan Sen respectively assumed
rulership of the Sen dynasty. In the beginning of 13th century during the final stages
of the rule of Lakshan Sen, the Afghan-Turk soldier Bakhtiar Khiljee attacked India
from the eastern side and started diminishing the rule of the Sen dynasty. This limited
the rule of the Sen dynasty to Bikrampur alone. But the northern and some parts of the
north-western territories of Bengal region including parts of present West Bengal and
Bihar went under the rule of Bakhtiar Khiljee.
The politics and power centres of Turk-Afghan Khiljees
A new era of politics and power play evolved through the hands of Turk-Afghan fortune-
hunting soldier Ikhtiar Uddin Mohammad Bakhtiar Khiljee in the north-western parts
of Bengal region. Bakhtiar Khiljee was a Turkish by nationality, but an inhabitant of
Gormasi area in Afghanistan. He was given lease of Viuli and Bhagat Parganas in
Mirzapur district Uttar Pradesh of India by the ruler of Ajodhya Hushamuddin. While
living in Viuli and Bhagat, Bakhtiar mobilized some soldiers and increased his strength.
After that he started to conquer some small states and feudal lands and extended his
rule up to Mogodh. Following the techniques of sudden attack, gathering information
and taking preparations, he led a military operation through the jungles of Jharkhand
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and attached the palace of the Sen dynasty. It is said that he led such a fast military
operation through the jungles of Jharkhand that only 17-18 soldiers could reach the
palace along with him.
This is how Bakhtiar Khiljee conquered a part of the Bengal region. He established
the Khiljee rule by forcing king Lakshan Sen to go back to Bikrampur. His capital was
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established in Lakhnouti. The language, relion and culture of the Khiljee kings were
different from that of eastern India and Bengal region. But gradually, the Sufis, Darvish
and Sultans spread their own Islamic religionand culture among the common people of
the Bengal region.
The Sultan and the Mughal rulers of Delhi often regularly gave away or leased watery
and jungle lands of the Bengal region. The historical accounts of Richard Eton, Ashim
Roy and Mamtazur Rahman Tarafder testify to the fact these rulers did this as a part
of their land extension policy, which also contributed to the spread of Islam in the
Bengal region. Later, many more political and social activities have played important
roles in this regard. It is for this reason that despite the presence of numerous religions,
caste, language and culture in Bengal, the people of this land have always been united
through a bond of friendship and harmony. Humanity has always been more valued in
this land Jibanananda Das, Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam – all sang the
glory of this humanity. According to a poet of the middle ages–
সবার উপরে মানুষ সত্্য তাহার উপর নাই
When you will grow up and get the opportunity to learn about the history of Bengal
more, you can go deeper into the sources and find out many more truths. But you
need to remember that only through studying this history of kings and emperors, you
will not be able to know or understand the people of this land. If you want to know
people, you have to know about their culture, custom, rituals and norms. You will
see the emergence of various kings and monarchs in various centuries. You will see
regional political rivalry taking place even in India against the imperialist expansionist
policy in North India. Those who have ruled eastern India or Bengal, have also faced
resistance against this political dominance. Different kings have ruled different parts
of Bengal. Invaders and militaries from outside have come to Bengal from time to
time and captured territories of Bengal. This is how a polarization has taken place in
the political history of Bengal. The common people of Bengal have slowly but surely
evolved their own political culture and became involved in its transformation.
The soldiers who came to Bengal from Central Asia were accustomed to infantry and
horse-back battles. They did not have the skills to fight in marshy lands and jungles.
For this, without entering into the east ruled by the Sen dynasty (where Bangladesh is
now located), Bakhtiar advanced towards Tibet to conquer it and faced death. After
that, his army chief Ali Mardan Khiljee captured the throne of Lakhnouti. Two other
military chiefs of Bakhtiar Sheeran Khiljee and Giasuddin Yus Khiljee got into a
tussle with Ali Mardan Khiljee over the share of power. In this tripartite conflict, both
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Sheeran and Mardan died. After this, Giasuddin Yus Khiljee took over as the ruler of
Lakhnouti. Although Bakhtiar Khiljee established his kingdom in Lakhnouti, he never
declared its independence. Until his death, he had sworn his allegiance to the ruler of
Delhi Kutubuddin Aybek and the Sultan of Gazni Mohammd Ghori. It was Ali Mardan
Khiljee who first who declared Lakhnouti as an independent kingdom and introduced
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currency. After assuming power, Giasuddin Yus Khiljee followed his system. Revolting
against the Muslim rulers of Delhi, he introduced ‘khutba’ and currency in his name.
He ruled Lakhnouti for 15 years from 1212 to 1227. In order to expand kingdom to the
south-east of Bengal region, he got involved in war with the Sen dunasty in 1227, it was
during this time that Nasiruddin, the son of Sultan of Delhi Iltutmis attacked Lakhnouti.
In order to retaliate, Giasuddin Yus Khiljee rushed towards Lakhnouti. There, he was
captured by the soldiers of Delhi and killed along with the members of his family.
After the death of Eoj Khilji, like many other regional states in India at that time,
the state of Lakhnauti, came under the rule of Delhi for a long period. The ruler of
Lakhnauti was sent from Delhi. The rulers of Lakhnauti used to rule maintaing their
loyalty to the Sultan of Delhi. In lieu of obedience, if someone rebelled and did not pay
the appropriate revenue, the central rulers would send troops to oust the local rulers and
appoint new rulers. During this period, most of the rulers who came to the kingdom of
Lakhnauti were slaves of the rulers of Delhi. That is why many people call this period
as ‘Slave Rule’ or ‘Mamluk Rule’.
Politics and Power of Ilyas Shahi and Hossain Shahi Dynasty in Bengal
Region
Both the rulers of Delhi and Lakhnouti were Muslims. But there is a continuous conflict
between them. In this conflict, the rebel rulers of Lakhnauti used to expand the kingdom
by conducting military campaigns to the south and east of Lakhnauti whenever they got
the opportunity. As a result of these campaigns, a large part of the Bengal region came
under the control of the rulers of Lakhnouti. By 1338, besides Lakhnouti, two other
power centres were established in Bengal. One is Satgaon to the south of Lakhnouiti,
the other is Sonargaon to the southeast. The Sultans of Delhi used to appoint governors
in the other two centres besides Lakhnauti.
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Sonargaon
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Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah started the independent Sultanate period as the ruler of a large
part of the Bengal region by controlling three separate administrative centres of Bengal.
In 1342, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah came to power in Lakhnouti and first took control of
Satgaon, the southern administrative centre of Lakhnouti. He then invaded Nepal and
Trihut and possessed lot of wealth. In 1352 Ilyas Shah attacked Sonargaon and defeated
Ghazi Shah and captured Sonargaon. By controlling three administrative centres, Ilyas
Shah was able to bring most of Bengal under his rule. Feroz Shah Tughlaq, the Muslim
Sultan of Delhi, led a campaign with a large army to oust the Muslim Sultan Ilyas Shah
of Bengal. Ilyas Shah took refuge in a fort called Ekdala instead of engaging in a direct
battle. The Delhi troops could not survive long in Bengal’s hostile weather, monsoon,
water, jungle and mosquito infestation. Firoz Shah Tughlaq was forced to return to
Delhi.
Shams-e-Siraj Afif, a Delhi court chronicler, refers to Ilyas Shah as ‘Shah-i Bangalah’,
‘Shah-i-Bangaliyan’ and ‘Sultani Bangalah’. The words ‘Bangala’ and ‘Bengalian’
derived from ‘Banga’ were most probably used for the first time to define the identity
of the Bengal region and it’s people. But it is not known from any source that the
commoners of this region had any relation with this process of determining the name-
identity.
The descendants of Sultan Ilyas Shah ruled Bengal for a long period. Two notable
rulers of the Ilyashahi dynasty were Sikandar Shah and Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah.
During the period of the Ilyas Shahi Sultanat, a stable political environment was once
again established in a major part of the regional territory of Bengal, which created an
environment for the development of art, literature and culture during this time. It was
during the reign of Sultan Azam Shah that Shah Muhammad Sagir wrote his famous
poem ‘Yusuf Julekha’. Sultan Azam Shah himself composed poetry in Persian and is
said to have corresponded with the famous Persian poet Hafiz.
After the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, the history of Bengal saw the rule of another dynasty.
This is Hussain Shahi dynasty. A group of Abyssinian slaves seized power by taking
advantage of the weakness of the rulers of Bengal. Four Habsi slaves were in the royal
power of Bengal for about six years. Each ruler was killed and another ruler came to
power. Alauddin Hussain Shah ascended the throne in 1493 after evicting the Habsi
slaves from power. He came from a faraway land to the eastern part of India i.e. Bengal
region. His ancestors were from Central Asia. However, after assuming power, Husain
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Shah killed many of the troublesome Habsi slaves and Emirs and expelled the rest.
He recruited the so-called upper caste, elite and educated Muslims and Hindus to
assist in the royal work. Hussain Shah was an expansionist ruler. He conducted several
campaigns towards Kamarupa, Kamata, Bihar and Orissa with the aim of expanding
his kingdom and acquiring wealth.
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A special development of art, literature and architecture can be seen in Bengal during
Hussain Shahi’s rule. At this time, writers such as Maladhar Bose, Vijay Gupta, Jashoraj
appeared in the literary arena of Bengal. A literary genre called Mangal Kavya started
in Bengali literature mainly from this period. During the reign of Alauddin Hussain
Shahi, many mosques, madrasas, forts and towers were built in Gaur including ‘Chota
Sona Masjid’, ‘Bara Sona Masjid’, ‘Baroduari Masjid’.
Bengal Region Under the Sphere of Power Politics of Afghan and
Mughal
You will notice that almost all the rulers who ruled over a large part of the Bengal
region were elite Muslims who followed the Islamic religion and culture of Arabia and
Persia.They were engaged in a power struggle among themselves; on the other hand,
they maintained their power through encounter against the Muslim rulers of Delhi. It is
needless to say that the common people of the Bengal region had no role in this power
tension.
After the establishment of the Mughal Empire in Delhi, a conflict broke out between the
Afghan ruler Shershah Shur and the Mughal ruler Humayun over the throne of Delhi.
The wave of this conflict impacted the throne of Bengal. Both Shershah and Humayun
briefely controlled the then capital of Gaur, which was established in the main part of
regional Bengal for some time. After expelling Humayun from the throne of Delhi,
Sher Shah also brought Bengal under his rule from Delhi. Shershah was a ruler of
Afghan origin. Due to Shershah, the ruling power of Bengal passed into the hands of
the Afghans for a brief period. Although Mughal rule was re-established in Delhi, the
rule of Afghan rulers Sulaiman Karrani and Daud Karrani continued in Bengal.
In 1576, the Afghans fought with Mughal troops sent by Emperor Akbar. Dawood
Karrani was defeated and killed in this battle. The expansion of Mughal power politics
and rule in Bengal began. After defeating the Afghan ruler Daud Karrani, the Mughal
rulers sent subadars to rule Bengal. But some powerful zamindars of the south-eastern
part of Bengal stood in the way of the subadars. These zamindars banded together
to block the Mughal subadras and continued to rule their respective zamindari areas
independently. Historically these zamindars are known as Baro Bhuiyas. The leader of
the Baro Bhuiyas was Isa Khan, the zamindar of Sonargaon, and his son Musa Khan.
Among the other zamindars who were involved in the anti-Mughal war as allies of Isa
Khan, the names of Chandrai and Kedar Roy of Bhushan, Bahadur Gazi of Bhulua,
Laxman Manikya of Sreepur are particularly noteworthy. Islam Khan was appointed
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Subadar of Bengal during Mughal ruler Jahangir. Islam Khan first defeated Musa Khan.
After that he established alliance with other landlords. Thus he brought a large part of
the Bengal region under the control of Mughal power. Mughal Subadar Islam Khan
was the first to establish the capital of Suba Bengal in Dhaka in 1610 and named it
‘Jahangirnagar’.
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Establishment of Subadari and Nawabi Rule in Bengal Region

You all know that the Mughal rulers named the provinces under them as Subas. They
used to appoint one subadar to run the governance in each suba. Shah Shuja, Mir Jumla
and Shaista Khan were notable subadars of Bengal. It is said that in Bengal, during the
time of Shaista Khan, eight maunds of rice were available for one taka. More caution
needs to be exercised about these types of generalizations. Such conclusions can only
be drawn by critically searching examining various sources.
The main occupation of the people of Bengal was agriculture, the main crop was paddy.
Now the question is raised as to whether the farmers of Bengal would get a fair return
for the crops they tilled day and night. However, it is known from various sources that
the Subadars of Bengal used to send large amounts of revenue and tribute to Delhi from
here. The story of the immense luxury and luxury of the Mughal rulers is heard, but has
anyone evaluated the produce, labor and sweat of the hardworking people of Bengal
behind that luxury?
Murshid Quli Khan came to the power of Bengal in 1700 taking advantage of the
weakness of the central power and he began to rule Bengal almost independently. The
period of Nawab rule in Bengal started from the time of Nawab Murshid Quli Khan.
The arrival of European merchants and traders started in Bengal even before Subadari
rule. Areas like Kolkata, Chunchura, Chandannagar, Hooghly, Chittagong, Satgao
etc. developed as business centres for English, Dutch, Danish, Portuguese, French
merchants. In addition to building trade centres, many of them also carried out looting
in Bengal. These inefficiencies led to conflicts between Portuguese, French and English
East India Company merchants at various times with the Subadars and Nawabs. Apart
from outside traders, there was a dispute between elites within Bengal over the seat
of Nawabi rule. As a result of such a multifaceted conflict, Nawab Sirajuddaula was
defeated in the Battle of Palashi on June 23, 1757, and the English East India Company
came to power in Bengal.
Exercise
All the students are divided into 4 groups. These 4 groups will prepare separate wall
magazines on the arrival and settlement of different people in the thousand years
of history of the Bengal region. All the students of the team will participate in the
wall magazines. Everyone will help make the wall magazine by writing or drawing
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pictures. The subject matter of writings and pictures will be the history of politics and
political culture in the Bengali region before the British and Pakistani rule. Students
will gather information from this chapter to prepare their writing and pictures.
The exploited people gradually became aware of their rights and started a resistance
movement against the British rule. It was at that time that common people were widely
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seen fighting against the royal power sometimes with arms and sometimes without
arms. Gradually, western education spread among the people, some native and European
social reformers vowed to build a new society free from superstitions and bigotry.
As a result, overall education and rights awareness among people became stronger.
Political awakening of people took place here through two streams- systematic political
movement and armed resistance movement. The people of Bengal region once again
progressed towards political success in building a truly exploitation-free society and
state through continuous movements, revolutions, marches and bloody wars.
The Fakir-Sanyasi Rebellion
The first armed movement was organized by the fakirs and monks
Fakir-Sanyasis usually lived in khanqahs and akhras (shrines). The rulers of the
company enacted certain laws which disrupted the normal way of life of the fakir-
sanyasi. The company government prohibited the taking of alms from the people and
taxed the shrines. Moreover, they are also called robbers. This enraged the people of
both communities and from 1760 to 1786 the Fakir-Sanyas of Bengal led a vigorous
agitation against the Company’s rule under the leadership of Fakir Majnu Shah. A
Brahmin named Bhavani Pathak is said to have been in touch with Majnu Shah on
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behalf of the monks. The common people of Bengal were also associated with Majnu
Shah in this movement.
The Fakir-Sanyasi revolt took full form in 1763. Their main target was the trading
houses of the British government. Armed with spears, swords, bolts, guns, fire-throwing
devices, cannons, etc., the rebels used to attack and loot various English strongholds
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(kuthis) in Rangpur, Dinajpur, Rajshahi, Dhaka, Patna, Cooch Behar, Comilla,
Chittagong areas. Majnu Shah used camels and horses to carry food, ammunition and
supplies to the soldiers in battle. Between five and fifty thousand fakir-sanyasi warriors
are said to have participated in each well-planned battle. Among them were common
farmers and commoners. Many soldiers, including English Kuthials (residence of the
kuthis), died when they came to fight with the Fakir-Sanyasis. After the death of Majnu
Shah, Fakirs and ascetic leaders like Musa Shah, Paragal Shah, Kripanath, Srinivas
continued to lead this movement for many days.
Manyantar/ Famine of Seventy-Six
The common people of Bengal were victims of looting of money and resources by the
English East India Company. Previously, during any kind of disaster, lack of rain or
flood, the local landlords and rulers of Bengal used to give various benefits including
tax waiver to the subjects. In the Mahasthan Brahmilipi, it is mentioned that in ancient
times, the central state made arrangements to store food grains and money to help the
subjects during calamities. But the company government led by Robert Clive collected
full revenue the year before the famine, knowing that farmers could not grow crops due
to lack of rain. Next year again, the yield was very low due to lack of rain. Whatever
grain was produced was also taken by the company men as revenue. There is no
provision for relief or revenue waiver for the people. This resulted in a terrible famine
throughout the country. One-third of the people of Bengal died due to the lack of food
in this famine in 1770, Bengali year 1176. This famine in Bengal in 1176 is known in
history as Manyantar of seventy-six.
Indigo Revolt
Indigo cultivation is another example of the extreme misery brought to the lives of
marginal peasants and rayats of Bengal after the English East India Company took
over. Indigo was needed for dyeing cloth in industrial factories in Europe. The price and
demand for indigo was high in Europe. The government of the company made a plan to
earn money by cultivating indigo by the farmers of Bengal and exporting it to Europe.
The best lands of the farmers were set aside for indigo cultivation. They provided
farmers with money as the cost of cultivation. It was called Dadan. This money was
collected with interest through indigo collection. Even after years of cultivating indigo,
the farmers could not get rid of the forced payment debt. If any farmer did not want to
grow indigo, the English Kuthials would take him to the kacharibari (office) and torture
him terribly. In the most fertile lands of the farmers of Bengal, indigo was cultivated
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instead of food crops. The common peasants were in immense misery. At one time they
were bound to revolt.
This revolt of common peasants of Bengal against indigo cultivation is known in history
as Indigo Revolt. Since 1850, the farmers of the then Faridpur, Jessore, Murshidabad,
Dhaka, Pabna, Rajshahi, Nadia areas got organized and started a strong movement
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against the local indigo tax collectors. Newspapers began to publish stories about
the atrocities of the British indigo collectors. Nani Madhav and Beni Madhav were
the leaders of the Indigo Rebellion in Jessore, Baidyanath and Vishwanath Sardar in
Hooghly, Vishnucharan Biswas and Digambar Biswas in Nadia. In the end the farmers
won. The British government made a new law in the face of this intense movement.
Forced cultivation of indigo by farmers was prohibited in that act.
Titumir’s Bamboo Fort and Faraji Movement
The names of two more people contemporary to the Indigo Revolt are particularly
notable for protecting the interests of the oppressed and exploited people of Bengal,
such as farmers, weavers, fishermen, and Teli (oil pressures) and leading the movement
against the tyranny of the British rulers. One of them was Titumir, the other one was
Haji Shariat Ullah, the leader of the Faraji movement. In the 19th century, religious
reform movements started in two streams in Muslim society in India. It was through
these reform movements Haji Shariat Ullah and Titumi gained popularity among the
oppressed raiyats, farmers, fishermen, weavers, etc. the marginalized population of
Bengal. They organized the people who were oppressed by the English, Zamindars
and Nilkar Kuthials (indigo tax collector Brithish resided oin the Kuthis) and formed
an armed force and started protesting the injustice. In 1831, the British government
sent a powerful army to fight Titumir. Titumir built a bamboo fort and assembled the
army consists of Lathials (warriors with bamboo stick) of farmers and laborers. When
the English attacked with cannon-guns, Titumir counter-attacked with bamboo sticks,
spears, and swords. Although Titumir was killed in this uneven battle, his bravery
inspired the people to fight bravely against the British rulers.
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Haji Shariat Ullah Mir Nesar Ali Titumir
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On the other hand, Haji Shariat Ullah, the leader of the Faraji movement, formed a
Lathial Bahini like Titumir and continued the protest struggle against the injustice of
the tyrannical landlords and the English indigo collectors till 1840. After the death of
Haji Shariat Ullah, his son Dudu Mia led this movement. Through these movements,
the peasants, raiyats and oppressed people of Bengal were participating in the struggle
against the ruling class. Needless to say, this movement has played a revolutionary role
in creating a mass support for protest against injustice.
Sepoy Mutiny
In 1857, another large-scale rebellion took place in history known as the ‘Sepoy
Mutiny’. The British rulers started recruiting soldiers from Bengal and India to run the
administration. Through the Sepoy Mutiny, these local soldiers took the initiative to
remove the East India Company from the motherland and hand over the power to the
local rulers. Many bloody battles took place between the native sepoys and the British
soldiers during this period. Lots of people from both sides died and injured through
bloody battles. The sepoys were ultimately defeated. Many sepoys were hanged by
the British government for mutiny. But they could not suppress the spirit of freedom
among the people of this region.
Sepoy mutiny
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Renaissance of Bengal and the ‘Young Bengal’ Movement

The 19th century marked fundamental changes in social, cultural, psychological and
intellectual aspects of Bengal. This change is considered as the Bengali Renaissance.
First, this change came about through contacts between British officials and missionaries
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and local population. In terms of cultural and intellectual changes, it can be noted that
before 1830, the European education system including the writing of textbooks and
small and large educational institutions were established here. The establishment of
Hindu College (1817) is a great sign of it. It was then the first institution of higher
education on the European model in the whole of Asia. At this time, newspapers,
periodicals and books on various subjects were regularly published in Bengali and
English. Gradually the Vidwajanas (educated ones) became aware of their place in the
modern world. They also drew attention to their own historical legacy and European
history and knowledge. Thus, through religious, social and cultural activities, public
awareness increased.
‘Young Bengal’ is a term given to Hindu college students by the contemporary society
of social intellectuals. All of them were followers of Henry Louis Vivian DeRozio,
a free-spirited rationalist teacher at Hindu College. DeRozio taught his students to
adopt a rational approach to life and social processes. He taught how social institutions
are formed and developed and how people are bound by dead and outmoded ideas
and social organizations. DeRozio encouraged the students to be enlightened and to
abandon any superstitions. In this case the instances were history and philosophy. His
repeated advise was: ‘Live for truth, die for truth’.
A group of brilliant students at Hindu College was DeRozio’s favorite. Among them,
Krishnamohan Banerjee, Rasikakrishna Mallick, Dakshinaranjan Mukhopadhyay,
Ramgopal Ghosh, Madhav Chandra Mallick, Ramatanu Lahiri, Mahesh Chandra
Ghosh, Shivachandra Dev, Harchandra Ghosh, Radhanath Shikdar, Govindachandra
Basak, Amritlal Mitra were notable. All of them were inspired by free thought. The
existing social and religious structure of the Hindu society made them defiant.
19th Century Reform Movements and Intellectual Awakening
From the first half of the 19th century, the beginning of a revolutionary change can
be seen in the prevailing religion, society, education-culture and political thought of
Bengal. Political consciousness developed in the educated society of Bengal under the
influence of European Industrial Revolution and French Revolution. On the other hand,
Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Dirozio, Syed Amir Ali, Nawab
Abdul Latif, Begum Rokeya and others started a new reform movement in the fields
of religion, society, education, culture, politics etc. As a result, a new awakening was
created among the people of Bengal. Initiatives were taken to realize people’s rights
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by communicating to the government through various organizations. Dark customs

like Satidah , polygamy, child marriage were uprooted from the society. The English
governors also gave their consent and assistance in social reforms and educational
expansion during this period. Begum Rokeya inspired women to come out form the
confinement of home and receive modern education so that they can work side by
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side men in all sphere of life. She established schools on her own initiative to provide
women education and by writing various articles and books, she raised awareness
about the importance of women education in the society. Along with native thinkers,
a European scholar named Derozio played a special role in reforming thoughts and
mindsets of the youth of Bengal.
End of British Rule
Along with education and culture, the demand for political freedom was also vocalized
among the people. Two political parties namely Congress and Muslim League were
working for the realization of people’s rights through systematic political practices
while maintaining relations with the British rulers. On the other hand, several armed
revolutionary organizations were formed to expel the British government from the
subcontinent. The names of Khudiram, Arvind Ghosh, Prafulla Chaki, Master Da
Suryasen, Pritilata Waddedar were particularly noteworthy among the organizers of the
revolutionary armed movement. The specific strategies of the revolutionary fighters
were sudden bombings, assassination of high-ranking British officers, planned attacks.
In this armed movement many died and were imprisoned as well. But that did not
deviate the movement. As a result of these struggles, the British government was forced
to leave India in 1947. Consequently, two new states named India and Pakistan emerged
in the subcontinent.
In the wake of Independence of Bangladesh
The first proof that it was a historical mistake to merge the eastern part of Bengal with the
state of Pakistan came in 1947 when the question of the national language of Pakistan
came to the fore. Despite Bengali being the language of the majority of the people of
Pakistan, the Urdu-speaking rulers decided to make Urdu the state language instead
of Bengali. Students and educated class of East Bengal strongly protested against this
decision. Newspapers and magazines began to publish the demand to make Bengali the
national language. On December 6, 1947, the students of Dhaka University held a protest
rally demanding language. At the end of that month, the National Language Struggle
Council was formed. Next year, in the session of the Pakistan Constituent Assembly in
February, the assembly members were proposed to deliver speeches in Urdu or English.
Dhirendranath Dutta, a member of the East Pakistan Council, protested against it and
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proposed to adopt Bengali as the language of the Council. March 11, 1948 was one
of the most memorable days in the history of language movement. Strikes, marches
and protest meetings were held in Dhaka city to protest the removal of Bengali from
the language list of the Constituent Assembly and the use of Urdu instead of Bengali
on currency and postage stamps. The common people of East Bengal also took to the
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streets declaring solidarity with the agitated students. When the movement turned
violent, the Pakistani government launched police raids and arrests of revolutionary
leaders. Shamsul Haque, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman are among those who were arrested
during the strike and protest march with the slogan ‘রাষ্ট্রভাষা বাংলা চাই’
Politics of the establishment of independent-sovereign Bangladesh and
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib
The movement of people’s rights in East Bengal began with the language movement
and ended with the victory in the 1971 War of Independence. Bangabandhu Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman was the inevitable name that was mentioned at the same time in this
struggle for the freedom of the people of Bengal.
Ever since the creation of Pakistan, the people of East Bengal were deprived of their due
benefits and were widely exploited and oppressed. Sheikh Mujib started a movement
to bring the people of Bengal out of this new exploitation structure and gave them
fair rights in political, cultural and economic fields. This movement of Sheikh Mujib
created a new awakening among the young generation, students and working people of
East Bengal. Sheikh Mujib, who had been dreaming of freedom and independence for
a long time, risked his life with the Pakistani rulers and continued his struggle. In 1966,
Sheikh Mujib announced a six-point program known as the ‘Charter of Liberation’ for
the people of East Bengal. Through the six-point demand, Sheikh Mujib practically
raised the demand for freedom of the people of East Bengal. This program instilled great
hope among the people of East Bengal and started a mass movement across the country
to get the six-point demand accepted by the Pakistani government. People’s leader
Mujib was repeatedly imprisoned to diverting people’s movement for independence,
but that failed to stop the movement. In 1969, a mass uprising took place under the
leadership of Bangabandhu. Asad was martyred. Bangladesh moved forward on the
path of achieving independence.
In the 1970 general elections, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib emerged as the sole
spokesperson for the people of East Pakistan. The Awami League under the leadership
of Sheikh Mujib won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan. On March 7, 1971,
Bangabandhu delivered a historic speech to a large gathering of approximately one
million people at the Race Course Maidan. He asked the people of East Bengal to
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prepare for guerilla warfare. He indirectly declared the independence of Bangladesh

and said, “Make every house a fort.” You have to fight the enemy with everything you
have... Remember, when we have given blood, we will give more blood, we will free
the people of this country, In Sha Allah (if God wishes) ... This fight is our fight for
liberation, this fight is our fight for freedom.
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Bangabandhu Delivering His March 7 Speech

Unable to suppress the freedom-seeking people of Bengal, the Pakistan Army launched
a brutal massacre called Operation Searchlight in the dark of night on March 25, 1971.
At the Dhaka Cantonment, vehicles were ready; Their destinations were Rajarbagh,
Dhanmondi, Dhaka University and Pilkhana. At 10:30 p.m. the armed army convoy
was blocked in front of the barricade in front of Farmgate, a section of student
crowd including Asaduzzaman Khan Kamal resisted for the first time and raised the
Farmgate area with Jai Bangla slogans. The Pakistani assassins, facing resistance at
Farmgate, became more alert and broke through the barricade and advanced through
Banglamotor. They opened fire on sleeping people in various places including Dhaka
University and started massacre. That night Sheikh Mujib was arrested and taken to
Dhaka Cantonment. Sheikh Mujib was taken from the cantonment to Pakistan for trial
on charges of treason and rebellion. On the night of March 26, before being arrested by
Pakistani troops, Sheikh Mujib sent a wireless message to Chittagong through the EPR
transmitter announcing the independence of Bangladesh. In the announcement he said,
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“This may be my last message. Bangladesh is independent from today. My appeal

to the people of Bangladesh is to resist the occupying army wherever you are
and with whatever you have. You must continue this fight until he last soldier of
the Pakistani occupation forces expelled from the soil of Bangladesh and final
victory achieved..”
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Following the instructions of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the vast people
of Bengal jumped into the war of independence and achieved victory on December 16,
1971 through a long nine-month bloody war.
When the British partitioned India in 1947 and went back, the politicians here took the
initiative to build a new political identity based only on religion rather than following
thousand-year tradition of Bengal. The eastern part of the Bengal region was named East
Pakistan utterly inconsistent with history. The original name of Bengal land ‘Banga’
was lost in the darkness of degenerated-politics of opportunistic politicians. However,
the name ‘Bongo’ has been around for thousands of years, and the identity of the name
Bangladesh has found its root based on the diverse experiences of the people living in
a certain territory. Through the consequences of various events and the independent
sovereign ‘Bangladesh’ emerged in 1971, for the first time in the history of Bengal,
under the leadership of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
Group work 1
Let us form a team of 5 to 6 individuals. We will conduct a research following a
scientific approach as a team. Each team selects any one historical event from the
Bengal region. With the help of textbooks and various sources, we will discuss
information related to that event within the team. For instance, if we decide to
work on the Neel Rebellion, we will gather information about the causes, context,
and opinions of various historians, and based on that, we will prepare a poster or
PowerPoint presentation.
Group work 2
Now, as a team, we will search for any historical event in our area. For this, we will
form a team of 5 to 6 individuals from the same area. Once again, we will conduct
research following a scientific approach. Let us find an oral history or historical event
documented in books, newspapers, documentaries, or television. After that, we will
gather information. To collect information, we will interview elderly individuals in
our area as sources of data. Additionally, we will gather information from various
sources like evidence, documents, old newspapers or magazines, biographies of
individuals, books, articles, and so on. After analyzing the information, we will draw
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logical conclusions. We will make a periodical named ‘Evidence of History,’ where

we will present our findings based on the acquired results. We will present the results
through short reports, stories, poems, etc.
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Social Structure in Personal Life
In this learning experience we will first read 2 case studies. We will analyze the
situation given in the case study to determine the rationale of the individual’s actions
or decisions. We will imagine ourselves in such a situation and determine how our
decision would have been in that situation. We will analyze various social issues in the
local context with the help of various sources. We will determine how social factors
affect social structure. We will determine techniques for analyzing any context in an
impersonal and dispassionate manner. We will create ‘Wall Magazine’ by identifying
various social issues in the global context and analyzing how they affect the social
structure in an impersonal and dispassionate way.
Case Study 1 Case Study 2

Labonno Choudhury is a photographer Dr. Fazlur Rahman, a medical
whose pictures depict the joys and sorrows professional, is facing a challenging
of life in Bengal. Her photos have been situation. His elderly mother’s condition
selected for an international exhibition. With at home is not good. Today, she has
tremendous enthusiasm and motivation, requested him to stay by her side for a
she participated in the exhibition. On the while. Dr. Fazlur Rahman was sitting
first day, as she saw pictures from various with his mother for quite some time. As
countries, she realized that everyone he was about to leave for the hospital,
highlighted the positive aspects of their he noticed his mother trembling,
own countries. However, Labonno focused experiencing an increase in fever, and a
solely on the poverty, sorrow, and despair drop in blood pressure. In such a critical
of the people in Bangladesh. She had a situation, there is no one else to attend
realisation that it is not right to show a to his mother.
bad image of the country to the people of
other countries. So she wrote a letter to the Continuous calls from the hospital
authorities of the exhibition requesting that made him feel obligated to answer.
the pictures be taken down. He was informed about an emergency
patient requiring immediate surgery.
After getting the letter, the authority Fazlur Rahman, somewhat irritated,
informed that one of her pictures was already responded, “If I am not here, will
nominated for an award. Additionally, she the hospital shut down?” It was then
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would receive a handsome amount of prize explained to him that he is the only
money. However, if she decides to withdraw specialized doctor available who can
her photos from the exhibition, she will lose perform the necessary operation.
both the award and the recognition.
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Labonno contemplates the situation, Looking back at his mother, he decided

realizing that the monetary aspect is that he won’t leave his mother alone
crucial. She runs an organization that today, come whatever may.
caters to the education expenses of
talented but underprivileged individuals.
Unfortunately, in the past few months, the
organization couldn’t gather the necessary
funds.
-Labonno Choudhury decides to accept
the award and recognition.
Group Work 1
Let's gather as a team as before. Then, we'll discuss: How much rationality is involved
in the decisions made by Labonno Choudhury and Fazlur Rahman? Have they been
able to take rational decisions analyzing the situation?
Next, let’s contemplate on ourselves. If we were in their positions, could we make

rational decisions in an impartial and unbiased manner?
We often face such situations while maintaining impartiality and making rational
decisions becomes challenging for us. However, if we practice it, we can make rational
decisions in any circumstance. Because decisions made without bias and impartiality
are less likely to be incorrect. The mentality of sacrificing petty personal gains for the
greater good is developed.
Now, let’s delve into some societal aspects like social stratification and social dynamism.
Various Types of Inequality
All societies have, to a lesser or greater extent, social stratification. While the distinction
between high and low is not often visible in the primary or primitive stages of human
society, it becomes gradually apparent in the subsequent stages of societal development.
In the continuum of social development, four types of social stratification can be
observed in human societies so far. These are Slavery, Estate, Caste, and Class. The
first two types have become obsolete. The influence of the caste system is diminishing,
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but class-based stratification still prevails in contemporary society. Now let us learn
about these types of social stratification. Through this, we can understand the nature of
previous societal structures, get an idea about the changes in society, and comprehend
the dynamics of the present social framework.
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Slavery
Slavery is a characteristic of agricultural and feudal society. It fully developed in
Western society. This practice primarily divided society into two parts: the salves and
the lords of the slaves. A slave is a person who is considered the property of others
according to law and tradition. The slaves had no rights; they were entirely subordinate
to others. They might enjoy some protection as the domestic animals get. The practice
of slavery is an extreme form of social inequality. In this case, a section of society is
entirely or mostly deprived of rights. The existence of slavery was prevalent in various
forms throughout different periods of human history. However, there are two extreme
examples of slavery. One is in ancient Greek-Roman civilizations, and the other is in
the 18th and 19th centuries in the Southern states of the United States. By examining
the extreme condition of slavery, many social analysts consider slavery as a ‘labor-
intensive system,’ where the slaves work like machines.
Estate
In medieval Europe, the term ‘estate’ initially referred to feudal land ownership,
meaning land under the control of a landlord or owner. Later, in various countries of
Eastern and Western Europe, including Russia, the term ‘estate’ was used to signify a
social class under the feudal system.
During the Middle Ages, France and other European countries were divided into three
estates. These were known as the First Estate, Second Estate, and Third Estate. The First
Estate included the leaders or clergy of the Church. They were considered representatives
of God and owned abundant land and other wealth. They were so powerful that they
controlled political events. The Second Estate consisted of the nobility, including kings
and queens. They were primarily owners of extensive lands where common peasants
worked, sustaining a luxurious lifestyle through the income generated.
Furthermore, the Third Estate was considered to include the majority of the common
people who primarily engaged in agriculture for the Church or the nobility. They were
simply called ‘serfs.’ Each estate had specific responsibilities and duties defined, and
this hierarchical division was recognized by law. Membership in these estates was
determined by birth, similar to the caste system. The first two estates enjoyed all the
privileges and benefits of society, while those belonging to the Third Estate were
exploited and deprived of these advantages.
Caste System
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Another form of social stratification is the caste system. Caste system is referred to as
a special kind of social stratification. Based on the principles of hierarchy, the Indian
Hindu society is divided into four main categories: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and
Shudra. Within each caste, there are further subdivisions known as ‘jati’. Disparities
in social status are observed among the different jatis. Membership in a caste is
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determined at birth. Once, individuals of different castes had to adhere to certain rules
and restrictions in social interactions. Each member of the caste was assigned specific
occupations based on their birth. Brahmins were engaged in religious rituals, worship,
and education; Kshatriyas were responsible for ruling and defending the country;
Vaishyas were involved in trade, commerce, agriculture, and animal husbandry; and
Shudras served the other three groups. Slaves, physical labourers, and farmers were
included in the Shudra caste. Brahmins held the highest authority and privileges,
followed by Kshatriyas, then Vaishyas, and Shudras at the bottom. Those considered
untouchables occupied the lowest position in society.
However, with the expansion of urbanization, industrialization, and the spread of
modern education, the rigidity within the caste system has weakened. Individuals
from any caste are now becoming capable of pursuing any profession. The growth of
the monetary market and business has enabled individuals from traditionally lower
castes to buy land and attain prestige and power as landowners. The development of
democratic values in the political system, the expansion of individual autonomy, and
the shift towards an inclusive perspective have led individuals from all castes to hold
high positions in both governmental and non-governmental institutions. However, the
influence of caste still persists in certain aspects of society.
Social Class
Social class is a modern aspect of social stratification. Due to the Industrial Revolution
in the eighteenth century, the feudal social structure in Europe started to break down.
New cities emerged, and urban-centered populations increased. Alongside this, a
class based system began to form in cities. As a result, we see a new form of social
stratification. In a class-based society, stratification is determined not only by a person’s
birth, but also by his own achievements.
In a class-based system, individuals are free, On the other hand the previous three social
hierarchies were closed. They can upgrade their class through acquiring education
and skills. In the modern social structure, there is equal opportunity for everyone, and
individuals can reach the social ladder. However, it is essential to remember that class
is not solely determined by an individual’s achievements; a person’s family background
also determines the class.
Social Inequality
Most of you are aware that not everyone in society receives equal benefits or respect.
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You have heard about people from different social classes. It can be observed that
social inequality occurs due to social stratification. Wherever there is a social class
system, there is social inequality. Even though people dream of a society where there
is no discrimination among them, the reality is that in the existing human society, some
form of class hierarchy and inequality is always evident. We refer to the disparity in
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wealth and income among people as social inequality. Due to the inequality in wealth
and income, some people achieve high status, while others become subordinates.
Sociologist Max Weber outlined three causes of social inequality: economic disparity,
status inconsistency, and power imbalance. The first cause is associated with differences
in wealth or earnings. The second involves the life standards that contribute to the
creation of dignified groups. The third relates to politics, resulting in the formation
of political parties. In this way, according to Weber, class, status, and political parties
serve as the three main elements contributing to social stratification and inequality in
contemporary society.
However, these levels in modern times are not fixed; they undergo changes. Individuals
can upgrade their social position through personal capabilities, hard work, and
intellectual application. Conversely, deficiencies in these aspects can lead to a decline
in one’s social status. This dynamism is referred to as social mobility.
Now, we will learn in detail about social mobility
Society is constantly changing. For the sake of social mobility, people can move from
one position to another. As a result, an individual’s economic status and dignity may
change. According to the concept of social mobility, a person’s dignity can increase or
decrease at times. Social mobility is intricately connected with the standards of social
dignity.
Social Mobility: Social mobility refers to an individual’s ability to move from one
position to another within the existing social hierarchy. In other words, the change in
a person’s social status is social mobility.
The Impacts of Social Mobility
Social mobility depends on how constrained or free the social structure is. We have
learned that in ancient and medieval times, the social structure was rigid with strict
rules, especially for those who were in lower social strata. As society advances, human
freedom increases. In comparison to any previous social structure, people in the present
world are enjoying more freedom. However, individual freedom and social mobility
are not uniform across all countries or societies.
In some countries, we observe that society has created a conducive environment for
individuals to change their social status. In many developed countries, individuals have
various forms of freedom to advance their position and status. The government of such
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places strives to minimize all kinds of obstacles. This effort enables people to hope that
changing their social position is possible.
The attainment of social mobility is influenced by various factors. among which a
positive perspective is prominent. An individual’s strong desire for upgrading his/her
status is crucial for achieving upward social mobility. This determination will motivate
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them to strive for a higher position in society and acquire the necessary skills and
qualifications. Education plays another significant role in attaining social mobility.
There is no alternative to education for the enhancement of our knowledge and skills.
Moreover, education not only aids in acquiring knowledge but also serves as a means
to gain respect and dignity.
Perspective and education are two influential factors in social mobility. On the other
hand, certain elements affect social mobility in a negative manner. If inequality persists
in society, it acts as a barrier to individuals for social mobility. This is why emphasis
on ensuring equal opportunities and possibilities for everyone is given regardless of
religion, caste, or gender. To achieve this, the state creates laws and takes necessary
steps. The political parties and civic groups create pressure on the state to take these
initiatives.
The Contribution of International Charters in Social Mobility
It is good to remember that in the modern era, the claim for rights was explicitly articulated
in 1789 during the French Revolution. Just as the revolutionaries proclaimed equality,
fraternity, and liberty, they also declared a list of civil rights. From this, American
political scientist Thomas Paine popularized the term “human rights” and its concept.
After the independence of America in 1791, the Bill of Rights was incorporated into
their constitution. It ensured individual civil rights and freedoms, such as freedom of
speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was accepted by the General Assembly
on December 10, 1948. It is a significant asset of humanity. It deeply articulates the
scope of human freedom and rights. It clearly states that every person can protect their
freedom, diversity, and individuality, and they can enjoy all their civil and human rights
without hindrance. In the first article of the declaration, it is stated that all human beings
are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and
security. There are 30 articles in the declaration, from which 63 rights can be identified.
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
No matter how much we talk about rights, due to various practical reasons, the rights
of many people are often diminished. In every country, society, and culture, among
the various inequalities, discrimination, oppression, and abuse that people face, the
situation of children is the most delicate. This is because children are not developed
either physically or mentally in any way. They are dependent on others in various
ways, making them particularly vulnerable in matters of their rights. Extra awareness
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about their rights from others is especially necessary. Children are the most affected in
any kind of conflict, dispute, discrimination, or abuse. Their rights are most violated.
However, there is hope; gradually, people have become more conscious about this issue.
Over time, the issue of children’s rights has gained recognition globally as a distinct
issue. In this continuity, the issue of children’s rights is transformed into a certificate
through the United Nations.
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When was the CRC adopted?

CRC is not an old matter. It was unanimously adopted in the United Nations General
Assembly in November 1989. A year later, in September 1990, it became a part of
international law. In history, it is the most widely accepted human rights treaty. Almost
all member countries of the United Nations have approved it. Bangladesh was one of
the first countries to sign and ratify this treaty.
Matters of the CRC
Through the 54 articles of these certificates, the well-being of children is ensured
in a word. It also provides guidance on protecting them from all forms of abuse,
discrimination, neglect, and violence. The certificate includes various topics within the
scope of recognized rights, such as health, education, the relationship between children
and parents, cultural activities, civil rights, protection from abuse, and the rights of
children involved in activities contrary to law.
Responsibilities to Implement of the CRC
The primary responsibility for the protection of children’s rights lies with the state
and the government. In addition, everyone connected to children in some way shares
responsibility for them. This includes parents, grandparents, elder siblings, relatives,
teachers, and all individuals engaged in the welfare of children. It can be said that every
responsible citizen has a role to play in this regard.
CEDAW
Nowadays, we can very often hear the word ‘CEDAW’. It is a charter to protect
women’s rights. CEDAW stands for ‘Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination Against Women’.
From country to country, society to society, and family to family, CEDAW’s main goal
is to eliminate all forms of gender disparities and establish gender equality. Besides,
another crucial aspect is to acknowledge the significant contributions and roles that
women have been playing in the continuous development and civilization of society
throughout the ages. Beyond this, the objective is to establish equality between women
and men in all areas and create a conducive environment for the overall development
and advancement of women as human beings.
Approval of the United Nations
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
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(CEDAW) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 18,
1979. Starting from March 1, 1980, member states of the United Nations began signing
this convention. CEDAW came into force on September 3, 1981. Until December 31,
1999, 165 countries, including Bangladesh, have approved and signed this convention.
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Some Words about Rights

The term ‘rights’ refers to those things that come with human birth. Without them,
one ceases to be human. These are what make a person truly human. Human beings
are born with the power of thought, creativity, and the ability to express opinions. No
state, government, or other authority grants these; instead, human rights are violated at
different times.
So, human rights are those inherent rights that a human child is born with. Acquisition
of these rights allow human beings to fully develop as a human. It is also said that
without human rights, it is not possible to be a complete human being.
These rights are not subject to any condition and cannot be restricted or enhanced. A
person is born with these rights in any society, state, family, class, gender, community,
religion, or ethnicity. Therefore, these rights are universally applicable to all. In this
regard, we should keep in mind a few things -
Rights are inherently acquired
We can say that a person is born with certain rights. The right to think and express
oneself, which we commonly refer to as freedom of speech, is one of the fundamental
rights that a person is born with. Additionally, basic rights such as food, health,
education, shelter, and clothing are rights granted to citizens by the state.
Rights are unconditional
Rights cannot be fully obtained if conditions are imposed. Many times, the state or
government may say, “You can speak, but you cannot speak against us.” This means
that not everything can be said, which diminishes the citizen’s freedom and reduces
their rights.
Rights and responsibilities
However, rights come with responsibilities. This means that as citizens enjoy their
rights, they also have the responsibility to fulfill certain duties. Since society is formed
by people taking various paths, it is important to exercise rights in a way that does not
harm others or disrupt their normal lives. We live together in society, and, therefore,
what we say should not be spoken in a way that hurts others’ feelings or causes harm
to their regular lives. This is something you have already learned in the lessons on
citizenship.
Rights cannot be divided
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When Nazrul was writing his famous poem Bidrohi, if someone came and said, “Nazrul,
you can only write half of it; you will not be given the right to write the whole thing,”
it would not be a humorous matter!
Sharing a banana with a friend is one thing, but no one can force you to do this. It is a
matter of your choice and your relationship with friendship.
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Rights actually mean freedom and power

The rights to speak, move, express opinions—these rights give you freedom. The
freedom to speak your mind and express your thoughts is the essence of the right. By
thinking critically and judging, you enjoy the freedom to say what you want to say. This
freedom increases your power.
Rights ensure security
The person who has no fear in their mind, whose life is secure and safe from all sides,
is truly free. Citizens have the right to enjoy five fundamental rights from the state
as basic needs, such as food, clothing, shelter, health, and education. These are the
fundamental needs of a person. This is also a kind of right, and it is the responsibility
of the state to ensure these for its citizens.
Ensuring these rights for all citizens of the country is not an easy task. It is not just about
providing healthy and nutritious food to everyone. They need to have the capacity to
buy that food. That person needs to have the ability to earn, meaning there should be
job opportunities. Keeping the population unemployed is a barrier to the freedom and
rights of the people. Therefore, creating job opportunities for people is also a task of
the state. Poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment are significant obstacles on the path to
the freedom and rights of the people.
Limitation of rights
Sometimes we observe someone loudly playing a horn, disturbing the peace. It is
important to note that the right to play a horn comes with limitations. In our country,
there is a prevalent tendency to use horns excessively, unlike in developed countries
where car horns are rarely heard. Many countries have set a maximum limit for noise. If
the sound exceeds this limit, it is considered noise pollution and is unlawful. Therefore,
we need to understand that the right of a toothpaste seller to use an amplifier has limits.
The same applies to car horns.
The enjoyment of rights should be as far as it does not infringe upon the rights of others.
Beyond personal desires and societal norms, understanding the concept of shared rights
is crucial. It involves respecting both my rights and the rights of others, creating a
balance. This understanding signifies a sense of responsibility.
Group Task 2
Let’s continue our discussion from the previous group. Now, we’ll focus on several
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social issues in our country from the perspective of the current scenario. Some of
these issues include social stratification, violence against women, child labour, etc.
Let’s determine how these social issues impact our social structure. To do this, we’ll
gather information from various sources such as books, newspapers, and magazines.
After collecting the information, we’ll analyze them and present the findings.
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How Various Social Issues Impact the Social Structure
We have gathered and analyzed information systematically as a group. Upon observation,

we can see that it is crucial to be impartial and unbiased in the processes of information
gathering and analysis. So, now let’s discuss how, as a group, we maintained objectivity
and impartiality throughout the entire research process.
Then, we, through a group discussion, determine skills required for analyzing any
context with objectivity and impartiality.
Skills of Maintaining Objectivity and Impartiality
Group Work 3
Now, we choose a global social issue (e.g., homelessness, war, etc.). We discuss how
this social issue is affecting the social structure and write about it within the group. To
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achieve this, we gather information from various sources. After that, we collectively
create a presentation of our group work by compiling different stories, events, poems,
articles, etc., on a wall magazine. We can present various stories, events, poems,
essays etc. on the wall magazine.
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Living Safely Together in Harmony
Natural and social changes: possibilities, risks, and our
responsibilities
The planet where we live is full of various resources, and we are using all of them
continuously. We are also changing many things when necessary. Sometimes change
is good for us, but sometimes it creates adverse reactions. Through this learning
experience, we will explore the natural and social aspects of change. We will find out
how to sustainably manage the possibilities created by these changes. We will also
understand what our personal and collective roles should be to deal with the risks that
arise.
◊ To identify the nature of natural and social changes, we will first carefully observe
the following two maps. Then, through discussion with friends, we will identify
which type of land is changing and being used as which type. We will also write
down the possibilities and risks that these changes can create for us.
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A B
The image below shows the changes in land use in Cox’s Bazar Kutupalong and
Balukhali Rohingya camps between 2017 (a, left) and 2019 (b, right), created using
remote sensing technology. The green cover or forest land has been replaced by human
settlements of a gray colour.
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1988 (left) and 2017 (right) maps of land use changes in Khulna district
Type of Land Possibilities

Changed Form Risks Created
(Previous Condition) Created
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Exploring the type of land used in my locality

◊ We have seen the changes in the use of land through maps. Now let’s go to our
locality and explore what changes have occurred in the use of land there. We will
do this investigation with the help of elderly persons in our house/area.
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Questionnaire to collect information

1. Has the amount of agricultural land in this area decreased or increased compared
to 20 years ago?
2. What do you think are the reasons for the changes in agricultural land?
3. Have there been any changes in roads and infrastructure in the past 20 years? If yes,
what kind of changes have occurred?
4. Has there been any change in the quantity and type of housing over the past 20
years? If yes, what kind of changes?
5. Has the amount of forest land increased or decreased compared to 20 years ago?
What do you think are the reasons for this change?
6. Are there still ponds, canals, lakes, and rivers in the area as there were before? If
not, what actions, according to your opinion, are responsible for this?
◊ We will fill in the following table with the information obtained through
investigation
Type of Land Used Changed Form Reasons Consequences

The amount of agri-cultural
Population
Agricultural Land Household land will de-crease, and there
increase
may be a crisis of food
Roads
Housing
Forests
Marshes
Afterward, we will create two maps of the area to present the obtained results. In
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one map, we will use different symbolic signs or colors to indicate the types of
land use 20 years ago, and in another map, we will represent the current land use
with various symbolic signs or colors, (similar to what we observed in the map
depicting changes in land use in Khulna district, as seen in the first chapter). We
will then present the visible changes using these two maps.
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Patterns of land use change globally

We have explored the types of changes in land use in our respective areas. We have
observed that due to various reasons, there have been changes in land use, and as a
result, the impacts on our region have created possibilities as well as risks.
Globally, the patterns of changes in land use over millions of years are similar to the
beginning of human civilization. Understanding how these changes in land use globally
affect the global environment, the types of global changes in land use, the reasons for
the changes, how these changes are influencing social changes, and the results of these
changes will be explored in this section.
◊ In our area, while searching for the types of changes in land use, we have certainly
observed that the use of agricultural land plays a significant role. Therefore, to
carry out the task of identifying the perspective of changes in land use globally,
we will first focus on how agricultural land use has influenced the changes in land
use from 1700 to 2050 using a world map. Then, we will use a chart to identify
the nature of changes in land use.
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Types of Land Use in the Types of Land Use in the Types of Land Use in the
Map of 1700 Map of 2000 Map of 2050
◊ Through the above task, we have seen that changes in agricultural land use play
a significant role in the changes in global land use. However, is the change in
agricultural land use the only reason for global changes in land cover? Certainly
not. Let’s now explore and identify the global patterns of changes in land cover
and land use, the reasons for these changes, the resulting risks and opportunities,
and what actions can be taken in each of these cases, so that these changes do not
become a risk for us.
◊ The necessary information for this investigation will be extracted from the
investigative section provided at the end of this chapter.
◊ We will each submit the results obtained at the end of the search in the form of a
report.
Population growth and changes in land use
In our quest to explore global changes in land use, we have observed that population
plays a significant role there. Surely, you are now curious about the past population
of the Earth, where people used to live at that time, what their sources of livelihood
were, or how they spread across different lands and have come to the present situation.
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In this section, we will attempt to find answers to these questions and understand how
population growth influences changes in land use in different countries or regions.
◊ First, we will look at the population of different continents using the world map.
Later, with the help of this map and the investigative section, we will fill in the
following table.
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Russia
What steps
Nature of
can be
Changes
Population Country Continent Consequences taken in the
in Land
context of
Use
the country
>1000
million
100-1000
mil-lion
50-100
million
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50-100
million
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25-50
million
5-25
million
<5
Million
◊ We have observed the global population situation, now let’s do an interesting

activity with our family members. To do this activity, we will form groups of 6-8
people. Then, each group member will create a chart on graph paper based on age
and gender. The type of chart we will create is called a population pyramid when
done for a country or region.
Remember,
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A population pyramid is a graphical representation that shows the distribution of the

age of the population in a country or region. In the graph, males are indicated on the
left side, and females on the right side of the centre. The size of the population is
shown on the x-axis, and age is shown on the y-axis.
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◊ You must have noticed that we sometimes use information-related images or
satellite-captured images for collecting or analyzing various data. Now, let’s learn
about two technologies that involve using images or maps related to information
for analyzing the general condition of a place without direcly going there.
GIS and Remote Sensing Technology

One visible aspect of various types of global changes is the transformation in land
use. Previously we mentioned that while we can understand changes in land cover
and use in small areas through direct observation, comprehending the comprehensive
transformation in large areas over a long period is nearly impossible. In the present
era, we utilize modern remote sensing and GIS (Geographical Information System)
technology to understand such extensive and long-term changes.
The term ‘Remote Sensing’ refers to sensing from a distance. In remote sensing
technology, we primarily use satellites, aircraft, or drones to collect information-
rich images of different locations on the Earth’s surface. Later, we analyze and use
this information according to our needs through various technologies on computers.
Again, in the current world, the use of various information-rich maps has increased
significantly. The most comprehensive way to analyze and present information
about the geographical, socio-economic, existing assets, risks, and calamities in the
local environment of any location is through maps. In this regard, computer-based
technologies like GIS (Geographical Information System) have been very helpful for
us. In this section, we will learn about the methods, progress, necessity, and use of
remote sensing and GIS technology.
Remote Sensing or Distant Detection

The technique of gathering information about an object without physically reaching it,
but rather collecting information from a distance, is called remote sensing. The term
‘remote sensing’ was first used in 1960 by Evelyn L. Pruitt, a researcher at the Naval
Research Laboratory in the United States. Before that, this kind of work was done by
taking pictures from the sky which was called ‘Aerial Photograph.’ Remote sensing
mainly involves the use of various instruments or sensors to observe, detect, and
collect information about various objects on Earth’s surface, sea, or atmosphere. The
devices used to collect this information are called sensors. Sensors can be ‘Active’
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(using their own energy to generate electromagnetic waves, thus able to work day
and night) or ‘Passive (using sunlight and unable to work at night). The places where
these sensors are installed to collect information are called platforms. Platforms can
be of three types: ‘Ground-based platform’, ‘Airborne platform’, and ‘Space-borne
platform’.
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Development of Remote Sensing Technology
Sun
Artificial satellite
Incessant sunlight
Reflected solar radiation
Cloud
ere
sph
mo
At
Tree Grass Open field Roads Buillding

Pond
Remote sensing technology has passed various stages and evolved over time to reach
the present stage. In the initial stages, aerial vehicles were used for remote sensing.
Especially during the First and Second World Wars, the development of aerial remote
sensing took place. At that time, remote sensing was basically used for surveys, creating
maps, espionage, and military activities. In the early 1950s, partial remote sensing of
outer space was achieved through artificial satellites. Sputnik-1 by Russia and Explorer-1
by the United States were among the first artificial satellites launched into space at this
time. During the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union (1947
to 1991), spy satellites or reconnaissance satellites were used for gathering military
intelligence. Corona was one such early spy satellite during that time. Afterward, the
real application of remote sensing began with the use of artificial satellites for collecting
weather information. In 1972, remote sensing technology entered a new era through
the launch of the artificial satellite named Landsat-1. Equipped with multispectral
scanner sensors and thematic mapper technology, Landsat contributed significantly to
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Earth’s resource exploration and environmental research. In 1999, the Terra satellite
was launched, which marked the start of using artificial satellites to observe Earth. But
in the 21st century, there has been tremendous progress in the technology of artificial
satellites, leading to enhanced image resolution and improved quality of satellite
imagery. This has resulted in more cost-effective ways to get improved images.
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Towards the end of the 20th century, ownership of artificial satellites, which was
previously under various states, began to come under the control of different institutions.
During this time, there was a significant improvement in the resolution of images
transmitted by artificial satellites. Through platforms like Google Earth, ordinary people
can now use data collected by artificial satellites in their daily activities. On May 11,
2018, Bangladesh, for the first time, launched its own geostationary communication
and broadcasting satellite named Bangabandhu Satellite-1 into space. This marked
Bangladesh as the 57th country with a self-launched satellite in the list of satellite-
launching nations. It was made by Thales Alenia Space, a company in France, and
launched by SpaceX, a private space agency in the United States. The Bangabandhu
Satellite-1 will play a significant role in maintaining television broadcasting, providing
internet connectivity in remote areas, and ensuring consistent mobile communication
in the face of natural disasters.
Around the world, remote sensing or distant monitoring technology is being used for
various purposes. While its use was initially confined to theoretical research, it is now
being utilized in various aspects of everyday life. Below are some examples of the use
of remote sensing or satellite technology:
1. Gathering weather-related information and providing forecasts.

2. Disaster management.
3. Collecting information for hurricane and wildfire prediction.
4. Planning and implementation of land use.
5. Making maps of flood-prone areas and estimating damages
6. Biodiversity conservation programs.
7. Agriculture planning, including crop harvesting, irrigation, fertilizer, and
pesticide application.
8. Creation of maps with geographical features.
9. Measurement of land surface, type, and density of forests
10. Urban planning.
11. Observation and planning of coastal environments.
12. Monitoring and ensuring the safety of marine resources.
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Beyond these, remote sensing technology is used for numerous other tasks such as
monitoring land degradation and drought, and its use is increasing day by day. The
main reason behind this is the ability to gather information from remote and challenging
areas, collect extensive data, and obtain cost-effective information. Therefore, acquiring
proper knowledge about the use of this technology is essential for us.
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Geographical Information System or GIS

We have already learned that GIS is a technology or computer method that involves the
collection, storage, updating, manipulation, analysis, and presentation of geographic
information. GIS encompasses two crucial components of presented information:
spatial information and non-spatial information. ESRI (Environmental System
Research Institute), a renowned GIS software developer, defines GIS as “An organized
collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel designed
to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of
geographically referenced information.” In other words, when computer hardware,
software, geographic data management, and individual expertise work together to
collect, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and present information related to any
geographic location, the process is referred to as GIS. The concept of databases,
advancements in computer technology, progress in remote sensing methods, and
knowledge in geography, mathematics, and geometric principles have been the driving
forces behind the evolution of GIS. The first use of GIS can be traced back to 1832 when
the French geographer Charles Picquet analyzed the spatial distribution of a cholera
epidemic. In 1854, Dr. John Snow demonstrated the relationship between the spatial
spread of cholera in London and the source of water, marking the beginning of today’s
GIS journey. However, significant progress in GIS did not occur until 1960. In 1964,
the establishment of the Canadian Geographic Information System marked a notable
advancement in modern GIS. In the late 1970s, ESRI initiated the commercialization
process of GIS through the creation of software called Arc/Info. Presently, with the
decreasing cost of high-speed computers, the availability of various software, easy
accessibility of information, and the ease of obtaining remote sensing data, GIS has
experienced extensive progress.
GIS
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
MAPS APPS
CAREERS
ANALYSIS
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DATA
SOFTWARE SATELLITES
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In GIS methodology, five essential elements are needed to perform tasks, known as GIS
components. The five elements of GIS are as follows:
1. Skilled Individuals for GIS-related work on computers:
2. Data: Spatial and Non-Spatial Information:
3. Hardware: Components such as CPU, monitor, keyboard, mouse, scanner, and

GIS data logger, among others.
4. Software: Specialized software designed for GIS work, in addition to general

software available on computers. Examples include ArcView, ArcGIS, GRASS,
ERDAS Imagine, etc.
5. Procedures: The methodology followed for the storage, management,

modification, analysis, and presentation of spatial information.
The progress of civilization, coupled with the rapid growth of the world’s population,
makes GIS crucial for planning in various fields. It plays a significant role in managing
resources, disaster management, climate change, changes in land use, biodiversity
conservation, marine resource acquisition, and overall sustainable development.
Keeping these in mind, in 1988, Cowen categorized GIS approaches into four classes,
namely:
1. Toolbox Approach: GIS is seen as a self-contained tool dependent on computers

that can be used for the storage, analysis, and presentation of geographic information
according to user needs.
2. Database Approach: GIS is viewed as a data repository where the types of spatial
arrangements of acquired information are mentioned. This approach was prevalent in
the early stages of GIS technology.
3. Process-Based Approach: In this approach, GIS is considered an auxiliary tool

for decision-making processes in which emphasis is given to transforming geographic
data into usable information.
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4. Application-Based Approach: This approach emphasizes the practical use of

GIS for solving real-world problems. In this approach, GIS is predominantly used for
tasks like map creation, transportation, or environmental management.
Currently, GIS is widely used in various fields. Urban planners, geographers, engineers,
environmental scientists, researchers in health and education, and people engaged
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in disaster management are among those utilizing GIS for practical purposes. Some
notable applications of GIS are mentioned below:
1. In agriculture
2. In forest resource management and conservation
3. In exploration, extraction, and management of mineral resources
4. In health service planning
5. In rural and urban planning
6. In disaster management,
7. In transportation management and navigation,
8. In environment and wildlife conservation,
9. In surveying
10. In coastal and marine management
Beyond these, GIS is utilized in numerous other areas including irrigation, map creation,
and sewerage management in cities.
Determining Personal and Collective Roles
In the course of this learning experience, we have come to understand that any form
of change in nature or society can both create opportunities and pose risks for us.
Preventing change is not always feasible for us, so we need to take steps that reduce the
risks of change and transform them into possibilities. This requires integrated efforts.
We should consider ourselves as just one element of nature, alongside plants, rivers,
mountains, large and small creatures, insects, and spiders. As intelligent beings, humans
have reduced the mortality rate of their species, increasing the global population
significantly. However, unlike other creatures, merely coexisting with nature does not
satisfy humans. To live well, humans engage in various activities beyond basic survival.
The pressure of human needs is increasing continuously and it has also affected nature
as a whole. We will survive not by conquering nature, but by being an element and part
of nature.
Now scientists are talking about a possibility in the field of population. In recent years,
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the global population has exceeded eight billion. This growth is likely to continue in this
century, and by the end of the century, the population may stabilize at a level slightly
above nine billion. After that, the population may start decreasing, and in the next 100
years, the population may come down to the current level or less, according to scientists.
China, Japan, and some regions of Korea are experiencing population decline. On the
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other hand, some countries and international organizations have already taken various
initiatives for nature conservation. We Bangladeshis should not lag behind.
Let’s create a to-do list for tasks that can create possibilities for our area. We will execute
these tasks through our Active Citizens Club and Nature Conservation Club, seeking
the assistance of elderly individuals in the community for successful implementation.
Sample Task List

1. Develop a project-based plan in collaboration with the City Corporation/Union
Parishad to address waterlogging issues in the area and initiate implementation with
their support.
2. Develop and implement a plan to raise awareness about dengue prevention and
mosquito control.
3. Create and implement a plan to reduce plastic usage.
4. ………………………….
5. …………………………..
Finally, we must remember that we are the future inhabitants of the earth. Therefore,
we will not make any changes that pose risks to us. We should engage in planned and
sustainable changes within our environment. Our collective efforts can contribute to
preserving the Earth. We know we can do it.
The Search for Patterns in Land Use Change, its Reasons, and Outcomes
Have you ever observed any kind of changes in your surroundings? Such changes
may include the conversion of forests into agricultural land, filling water bodies
and constructing infrastructure, or carving roads through mountains. Undoubtedly,
these types of changes are happening around us regularly. In reality, visible (such
as construction projects) and invisible (such as air pollution) changes occur in our
surroundings. Among these, land use change is a visible transformation. Examples
of such changes include converting forest land or mountains into agricultural land or
urban areas and converting previously agricultural land into developed areas where
human settlements are established. Some tangible examples of these changes have been
seen in our exercise section. The changes in land use play a significant role as a driving
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force in global environmental changes, and understanding the global types of land use
change, its causes, and how these changes are influencing social transformations will
be explored in this section.
Land use change serves as a significant driving force for global environmental change,
intricately connected with human existence. There are two ways to describe land use
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change: land cover change and land use change. Although both involve changes over
time in different elements of the Earth’s surface and its associated components, they
differ in some aspects. Land cover refers to the earth’s surface and connected elements
such as different organisms, minerals, landforms, underground and surface water, and
the infrastructure made by human beings. On the other hand, land use refers to how
humans use these elements for a particular purpose. The process of changes in the
biophysical elements of the Earth’s surface and everything done on the Earth’s surface
through this process is all part of land use.
Biophysical elements refer to the components of the environment that encompass

both living (organisms such as plants and animals) and non-living (elements like soil
and water) entities. The four components of biophysical elements are the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
In the context of land transformation on Earth, agriculture has had the most significant
impact. Currently, about one-third of the Earth’s land is used for crop production and
livestock grazing. The majority of agricultural land has been created by destroying
forests, grasslands, and wetlands. These areas were previously habitats for various
species of plants and animals and provided essential elements for human needs. In total,
approximately half of the Earth’s forested land has already been destroyed by humans.
However, the process of land transformation in agricultural fields has accelerated over
the past 300 years. Through the measurement of land cover change and land use, we
can understand how much humans rely on natural resources. Some environmental
scientists have shown through their research that about 20-40% of the food produced
globally comes from the photosynthesis of plants wit. This helps us understand how
dependent humans are on the natural environment. Nevertheless, the quantity and type
of natural resource use vary across the world. The amount or type of natural resource use
depends on the economic and social conditions, type of living, and cultural practices of
different countries. The ecological footprint is a widely used concept to understand the
differences and environmental impact of human resource use. The ecological footprint
measures the amount of land needed to support human resource needs and absorb waste
produced through activities. For example, the ecological footprint of a Bangladeshi is
approximately 0.5 hectares of land, whereas an Italian or American has an ecological
footprint of around 3.3 and 9.6 hectares of land, respectively. This indicates that a
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European or an American citizen uses 7 times and 19 times more land compared to
that of a Bangladeshi citizen in utilizing resources and generating waste. However, due
to the high population density in our country, the pressure on the land to ensure the
necessary resources is significantly higher. This pressure has a substantial impact on
land cover change and land use transformation.
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Global Patterns of Land Cover Change and Land Use Transformation

The history of land cover change and land use transformation dates back millions of
years, essentially since the beginning of human civilization. The regions near the cradle
of civilization in the ancient Near East (including Turkey, Jordan, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq,
and Iran, among others) provide insights into the history of human-induced changes
in land use. Declaring parts of southern Jordan’s Ajloun (Ain) Ghazal as abandoned
for settlement around 6000 years ago due to decreasing natural forest cover is one
ancient example of land use transformation. The Mayan civilization flourished on the
Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico, where examples of land use change from ancient times
are found. To understand the history of land cover change and land use transformation
in ancient times, we have to rely on archaeological evidence, scientific research, and the
study of ancient history. In modern times, advancements in computer technology have
enabled us to analyze vast expanses of land cover change and land use transformation
through the examination of satellite imagery or Earth observation data. The process
of collecting information through the analysis of satellite images or Earth observation
images is referred to as remote sensing.
One of the driving forces behind global environmental changes that we are observing
worldwide is land cover change and land use transformation. Scientists have done a
lot over the past two decades to accurately identify areas across the globe undergoing
land cover change and land use transformation. In this section, we will discuss the main
types of land cover change and land use transformation globally, such as deforestation
and afforestation, changes in agricultural land and pasture, urbanization, and changes
in arid lands, focusing on their spatial distribution and impact.
Patterns of change in land use and cover through changes in forest
land and forest cover
Land use change and deforestation through the depletion of forests contribute
significantly to alterations in the Earth’s land use and land cover. According to the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) data, from 1990 to 2000, approximately 12.5
million hectares of forest land were lost globally each year. Conversely, afforestation
occurred at a rate of only 3.1 million hectares per year. This implies a net loss of 9.4
million hectares of forest land annually worldwide. The majority of deforestation has
occurred in the equatorial region. And the significant development of natural forests
has mainly taken place in Western Europe and North America. Between 1990 and
1997, Southeast Asia experienced the highest rate of transformation of forest land into
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agriculture or other uses, with an annual rate of 0.71 hectares per hundred. In this region,
the most extensive deforestation occurred in Central Sumatra, Indonesia. Cambodia,
Vietnam, and Myanmar also witnessed notable rates of forest land destruction. In
Africa, there has been a significant shift in forest land conversion, and in Madagascar,
the Ivory Coast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, notable deforestation has
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occurred. Siberia and Russia have also experienced extensive deforestation due to
forest fires. In the Brazilian part of the Amazon forest, the construction of roads and
various developmental activities by the government has resulted in the most extensive
deforestation.
Patterns of change in land use and cover through conversion of arable land
Since ancient times, humans have given importance to expanding agricultural land
to increase food production. This has led to changes in land use globally, such as in
Eastern Europe, where more than half of the total land is used for agriculture. In the
United Kingdom, 70% of the land is categorized as agricultural, including fields for
crops, pasture, and grazing. While there has been a surge in food demand in developed
countries, there exists a disparity in the expansion of cultivated land. Over the past few
decades, countries in Southeast Asia have witnessed the most significant transformation,
with substantial conversion of non-agricultural land into cultivated areas. Notably,
Bangladesh stands out in this region for the remarkable expansion of agricultural land.
Additionally, in the Middle East, Central Asia, Great Lakes Region in East Africa,
lower elevations in the southeastern United States, Eastern China, and various parts
of Argentina and Brazil, there has been a recent trend of converting forest land or
fallow land into cultivated land. Between 1960 and 1996, the global food production
nearly doubled (1.96 times). Behind this growth is the expansion of cultivated land,
improvements in irrigation infrastructure, the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides,
and intensive farming practices. However, the amount of cultivated land worldwide,
which was 0.75 hectares around the year 1900, has nearly halved to 0.35 hectares by the
year 1990. Despite the substantial increase in the global population due to factors such
as advancements in healthcare, a reduction in child mortality, improved food security,
and other reasons, there has not been a proportional increase in cultivated land. This
phenomenon aligns with the aforementioned factors.
Types of Transformation of Pastoral Land for Livestock
When any land is permanently used for the production of food for pastoral animals,
either naturally or through cultivation, it is referred to as a ‘Pastoral Area’. This makes
it challenging to distinguish between savanna or grassland and tracts of land used for
pastoral purposes. We can see various uses of savanna or grasslands in the world. The
majority of pastoral land worldwide is located in Africa (26%) and Asia (25%). Significant
amounts of pastoral land are also found in Latin America and the Caribbean (18%). Some
pastoral land exists outside these regions in the Former Soviet Union (10%), Oceania
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(12%), North America (8%), and Europe (2%). Over the past few decades, there has
been a notable change in the extent of pastoral land globally. While there has been an
increase in pastoral land in Asia and the former Soviet Union, there has been a significant
reduction in Europe and Oceania. Eastern Africa has also seen a decrease in pastoral land,
which is attributed to extensive livestock production in the region.
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Types of Changes in Urbanization and its Impact on Land Use

You have undoubtedly observed that people in our country are increasingly moving
towards urban areas every year, driven by the prospects of employment, education,
or an improved lifestyle. This is not unique to Bangladesh but is a common trend in
developing countries worldwide. In the year 2000, the global population residing in
urban areas was 2.9 billion, approximately half of the total population at that time. By
2021, this figure rose to 4.45 billion, accounting for about 56% of the total population.
This indicates that the population in urban areas worldwide is growing at a faster rate
than in rural areas, and the number of mega-cities is increasing. The growth of the
population in urban areas correlates with an increase in the area covered by cities.
Again, new areas are becoming urban. This means that both the increase in city areas
and the formation of new cities are creating changes in land use. In densely populated
countries like ours, various types of land, such as agricultural land, forest land, open
spaces, water bodies, and low-lying land, are being transformed into urban areas
through different processes. This results in extensive changes in land use and land
cover. From 1988 to 1996, China experienced a threefold increase in urbanization along
the Pearl River. Much of this expanded urbanization is a result of the transformation of
agricultural land. The conversion rate of agricultural land to urban areas is higher in the
peripheries of the capital city, Beijing, in China. Globally, the most densely populated
cities are seen in India, East Asia, the eastern coast of the United States, and the coastal
areas of Western Europe and near maritime transport routes. But In recent decades, the
urbanization rates in the developing countries have been notably faster in their cities.
Types of Changes in Land Use and Cover in Arid Regions
Many of us may already be familiar with the term ‘Desertification’. Desertification refers
to the process in which, due to climate change, the fertility of the land and vegetation
is permanently lost in an area, creating an environment similar to that of desert land.
Due to climate change and human-induced factors, the diminishing of the biological
productivity of the soil (plants, microorganisms), the loss of topsoil due to water
and airflow, and the destruction of physical and chemical properties of land is called
Land Degradation or Fertility Loss. According to information provided by the United
Nations Environment Program (UNEP), approximately 5,160 million hectares of arid
land exist globally. About 70% of this arid land is vulnerable to different levels of land
degradation. According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD), 20 to 25 percent of the world’s land is undergoing desertification processes.
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Although accurately identifying regions affected by desertification due to technological

limitations is currently challenging, it can be said that areas with less rainfall worldwide
are prone to desertification, especially considering the ongoing trends in economic
activities and climate change.
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However, if we want to provide some specific examples of the processes of land use
and cover change, we can mention urbanization, conversion of forests and grasslands to
agricultural land, changes of crops, intensive farming, and conversion of pastoral land
into agricultural lands.
Population Growth and Changes in Land Use
The number of people residing in a specific area is referred to as the population of
that area. This population can vary greatly from one region to another. For instance,
in mountainous regions of our country, fewer people live in areas where large cities
like Dhaka or Chittagong accommodate a significant population in a relatively
small space. As Bangladesh is a densely populated country, its population density
is much higher compared to Australia. Information about the population of an area
aids in understanding the current economic, social, and cultural conditions and helps
in planning for the future. Therefore, demographic information is important for all
countries. Through the study of demography in any country, we can acquire information
related to the population of that country. As the population of any area or country is
subject to various local characteristics and undergoes changes over time, it becomes
an essential component of Geography (Human Geography). In the field of Geography,
it is taught as Population Geography. The collection, preservation, and utilization of
information regarding the population are carried out in almost all countries globally.
Advanced nations meticulously store population-related data, ensuring the quality
and continuity of information over several years. Population-related data in most
countries, including Bangladesh, are primarily obtained from two sources: censuses
and demographic documents. Censuses provide information on the birth and death rates
of the population, as well as their economic and social characteristics. In countries like
the Scandinavian nations, the first modern census took place, for example, in Sweden
in 1748. Bangladesh conducted its first modern census in 1974, and subsequent ones
were carried out in 1981, 1991, 2001, 2011, and the latest in 2022 (delayed by a year
due to the COVID-19 pandemic). Besides, international organizations like the United
Nations (UN) and its various agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and UNESCO (The United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) gather and provide population-
related data for various countries worldwide, including our country.
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Certainly you are curious about the past population of earth, where people lived, what
their sources of livelihood were, and how they spread out in different areas and have
come to the present situation. We will attempt to explore answers to these questions in
this section and try to understand how population growth causes changes in land use.
143
140
eg
sta
n
120
ba
ur
nd
a
re
ltu
100
u
ric
ag
l
Population (millions)
ra
Ru
80
e g
ure sta
60
lt
agricu
40
Rural
20
Hunting and gathering stage
25 ০
20 15 10 5 4 321
Years ago (as of 1000)
Scientists believe that during prehistoric times, humans spread across various parts of
the world from Africa, though in small numbers, for hunting and gathering purposes.
25,000 years ago, the total global population was approximately 3.3 million. 15,000
years ago, it had increased to 53 million, with a population density of 0.44 people
per square kilometer. In the Stone Age, the size of human families was around 6-12
members. 6,000 years ago, with the advent of agriculture and the rise of urbanization,
the global population reached 86.5 million or 8 crore 65 lakh. During the beginning of
agriculture in a few areas, and subsequently in large areas, crop cultivation and animal
husbandry began. Cultivation of crops and animal husbandry led to people living closer
to each other which slowly reduced the distance between different populations. The
exchange of goods became prevalent, and communication systems were needed. As
a result, the interdependence between humans and their environment began to change
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rapidly. The availability of surplus food and the increase in food security led to the
opportunity for many people to reside in the same place. Around 330 years ago, with the
advent of agriculture, industry, and urbanization, the global population began to grow
rapidly. By the year 1650, the world’s population had reached 545 million. With the
continuous advancement of science and new discoveries in agriculture and healthcare,
the mortality rate decreased, contributing to further population growth. Between 1650
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and 1950, in just 300 years, the world’s population increased by about 5 times. And
From 1950 to 2021, the global population rose from 2.5 billion to 7.8 billion. According
to recent statistics, the current world population is around 7.88 billion, which may reach
9.7 billion by the year 2050. Looking at the distribution of population by continent,
approximately 60% of the world’s current total population resides in Asia, even though
this continent constitutes only 30% of the total land area of the Earth. The table below
provides a visual representation of the current distribution of the world’s population by
continent.
Population Percentage of total Population Density (per

Continent
(Million) world population squire kilometre)
Asia 467 59.27 148
Africa 143 18.15 48

Europe 72 9.14 32
North America 59 7.48 25
South America 43 5.45 25
Oceania 4 0.51 5
Antarctica 0.00449 Negligible Negligible
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This is a population density indicator map. From here, it can be observed that Asia
has the highest population density. Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated
countries in the world. Moreover, where population density is higher, there is also
greater pressure on natural resources. To meet the needs, humans tend to change the
land use of the area to collect more resources from nature.
From the above table and map, it can be seen that Asia has the highest population
density in comparison to its land area. This is where densely populated countries like
Bangladesh, as well as large populations like those in India and China, are situated.
Following Asia is the continent of Africa. Consequently, both of these continents face
significant pressure on natural resources. Forest areas are converted into agricultural
land, agricultural or forest land is utilized for housing, road construction, and other
infrastructural development, and various structures are being built by filling the natural
wetlands. While economic activities necessitate changes in land use in many cases,
the depletion of forest land occurs due to conversion for agriculture or other purposes,
resulting in deforestation. On the other hand, the increasing population, along with
industrialization and urbanization, contributes to a rise in the number of vehicles based
on fossil fuels. The existing forest land cannot absorb the massive amount of emitted
carbon and contributes to rapid climate change. We can understand the impact of this
through the extremely hostile behaviour of nature. In such a situation, it is crucial to
reduce the population growth rate to establish a balance between natural resources
and the population. For this, coordinated efforts from nations are essential. Individuals
must also be conscious at the community level to ensure the implementation of these
measures.
Human Settlement and Land Use Change
We know that along with the birth of civilized humans come three fundamental needs
- food, clothing, and shelter, with shelter being one of the most essential. Apart from
providing protection against harsh weather conditions, shelter is necessary for rest after
daily activities, ensuring the safety and security of family members, and leading a
healthy and natural life. Therefore, humans construct houses considering their economic
capabilities and the surrounding natural environment. In ancient times, humans used
caves in mountains or tall trees as shelters. As society evolved with population growth
and the development of agriculture-based communities, changes occurred in land use.
The skill and necessity of humans in using the land are particularly associated with
this. From trees to mud huts, from mud huts to brick houses and luxurious multi-story
buildings - everything reflects human adaptability to the environment. Understanding
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human settlements allows us to explore one of the essential aspects of land use and
how it undergoes changes. While temporary settlements for nomads were prevalent
in the past, in modern times, almost everyone has established permanent residences.
Despite this, some still use temporary shelters rarely. In monsoon regions of Asia, the
cultivation of paddy has played a significant role in the establishment of permanent
human settlements. This phenomenon is also observed in distant Eastern countries.
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On the other hand, regions in North America and Central Asia have witnessed the
establishment of permanent settlements, mainly centered around mineral resources
such as oil.
Agricultural
land
Water supply Grazing

land
Permanent
human
settlement
Home
construction Fuel
content
The location of permanent settlements in the context of the agrarian economy as shown
in Jyotirmoy Sen’s book ‘Population Geography’
Human settlement can be divided into various categories based on its sustainability,
functions, or size. A simplified classification of human settlements is shown below. But
for ease of understanding, we will discuss two main categories of human settlement
namely rural settlement and urban settlement.
human settlement
Based on Based on volume

Based on the
sustainability
course of action
Temporary Rural settlements Road settlement
settlement (related to agro-
(Mongol or Kyrgyz based economy and
tent, Eskimo igloo) construction materials
environment) small village
Urban settlement
permanent (manufacturing, Village
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settlement industry, mercantile

(Most settlements economy,
in the present predominance of
brick and stone in Towan
tense) construction, improved
communication
system) metropolis
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Rural Settlement
The transition from temporary to permanent settlement in a particular place and the
transformation of that permanent settlement into a village are still unknown to us.
However, as long as humans depended on hunting and gathering for sustenance or
relied on pastoralism for livelihood, people could not establish permanent settlements.
It was only when agriculture, the construction of houses, and the formation of family
and social structures took place that people began living together, leading to the
development of villages. Rural settlements refer to human habitats where residents
are primarily engaged in primary economic activities (agricultural production), the
population density is lower than in urban areas, there is less regional and occupational
diversity among residents, the construction materials for homes depend on the local
environment, and communication infrastructure is not as advanced. The establishment
of rural settlements is influenced by natural, economic, social, cultural, and political
factors. Among the natural factors, land characteristics, soil quality, climate, sunlight
availability, and the location of water bodies affect settlement patterns. The impact of
land characteristics is particularly significant, as it directly or indirectly influences the
establishment of human settlements. Therefore, the slope, elevation, or topography of
the land plays a crucial role in the formation of human settlements. The economic reasons
behind the establishment of settlements include easy availability of forest resources,
convenience in fishing or animal husbandry, or the discovery of mineral wealth. In the
arid regions of the Middle East, the discovery of oil, in Chile, the discovery of nitrate,
and the presence of gold mines in the arid lands of Australia have led to the formation
of settlements. Additionally, opportunities for collecting forest resources in various
forested areas worldwide have played a role in the establishment of settlements. In
our country, ‘Jele’ (Fishermen) communities have settled in regions along rivers or
near the sea. Again, cultural characteristics, such as similarities in religion, language,
and dietary habits among people, contribute to the tendency to live together in rural
settlements. Political decisions also influence the establishment of rural settlements.
For example, in our country, the establishment of ‘Gucchagram’ (clustered villages) or
Bengali settlements in hilly regions has been primarily influenced by political decisions.
The area of rural settlements is determined in two ways: by the boundary area or the
total area of the village and the total population of the village. The Circumferential
expansion of Bangladesh’s villages is determined by various natural features such as
water bodies (canals, ponds, rivers), forest land, natural barriers (hills or hillocks), or
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the availability of communication facilities.

The shape of rural settlements refers to the expansion trend of a settlement in a
favorable and convenient location, indicating the specific direction of the extension of
residential buildings and related elements. As a result, an external form of settlement
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is created that is perceived by geographers. The form of rural settlements is influenced
by natural, social, historical, and economic factors. In rural settlements in our country,
linear, clustered, or nucleated, and scattered or dispersed forms can be observed. When
a road, railway, or riverbank holds the rural settlement, it somewhat gains a linear form.
This is because, for communication convenience, the land undergoes rapid changes
in two opposite directions of the infrastructure, and settlements emerge. A clustered
form of rural settlement can be seen at a road crossing, beside river ports or markets.
In mountainous areas or coastal regions, a scattered form of settlement can be seen.
Scattered rural settlements lack strong social bonds among people.
Urban Settlement
The Bengali counterpart of the English word ‘Urban’ is ‘Nagar’, and ‘Town’ means
‘Shohor’ which are often used interchangeably, a city, or typically has a larger area
and greater diversity in terms of people’s professions and occupations. Cities offer
various educational and cultural activities, diverse job opportunities, and architectural
styles that are not present in smaller towns. Features such as a plethora of houses and
roads, central hubs for trade and commerce, a shift from an agriculture-based economy
to industry and service-oriented activities, and a higher population density within
limited space differentiate an urban area from a rural one. In urban areas, one can find
skyscrapers, hospitals, various cultural events, parks, museums, and other facilities.
In urban areas, especially in developed countries, a unique feature is the presence of
slums, where impoverished communities reside, lacking adequate civic amenities.
Different countries use various terms for urban areas; for example, in Germany, it is
called “stadt,” in France, “cite,” in Sweden, “staden,” and in England, it is referred to
as “town” or “city.” Many countries define urban areas based on population thresholds.
For instance, in the United States, a settlement with 2,500 people is considered urban,
while in the Netherlands, the threshold is 25,000. This diversity in defining urban areas
highlights that there is no universal method for characterizing them.
Urbanization rates are not uniform worldwide. In many places, a significant portion
of urbanization has occurred where all the essentials for human habitation have been
easily available since ancient times. Scope for economic activities has played a crucial
role in this regard. Tropical regions and the southern hemisphere tend to have relatively
lower urbanization rates. A notable portion of urbanization has taken place in the coastal
regions. Arthur E. Smailes, in his renowned book ‘Geography of Towns,’ has mentioned
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that the origin of many ancient cities can be traced back to river valleys. According to
historians, the earliest development of urbanization occurred in Jericho, located in the
Jordan River valley in southwestern Asia. Additionally, civilizations along the basins
of Tigris-Euphrates, Nile, Indus, Huanghe, and the Maya (along the Mexico River in
South America) bear the signs of early urbanization.
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Lebanon Syria
Samara
Jerusalem jerica
Gambia Judea
Israel
Egypt
Jordan
Location of the Ancient City of Jericho

With the onset of the Industrial Revolution beginning around the year 1760, significant
changes in both technology and economic dynamics started which became the most
influential element in modern urbanization. Subsequently, in the nineteenth century,
advancements in technology led to a reduction in the demand for manual labor in
agriculture which resulted in a surplus labour force. These workers wanted to migrate
to new industrial cities, and improved transportation systems facilitated their faster
movement toward urban areas. The products manufactured in the city’s industrial
factories were easily distributed to various locations using advanced communication
methods. In this way, throughout the nineteenth century, industry and urbanization
progressed hand in hand. In 1960, more than 50% of the population in England and
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Wales lived in urban areas, which increased to 77% by the end of the nineteenth century.
Behind modern urbanization, several factors play a role, such as the use of advanced
technology in agriculture, population growth, a decrease in per capita agricultural land,
the development of transportation infrastructure, the use of improved communication
for industrial production, migration of rural impoverished people to towns in search
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of higher income and improved lifestyle, and the worldwide discovery of new trade
routes.
When we look at modern cities, we can observe some differences from ancient cities.
For example, modern cities lack defense mechanisms like those in ancient cities, the
geographical area of the cities has expanded, and there has been a significant increase in
internal movement within the city. Again, modern cities have seen much more growth
in commercial dominance and competition compared to ancient cities. Furthermore,
in modern cities, there has been vertical growth besides spatial expansion. However,
in the context of urbanization in third-world countries, the trend of migration from
rural to urban areas is more prominent. In these countries, the number of metropolitan
and mega-cities is increasing, along with the growth of slums and slum dwellers.
Additionally, in developing countries, urban planning is often absent, leading to issues
such as regular traffic congestion, waste disposal problems, and water logging.
Potentials and Risks of Urban Settlements
One distinctive feature of urban settlements is their high population density, advanced
infrastructure, and economic activities based on industry and services. As the population
living in urban areas around the world increases, new opportunities are being created
simultaneously with various risks. In the pursuit of sustainable development, we need
to consider the created risks alongside the diverse potentials of urban settlements.
Potentials/Possibilities of Urban Settlements
1. Economic Opportunities: Cities are the epicentres of economic activities, where
various opportunities for employment in sectors such as markets, industry, and services
are created with the increase in urban population. In this way, economic opportunities
are created for the people living there. The expectation of better job prospects motivates
people to migrate from rural to urban areas.
2. Access to Advanced Civic Services: Urban settlements provide more advanced
healthcare, education, and other civic facilities compared to rural areas.
3.Infrastructure Development: Urban areas have advanced infrastructure,
transportation, and communication systems, electricity, water, and waste disposal
facilities compared to rural areas, providing residents with enhanced convenience.
4. Cultural Diversity: People from different places come together in urban
settlements, leading to cultural exchanges and the formation of a unified and enriched
culture. This cultural diversity fosters social tolerance and the ability to understand and
appreciate others.
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5. Development of Innovation and Technology: Urban settlements serve as hubs for

innovation, research, and technological advancements to meet various human needs.
Risks of Urban Settlements
Urban settlements, directly or indirectly, create various types of risks. Due to high
population density, pressure is exerted on infrastructure and transportation systems,
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reducing people’s quality of life and diminishing their productivity. The increased
population results in reduced housing opportunities, leading to higher housing
expenses. The increase of homeless and slum dwellers contributes to increased social
inequality. Establishing urban settlements often involves the destruction of agricultural
land, forests, or any natural environment, while the higher human presence pollutes the
environment in various ways. Through vehicles or industrial activities, air, noise, soil,
and water pollution occurs extensively, causing harm to the environment and public
health. Additionally, the unequal consumption and use of wealth and consumer goods
in urban settlements lead to the depletion of resources. The concentration of a large
population in limited spaces often leads to criminal activities, as people with criminal
tendencies may find refuge in urban areas, contributing to a deterioration in law and
order situations.
Mitigating these risks and making effective use of the possibilities in urban settlements
require efficient urban planning, investments in sustainable infrastructure, social
initiatives to reduce inequality, and the formation and implementation of urban
development policies. However, ensuring these measures for urban settlements in
developing and underdeveloped countries is not always possible.
We can understand that whether rural or urban, the increase in population and changes in
land use have created these settlements. And all settlements are created through human
interventions in the natural environment. Therefore, human settlement construction is
considered one of the main reasons for changes in land use and land cover.
The discussion above helps us understand the types of changes related to land use
and land cover change globally. However, land use change is a multidimensional and
complex process, intertwined with various subjects and characterized by its diverse
nature. In the next section, we will explore the reasons behind land use and land cover
change.
Reasons for Changes in Land Use and Land Cover
The reasons for changes in land use and cover are often complex and interconnected,
with one affecting the other. As visible reasons for changes in land use, we can mention
the construction of infrastructure (roads, markets, houses), agricultural expansion, and
the extraction of timber from forest land for both commercial and non-commercial
purposes. However, we can categorize the main reasons as follows:
(a) Biophysical Reasons: Biophysical factors primarily indicate the natural
capability or environmental conditions that aid in land use changes. Both organic and
inorganic elements of the environment play a role here. Climate, soil composition,
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geological features, topography, land height, water flow, and vegetation are examples
of biophysical factors influencing changes in land use.
(b) Economic and Technological Reasons: Economic factors play a powerful
role in shaping land use changes. From the 1950s to the mid-2000s, global economic
activities have grown almost sevenfold, and the world’s population has nearly doubled.
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The need to fulfill the demands, especially in terms of food for the growing population,
has driven people to engage in economic activities and technological advancements.
The development of market economy and the use of technology help individuals assess
the possibilities and risks associated with various land uses. Using the knowledge
gained in this way, people accelerated various profitable economic activities leading to
diverse changes in land use patterns.
(c) Demographic Reasons: Population growth and demographic characteristics
significantly influence changes in land use of a region. The increasing population
demands resources and services such as food and housing, necessitating alterations in
land use. For example, in densely populated agricultural societies, people may clear
forests or unused land for agricultural purposes. Agricultural land and fallow land
have to be used for building houses to meet the needs of additional people. Again,
the tendency to cut forest land and use it for agriculture and other purposes has also
increased. Moreover, demographic features like education, skills, and urban or rural
residence contribute to defining the nature of economic activities and influence land use
accordingly. For example, people in agrarian societies will be less dependent on land
than people in industrialized countries. Therefore, in a populated agricultural country
like Bangladesh, mountains or forests are cleared to build agriculture or houses. English
economist, demographer, and clergyman Thomas Robert Malthus in 1798 gave the
‘Population Theory’ which states that ‘when the production of food grains increases at
an arithmetical rate, the population increases at a geometrical rate’. Population growth
and the resulting pressure on land use have been an important consideration in the
creation of this theory.
(d) Institutional Reasons: Institutional roles are also important, along with
demographic, economic, or technological factors, for land use change. The term
“institution” here refers to political, legal, economic, social, and cultural institutions.
The most significant political institution is the government. These institutions directly
and indirectly influence decision-making and implementation at the individual level.
Government policies play a comprehensive role in land use changes. For instance,
government-regulated policies such as price controls, subsidies in various sectors,
economic incentives, industrialization, export, and urban development contribute to
the dynamism of economic activities. In addition, government-led local and national
policies effectively play a role in the allocation of land, labor, capital, and technology.
Government’s agricultural, forest, and wildlife protection, infrastructure development,
and fiscal policies have a major impact on land use change.
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(e) Cultural Reasons: Numerous cultural factors influence human decision-making

in the field of land use, such as behavior, values, beliefs, and expression. These factors
are further influenced by the cultural and economic conditions, social and economic
disparities, the status of women, small ethnic groups, and impoverished families. For
example, in our country, the indigenous communities living in the mountainous regions
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coexist with nature in a way that reflects their lifestyle. So naturally a habit develops
in them to protect nature as it is. Many times, tree lovers plant different types of trees
to create reforestation or social forestry. Conversely, due to the absence of ethical
business behavior, some people destroy forests, accelerating the process of land use
change.
Impact/Results of Changes in Land Use and Land Cover
The primary reasons for changes in land use are the increasing and evolving needs of
humans. The fact that humans will change land use has become a reality today. However,
while meeting urgent needs, these changes often have diverse and far-reaching effects
that we are experiencing in many areas. Therefore, it is essential to consider long-term
planning with foresight for the future. Below the impacts of changes in land use are
mentioned:
1. Decrease in production of forest products such as food, animal fodder, fiber,
and timber. This is coupled with a decline in land productivity, food security risks,
and an increase in poverty.
2. Increased health risks through vector-borne diseases
3. Rise in air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change effects
4. Loss of agricultural and biodiversity
5. Degradation of soil quality.
6. Expansion of human-induced environmental degradation:
7. Increased risks to protecting freshwater resources, irrigation, and coastal
environments
Beyond these, land cover changes have unplanned land use and other indirect effects,
such as the lowering of groundwater levels, mountain collapse, soil erosion, riverbank
collapse, river filling leading to floods, and intensification of the severity and extent of
various natural disasters.
While various risks and levels of vulnerability are associated with the changes in land
use and land cover mentioned, it is precisely in these changes that human ingenuity,
the utilization of natural resources for human well-being, and the development of an
advanced life for a large population are intertwined. It is through land use change that
people have been able to create today’s relatively prosperous, safe, and comfortable
life from a difficult life dependent on nature. For this reason, increased agricultural
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production, improved housing, urbanization, development of roads and communication

systems, industrialization, etc. have played a role. And all these have come about
through changes in land use. Therefore, the possibilities for change in land use and land
cover are extensive. Broadly speaking, the opportunities that people are able to create
and exploit through this change are:
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1. Ensuring an increase in food production to meet the needs of a growing

population
2. Creation of opportunities for habitation and economic activities for a larger
population in less area through urbanization
3. Diversified use of land beyond monoculture in response to human needs
4. Development of equality and mutual dependence among people in different
parts of the world through the improvement of communication infrastructure,
creation of learning and knowledge, development of distribution system and
medical system
5. Increased resilience of humans in various natural disasters and hostile
environments through changes in land use.
However, almost all of the possibilities opened up by changes in land use and land
cover are purely man-made with the welfare of mankind in mind. And the created risks
are often harmful to the natural environment, plants, and other animals. It should be
kept in mind that what is currently creating risks for the natural environment, plants,
and other animals will directly create risks for humans in the near future. This means
that anything risky for nature can become risky for humans at any time because humans
are an integral part of nature and not a separate entity.
Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100
Bangladesh is the world’s largest delta. The combination of its land, water, Tropical and
monsoon climate, and hardworking population has created unparalleled potential for the
country. The fertile agricultural land allows for multiple crops per year, open water bodies
support fisheries, the untapped resources of the sea, and the convenience of maritime
transportation and trade showcase the potential for a golden and prosperous future.
However, to harness these opportunities, we must confront challenges such as limited
land, a growing population, natural disasters, climate change, and environmental pollution.
For this purpose, we need a long-term, integrated, and comprehensive plan that would
carefully consider these challenges to ensure sustainable development. In 2015,
Bangladesh committed to the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) adopted by the United Nations, and for this, we need a specific realistic plan.
To align with these goals, the government of Bangladesh has initiated a plan named
‘Bangladesh Delta Plan-2100’ and is then working on its implementation. Sheikh
Hasina, the Honourable Prime Minister of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh has
expressed, “The plan for the future advancement of Bangladesh in the next 100 years
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is the Bangladesh Delta Plan-2100. We have formulated the Delta Plan as we want to
build Bangladesh in 2100.”
The Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 is a comprehensive, extensive, and long-term vision.
In its implementation, a unified, extensive, and long-term delta development concept
has been adopted. The vision is to create a ‘safe, resilient, and prosperous delta,
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capable of adapting to climate change and overcoming adversities.’ The objective
of the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 is “Ensuring long-term water and food security,
economic viability and environmental stability by addressing natural disasters, climate
change shocks and other delta-related issues through the adoption of robust, integrated
and time-varying effective strategies and equitable governance in water resources
management”.
Goals or objectives: In the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100, three national goals for higher-
level achievements and six specific goals related to the delta have been defined. The
delta-related goals will contribute to the attainment of higher-level goals.
Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 Specific Goals
Goal 1: Ensure safety from floods and climate change related disasters;
Goal 2: Enhance water security and efficiency of water usage;
Goal 3: Ensure sustainable and integrated river systems and estuaries
management;
Goal 4: Conserve and preserve wetlands and ecosystems and promote their
wise use;
Goal 5: Develop effective institutions and equitable governance for in-country
and transboundary water resources management; and
Goal 6: Achieve optimal and integrated use of land and water resources.
All should work collectively and sincerely to make our country a developed and
prosperous state through the implementation of Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100.
What We Should Do
From the above sections, it is clear to us that changes in land use and land cover are a
global and dynamic process. As the human population and their needs continue to grow,
this change will be more rapid and diverse. Since it is not confined to any single nation
or group, and as this transformation is intricately linked with human livelihood and
development, the entire human race should think about its impact. Every nation must
adopt sustainable policies through long-term planning to execute sound and natural
disaster-resilient methods in land use. The implementation of such policies needs to
be monitored to ensure their adherence to the development process. Those through
whom development projects will be realized must be aware and responsible. Only
then can sustainable and responsible land use be assured. One thing we must commit
to understanding is that the Earth is not just for humans but humans are one of the
thousands of living things on Earth. Humans, guided by their intellect and wisdom, must
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ensure harmony with nature, adopting sustainable, tolerant, and responsible behavior.
People must comprehend that enjoying natural resources is not their sole purpose;
rather, they need to consider themselves as part of nature and take on various roles in
its preservation. Therefore, at the individual level, we need to plan economically and
developmentally regarding land use, while at the community level, we must embrace
the concept and practice of sustainable and resilient development.
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Principles of Production, Distribution and
Equity of Wealth
In this learning experience we will identify some of the economic problems in our area.
We will then determine which of the problems are dependent on social context and which
are dependent on political context. Then we will choose a project to solve the problem
in the area according to the various theories of economics given in the textbook. We
will determine what resources are needed to implement the project and how to generate,
distribute, consume and conserve these resources. Also, if this project is implemented,
we will determine what kind of impact it can have on different professions and classes
of people in the society. Then we will organize an open discussion where we will
present our project. Finally we will create a report and submit it.
Group Work 1
Let’s form a team of 5 to 6 classmates from the same area. Then we will discuss in
groups to identify some economic problems in our area. Afterwards, we will determine
which of these problems are dependent on social context and which are dependent on
political context.
Problems Dependent on Social Context Problems Dependent on Political Context
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We will try to solve these problems from the point of view of the economy. Now let’s
learn some things about economics.
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Principles of Production, Distribution and Equity of Wealth
Let’s Learn Some Things

When a commodity or product is capable of satisfying the consumers’ needs or
desires, it is referred to as production. Production, distribution, consumption, and
preservation processes are interrelated. We can understand this with an example.
When a farmer produces rice, he determines the potential consumer for the rice he
produces. The consumer is the one who will buy the rice. Then he sells the produced
rice at a specific price in the market. He takes the rice to the market and delivers it
to the consumer (who will buy the rice). This can be called distribution. At the same
time, he makes arrangements to preserve the rice.
Elements or Factors of Production: There are four elements or factors or means of
production:
1. Capital
2. Land
3. Labour
4. Organization.
Example: If we think about what materials are used to produce bread, we can see that
a factory is needed to produce bread. We can call this factory or building capital.
Then the raw material of bread is wheat from which flour is obtained. This wheat is
obtained from nature or land. To produce bread, labour is also required. We get labor
from workers. Most of any production is made by labour. Organization is also needed.
It takes a producer or owner or organizer to produce bread. He makes bread using
land, capital, and labour as other elements of production.
We often watch news related to the economy on television channels. Let’s explore two
such news stories.
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News Headline: The Success Story of a Young Entrepreneur

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Dear viewers, a news story about the success of a young entrepreneur is now on
the news. The story revolves around Jahangir Alom, who grew up in a remote
area. While collecting discarded plastic bottles from the filthy environment of the
locality, he envisioned a business that would recycle and reuse the plastic. Drawing
from environmental conservation methods learned in school textbooks, he planned
to establish a business that would reutilize used plastic in the most cost-effective
and environmentally friendly way. Collaborating with four friends, they formed an
organization with very little capital. They managed to make a good profit within five
years. Presently, it has evolved into one of Bangladesh’s leading businesses.
News Headline: The Potential of Pottery as a Small Industry in Bangladesh

Dear viewers, now, let me share some information about Bangladesh’s market
economy. Entrepreneurs in the small industry sector organized a conference where
they emphasized the importance of the pottery industry in Bangladesh’s economic
growth. There, the entrepreneurs said to give special importance to the pottery industry
of Bangladesh. They highlighted the need for both government and non-governmental
support to popularize pottery, particularly focusing on traditional crafts. Entrepreneurs
also expressed hope that with proper promotion, this industry can create significant
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demand not only among local consumers but also on the global stage.
Exercise 1: Are there any differences between the two news stories? Let’s identify
the differences in groups.
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The Success Story of a Young The Potential of Pottery as a Small

Entrepreneur Industry in Bangladesh
While writing the difference we might have thought of a news story about a young
entrepreneur. Its organization, capital, and profits are discussed. On the other hand, the
other news is about the potential of the pottery industry in Bangladesh.
Small economic matters are the focal point of microeconomic discussions. For instance,
decisions like how an entrepreneur or the owner of an industry will make production
decisions, how much to produce, how prices will be determined, how much expenditure
will be allocated for resources, and what tools will be used—all these small decisions
fall within the scope of microeconomic discussions. The decision of a consumer to
purchase a good or service is also a subject of discussion in microeconomics. Therefore,
we can consider the first news article as an example of microeconomics.
On the other hand, national aggregates are the subject of macroeconomics. Total
consumption, total savings, total investment, total production, general price levels,
inflation, and the like are discussable topics in macroeconomics. Therefore, we can
consider the second news article as an example of macroeconomics.
Another example of micro and macroeconomics is as follows: Microeconomics
refers to understanding a small unit of an industry, such as a specific unit in the jute
industry. Our jute industry has developed. From among them, we can discuss decisions
related to the production, buying, and selling of Amin Jute Mills, and various types of
production from the perspective of microeconomics.
On the other hand, when we discuss all jute mills or the jute industry collectively,
considering it from a holistic perspective, we will analyze it as macroeconomics. For
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example, the future of the jute industry in Bangladesh, wages of workers associated
with this industry, prices, and production are topics discussable in macroeconomics.
Economic agents (such as consumers, producers, individuals, families, farms, and
industrial establishments) and their behavioral patterns can be used as the basis to
divide economics into two parts.
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A consumer’s own
income or spending
decisions
(Micro
Economics)
Production-related
decisions of a firm
entrepreneur
Economic
(Aggregate Output)
(Macro (Inflation)
Economics)
(Unemployment)
Image: Micro and Macro Economics
Group Work 2
Now as a group we will determine which of the economic problems in our area belong
to microeconomics and which belong to macroeconomics.
Microeconomics Macroeconomics
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Let’s read the news report below:
The impact of the upward trend in commodity prices in the

global market has affected the economy of Bangladesh.
Currently, the price of fuel has increased, leading transport
owners to raise the fare per seat for the public. As a result,
the general public has expressed dissatisfaction. On the
other hand, transport owners claim that their expenses have
increased twofold due to the higher cost of fuel, employee
salaries, and maintenance of vehicles. Therefore, they are
compelled to increase passenger fares. On the other hand,
according to the opinion of the passengers, the transport
owners have increased the price of the seat fare much
more in proportion to the increase in the price of fuel.
Economists have given special importance to the proper
monitoring of the government in this regard.
If we notice, we will see that the description of the impact of the rise in the price of fuel
in the global market has been articulated through the perspectives of transport owners,
passengers, and economists. When analyzing the situation with the upward trend in fuel
prices and the condition of transport owners and passengers in Bangladesh as it is, it is
considered as positive economics. Again, when it comes to whether economic processes
or operations should be appropriate or inappropriate, the statements or discussions of
economists on such matters fall within the realm of normative economics. Therefore,
what economists have said to emphasize the need for appropriate government oversight,
is normative economics.
Group Work 3
Now as a group we will determine which of the economic problems in our area belong
to positive economics and which belong to normative economics.
Positive Economics Normative Economics

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Now let’s read a story
A farmer owns several bighas of land. He decides to cultivate paddy on half of the land
and vegetables on the remaining half. From the paddy harvest, he keeps one-third for
his family’s consumption and the rest he sells. This continues for several years. In a
particular year, when the price of paddy seeds increases, he reduces paddy cultivation
and increases vegetable cultivation. The following year, when the price of paddy seeds
decreases, he increases paddy cultivation and reduces vegetable cultivation. This year,
he contemplates increasing both paddy and vegetable cultivation. However, faced with
the limitation of land, he finds himself in a dilemma.
Exercise 2: Well, let’s think about how to solve this problem without increasing the
amount of land.
We may have written our thoughts here. In reality, we will see that our resources are
not limitless. There are limitations in land, labor, and capital. Therefore, if we want
to produce more of one commodity, we have to reduce the production of another
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commodity, because we cannot produce all commodities equally. This is due to the
scarcity of resources. We have limited resources. We have to meet our infinite needs
from these limited resources. That is, if the amount of raw materials or tools used for
the production of a commodity or service were unlimited, we could produce goods or
services as desired. We would not have any dissatisfaction or inadequacy. Therefore,
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due to the limitations of our resources, there is no way to get something more in
quantity without getting something less. Therefore, when deciding how much we want
of a commodity or product, the cost that cannot be avoided is called Opportunity Cost.
We cannot simultaneously increase the efficient production of all products while
keeping the means of production the same. We cannot produce all products equally.
Since resources are limited, people always have to give up opportunities for other
actions or decisions when making an action or decision. The opportunity cost of an
action or decision is the action or decision that people give up for that action. For
example, we have seen in the previous story, that if the farmer wants to produce more
rice with limited elements, he has to reduce the scope of vegetable production. In this
case, the opportunity cost of producing more rice is reduced vegetable production.
Another example illustrates the concept of opportunity cost. Suppose you have 200
taka. You know, with 200 taka you can buy a book or go somewhere with friends. If
you decide to buy a book for 200 taka, then the opportunity cost of that book will be
traveling. And if you decide to go on a tour with 200 taka, then the opportunity cost of
that tour will be a book.
Figure: Farmer producing jute Figure: Farmer producing Paddy
Suppose a farmer uses all his means of production i.e. land (agricultural land), labour,
and capital (machinery) to produce two things – paddy and jute. As we have seen
earlier, using all means to produce more of one product (say, paddy) requires less
production of another product (say, jute). A production possibility curve shows the
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various combinations of maximum possible production quantities of two commodities

(rice and jute in this example) using all means of production. For ease of understanding,
suppose six combinations of paddy and jute production volumes are possible. The line
by which these six combinations of production are shown in the figure is called the
production possibility curve.
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Table: Production Possibility Curve and Opportunity Cost
Opportunity Cost
Possibility Jute (lakh tons) Paddy (lakh tons)
(lakh tons)
A 0 25 -
B 1 24 1
C 2 22 2
D 3 18 4
E 4 10 8
F 5 0 10
If the farmer produces only paddy then it will not be wise because some jute production
is also required. So out of all the land available for paddy production some of the land
will be used by farmers for jute production and other inputs will also be transferred for
jute production. Thus we can get several production combinations of paddy and jute
which are shown as possibilities in the table above with A, B, C, D, E, and F.
A B
25 C
24
Quantity of Paddy (Lakh Tons)
22 D
18 Production possibility Curve
10 E Academic Year 2024
F
০ ১ ২ ৩ ৪ ৫
Quantity of Jute (Lakh Tons)
Figure: Production possibility curve of rice and jute
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Figure 1 shows all the production possibility lines A, B, C, D, E, and F of paddy and
jute. The slope of the production-possibilities curve is negative. In other words, to
increase the production of jute, the production of paddy has to be reduced. Maximum
production of 25 lakh tonnes of paddy is possible if all production materials/resources
are used for paddy production. In the figure, this is indicated by the coordinate/point A.
Now let’s say the manufacturer wants to produce 1 lakh tonnes of jute. Since all inputs
are employed at point A, at least the inputs required for jute production must be diverted
from paddy production. In the figure, we reach from point A to point B by producing
an additional 1 unit (1 lakh ton of jute) of jute. That is, for the production of one unit
of jute, the production of one unit (1 lakh tons) of paddy has to be reduced. Point B
shows 24 lakh tonnes of paddy and 1 lakh tonnes of jute. As we increase the production
of jute, we have to accept a decrease in the production of paddy. The figure shows the
production of 2 lakh tonnes of jute and 22 lakh tonnes of paddy from point B to point C.
That is, for an additional 1 lakh tons of jute, 2 lakh tons of paddy production will have
to be reduced. Thus we get different production possibilities from point C to D and
from point D to point E. At point F, for 5 lakh tonnes of jute, paddy production should
be brought to zero. In this case, all resources will be used for jute production. Then with
the help of all materials, 5 lakh tons of jute production is possible. In short, we can say,
that if we want to produce a certain amount of goods, the maximum production of other
goods is known with the help of the production possibilities curve.
Changes in technology and increases in resources shift the production possibilities curve
to the right. Any point on the production possibilities curve is considered to be efficient
production level and any point inside the production possibilities curve is considered
to be inefficient production. At any point outside the production possibilities curve,
production is not possible because resources are scarce.
States also have resource constraints. As a result, not all development works can be
undertaken simultaneously. In that case, projects or work are selected on a priority
basis. Projects that involve the greater public good are considered first. There are also
resource (capital/income) constraints for entrepreneurs or consumers. So the individual
has to select work according to the need based on priority.
Group Work 3
We will discuss as a group what actions or projects we can undertake to solve the
economic problems we have identified in the area. We will determine whether any
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other opportunity cost will be incurred to implement this project.
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Our Assigned Project or Work Opportunity Cost of Other Work
From this opportunity cost we will decide which project is more necessary. Thus we
will prioritize a project.
We all have various needs, don’t we? Some have less, and some have more. Now, let’s
list the things we personally need in the following table. After that, let’s find out from a
classmate what their needs are. We will also list their needs in the format below.
Exercise 3: Things that my classmates and I need
Things I Need Things My Classmate Needs
We may have noticed that there are more or less differences between our own needs
and the needs of our classmates. The reason is that both have different desires to get the
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product. So a fundamental characteristic of demand is desire.
Exercise 4: List the things we desire that can be purchased in a shop or market at a
safe distance from home or school. We will know the price of the products by going
to that shop or market.
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The product I At which The market Is the product Do I want to buy

desire price I am price of the within my the product at
interested to product purchasing market price?
buy power/
capacity?
By gathering information from shops or markets, we can perhaps understand that

there are many products for which we lack the purchasing capability. On the other
hand, although we have the ability to buy many products, we may not be willing to
spend money at market prices. Therefore, we have identified two additional essential
characteristics of demand, which are the purchasing power and the willingness to spend.
Desire
Demand
Willingness to
Purchasing power
spend
Figure: Three basic characteristics of demand

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Well, if the prices of the products or items that we demand increase, will the demand for
those products increase or decrease? It will definitely decrease. Because our purchasing
power will not increase. This inverse relationship between price and demand is called
the law of demand. But what if, along with an increase in the price of the product, the
purchasing power also increases in the same way? What will happen then? The demand
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will remain constant. It will neither increase nor decrease. There are situations like this
where if certain conditions remain unchanged, the demand for a commodity increases
when its price rises at a specific time. Let’s explore some other constant factors:
1. Consumer income
2. Number of consumers/buyers
3. Time
4. Distribution of income
5. Prices of other goods and services
In short, when other factors are constant, if the price of a specific commodity increases
at a certain time, its demand decreases, and vice versa. This is known as the law of
demand. If any one of the other conditions changes, the law of demand becomes
ineffective.
Demand Schedule and Demand Curve
The representation of different quantities of a particular commodity at a specific time
through a table is called a demand schedule. The graphical representation of this demand
schedule, either through a line or a graph, is called a demand curve.
Table: Demand Schedule of Wheat

Quantity of Demand (1000
Coordinate Point Price per kg (tk)
kg)
A 10 30
B 11 25
C 12 11
D 13 8
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E 14 6
F 15 4
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15 A
14 B
Demand Curve
13 C
Price
12 D
11 E
10 F
O 4 6 8 11 25 30 Q
Quantities of demand
Figure: Demand curve for wheat
The collection of various quantities of demand at different prices of the demand

schedule, represented through a graph or a line, is called a demand curve, as shown in
the above figure. Different quantities of demand at different prices of wheat, denoted
by points A, B, C, D, E, and F, are illustrated.
From the above graph or demand curve, it is evident that there is an inverse relationship
between price and quantity/amount of demand. An increase in one leads to a decrease
in the other, and vice versa. Therefore, the slope of the demand curve is negative.
Here, the law of demand is effective: when the price increases, the quantity demanded
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decreases, and vice versa. So, the demand curve slopes down from left to right.
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Shifting Demand Curve
Demand Curve
Price
D2
Quantities of demand
Figure: Shifts or Changes in the Demand Curve of Wheat
If we keep the “other factors unchanged” in demand law, at a certain time, the demand
amount increases or decreases due to the increase or decrease in the price of any
commodity. Based on this, we drew the demand curve for wheat in the above figure.
Now, let’s assume that the other determinants that were held constant in other situations
have changed.
For example, if the consumer’s income increases, he/she will be able to buy more
quantity than before. Or, it can be said that if the value of any one of the other
determinants changes in other situations, the demand curve will shift from its original
position. This is called a change or shift in the demand curve.
In the above figure, we can see that the original demand curve for wheat is line D. Now,
if the other situations remain unchanged due to the increase in the consumer’s income,
i.e., there is no change in the price or supply of wheat, then the consumer will be able
to buy more quantity of wheat at the previously determined price. As a result, the new
demand curve will shift from D1 to D2.
Supply
When we visited various agricultural farms or industrial establishments in the previous
class, we asked producers or owners where they supplied their produced goods. That’s
when we learned that producers supply their produced goods to the market with the
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hope of making a profit. So, we might wonder what producers or suppliers depend on
to supply goods to the market.
Exercise 5: Let’s now fill in the following table with some information about any
product from a store near our home.
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When does
Products that are What is the reason Causes of increase
the supply of a
over-supplied in for the oversupply or decrease in the
product increase or
the stores of the product? supply of products
decrease?
1.
2.
3.
4.
If we observe we can see that when the price of a commodity is higher in the market
or if it is possible to get a good amount of money for a commodity, then the supplier
increases the quantity of his production or tries to increase the profit by increasing the
supply. Therefore, it is understood that the supply of a commodity that has a lower
price is limited or often not available in the market. This is because if the price of a
commodity in the market is less than its production cost, then the producer will not
supply that commodity to the market or will not produce it at all. Therefore, the price
must be increased in such a way that the supplier/producer gets the same or more price
for his production cost, and he will produce it depending on how much the price has
increased.
The term ‘Supply’ refers to the different quantities of a product or service at a specific
time that the suppliers want to sell at the market price.
Supply Schedule and Supply Curve

If we consider the supply schedule of wheat, we can see that the different quantities
of supply or stock that suppliers or producers want to supply at different prices can be
presented or represented through a table which is called Supply Schedule. And the line
by which this supply schedule is measured is called the Supply Curve.
Table: Supply Schedule of Wheat

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Coordinate Point Price per kg (Tk) Quantity of Supply (1000 kg)
A 5 10
B 6 15
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C 7 20
D 8 25
E 9 30
supply curve
9
Wheat price
10 15 20 25 30
Figure: Supply curve of wheat
The above supply curve is created based on the supply schedule (which shows the
different quantities of supply at different prices). A noteworthy point is that when
the price increases, the suppliers increase the quantity of supply, and when the price
decreases, the quantity of supply decreases.
In the above graph, it can be seen that when the price is 5 taka, the amount of supply
is 10,000 kg, which is shown by point A in the graph. In this way, due to the price
increase, the quantity of supply also increases, which can be seen by adding points B,
C, D, and E in the graph, which gives us the supply curve.
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In the “other things remaining constant” or stable condition, when the price of a
commodity or service increases, the suppliers or providers increase the supply or stock
at the market price, and when the price decreases, the supply or stock decreases. This is
called the supply law/rule. There is a direct or positive relationship between price and
supply. That is, if one increases, the other also increases, and if one decreases, the other
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also decreases. This can be called a direct relationship. As a result, the supply curve has
a positive slope.
Shiftting Supply Curve

Any change in the factors that otherwise remain constant results in the shifting of the
supply curve. For example, the producer will be able to supply more than before if the
cost of raw materials decreases. As a result, the supply curve will shift.
Or, if new industries or firms/farmers are interested in wheat cultivation, the supply of
wheat will increase. As a result, the consumer can buy more wheat at the same price.
Sellers will also be able to sell more at the same price. The same is called shift in supply
curve. When the production materials become available, or the cost of the materials
used by the producer or investor falls, he can produce more at the same cost. Then the
supply curve (S1) shifts to the right (S2).

Figure: Shiftting of Wheat Supply Curve
Market Equilibrium Price Interactions between Deamnd & Supply

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Ice cream factory

174
Nilima went to an ice cream factory and collected some information. When the price
of each ice cream is 10 taka, the quantity of demand is 10,000, but the quantity of
supply is only 2,000. When the price of each ice cream is 20 taka, the quantity of
demand decreases to 8,000, but the quantity of supply increases to 4,000. In this way,
when the price of ice cream increases, the quantity of demand decreases, and the
quantity of supply increases. Therefore, a market equilibrium price is determined by
the coordination of demand and supply. The price at which consumers/buyers want to
buy the product and sellers/suppliers want to sell it is determined.
Exercise 6: Well, let us think for a moment what the price of each ice cream will be
at which the buyer will be willing to buy and at the same price the factory owner will
be willing to sell. We will also explain why the buyer will buy and the factory owner
will sell at this price.
My Thoughts
It is good that the thoughts of many of us have coincided with the thoughts of economists.
Let’s see how the equilibrium price is determined by the interaction of supply and
demand.
Table- Determinastion of equilibrium price through demand and
supply schedule
Price of Quantity Quantity Excess Demand: +
Icecream of of
(Tk) Demand Supply Excess Supply: -
1 10 2 (+) 8 (Excess Demand)
2 8 4 (+) 4 (Excess Demand)
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0 (Demand and Supply are Equal:

3 6 6
Equilibrium)
4 4 8 (-) 8 (Excess Supply)
5 2 10 (-) 4 (Excess Supply)
175
We have presented the supply and demand schedule together in the table. The table
shows that the quantity of demand and supply of ice cream varies at different market
prices. For example, when the price of ice cream is 1 taka, the quantity of demand is
10 units, but the quantity of supply is only 2 units. That is, at this price (1 taka), the
quantity of demand in the market is much higher, but the quantity of supply is much
lower. Therefore, there is surplus demand in the market. In other words, when the price
of ice cream in the market is 1 Taka, the suppliers are not willing to supply because
maybe the cost of production does not return at this price or it may incur a small loss.
So supply is less than demand.
We can see from the table that when the price increases to 3 taka, the quantity of demand
and supply are equal. That is, the price at which the quantity of demand and supply are
equal is called the equilibrium price. There will be no excess demand or excess supply
in the market at this price. Therefore, it is called market equilibrium.
Except for the equilibrium price Tk 3, at any other price either the quantity of demand is
higher or the quantity of supply is higher. Therefore, the price at which the quantity of
demand and supply are determined by their mutual interaction is called the equilibrium
price. The market equilibrium price is shown in the figure based on the combined
schedule of supply and demand in the table:
Excess Supply
(ES)
M
Equilibrium price
Market equilibrium
(ED)
Excess Demand
U
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The equilibrium quantity is where demand and supply are equal

Figure: Determining equilibrium price
176
In the figure,
ES = Excess Supply
ED = Excess Demand
DD = Demand Curve
SS = Supply Curve
E = Equilibrium Price in which the quantities of demand and supply are the same.
Except at the equilibrium price, the quantities of demand and supply will not be the
same at any other price. There may be excess demand or excess supply.
Excess Supply and Excess Demand: Stock or Storage
When the price of edible oil in the market increased from 160 taka per liter to 175 taka
per liter, Mizan Sahib increased the production of edible oil from 30 units to 40 units.
As the price of edible oil increased, the demand in the market decreased. As a result,
he kept 10 units of excess produced edible oil in stock or storage.
Therefore, we can say that when there is excess supply in the market, it has to be
stored or preserved because it is not sold.
Again, all the agricultural products that are perishable and perish quickly if not preserved
should be processed in modern ways. As a result, the producer’s cost increases. If the
cost of production is combined with the cost of preservation, the total cost increases.
As a result, during the coronavirus period, the demand for many necessary products
increased significantly. We know that if the demand for a product suddenly increases,
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the market price also increases gradually if there is not enough supply in the market. In
such a situation, some producers who have more production capacity can increase their
production to make a profit up to a certain period. But if other producers also increase
their production during this time, it will be seen that the supply in the market will be
much higher. As a result, producers again reduce their prices and increase the quantity
177
of sales. At one stage, the price will be fixed at equilibrium. In other words, the quantity
of demand and supply will be unequal until the equilibrium price is determined.
Exportable products of Bangladesh
Own Correspondent/Reporter
According to the published information During the Corona pandemic, the global
of the World Trade Organization (WTO), market economy in the garment industry
Bangladesh ranked second in garment was somewhat stagnant. At that time,
exports worldwide in 2022. Bangladesh entrepreneurs stored excess products
was also in the second position before. produced in comparison to demand
However, in 2020, Vietnam occupied and took some steps to reduce the cost
this position, and Bangladesh fell to third of their production equipment, such as
place. When analyzing the markets of reducing the number of workers, wages,
Vietnam and Bangladesh, it is seen that the etc. Many people became unemployed,
government of Bangladesh provides more and the government took immediate
incentives to garment industry owners. As steps to solve this problem. They made
a result, several garment industries can the process of product export and local
now supply clothes to the global market. clothing sales easier.
Among them, A Group and B are According to economists’ statements
prominent. The demand for Bangladeshi- analyzing the demand for Bangladeshi-
made garments is increasing day by day made clothes in the global market, it is
in the markets of America and Europe. As necessary for garment industry owners
a result, the owners of garment industries to be more interested in producing high-
are supplying ready-made garments in quality products. Another exportable
large quantities. Even during the ongoing product of Bangladesh is jute and jute
Ukraine-Russia war, the supply of products, which have a significant share
Academic Year 2024
Bangladeshi garments has increased in in the global market. However, due to the
the European market. Due to the low price decreasing demand for this product in
of Bangladeshi garments in the global the global market, the production of this
market, the demand for these clothes is product is also decreasing.
increasing among consumers.
178
According to a report, a product that According to economists, special

costs 8 dollars in Turkey can be found measures need to be taken to
in Bangladesh for 3 dollars. That’s why, increase entrepreneurs’ investment
while Bangladesh has supplied 45 billion in the jute industry. According to
dollars worth of garments to the world environmentalists, consumers can be
market, Turkey has supplied 20 billion encouraged environmentally friendly
dollars worth of garments. Due to the jute products and avoid the use of plastic
low cost of labour and capital such as bags and various products made of
buildings, land, and money in Bangladesh, plastic. However, many people believe
garments can be produced at a lower cost. that this could harm Bangladesh’s plastic
As a result, garment industry owners can industry. If the demand for jute products
supply clothes at a lower price. increases, their supply may increase,
leading to a decrease in supply for the
production of plastic products.
Exercise 7: Let’s analyze some of the economics learned in this lesson by reading the
above report. Also, write in detail what is given in the report. An answer is provided.
Topic As written in the report Reasons/Analysis

A Group has produced more The report tells about the
Micro economics
than 580 million dollars production of a company.
worth of garments products.
The demand for Bangladeshi- Here, all garment industries

made garments is increasing of Bangladesh are collectively
day by day in the markets of referred to.
Macro economics America and Europe. As a
result, the owners of garment
industries are supplying
garments in large quantities.
Positive
Economics
Normative
Academic Year 2024
Economics
Opportunity cost
179
Law of Demand
Law of Supply
Excess Demand/
Excess Supply
Income Discrimination
Income discrimination refers to the unequal distribution of income among individuals or
households within a society or a specific geographical area. It is a social and economic
problem that measures the gap between the highest and lowest incomes, highlighting
the disparity in wealth and earnings.
We will now mention the main causes of income inequality
Wage Disparities: The comparative difference between the wage of labourers and
the salaries of employees is a major component or element of income inequality.
Skilled human resources or workers with advanced knowledge or education, including
high skills, often earn higher wages than low-skilled or unskilled workers. Wages are
not paid according to the marginal productivity of the workers’ produced goods. As a
result, workers are exploited by entrepreneurs.
Quality Education and Efficiency Level: Education plays an important role in
income inequality. High-quality education and skilled human resources generally lead
to well-paid jobs and opportunities for upward mobility. Quality Education, specialized
skills or expertise, and higher-level training can lead to inequality of access to jobs or
opportunities that may afterward make income disparity permanent.
Technological Advancements: Technological advancements have the potential to
exacerbate income inequality by requiring more skilled workers to work with advanced
technology. Automation and digitization can lead to job displacement for low-skilled
workers and further expand income disparities. Those who are unable to keep up with
new technologies or modern methods may become separated from the labour market
or be forced to work at minimum wages. Those who can learn new technologies or
modern methods as quickly as possible can earn more. As a result, new technologies
can also be a cause of income inequality.
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Globalization and Trade: Globalization has affected income inequality through job
and industry relocation in different countries. Although it can create new economic
opportunities, it can also lead to job losses in specific sectors, affect low-skilled
workers, and increase income inequality. In the era of globalization, our country’s
unskilled, semi-skilled, and skilled workers are working in different countries around
180
the world. Conversely, skilled executives, managers, and skilled and trained workers
from different countries are working in various factories, service sectors, production
sectors, and construction works in our country. It is noteworthy that almost 130 million
people of our country living abroad send remittances which is much less than that of
foreigners in Bangladesh who receive higher salaries. This is because foreigners who
work in our country are paid higher salaries.
Taxation: Tax policies can reduce or increase income inequality. Progressive tax
systems, where high earners are taxed at a higher rate, can help redistribute wealth and
reduce inequality. On the other hand, regressive tax policies can put undue pressure on
low-income individuals.
Effects of Income Inequality
Income inequality destroys economic equality in society. This makes the rich richer and
the poor poorer. Below are some other effects that income inequality has on society.
Destruction of
Social Harmony
Effects of Hindrance
Political Income
influence to Economic
Inequality Growth
Deprived of
improved health
and well-being
Destruction of Social Harmony: When there is extreme income inequality, it can

lead to social instability. Long suffering from disparity may create a sense of anger
among people. This is because it creates an unfair and unjust feeling. As a result, it can
destroy social harmony and create division and conflict within society.
Hindrance to Economic Growth: Extreme income inequality can also hinder
economic growth. If the benefits of economic growth are only enjoyed by the wealthy
Academic Year 2024
and there is no positive change in the quality of life for those with low incomes, then
that growth creates income inequality. When a significant portion of the population has
limited purchasing power, it can reduce demand and hinder overall economic activity.
As a result, people with low incomes may not be able to buy goods or services according
to their needs.
181
Health and Wellness: Income inequality is related to outcomes of different health
conditions and wellness. People with lower incomes often have limited access to
improved healthcare services, quality education, and other necessary services. As a
result, there can be disparity in health outcomes, life expectancy, and quality of life.
Political Influence: Income inequality can also hinder the dynamics of political
power, as wealthy individuals often have more influence over policy decisions and
political processes. This can further entrench the interests of the wealthy and make
income inequality more permanent.
Solution to Income Inequality
Education and Skill Training: Quality education and skill training are essential for
reducing income inequality. Providing people with the necessary knowledge and higher
skills increases their chances of employment and earning potential.
Progressive Taxation System and Redistribution: Implementation of progressive
tax policies can promote wealth redistribution and help reduce income inequality.
The government can increase tax rates for high-income earners and allot resources to
support social welfare programs and initiatives.
Minimum Wage Policy: Establishing and enforcing fair minimum wage standards
can help elevate low-income workers and reduce the income gap. Periodic adjustments
should be made to the minimum wage to account for inflation and the rising cost of
living.
Social Safety Net: Developing comprehensive social safety net programs such as
old-age and indigent allowances, injured freedom fighter allowances, unemployment
benefits, health care coverage, and affordable housing can provide a safety net for
individuals and families who face economic hardship.
Equal Opportunity Policy: Promoting equal opportunity through anti-
discrimination measures, affirmative action, and inclusive policies can help address
income inequality related to gender, ethnicity, and other factors.
Strengthening Workers’ Rights: Protecting workers’ rights, ensuring fair labor
practices, and supporting collective bargaining can contribute to more equitable wages
and working conditions.
Tackling income inequality requires a multifaceted approach, encompassing government
policies, business practices, and social initiatives aimed at fairness, equity, and shared prosperity.
Group Work 4
Academic Year 2024
Now let’s sit in groups as before. We will now work on the project that we have selected
to solve the economic problem of our locality. We will make a list of what resources
we need to solve this problem. Then we will determine the means of production,
distribution, consumption and preservation of the resources.
182
Resources
Project Needed for
Production Distribution Consumption Preservation
Name Implementing
the Project
Write down how the people of the locality will benefit if our planned project is
implemented.
Open Discussion
We have already identified in groups a project to solve the economic problems of the
area. We have determined the process of producing, distributing, consuming, and
preserving the necessary resources for the implementation of the project. In addition,
we have determined how the people of the area will benefit from the implementation
of this project. We will present our group’s work in an open discussion. For this, we
can present using various models/posters/PowerPoint. Then we will write and submit a
report based on feedback from teachers and students.
Academic Year 2024
183

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Developed by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board as a textbook according

History and Social Science

National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Bangladesh

[All rights reserved by National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Bangladesh]

First Published: December, 2023

For Free Distribution by the Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh

Professor Md. Farhadul Islam

Self-Identity and Humane Behaviour 15 - 26

‘Bangladesh’ and ‘Bangabandhu’– Humanitarian

Political Structure and Civic Responsibility 50 - 73

Global Context: In Search of

The Ways to Know History and the Problem

The Region of Bengal and Bangladesh: Diverse

Social Structure in Personal Life 115 - 124

Living Safely Together in Harmony 125 - 156

Principles of Production, Distribution and Equity

The natural resources of my area The social elements of my area

Influence of nature and society

Fishermen are busy fishing in the sea

Jabbar Hossain in the sea

to wear and dries up fast when wet.

Anwesha is standing in front of the mirror in her wedding dress

Today is Anwesha’s Wedding Day

Fishing community Historical context Cultural context

Garo ethnic group Historical context Cultural context

nature and society of that particular region.

Table: Steps in the Scientific Inquiry Method

I will create a series 1. How were the roads in our area

I will appoint the elderly people of

We may adopt group We will prepare a questionnaire to

We will determine if any funds

In this step, we will

Collected data is The informant provides

The answer we get about the past

We can present our From the data we collected, we can

Things to do while receiving information

1. Consent must be obtained from the respondent.

Changes in the social element of the area

4. How are the houses in the area now?

Data Source (Informant/Respondent Identification)

Methods of data collection

Interview Group discussion Observation

We can collect This method forms a group In this method, observations

Raju’s method of scientific inquiry

Table: Before collecting data in research work

question the answer

What is the content of our inquiry?

Are the questions useful for

Information for our search

Have you taken permission during

Historical context Cultural context

“Seminar and Open Discussion”

To be done in conservation of natural and social elements

Exercise 2: Similarities and dissimilarities between self-our self-identity and our

Similarities in our preferences Dissimilarities in our preferences

Geographical location and characteristics, weather,

Social status, professional identity, family

Cultural identity Language, clothing, customs, festivals, etc.

Political identity National or ethnic identity, political awareness, etc.

Exercise 3: Let us write our self-identity considering geographical, social, cultural

Life of Arab Bedouins

Bangabandhu: The architect of Independent Bangladesh