EXPERIMENT ON BILATERAL TRANSFER EFFECT

AIM: To study the phenomenon of bilateral transfer and the effect of practice on
learning of a sensory-motor task using mirror star-tracing apparatus.

BASIC CONCEPTS
• What is Learning
Psychologists in general define Learning as relatively permanent behavioural modifications which take place as
a result of experience. This definition of learning stresses on three important elements of learning:

 Learning involves a behavioural change which can be better or worse.

 This behavioural change should take place as a result of practice and experience. Changes
resulting from maturity or growth cannot be considered as learning
 This behavioural change must be relatively permanent and last for a relatively long time
enough.

The process of learning is continuous which starts right from the time of birth of an individual and
continues till the death. We all are engaged in the learning endeavours in order to develop our adaptive
capabilities as per the requirements of the changing environment.

• Types of Learning

Behavioral Learning Theories

During the early part of the twentieth century, many psychologists became increasingly
interested in turning psychology into a more scientific endeavor. These psychologists, known
as behaviorists, argued that psychology needed to study only things that could be measured
and quantified to be more scientific.
A few different behavioral theories emerged to explain how and why people behave the way
they do. Behavioral theories are centered on the environmental influences on the learning
process. Environmental influences include associations, reinforcements, and punishments.
Learning Through Association
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning suggests that learning occurs when an association is formed between a
previously neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
In experiments conducted by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, a natural stimulus (food) was
paired with the sound of a bell. The dogs would naturally salivate in response to food, but
after multiple associations, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone.
In classical conditioning:

 Learning occurs by forming associations between naturally occurring stimuli and a

previously neutral stimulus
 The neutral stimulus must occur immediately before the naturally occurring one
 Focuses on automatic, naturally occurring behaviors

Learning Through Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning that involves strengthening or
weakening a behavior by using reinforcement or punishment.
Operant conditioning was first described by the behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner. It is
sometimes also referred to as Skinnerian conditioning and instrumental conditioning. Skinner
believed that classical conditioning simply could not account for all types of learning and was
more interested in learning how the consequences of actions influence behaviors.
Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning relies on forming associations. In operant
conditioning, however, associations are made between a behavior and the consequences of
that behavior.
In operant conditioning:

 Learning occurs when behaviors are followed by either reinforcement or punishment

 The consequences must quickly follow the behavior
 Focuses on voluntary behaviors

When a behavior leads to a desirable consequence, it becomes more likely that the behavior
will be repeated in the future. The behavior becomes less likely if the actions lead to a
negative outcome.
Cognitive Learning Theories
The cognitive approach to learning focuses on how attention, memory, and information
processing contribute to the acquisition of knowledge. One of the best-known cognitive
learning theories is Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Piaget described four stages of
intellectual development that occur in childhood.1
These four stages explain how a child learns about the world and processes information.

 Sensorimotor stage: During this period of cognitive development, children learn

about the world primarily through their senses.
 Preoperational stage: This stage is marked by the emergence of language and
learning through pretend play.
 Concrete operations stage: During this period, kids begin to utilize logic but still
think about the world very concretely.
 Formal operations stage: At this point, kids begin to use deductive reasoning and
can understand abstract, hypothetical ideas.

Constructivist Learning Theories

The constructivist approach to learning characterizes learners as active participants in the
process who play a role in constructing their knowledge. Constructivist theories of learning
were influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory stressed the importance of collaboration and social
interaction in the learning process.2
Two important concepts of constructivist learning theories are the more knowledgeable other
and the zone of proximal development:

 More knowledgeable other: Vygotsky described the more knowledgeable other as

anyone with an understanding or ability level higher than the learner. This can often
be a teacher or adult, but it can also refer to peers with more knowledge about a
specific concept, task, or process.
  Zone of proximal development: Vygotsky described the zone of proximal
development as the range of knowledge or ability that a person can display with the
help of the more knowledgeable other, but that they are not yet capable of performing
independently. Gradually expanding this zone is how people can learn and improve
their skills over time.

Social Learning Theories

Psychologist Albert Bandura suggested that much of learning takes place through
observation. Children observe the actions of those around them, particularly caregivers and
siblings, and then imitate these behaviors.
In social learning:

 Learning occurs through observation

 Observations can take place at any time
 Focuses on the give-and-take interaction between social, cognitive, and environmental
influences

In his well-known Bobo doll experiment, Bandura revealed just how easily children could be
led to imitate even negative actions. Children who watched a video of an adult beating up a
large inflatable doll were likelier to copy those actions when given a chance.
Bandura noted that learning something does not necessarily result in a behavior change.
Children frequently learn new things through observation but might not engage in such
behaviors until they need or are motivated to utilize the information.
Experiential Learning Theories
This learning theory focuses on learning via hands-on experience. The theory was formally
introduced by psychologist David Kolb but was influenced by the work of other theorists,
including Jean Piaget and John Dewey.
According to Kolb, there are four stages in experiential learning. The first two, abstract
conceptualization and concrete experience, relate to how people grasp experiences. The final
two, active experimentation and reflective observation, refer to how people transform
experiences.

• Factors Affecting Learning

1. Physiological Factors:
The physiological factors are sense perception, physical health, fatigue
time and day of learning, food and drink, age and atmospheric conditions.
1. Sense-perception:
Sensation and perception are the basis of all cognitive learning. Weaker
the power of perception, lesser the amount of learning. A blind man learns
far less than a normal person. Impairment of sense organs is a handicap in
the process of learning.
2. Physical Health:
Ill health hampers learning. Sound mind is only in a sound body. Sound
physical health gives vigour and vitality to pursue learning activities for a
longer education. A diseased person is handicapped by the normal physical
strength necessary for any mental activity.
3. Fatigue:
Muscular or sensory fatigue causes mental boredom and indolence. A
number of factors in the home and school environment may cause physical
and mental fatigue, such as lack of accommodation, bad seating
arrangement, unhealthy clothing, inadequate ventilation, poor light, noise
over crowdingness, and pure nutrition. Longer homes of study also cause
fatigue which affects the learning capacity.
4. Time of Learning:
Morning and evening hours are the best periods of study. During the day,
there is decline in the mental capacity. Experiments on children have
shown that there are great variations in learning efficiency during the
different hours of the day.
5. Food and Drink:
Nutrition is responsible for efficient mental activity. Poor nutrition
adversely affects learning. The type of food also has some effect. The
alcoholic drinks, caffeine, tobacco and such addictive items have adverse
effect on neuro-muscular system, and consequently upon the learning
capacity.
6. Atmospheric conditions:
High temperature and humidity lower the mental efficiency. Low
ventilation, lack of proper illumination, noise and physical discomfort (as
we find in factories and overcrowded schools) hamper the learning
capacity. Distractions of all sorts affect power of concentration and
consequently the efficiency of learning.
7. Age:
Learning capacity varies with age. Some subjects can better be learnt at the
early age, and some during adulthood. On the evidence of experiments
conducted. Thorndike says that mental development does not stop at 16 or
18 but increases upto 23, and halts after 40. Learning proceeds rapidly
between 18 and 20, remains stagnant till 25, and declines upto 35. Age
accompanies mental maturation. So some complex problems cannot be
solved till the person is sufficiently mature.
2. Psychological Factors:
1. Mental Health:
Mental tension, complexes, conflicts, mental illnesses and mental diseases
hamper learning. A maladjusted child finds it difficult to concentrate.
Concentration needs mental poise and absence of mental conflict or
complex. Some pupils find it difficult to prepare for the university
examination, simply because of fear of the examination and anxiety
neurosis. A calm, serene and balanced mind her the power to concentrate
and learn better.
2. Motivation and Interest:
No learning take place unless it is motivated. Purposeless learning is no
learning at all. Every child is impelled by some motive to learn new things.
In the absence of motivation, can he does not feel interested in the act of
learning. A child’s behaviour in learning is energised by motives, selected
by motives and directed by motives.
(i) Motives energise behaviour:
Hunger and thirst induce acquisition of food. Reward induces further
success. Punishment or failure induces action for achievement.
(ii) Motives select behaviour:
Only those acts of learning are selected which are supported by some
motive. A boy visits a village fair. He sees only those toys, objects or
things that interest him.
(iii) Motives direct behaviour:
These activate the person, enthuse him and impel him to do the desired
action. These direct his energies to reach the desired action. These direct
his energies to reach the desired goal. Sultan of Kohlar was directed by
hunger to reach the bananas, and that way he strived and learnt the way.
3. Success, Praise and Blame:
Nothing succeeds like success. Thorndike’s law of effect, is applicable
most commonly. Experimental evidences show that praise stimulates small
children to work and learn, although it does not produce much effect on
superior and elder children. Elder children are more sensitive towards
reproof and blame, than younger children are.
4. Rewards and Punishment:
Rewards of all sorts are powerful incentives to learn. But these days in
India school rewards are more abused than used properly. A first division
of distinction in the examination is a false reward. Work is its own
rewards. Pupils forget this point. They become over-dependent on
rewards. They refuse to work without any incentive of reward. All learning
should not be and cannot be rewarded immediately.
Punishments, arousing fear in anticipation, may influence the pupil to
work and learn, but not in all the cases. Sometimes punishment creates bad
reaction, retaliation, hatred and disgust. Experimental studies show that
punishment interfere with complex learning activities, when punishments
become frequent. Absence of punishment becomes a basis of low activity
on the part of the pupil. In the absence of fear, they disobey and waste
time.
3. Environmental Factors:
1. Working conditions:
Learning is hampered by bad working conditions such as distraction,
noise, poor illumination, bad ventilation, overcrowding, bad seating
arrangement, and uncomfortable stay both at home and school. The
location of the school, the internal set-up, the accommodation, decoration
and healthful and sanitary conditions are very important for efficient
learning.
2. Organisational set-up:
The organisational set-up of the school also influences learning.

• Learning Curves
A learning curve is a correlation between a learner’s performance on a
task and the number of attempts or time required to complete the task;
this can be represented as a direct proportion on a graph.

The learning curve theory proposes that a learner’s efficiency in a task

improves over time the more the learner performs the task.

Here are four common types of a learning curve and what they mean:
1. Diminishing-Returns Learning Curve
The rate of progression increases rapidly at the beginning and then
decreases over time.
This describes a situation where the task may be easy to learn and
progression of learning is initially fast and rapid.
 Progression levels off as the learner obtain full proficiency. This could
be described as a plateau, where the individual is no longer
progressing. It could signal that the learner has reached a limit in their
ability or that a transition may be occurring. It could also mean that
the individual has lost motivation or is fatigued

2. Increasing-Returns Learning Curve

The rate of progression is slow at the beginning and then rises over time
until full proficiency is obtained.
This model describes a situation where perhaps a complex task is being
learned and the rate of learning is initially slow.

. Increasing-Decreasing Return Learning Curve (the S-

curve)
This model is the most commonly cited learning curve and is known as the
“S-curve” model.
It measures an individual who is new to a task. The bottom of the curve
indicates slow learning as the learner works to master the skills required
and takes more time to do so.
The latter half of the curve indicates that the learner now takes less time to
complete the task as they have become proficient in the skills required.
Often the end of the curve begins to level off, indicating a plateau or new
challenges.
 Complex Learning Curve
This model represents a more complex pattern of learning and reflects
more extensive tracking.

1. The beginning of the curve indicates that learning is initially

slow.
2. The second stage of the curve shows an increase, which
indicates that the learner is becoming proficient in the skill.
3. The third stage of the curve indicates that the learner is
plateauing in his proficiency once the learner feels he has
mastered the skill.
4. The fourth stage of the curve represents that the learner is
actually still improving the skill.
5. The last stage of the curve represents the point at which the
skill becomes automatic, muscle memory for the learner, often
termed “over learning”.

• Plateau Formation

A flat place in a learning curve, indicating a period of little or no progress (Fig.

33).The occurrence and persistence of a plateau depend on the nature of the task, the

motivation, the approach of the learner, and the amount of previous experience he has

had.
It occurs more often in tasks involving habit formation and routine practice than in

complex learning that requires highly organized thought.There are several reasons for

plateaus. First, the skill being acquired may have several distinct stages, each of which

must be completed before the next begins.

This is particularly true where a “hierarchy of habits” must be mastered, as in studying

a musical instrument. The fundamentals of piano- playing are easily learned, but after

that a discouragingly long period of little or no progress (the plateau) may be

encountered. Once the student gets over this period, he enters a new stage of learning

where hands and fingers are integrated and he has the satisfaction of playing actual

pieces.

The two often work together because tired students are easily distracted or lapse
into daydreaming. Third, a previously learned skill may interfere with the one
now being practiced; for example, reading teachers find that children who are
used to reading aloud often find it hard to switch to silent. A typical learning
curve for typing, showing the temporary plateau that often occurs after
concentrated practice. Plateaus sometimes occur at each stage or level of
learning.reading
A fourth common cause is “forced feeding” of textbooks or lectures. When new

concepts are introduced too fast, learning slows down because there is insufficient

time to absorb and master one phase of the subject before going on to the next. In such

cases special instruction may be needed to help the student overcome the plateau.

Fifth, a plateau may also reflect loss of motivation. The learner may become bored,

lose interest in the task, and just go through the motions. He may also become

discouraged if he is aiming too high.The teacher who is aware of all these causal

factors can usually prevent or at least shorten the plateau

 • Transfer of Learning
Learning of one skill is used in another skill is the transfer of learning. Eg. Learning hockey
and the skills used in cricket. Transfer of learning is one of the major goals of modern
education. Education is worthwhile if it can be transferred
Definition of Transfer of learning
1. According to Crow and Crow: “The carry over of habits of thinking, feelings
or working of knowledge or skills from one learning areas to another is usually
referred to as Transfer of learning”
2. According to Sorenson: “ Transfer is refers to the transfer of knowledge,
training and habits acquired in one situation to another situation”
3. According to Judd : “ Transfer is a form of generalization”
4. According to Guthrie: “ Transfer may be defined as a process of extending and
applying behavior”

• Types of Transfer
The following are the different types of transfer of Learning
Positive Transfer: Transfer is said to be positive when something previously learnt benefits
performance or learning in a new situation. Eg. Knowledge of typing is helpful in learning
computer typing
Negative Transfer: In case the previous learning hinders or block or interfere with
performance or learning in a new situation. We call it negative transfer. Eg. Having learned to
pronounce ‘but’ correctly, what happens later on when a similar type of spelling ‘put’ when
this thing cropped up affects the children in a negative manner. Or Pronunciation of mother
tongue becomes obstacles while pronouncing of English language
Zero Transfer: When learning of one activity neither facilitates nor interferes with the
learning of new work it is said to be zero transfer. Eg. There may be zero transfer between
English Language and mathematics.
Vertical Transfer: When one lesson facilitates in understanding for another lesson in a
subject is called vertical transfer eg. Habits and values of the family influence the child to
adopt them in his daily life

Horizontal Transfer: When knowledge of one subject helps in understanding the other
subject. Eg. Knowledge of the history of the Vedic period helps in understanding the
literature of that period, it is called horizontal transfer.

Bilateral Transfer: When the training given to one part of the body is transferred to another
part is called bilateral transfer. Eg. Writing with the right hand may be transferred to the left
one
Unilateral Transfer: When the learning stored in one area is required by another area with
the latter not sending its responses back, it is unilateral transfer.

Ways in which transfer of learning takes place

Transfer of learning refers to the effects of prior learning on new learning. It is considered to
be positive when the earlier learning facilitates current learning. On the other hand, it is
considered to be negative if the new learning is retarded. It takes place through general
transfer and specific transfer.
 General transfer implies that prior learning predisposes one to learn another task in a
better manner. The learning of one task warms-up the learner to learn the next task
more conveniently. This warm-up effect lasts over one session of learning.
 Specific transfer means that every kind of learning consists of a series of stimulus-
response associations. It means the effect of learning of earlier task on learning of
second task. This kind of transfer depends on the similarity or dissimilarity between
the initial learning tasks on the second task.

• Factors affecting Transfer of Learning

They are some of the factors which affect the transfer of learning they are:
1 Learner’s will - If the learner has strong will he will be able to transfer his learning more to new
situations.
2 Learner’s Intelligence - Learner’s Intelligence plays a vital role in the transfer of learning. It has
been observed that the students who have more intelligence are for better in transfer of learning in
comparison to those who have normal intelligence
.3 Depth of original understanding - If a student has enough depth of original understanding of a skill
he becomes more capable of learning new skills and gain more knowledge
4 Learner’s Personal Achievement : The learner’s personal achievement in the field of education
have a positive effect on the transfer of learning.
5 Training in transfer - If a student has imparted training in transfer he becomes capable of learning
new skills very easily. If he is not provided such training it will be very difficult for him to learn the
skills.

• ) Bilateral transfer effect: Bilateral transfer effect refers to the positive influence that learning
in one task or context can have on learning in another task or context, and vice versa. This type
of transfer occurs when skills, knowledge, and abilities acquired in one task or context are
transferred to another task or context and then back again. The bilateral transfer effect can lead
to improved performance and greater overall learning, as learners are able to apply their skills
and knowledge in new and different situations. The bilateral transfer effect is a result of the
relationship between the two tasks or contexts. If the tasks or contexts are similar or related in
some way, then it is more likely that transfer will occur. Additionally, factors such as the
learner's motivation, prior experience, and level of understanding can also play a role in the
bilateral transfer effect. By promoting bilateral transfer, learners can improve their overall
performance and increase their ability to apply their skills and knowledge in new and different
situations.
11) Physiological basis of bilateral transfer effect: The physiological basis of the bilateral
transfer effect is not well understood, but it is thought to involve changes in brain function and
structure that occur as a result of learning. When a person learns a new task or skill, their brain
forms new connections and changes the strength of existing connections, creating new neural
pathways. These changes in brain function and structure allow the person to perform the new
task or skill more effectively and efficiently. In the case of bilateral transfer, these changes in
brain function and structure can facilitate transfer of learning from one task or context to
another. For example, when a person learns a new motor skill, such as playing tennis, the
changes in brain function and structure that occur as a result of this learning can be transferred
to a related task, such as playing table tennis.
12) Classic Experiment of bilateral transfer and its design: One classic experiment that
investigated the bilateral transfer effect is the star tracing experiment, which was first performed
by Gentilucci et al. (1988). The design of this experiment was as follows:
● Participants were divided into two groups, one group trained on a task of tracing a star pattern
with their right hand, while the other group trained with their left hand.
● After the training, participants were tested on a similar task, but with their non-dominant
hand.
● The results showed that participants who had trained with their dominant hand showed better
performance with their non-dominant hand compared to participants who had trained with their
non-dominant hand. This experiment demonstrated that bilateral transfer can occur between the
two hands, which suggests that the changes in brain function and structure that occur as a result
of learning can be transferred from one limb to the other. The findings from this experiment
have been replicated in several subsequent studies and have contributed to our understanding of
the bilateral transfer effect.
13) Rationale for Star-Tracing Task: The star-tracing task was used in the experiment by
Gentilucci et al. (1988) to investigate the bilateral transfer effect because it provided a simple
and controlled way to measure the transfer of learning between the two hands. The task required
participants to trace a complex star-like pattern as quickly and accurately as possible, which
challenged participants to use fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination. The experiment is
designed to measure the extent to which training with one hand can impact the ability to
perform a similar task with the other hand. Participants are divided into two groups, one group
trained on a task of tracing a star pattern with their dominant hand, while the other group trains
with their non-dominant hand. The star tracing experiment is applicable to several fields,
including motor learning, rehabilitation, sports performance, and psychology. In motor learning,
the experiment is used to understand the process of how skills and knowledge transfer between
limbs and to explore the factors that influence transfer. In rehabilitation, it can be used to help
improve the recovery of motor skills in patients with neurological conditions. In psychology, the
experiment is used to explore the relationship between motor skills and cognition, and how they
impact each other.
14) Cross Education: Cross education refers to the transfer of strength and skill from one limb
to another, as a result of training one limb. This type of transfer occurs when the neural
connections in the brain are strengthened through repeated movement and practice, leading to
improved performance in the untrained limb. Examples of cross education can be seen in
various types of training, such as weightlifting or practising specific movements in sports like
basketball or tennis. For instance, if an individual trains their dominant arm to lift weights, they
may notice an increase in strength in their non-dominant arm as well. Similarly, if a basketball
player practices dribbling with their dominant hand, they may see improvement in their non-
dominant hand dribbling skills.
15) Neurological basis of Bilateral Transfer: The neurological basis of bilateral transfer is still
not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to the functioning of the central nervous
system (CNS). The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord and is responsible for the
coordination of movement and the transmission of information between different parts of the
body. It is thought that when one limb is trained, the CNS creates new neural pathways and
strengthens existing ones, leading to improved performance in both limbs. This is because the
CNS can adapt to the changes in movement patterns, which leads to a more efficient control of
movement in both limbs. Additionally, research has shown that the activation of specific brain
regions, such as the primary motor cortex, is increased when a movement is performed in one
limb, leading to improved performance in the other limb. The exact mechanisms behind
bilateral transfer are still being studied, but it is believed to involve a combination of changes in
the CNS, as well as changes in the muscles and tendons that support movement.
16) Applications of transfer of learning in real life: Transfer of learning has numerous
applications in real life, including:
● Education: Transfer of learning can be used to enhance the effectiveness of educational
programs by teaching students skills and knowledge that can be applied in multiple contexts.
● Sports training: Athletes can use transfer of learning to improve their performance in one
sport by applying skills learned in another sport.
 ● Military training: The military often uses transfer of learning to train soldiers in a wide range
of skills that can be applied in a variety of situations.
● Corporate training: Companies can use transfer of learning to improve the performance of
their employees by providing training in skills that can be applied to multiple tasks and
responsibilities.
● Rehabilitation: Transfer of learning can be used in rehabilitation programs to help individuals
recover from injuries and disabilities by transferring skills learned in one task to other tasks.
● Driver's Education: Driver's education programs can use transfer of learning to teach
individuals how to drive safely by transferring skills learned in a classroom setting to the actual
driving experience. These are just a few examples of the many applications of transfer of
learning in real life. The ability to transfer skills and knowledge learned in one context to
another is an important aspect of learning and has the potential to improve performance and
efficiency in a wide range of settings.
17) Description of the apparatus used in the star tracing experiment: The apparatus used in the
star tracing experiment typically consists of a pen or stylus attached to a device that can
measure the movement of the hand, such as a positioning device or a digitising tablet. The
participant holds the pen in one hand and traces a star-shaped figure as accurately as possible
while looking at a template. The tracing is recorded and analysed to evaluate the participant's
performance. The apparatus can vary based on the goals and design of the experiment, but the
basic setup remains consistent.

HYPOTHESES
1A: The number of errors made will decrease from pre-practice to post
practice trials in the experimental condition.
1B: The time taken to complete the task will decrease from pre-practice to post-
practice trials in the EC.
2A: The number of errors will be less in post-practice in EC as compared to
CC
2B: The amount of time taken to complete the task will be less in post-
practice in EC as compared to CC.
3A: The extent of improvement in mean errors from pre-practice to post-practice
will be more in EC as compared to CC.
3B: The extent of improvement in the mean time taken from pre-practice to post-
practice will be more in EC as compared to CC.
VARIABLES
Independent variable: Continuous practice on the task (tracing the star by looking
at its mirror image) by the preferred hand.

Dependent variable: Extent of difference between pre-practice and post-practice

trials with the non-preferred hand with respect to two measures of learning; (a)
number of errors, (b) time taken.

Control variables:
Starting point is near the mirror
Tracing’s beginning and ending should be done at the same point.
The direction of movement for the left hand is anti-clockwise and for the right hand
is clockwise. Error and time taken for each trial should be recorded.
No feedback allowed to the participant.
 Uniform laboratory conditions throughout the experiment such as illumination,
ventilation etc. Female college students in the age range 17-21 were chosen for
the study.

DESIGN: ABA Design +Independent Sample Design

CONDITION I PRE- CONDITION CONDITION
PRACTICE II III
(Independent POST-
Variable) PRACTICE

Control 3 Trials Filler Activity 3 Trials

Condition Non preferred Non preferred
hand hand

Experimental 3 Trials 10 Trials 3 Trials

Condition Non preferred Preferred hand Non preferred
hand hand

• One participation for each condition was randomly assigned.

• No rest pause throughout the experiment should be given.
• No feedback either about error or time taken should be given to the participant
during the experiment.
• The CC participant is asked to cancel all vowels in a newspaper article monitored
by stop watch.

INSTRUCTIONS
(Condition I – Pre-practice with non-preferred hand):
Screen in front of the apparatus is removed and placed aside after rapport formation.
“Please sit comfortably. Lean forward. This is an apparatus before you, and this is
the stylus that looks like a pen. Now focus your eyes on the mirror. Can you see the
entire paper and make sure that you cannot see this paper directly but only in the
mirror (the metallic plate is adjusted otherwise)”.
Paper covering the star is then removed.
“Now can you see the whole star in the mirror? Which is your
preferred hand?” (If the Participant says right hand)…
“OK. Now you have to trace the star with the stylus in an anti-clockwise direction
with your left hand, by looking at its image in the mirror. Please don’t look at the
star directly at any time”. “You have to start at this point (near the mirror) and hence
the tracing will be finished when you reach this point. Please try to keep the stylus
in the middle of the groove as far as possible without touching its edges
(demonstrate) otherwise this will cause a little sparking and it will be counted as an
error”.
“Move the stylus in one direction only. Please don’t take the stylus from one point to
another of the star without tracing or you will have to come to the same place and
trace again (demonstrate). If the stylus slips, come back to the same point from
where it slipped (demonstrate)”. “You have to start only when I say, ‘Ready? Start!’
Do not touch the stylus to the metal plate before that. Once you have started, do not
lift the stylus until the whole star has been traced. But once you reach the finishing
point, lift the stylus up immediately and say ‘Stop’. You have to trace the star as fast
as you can with minimum errors; but do not panic, there is no undue hurry”. “Do you
have any questions? Shall we begin?”

INSTRUCTIONS
(Condition II – Practice with preferred hand):
“Now trace the star with your right hand in a clockwise direction”.

INSTRUCTIONS
(Condition III – Post Practice with non-preferred hand):
“Now again trace the star with your left hand in an anti-clockwise direction”.

INSTRUCTIONS
(Condition II – Control Group):
“This is a newspaper and a pen. You have to cancel all the vowels – a, e, i, o and u
starting from here (demonstrate). I shall be timing you, so start when I say, ‘Ready?
Start!’” “Do you have any questions? Shall we begin?”
PRELIMINARIES:
Experimental Condition
Name:Pawni verma Age: 18 Sex: Female Course: English Hons
Date of administration:
Place of administration: Psychology Laboratory

Control Condition:
Name: Diwyanshi Age: 19 Sex: Course:
Date of administration:
Place of administration:

Materials Required
1. Mirror star tracing apparatus
2. Stopwatch
 3. Two screens
4. Informed consent form
5. Paper to cover the star
6. Data sheet for control group and experimental group
7. Pencil/pen
8. Paper for introspective report and experimenter’s observation

Precautions taken:

❖ The participants were naïve i.e., no familiarity with the apparatus before.
❖ Proper lab conditions were maintained with minimum noise and
distraction, optimum light and ventilation.
❖ No information about the aim or design of the experiment was given to the
participant. ❖ No rest pause was provided during the experiment.
❖ No feedback either about errors or time taken was given during the
experiment. ❖ The apparatus was kept 0-8 inches away from the edge
of the table.
❖ Working of the apparatus and stopwatch was checked before calling in the
participant. ❖ Star on the apparatus was covered with a paper before calling
the participant. ❖ The metallic shield was adjusted by sitting on the chair for
the participant, such that the
entire star should be visible in the mirror only and not directly to the
participant. ❖ Two screens were used to block peripheral vision and all
materials including stopwatch, data sheet etc., were kept behind the screen on
the experimenter’s side.
❖ . When the participant uses left hand, experimenter should be on the right and
vice versa, so that the experimenter can observe the participant.
❖ The participant was given a ready and start signal before each trial.
14. The beginning and ending was made at the same point, near the mirror.
15. If the stylus came out of the groove, it was brought back to the place from
where it slipped, and the participant was asked to resume her task.
16. Error counter was set to zero before starting each trial.
17. The stop watch was reset after recording time and error in the data sheet
after each trial. 18. The start/stop signal, and switching on/off of the stopwatch
was coordinated properly. 19. The participant was encouraged to write a
detailed introspective report.

Introspective report:
EC:
 CC:

Behavioral Report:
EC:
CC:

Data Analysis And Tabulation:

PRE PRACTICE TRIALS
Sno. Trials Time Taken(in sec) No. of errors
1. R1 45 104
2. R2 34 99
3. R3 39 87
PREFERRED HAND TRIALS
1. L1 36 74
2. L2 34 76
3. L3 32 65
4. L4 31 62
5. L5 31 60
6. L6 28 55
7. L7 29 52
8. L8 30 48
9. L9 25 45
10. L10 29 48

POST PRACTICE TRIALS

1. R1 30 55
2. R2 32 52
3. R3 29 57
Experimental Group(Table1)

Sno. Trials Time Taken No. of errors

1. L1 27 78
2. L2 25 71
3. L3 28 64

FILLER ACTIVITY: 6 Min Letter Cancellation Task

4. L4 24 70
5. L5 23 65
6. L6 21 61
 RESULTS: Summary Table for participants
Conditions EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL CONDITION
CONDITION

Participant Mean Mean Participant Mean Mean

Errors Time Errors Time
Taken Taken
(in (in
seconds) seconds)

Pre-Practice EC 96.66 39.33 sec CC 71 26.66 sec

3 trials

Practice 58.5 30.5 sec Filler 6 min

10 trials Activity

Post 54.66 30.33 sec 65.33 22.66

practice 3 sec
trials

One table for mean difference between pre and post trials of both the
conditions

Difference of mean error between pre and post trials of both conditions

Conditions Experimental Condition Control Condition

mean error mean error
Pre practice(3 trials) 96.66 71
Post practice(3 trials) 54.66 65.33
Mean Difference 42 5.67

Difference of mean time between pre and post trials of both conditions

Conditions Experimental Condition Control Condition

Mean time mean time
Pre practice(3 trials) 39.33 sec 26.66 sec
Post practice(3 trials) 30.33 sec 22.66 sec
Mean Difference 9 sec 4 sec

Interpretation and discussion as per the hypotheses

The discussion is based on data tables, result,summary table,
experimenter’s observation and introspective report.
1A: The number of errors made will decrease from pre-practice to post
practice trials in the experimental condition.
1B: The time taken to complete the task will decrease from pre-practice to post-
practice trials in the EC.
 2A: The number of errors will be less in post-practice in EC as compared to
CC
2B: The amount of time taken to complete the task will be less in post-
practice in EC as compared to CC.
3A: The extent of improvement in mean errors from pre-practice to post-practice
will be more in EC as compared to CC.
3B: The extent of improvement in the mean time taken from pre-practice to post-
practice will be more in EC as compared to CC.

Hypothesis 1A states that the number of errors made will decrease

from pre practice to post practice trials in the experimental
conditions. As shown in the data table 4 the mean error in pre
practice is 96.66 and in post practice is 54.66 in the experimental
condition. Since the number of errors had decreased from pre
practice trials to post practice trials therefore we can say that
hypothesis 1A is proved.

Hypothesis 1B states that the time taken to complete the task will
decrease from pre practice to post practice trials. As we can see from
table 4 the mean time taken pre practice 39.33 seconds and post
practice is 30.33 seconds in the experimental condition. Since the
mean time had decreased from pre practice trial to post practice
trials therefore we can say that hypothesis 1B is proved.

Hypothesis 2A states that the number of errors in post practice of

experimental
condition will be less than errors in control condition. The number
of errors in post practice in experimental condition is 54.66 and in
control condition is 65.33 and therefore the errors in experimental
condition is less than that in control condition

Hypothesis 2B states that the time taken to complete the task in post
practice in experimental condition is less than that in the control
condition. The time taken to complete the task post practice in
experimental condition is 30.33 seconds and in control conditions is
22.66 seconds and therefore hypothesis 2B is not proved. A possible
reason for this observation is that the rapport formation was not
done well with the experimental subject as it was done with the
control subject. Also the experimental subject showed exhaustion
during the post practice trials after already completing 13 trials.

Hypothesis 3A states that the extent of improvement in mean errors

from pre practice to post practice will be more in experimental
condition than in control condition. The mean difference in error
between pre and post practice in experimental condition is 42 and in
control condition is 5.67 hence the extent of improvement in mean
error is more in experimental condition than control condition hence
hypothesis 3A stands firm.
Hypothesis 3B states that the extent of improvement in the mean time
taken from pre-practice to post-practice will be more in
Experimental Condition as compared to Control Condition. The
mean difference in time between pre practice and post practice in
experimental condition is 9 sec and in control condition is 4 sec and
hence the extent of improvement in the mean time is more in
experimental condition than in control condition hence hypothesis
3B stands firm.