Ambo University

HHC-Institute of Technology

Water Works Construction

Instructor: Nuresa Merga
 Chapter 1
Introduction to Water Works Construction

Water works construction includes the following;

 Water Supply systems construction:

• Water treatment systems construction

• Water distribution and storage system construction
• Sanitary system construction
• Collection system construction
• On site and offsite sanitary systems construction
 Cont’d

 Hydraulic structures
• Dams classification & selection
• concrete dams types and load acting
• Earth and rock fill dam parts and appurtenances
• Spillways-types and location
 Irrigation: introduction to irrigation methods
 Hydropower plants: construction of the different components of hydropower
plant
 2. Hydraulic Structures

2.1. Elements of Dam Engineering

Hydraulic structure: is a structure which is in contact with Water such as
dams, bridges, hydraulic tunnels, Navigation, canals, check dams etc.
Dams: are structures controlling the flow of a river by completely blocking
the valley of a given river or drainage system.
Reservoir: is the storage formation on the u/s side of the dam which can
be utilized for various water resources development.
Advantages of dams and reservoirs are
• For power generation & sediment control

• Balancing between available water and demand.

 Cont’d…

 Water supply (municipal, industrial or community water supply,

irrigation purposes).
 Flood control
 Recreation
 Multipurpose
*The main disadvantages include:
 Distraction of fauna and flora in the dam valley
 Interference in the landscape through dams & reservoirs
 Change of ground water level
 Strong influence on sediment balance
 Change in water temperature
 Influence on fish
Dam structures and Reservoir
1.Reservor
2.Dam
3.Service Intake
4. Bottom outlet
5.Spill structure
6.Diversion structure
7.Service road

Storage Components
M.F.L (max Flood Level)
F.R.L (Full reservoir Level)
N.P.L (Normal pool Level)
M.P.L (Minimum pool level)
 F.R.L

M.P.L

Reservoir parameters
1.A(H)=f(H)
2. V(H)=f(H)
*The reservoir surface area can be measured
using planimeter.
2.2 Classification of Dams

 Classification Based on Purpose

A. Storage Dams
1. Flood control
2. Water supply: domestic, municipal,
industrial, irrigation.
3. Hydroelectric power
4. Recreation storage
5. Pollution control
 B. Stage control Dams
1. Diversion
2. Navigation
3. Check dams
C. Barrier Dams
1. Levees and dykes
2. Coffer dams
D. Multipurpose Dams
 Classification based on Hydraulic design
1. Overflow dams
 Cont’d…
2. Non overflow dams
3. Composite dams
 Classification According to Material of construction
1. Embankment Dams
2. Concrete Dams
2.3 General characteristics of Embankment
Dams
 Most of the dams of today (more than 60%) are
embankment dams
 Cont’d…
 Built of soil or rock fill.
 They are relatively soft and elastic structures.
 Loads are transmitted in to the dam body.
 The foundation requirement is lower compared to gravity dams.
Advantages of Embankment Dams
 Suitability to wide valley & steep gorges alike
 Adaptability to wide range of foundation conditions.
 Increasing dam height is simple
 Cont’d…
 Insensitive (can accommodate) to settlement
 Insensitive (can withstand) to earth quake
 Use of natural materials, minimizing cost of transportation of
processed materials
 Simple construction, effectively continuous construction & high
mechanized process
 Unit cost of embankment risen much more slowly in real terms
than mass concrete
 Can be well integrated to the landscape
 Disadvantages of Embankment dams

 Sensitive to wave action

 Higher free board is needed (3-4m)
 Overtopping is not allowed
 Erosion danger on the down stream sides unless berms are
provided
 Construction material and construction progress are affected by
weather
 Huge mass volume (large transportation, settlement )
 Earth fill embankment dams

 constituting more than 50% compacted earth fill

 constructed primarily of engineering soils compacted uniformly
and intensively in relatively thin layers and at controlled moisture
contents
 They are designed to resist loads by gravity and by mechanisms
of embankment stability.
 They are strictly non overflow types
 Rock fill embankment dams

 constituting more than 50% compacted rock fill

 The section includes a discrete impervious element of
compacted earth fill or a slender concrete or bituminous
membrane.
 employing a thin upstream membrane of asphalt concrete,
reinforced concrete
 employing non natural material are referred to as ‘ decked rock
fill dams’
 2.4 General Characteristics of
Concrete Dams
 They are hard, none yielding and rigid
structures.
 Loads are transmitted through the dam body and to the
foundation.
 It requires strong and more or less uniform rock foundation.
Advantages of Concrete dams
 Good for narrow valleys. Except arch or cupola, also suitable for
wide valleys.
 Cont’d…

 Smaller construction fill volume (compared to embankments).

 Construction can takes place irrespective of weather condition.
 Smaller free board (1-1.5m).
 Can be constructed as overflow dam.
 Outlet pipe work, valves and other ancillary works can be
provided within the body of the dam
 Disadvantages of Concrete dams
 Sensitive to settlement, demanding sound rock foundation.
 Sensitive by earth quake.
 It needs technical personnel, machine requirement, form work.
 Difficult heightening (simplification by pre-stressing.
 Bad interference in to natural landscape.
 Completed unit costs are much higher than for embankment
fills.
2.5 Site Investigation, Selection of Sites and Type of
Dam

 Purpose of site investigation in the context of dam

engineering.
 To determine the suitability of the selected site for dam
construction and reservoir storage.
 To describe the geotechnical parameters necessary for the
design and construction of the structures.
 Cont’d…

A dam and reservoir site must satisfy certain

functional and technical requirements.
 Functional: governed by the balance between its natural
physical characteristics and the purpose of the dam/ reservoir.
 Technical: associated to the presence or absence of suitable
site for a dam, material of construction, and integrity of
reservoir basin with respect to leakage.
 Dam site selection

Factors to be considered
 Topography

 Foundation

 Spillway site

 Shape of the basin

 Accessibility: Availability of roads

 Sediment rate

 Cost

 Health
Dam type selection

Factors to be considered
 Topography and valley shape
 Geology and foundation
 Availability of construction materials
 Overall costs
 Spillway site and Location
 Earth quake hazards
 Hydrology
 Environmental conditions
 Length of the dam
 Collection of Data
 Physical and Topographical Data
Valley form
Slope
General Plan
 Geotechnical and Geological Data
Dam and Spillway Site, Reservoir site and Earth quake
 Water Resources Data
 Project Development Data
 Miscellaneous Data
 General site exploration and investigation involves:
 Field investigation

 In situ tests/ Field tests

 Laboratory tests
 2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF CONCRETE DAMS
2.1. Forces Acting & Load combination on dams
 Primary loads: major importance to all dams irrespective of type.
Example self weight, water & related seepage loads.

 Secondary loads: are universally applicable although of lesser

magnitude (e.g. Silt load) or alternatively are of major importance
only to certain types of dam (e.g. thermal effects with in concrete
dams).

 Exceptional loads: limited general applicability of occurrence (

e.g the inertia loads associated with seismic activity)
Fig.1.1 Schematic of principal loads: gravity dam profile
Fig. 2.2 Gravity dam loading diagram
a) Primary Loads
i. Water Load Z12
Pwh   w KN / m
2
Pwv = w (area A1) KN/ m

ii. Self weight load:

Pm= c Ap KN/m

iii. Seepage & uplift load:

Pu =  Ah (Uw,avg)  Z1  Z 2 
  . Ah . w  
 2 
Pu acts at Y1 
T 2 Z 2  Z1 
3 Z 2  Z1
 Mean effective head @ the line of drains, Zd

Zd = Z2+Kd(Z1-Z2)m

 Kd is function of drain geometry (i.e. diameter, spacing & relative

location with u/s face)

Kd = 0.33 (USBR)
Kd = 0.25 Tennase valley Authority
Kd = 0.25-0.5 U.S corps of Eng’s
b. Secondary loads
i. Sediment load:
A horizontal thrust, Ps generated by accumulated silt

 s' .Z 2
Ps  K a ; 3
acting @ Z3/3
2

Where Z3 = sediment depth; s’ = submerged unit weight &

Ka = active lateral pressure coefficient

s’ = s-w where, s is sediment saturated unit weight

1  Sins
Ka  where, s is angle of shearing resistance
1  Sins
ii. Hydrodynamic wave Load
 Transient load, Pwave, generated by wave action against the dam depends
on the fetch & wind velocity.

Pwave  2 w H w2
Hw  0.032 UF  0.76  0.2 7 4 F F ≤ 32 km
Where U = wind speed in km/hr
Hw  0.032 UF F > 32 km
F = Fetch length in km
iii. Wind load: when the dam is full, wind acts only on the d/s
side thus contribute to stability. When empty the wind can act
on the u/s face but insignificant compared to hydrostatic load.

iv. Ice load: Not a problem in Ethiopia

v. Thermal effect: Cooling of large pours of mass concrete

following the exothermic hydration of cement & the
subsequent variation in ambient & water temperatures
combine to produce complex & time dependent temperature
gradients within the dam.
C. Exceptional Loads

Seismic load: Horizontal & vertical inertia loads are generated with respect to the dam & the retained water by
seismic disturbance.

 Under reservoir full conditions the most adverse seismic loading will then occur when the ground shock is
associated with:

 Horizontal foundation acceleration operating upwards and

 Vertical foundation acceleration operating downwards and vice-versa for reservoir empty condition

 Inertia forces: Mass of dam

Horizontal Pemh =  h Pm

Vertical Pemv =  v Pm operating through centroid of the dam

 Total hydrodynamic load is given by:
Pewh = 0.66 Ce h Z w &Z 1acts
/ Z @ 0.4 Z above section

Where Z1 = Total water depth

Z = Max. water depth @ section considered
Ce = Dimensionless pressure factor = f (Z/Z1, u )
where u - inclination of u/s face to vertical
Ratio z/z1 u = 00 u = 150
0.2 0.35 0.29
0.4 0.53 0.45
0.6 0.64 0.55
0.8 0.71 0.61
1.0 0.73 0.63
 The vertical hydrodynamic load, Pewv=  v Pwv
Load combinations
A concrete dam should be designed with regard to the most
rigorous groupings or combination of loads which have a
reasonable probability of simultaneous occurrence.

Three nominated load combinations are sufficient for almost

all circumstances.

In ascending order of severity we can have normal, unusual &

extreme load combination.
Table: Nominated load combinations
 2.2 GRAVITY DAM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
Conditions essential to structural equilibrium & stability:

H  V  0&

M o
In relation to all probable conditions of loading, the profile
must have sufficient safety factor w.r.t:

Overturning
Over turning

Sliding and
Sliding

Overstress
 Overturning stability
Factor of safety against overturning, Fo, in terms of moment
about the d/s toe of the dam.

Fo 
M  ve

M  ve

 M ve(inclusive of moment generatedby uplift)

 F > 1.25 may be acceptable, but F > 1.5 is desirable.
o o
Sliding stability
Factor of safety against sliding, Fs, estimated using one of the
three definitions:

Sliding factor, FSS;

Shear friction factor, FSF or

Limit equilibrium factor, FLE.

Sliding Factor, Fss

FSS 
H
V
If the foundation plane inclined @ small angle o
 H  tan 
Fss 
 V
 H 
1   tan  .
 V 
 
Fss should not permitted to exceed 0.75, but under ELC up to 0.9 is
acceptable
 Shear friction factor, FSF
is the ratio of total resistance to shear & sliding to the total horizontal load.

s
Fsf  ; where
H
CAh
s   V tan(   ) KN / m
cos (1  tan  tan  ) kN / m
s  cAh   V tan  for horiontal plane(  0)
CAh   V tan 
 Fsf 
 H.
 Limit equilibrium factor, FLE.
the ratio of shear strength to mean applied stress across a
plane i.e
FLE =  f


FLE 
CAh  V cos   H sin tan 
 H cos  V sin .

FLE = 2.0 normal operation & FLE =1.3 are recommended minima for limit equilibrium
factors of safety against sliding)
 Stress analysis in gravity method
The primary stresses determined in a comprehensive analysis
are:

1. Vertical normal stresses, z, on horizontal planes;

2. Horizontal and vertical shear stresses, zy and yz;

3. Horizontal normal stress, y, on vertical planes;

4. Major and minor principal stresses, 1 and 3

 1. Vertical normal stress, z
 Is determined by application of the equation for cantilever action
under combined axial and bending load:

z  V 
M *
y1
Ah I

Where, V- resultant vertical load

M* - summation of moments w.r.t the centroid
of the plane.
y ’ - distance from the centroid to point of
considerations
I - second moment of area of the plane w.r.t
centroid.
For 2-D plane section of unit width & thickness T :

V Vey1 V  6e 
z   12 and at y ’=T/2 z  1  
T T3 T  T 

 For reservoir full condition (sign convention is reversed for reservoir empty
condition)

V  6e 
 At the u/s face  zu  1 
T 
 T 
V  6e 
 At the d/s face  zd  1  T 
T
M *
Where e = eccentricity =
V
2. Horizontal & vertical shear stresses
Numerically equal and complementary horizontal (zy) and
(yz) shear stresses are generated at any point as a result of
the variation in normal stress over a plane.
and

3. Horizontal normal stress, y

The difference in shear forces is balanced by the normal
stresses on vertical planes
4. Principal stresses
1& 3 may be determined from knowledge of z& y &
construction of Mohr’s circle diagram

Major Principal Stress: z y

1    max
2

Minor principal stress: z y

3    max
2

z y
2

Where  max      2
 2 
The boundary values, 1 & 3 are determined by:
For upstream face
1u= zu (1+ tan2u)-Pw tan 2u
3u=Pw

For downstream face assuming no tail water

1d=zd (1+tan2d)
3d=0
 Gravity Dam Design
Elementary Profile of a Gravity Dam

 EP of the gravity dam is triangular in section.

 Shape of EP is same to hydrostatic pressure distribution

 At reservoir empty condition, the resultant acts at a distance B/3

from the heel (the maximum possible inner-most position so that
no tension develops and provides the maximum possible
stabilizing force against overturning)
 Base Thickness (T) of EP
is determined on the basis of the following two criteria:

a) Stress criteria

b) Stability or sliding criteria

a) Stress criteria :

 When the reservoir is empty, there is no tension in the dam,

the resultant is acting at the inner 1/3rd point J.

 When the reservoir is full, for no tension, the resultant must

pass at outer 1/3rd point K.

 Now taking moment of all forces about point K,

Fig.: forces acting on elementary profile
 Multiplying by 6/wZ1, we have

Which gives

……. (1)

Where Pu = uplift pressure

sp = specific gravity(c/w)
b) Stability or Sliding Criteria
For no sliding, horizontal forces causing sliding should be
equal to the frictional forces, i.e.
Pwh = V tan

Neglecting uplift pressure,

NB: Dam thickness(T) should be the greater of equations (1) & (2)
 For meeting the practical requirements certain changes have to
be made namely:
i) for communication, road has to be provided and therefore a top width;
ii) for wave action, free board above the high flood level must be provided

 These changes will cause the resultant force to shift towards the
heel
Hence tension at toe
To prevent this concrete is needed at the u/s
Top Width:
Must resist shock of floating objects (ex. Ice)
Afford a road way
For sake of appearance
Most economical top width (a) = 14% of dam height(H)

Free Board(FB):
Is vertical distance b/n dam crest level & max. water level
Is a function of wave characteristics (wind set-up & wave run-up)
Wind Set-up (S)
Is piling up of water by wind stress
Is determined by Zuider Zee formula:

Where, U-wind velocity (km/hr)

D-average water depth along fetch line
F-fetch length (km) = Fi/9
Wave Run-up(Rs):
Vertical height attained by a wave running up the dam face
Rs is related to significant wave height (Hs) by

Where, Hs  0.032 UF  0.76  0.27 4

F
 - angle of inclination with horizontal
Lo - wave length
Where T – is wave period and

Therefore, FB = S + Rs
 Design of Gravity Dam
Before starting, one must establish whether it is low or high
dam

Low Dam: is dam of limiting height such that the resultant of

all forces passes through the middle third and the maximum
compressive stress at the toe does not exceed the
permissible limit, i.e.
 Where: cd - compressive stress at dam toe
w - unit weight of water
sg - specific gravity of material
 - coefficient of uplift pressure
allow - permissible stress

Thus the limiting height, H is given as:

High Dam:
A dam the height of which exceeds the limiting height.

In a high dam, the allowable stress are often exceeded as the
resultant of all the forces pass outside the middle third;

To avoid excessive stresses, the resultant must be maintained

near the centre of the base through:
Flattening the downstream slope, and
Providing the upstream slope with a batter
 (i) Design of Low Gravity Dam
 For low gravity dam, the EP is modified by provision of: FB; top
width, and upstream flare

Upstream Flare:
 Height of u/s flare is determined by intersection of line of action
of centroid (crest mass) with u/s middle 3rd line (see fig. next
slide)

 Flare width is calculated by equating the summation of self-

weight moment about the revised u/s middle 3rd point to zero
Fig. Upstream flare diagram
 (ii) Design of High Gravity Dam
Two approaches are possible:

The single stage Approach, and

The multistage Approach

Single stage Approach

 is based upon definition of a suitable and uniform downstream slope

 For no tension to occur at a vertical u/s face, an approximate definition

of the d/s slope in terms of d is given by:

 Base thickness, T is fixed to satisfy Fo & Fss and checked for heel and toe
stresses.
Multistage Approach

 The face slopes are altered at suitable intervals

 Design commences from crest level, and descends through profile stages

 Each stage is proportioned so as to maintain Stress levels within

acceptable limits

 The profile allows marginal economies in concrete, but may be more

expensive to construct than the single-stage equivalent

 Hence seldom employed currently

 Division of gravity dam section in to zones

Each zone is designed in accordance with a d/t rule or

combination of rules:

Zone-I:
Fixed on the basis of FB + Crest thickness

Zone-II:
Fixed on the basis of middle 3rd rule; both faces vertical
limited at where R intersects the outer middle 3rd
Zone-III:
Fixed on the basis of middle 3rd rule; u/s face vertical & d/s face batter
limited at a level where R intersects the inner middle 3rd pt

Zone-IV:
Fixed on the basis of middle 3rd rule; both faces batter
limited by inclined compressive stress at d/s face

Zone-V:
D/s face is fixed on the basis of permissible stress & u/s on the basis of
middle 3rd rule
limited by inclined pressure at u/s face
Zone-VI:
Fixed on the basis of max. permissible stress
limited by the level at w/c conformity with permissible stress rule
is incompatible with the design assumption

Zone-VII:
Zone in which the limiting condition for zone-VI prevails and must
be eliminated by revision of entire design
Fig.: Division of gravity dam section in to zones
 Stabilizing and heightening

A number of older gravity dams are by present-day

standards, having undesirably low stability

Remedial action to improve stability can be taken by:

Vertical prestressing of the dam or
Construction of a downstream supporting shoulder or berm.
(a) Prestressing
Prestressing provides an additional vertical load with a
resultant line of action close to the upstream face

It requires the introduction of highly stressed steel-strand

cables or tendons into the dam, anchored at crest level and
at depth within the foundation (see fig. next slide).

A necessary condition for prestressing is the presence of rock

competent to accept the high anchorage loads imposed
Fig.: Stabilizing and heightening: vertical prestressing
 The design prestress, Pps (kNm-1), should satisfy the more
demanding of overturning or sliding stability;

 For overturning, Fo:

Where y2 is the moment arm of Pps with respect to the toe

 For sliding, FSF:

 (b) Downstream supporting shoulder
A supporting shoulder can be constructed
employing compacted earthfill or rockfill.

Contribution to stability is made by the weight of fill above

the downstream face, WF and a horizontal ‘at rest’ pressure,
Pds, given as:
Fig. Stabilizing: construction of downstream supporting shoulder

where K0= pressure coefficient & Pds is considered to act at height zAB/3
above the base plane
 2.3 Concrete Buttress Dams

 A buttress dam consists of a slopping u/s membrane which transmits

the water load to a series of buttresses at right angle to the axis of the
dam.

 are rigid structure with a slopping upstream membrane (deck)

supported by buttresses.

 are adaptable to an overflow or a non-overflow type.

 Typical Concrete Buttress Dam

Lake Tahoe Dam impounds the Truckee River in northern California

Lake Tahoe Dam impounds the Truckee River in northern California
 Compared to their Gravity counterpart,

 Require 1/2 to 2/3 of the concrete [economical for dams of h ≥ 14m],

 hence may be used on weak foundation
 Formwork needs skilled labor,
 More safety against overturning and sliding
 More equal distribution of stresses of foundation.
 Eliminate a good deal of uplift pressure ( if no spread footing, joining
the buttresses is used)
 Component Parts of Buttress Dams
Road

 Sloping membrane
 Buttresses
 Mat foundation or Footings
 Lateral Braces (strut
 Haunches or Corbels
 Cutoff (Concrete)
 Classification of Buttress Dam
Two ways of classification

A. Based on the type of deck (Sloping membrane)

1. Deck/flat slab or Amberson type
2. Multiple-arch type
3. Multiple-dome type
4. Massive/bulk head type

B. Based on the joint between the deck and buttresses

1. Rigid buttress dams
2. Articulated buttress dams
3. Intermediate or semi-rigid buttress dams
 Deck Slab/Flat Slab Buttress Dam
 In this type of buttress dam the u/s sloping deck slab consists of a
reinforced concrete slab supported by a series of buttresses.
 Deck slab may Further Sub divided into:-
a. Simple deck slab type (Simply Supported Slab)
The deck slab is not rigidly
connected to the buttresses
but it is in the form of simply
supported slab.
 b. Fixed (or continuous) Deck Slab Type

 The deck slab is cast monolithic with the buttresses and it acts as a
continuous slab.
 Reinforcement is provided both on upstream & downstream faces of
the slab.
 This type of deck can be used only
when the foundation is strong;
 c. Cantilever Deck slab type

 The deck slab is cast monolithically with the buttresses in such a manner
that it over hangs on either side of the buttress and acts as cantilever.
Multiple Arch Types Buttress Dam

The sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C arches

supported by a number of buttresses. The u/s face of the dam is usually
inclined at 450.
Multiple Dome Type Buttress Dam
Sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C domes
supported by a number of buttresses
Massive Head Type Buttress Dam
The dam is thus made of a series of buttresses with massive heads
placed side by side.
Multiple Arch Type Buttress Dam Massive Head Type Buttress Dam
 Classification based on the joint b/n the sloping membrane and
buttresses
 Rigid buttress dams: The upstream deck is cast monolithically with the
buttresses and hence the ends of the deck cannot move. E.g. continuous
deck slab type, multiple arch type & multiple dome type buttress dams
 Flexible (or articulated) buttress dams: Sloping membrane or deck is not
constructed monolithic with the buttresses. These dams are flexible. E.g.
simple deck slab type.
 Semi - rigid buttress dams: It is neither as rigid buttress dam nor as a
flexible buttress dam. E.g. The massive head type buttress dam
Design Procedure of Flat Slab Buttress Dams
The design involves the following steps:-
 Determination of economic buttress spacing & upstream slope
 Design of deck slab & other details
 Preliminary design of buttress & check for overall stability
Economic Buttress Spacing
The most economical spacing depends up on the following factors
 The mean height of dam
 Type of footing (spread or mat foundation)
 The presence of spillway over the dam
 Unusual foundation and side hill conditions
 Upstream slope of dam
Height of dam
Economic buttress spacing increases with the height of the dam;

Height of dam (m) Economical spacing c/c of buttress

(m)
15 to 30 5 to 6

30 to 45 9 to 12

Above 45 12 to 15
Upstream Slope
Varies from 350 to 450 and is governed by the requirements of sliding
factor, i.e., H/V resistance against sliding is achieved from the
vertical component of the water pressure since self weight of the
buttress dam is relatively small.
Thus for each value of u/s slope there would be an economical buttress
spacing which may be determined from a master curve. A master curve
is extremely useful for determining the most economical spacing for d/t
upstream slopes.
 Preliminary design of Buttress and Check for Overall
Stability
 For preliminary design of buttress only water pressure on the deck slab, weight of
deck slab and buttress are considered.
 Preliminary design of buttress is carried out on the bases of Unit column theory, in
which the buttress is assumed to be made of a number of unit columns.
 A unit column is a curved column of unit width.
Assumptions:
 Each column transfers the load from the top of the column to the foundation
independently of the adjacent columns above or below it.
 Each column is so proportioned that at every section of the column uniform
compressive stress is developed and it is curved to avoid eccentric loading.
The magnitude of the initial load Po depends on the type of joint b/n
deck slab and the buttress.
 Loads on Buttress Dam

 The loads are the same as that of gravity dams

 Uplift forces are less important

 Internal stresses caused by temperature changes and yielding of

abutments need to be considered

 Wind blowing diagonal to the buttress axis is critical

 Foundation stresses are generally small

 Disadvantages of Buttress Dam

 needs reinforcement and expensive shuttering

 needs more skilled labor

 slabs and columns are highly stressed; danger of deterioration of

concrete of the upstream deck

 more susceptible to damage by sabotage

 2.4 Concrete Arch Dam
An arch dam may be defined as a solid wall curved in plan standing
across the entire width of the river in a single span.
 are rigid structure with a considerable upstream curvature
 are usually non-overflow type
 restricted to relatively narrow valley/gorges sections with strong
abutments
 As compared to the gravity or buttress dam
– structurally more efficient,
– greatly reduce the volume of concrete required.
 Structurally resist the imposed loads by combination of arch action and
cantilever action.
 Transmit the major portion of the water load to the abutments or valley sides
and the weight of structure to the floor of the valley.
 Require large horizontal reactions by the abutments.
 Typical Concrete Arch Dam

Monticello dam impounds Putah Creek west of Sacramento, California

 Valley Shapes for Arch Dam

 To determine the site suitability for an arch dam the canyon shape factor (CSF)
equation may be used:

B  H (sec 1  sec 2 )
CSF 
H

 The ratio of crest length to dam height is recommended to be ≤ 5.

 Usual values of CSF are from 2 to 5.
 The lower the CSF value the thinner the section.
 Classification of valleys by CSF

B  H (sec 1  sec 2 )
CSF 
H

Valley type Bottom width B 1 2 CSF

U shaped <H < 150 < 150 < 3.1
Narrow V shaped 0 < 350 < 350 < 2.4
Wide V-shaped 0 > 350 > 350 > 2.4
Composite U-V shaped < 2H > 150 > 150  4.1
Wide and flat shapes > 2H 1 2
> 4.0
Unclassified Highly irregular valley shape
 Classification of Arch Dam

Massive arch dam

The whole span of the dam is covered by a single
curved wall usually vertical or nearly so.
Massive arch dams are further divided into the
following types:
 Constant radius arch dams,
 Constant angle arch dams,
 Variable radius arch dams,
 Double curvature or Cupola arch dams, and
 Arch gravity dams.
 Multiple arch dam
Series of arches cover the whole span of the dam,
usually inclined and supported on piers or buttresses.
Multiple arch dams are usually considered as a type of
buttress dam.
 Constant Radius Arch Dam

 the simplest geometric profile that combines a vertical u/s face of

constant extrados radius with a uniform radial d/s slope.
 is not the most economical profile in volume, but simple to analyze and
construct.
 is suitable to relatively symmetrical “U” shaped valley.
 usually a maximum of 150o is used for the top arch.
 Constant Angle Arch Dam

 different arches has the same central angle 2 from top to bottom. In practice
2 = 1000 to 1500 is used.
 uses about 70% concrete as compared to constant radius arch dam.
 Variable Radius Arch Dam

It is a compromise between constant radius and constant angle arch dams, i.e.,
neither the radius nor the angle is constant.
 The radii of the extrados and intrados surfaces vary from the top to bottom,
usually maximum at the top and minimum at the base.
 The central angle of the different arches is not constant; it usually ranges from
800 to 1500.
 It is suitable for V and U-V shaped valleys.
 Concrete volume consumed is about 80% of that for constant radius arch dam of
the same height.
Typical Arch-gravity dam plan and section
 Multiple-Arch dam

Bartlett Dam impounds the Verde River northeast of Phoenix, Arizona.

 Loads
 The loads are the same as that of gravity dams.
 Uplift forces are less important (not significant).
 Internal stresses caused by temperature changes and yielding of
abutments are very important.
 Foundation stresses are generally small.

Design methods for Massive Arch Dam

 Thin cylinder theory
 Thick cylinder theory
 Elastic theory
 Trial load method
 Thin Cylinder Theory
 The weight of concrete and water in the dam is carried directly to the
foundation.
 The horizontal water load is carried entirely by arch action.
 The theory assumes:
– the arch is simply supported at the abutments and
– the stresses are approximately the same as in thin cylinder of equal outside
radius ro.
Total force acting along axis of the river(P),
P = Pw*projected area = wh (2resin) = 2 whresin

Component of abutment reaction (F) acting against P is

2Fsin

P = F  F = whre

F  w hre
The transverse unit stress,   
t *1 t
Hence, for given stress the required thickness is
 w hre
t 

 Cont’d
re = rc + 0.5t = ri + t

 w hrc  w hri
t t 
 all  0.5 w h or
 all   w h

Condition for least volume of arch.

V  (t * 1) r
 hr
t  w  kr

2
 B 
V  kr 2  k 
 2 sin  / 2 


Differentiating V with respect to  and setting to zero,  = 133.5o which is the most
economical angle for arch with minimum volume. For  = 133.50 r = 0.544B
 Thick Cylinder Theory

 Improvement in thin cylinder theory was made by considering the arch

as thick cylinder.

 At Radius R, the compressive ring stress is given by

 Ring stress is maximum at the downstream face

Cont’d
For thin rings theory, therefore,
K r  w Z 1 Ru
h  at abutment.
Tr

Fig. Arch dam abutment stress correction factor KR

 2.5 Roller Compacted Concrete Gravity Dam
RCC dams: are concrete gravity dams, and their stability requirements
and methods of analysis are similar to those of gravity.

In addition to construction methods, they differ from gravity dams

principally in the mix design and details of appurtenances.

The major advantage of RCC dam construction is the speed at which the
dam can be constructed, with associated resulting economies.
RCC construction techniques have made RCC gravity dams an
economically competitive alternative to conventional concrete and
embankment dams due to the following factors:

 Cost: approximate costs of RCC range from 25 to 50% less than

conventionally placed concrete.

 Rapid construction

 Integral spillways and appurtenant structures: RCC spillways directly

incorporated into the structure.

 Minimized diversion and cofferdam: reduce the size of diversion

conduit and cofferdam height with shorter construction period.
THANK YOU!
5/11/2023 119
 3.2 Classification of Embankment Dam
Embankment Dam

Earth Dam Rockfill Dam Composite

Typ

Accordint to design
According to method of
Constructuion

Homogenous Zoned Diaphriagm Rolled Hydraulic Semi Hydraulic

fill type fill type fill type
What is their
difference ?
5/11/2023 125
 Variants of Earth Fill Dam

Fig.: Homogeneous

5/11/2023 Fig.: Diaphragm embankment Fig.: Zoned Earth Dam 126

 Rolled fill Dam:
– Suitable materials are transported by earth moving
machineries; spread by Bulldozers, and sprinkled to form
layers having proper water content and then thoroughly
compacted and bonded with rollers.

5/11/2023 127
 Hydraulic fill dam:
 The materials are excavated, transported and placed by
Hydraulic fill method.
 The material mixed with water at borrow pits, is pumped into
flumes laid at a suitable falling gradient along the outer edge
of the embankment
 The slush is discharged through the outlets in the flume, at
suitable interval
 The course material of the slush settles at the outer edge while
finer material settles at the center.
 At present the method is not in general use.
5/11/2023 128
 Causes of Failure of Earth Dams
The analysis of earth dam must ask a question:……

How does earthen dams most probably expected to fail? And

what are the causes failures?

Generally, from the previous experiences, the failure of earth dam is grouped in to

Hydraulic failures
Seepage failure
Structural failure

5/11/2023 129
 Causes of Failure of Earth Dams
Hydraulic Failures (40%):
Hydraulic failures include the following:
Overtopping
Erosion of u/s face
Erosion of d/s face
Erosion of d/s toe

5/11/2023 130
 Seepage failures (30%):
 Seepage failures may be due to
(a) Piping through the body of the dam
(b) Piping through the foundation of the dam
(c) Conduit leakage
(d) Sloughing of downstream toe.

5/11/2023 131
 Structural Failures (30%):
Structural failures may be due to:
– U/s and D/s slope failures due to pore pressures
– U/s slope failure due to sudden draw down
– D/s slope failure during full reservoir condition.
– Foundation slide: Spontaneous liquefaction
– Failure due to Earth quake
– Slope protection failures
– Failure due to damage caused by burrowing
5/11/2023
animals 132
 Fig.: Structural Failures

5/11/2023 133
  Phreatic (seepage) line should
Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dam
exit the dam body safely
Free from Overtopping without sloughing design
 appropriate downstream
flood
face.
 Adequate spillway
 Seepage through
 Sufficient the body
outlet worksof
thedam, foundation
Sufficient free and
board
Free from seepage failure abutments should be controlled
by adapting measures.
How can onesuitable
 The dam and foundation
satisfy these
Free from structural should be safedesign
against piping
failure failure. criteria????......
 There should be no opportunity
There must be proper slope for
 free
Safepassage
U/S & D/Sof water
slopefrom
during
protection against wind & rain U/S to D/S both through the
construction
drop erosion. dam and foundation.
 Safe U/S slope during sudden
There must be proper drainage draw down condition.
 Safe D/S slope during steady
Economic section seepage condition
 Foundation shear stress within
the safe limits.
 Earth quake resistant dam
5/11/2023 134
 Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dam

1) No overtopping
– appropriate design flood
– Adequate spillway
– Sufficient outlet works
– Sufficient free board

2) No seepage failure
– Phreatic (seepage) line should exit the dam body safely
– Seepage through the body of the dam, foundation and abutments
should be controlled
– Dam and foundation should be safe against piping failure.
5/11/2023 135
 3) No Structural failure
Safe u/s & d/s slope during construction
Safe u/s slope during sudden draw down condition.
Safe d/s slope during steady seepage condition
Foundation shear stress within the safe limits.
Earth quake resistant dam

4) Proper slope protection against wind & rain drop erosion.

5) Proper drainage
6) Economic section

5/11/2023 136
 3.4 Seepage Analysis
Seepage analysis is aimed at:
Determination of phreatic line
finding the gradient & velocity of filtration
determination of the seepage flow

5/11/2023 137
 Laplace equation for two dimensional flows
In earth dams, the flow is essentially two
dimensional
consider 2-D flows:

Vy+(∂Vy/∂y)∆y

y Vx+(∂Vx/∂x)∆
Vx x
x

Vy

5/11/2023 138
 Consider an element of soil size x, y and of unit
thickness
Let Vx and Vy be the entry velocity components in x and
y direction
 v x   v y 
Then,  vx  x  and  v y  y 
 x   y 
will be the corresponding velocity components at the
exit of the element

5/11/2023 139
  Assuming invariant soil saturation and and steady flow,
the quantity of water entering the element = the quantity of
water leaving it
Hence,

 v x   v y 
v x y.1  v y x.1   v x  x y.1   v y  y x.1
 x   y 

From which,

v x v y
 0
x y ---------------------------(1)
5/11/2023 140
 According to Darcy law,

h
vx  K xix  K x * ------------------------------(2)
x

h
VY  kY IY 
y
Ky
------------------------------(3)

Where h = hydraulic head

Kx and Ky are coefficient of
permeability in x and y direction

5/11/2023 141
 Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get

 2 K x h   ( K y .h)
2

 0 -----------------------(4)
x 2
y 2

For an isotropic soil, i.e, Ky = Kx = K, eq.(4)

becomes

 2h  2h
 0 -----------------------(5)
x 2
y 2

5/11/2023 142
 Substituting velocity potential =  = K*h , we get

 2  2
 --------------------(6)
0
x 2
y 2

This is the Laplace equation of flow in two dimensions

The solution of eq. (6) can be obtained by
– analytical methods
– graphical method
– experimental methods

5/11/2023 143
  The solution gives two sets of curves -
& (or flow lines), mutually
orthogonal to each other

field

b
l

Fig.: Flow Net

 In the network, the portion b/n any two successive

flow lines and equi-potential lines is called .

5/11/2023 144
 Seepage rate calculation from flow net
 Let b & l be width and length of field
 Then from Darcy’s law of flow considering unit
thickness

------------------------------(b)

 If Δh = drop of head through a field,

h = total head causing flow
Δq = discharge passing through the field
5/11/2023 145
  If the total number of potential drops in the flow net
= Nd

--- -------------------------------(c)

 Putting (c) in to (b)

------------------------------(d)

 ----- (e)

5/11/2023 Where Nt = total number of flow channels in the net 146

 Phreatic Line in Earth Dam
 Phreatic line / seepage line / Saturation line is the line at
the upper surface of the seepage flow at which the pressure
is atmospheric.

5/11/2023 147
 Phreatic line for a homogeneous Earth dam with
horizontal Drainage blanket
 Figure (next slide) shows a homogeneous earth dam with horizontal drainage
blanket FK

 The phreatic line coincides with the base parabola ADC except at the entrance.

 The basic property of the parabola is utilized for drawing the base parabola

 That is the distance of any point p from the focus is equal to the distance of the
same point from the directrix.

 Thus Distance PF = Distance PR

5/11/2023 148
 Fig.: Phreatic line for Homogeneous Dam

5/11/2023 149
 Graphical method
 Steps:
 Starting point of base parabola is @ A AB = 0.3L
 F is the focal point
 Draw a curve passing through F center @ A
 Draw a vertical line EG which is tangent to the curve
 EG is the directrix of the base parabola
 Plot the various points P on the parabola in such a way that PF = PR

5/11/2023 150
 Analytical method
PF = PR

x 2  y 2  x  yo

From point A (known), x = b and y = h

 yo  b 2  h 2  b

x  y  x  b  h b
2 2 2 2

5/11/2023 151
 Discharge through the body of Earth dam
v  k *i
q  v * A  k *i * A
dy
q  k y *1
dx

From parabola equation, y  2 xyo  y0 2

d ( y 0  2 xyo )
2

qk ( y o  2 xyo )
2

dx

yo
q  k( y o  2 xyo )
2
)(
y o  2 xyo
2

q  kyo
5/11/2023 152
 Characteristics of Phreatic line (Seepage line)

1) At the entry point, the phreatic line must be normal to the

upstream face
2) The successive equipotential lines will meet the phreatic line
at equal vertical intervals.
3) The focus of the base parabola lies at the break out point of
the bottom flow line, where the flow emerges out from
relatively impervious medium to a highly pervious medium.

5/11/2023 153
 4) When horizontal filter or drainage toe is provided, the
phreatic line would tend to emerge vertically
5) In the absence of any filter, the seepage line will cut the
downstream slope at some point above the base.
6) The presence of pervious foundation below the dam does
not influence the position of phreatic line.
7) In the case of a zoned dam with central impervious core,
the focus of the base parabola will be located at the
downstream toe of the core

5/11/2023 154
 Fig.: Entry conditions of phreatic line

5/11/2023 155
 Fig : Flow net for d/t d/s conditions

5/11/2023 156
 Q)A homogeneous earthfill dam has a top width of 30m and a
height of 100m with a freeboard of 10m. The side slopes are
1V: 2.5H. It has a horizontal drainage blanket at the base
that extends from the downstream toe to a distance of
100m.
The embankment has a permeability of 1.5 x 10-5 m/s.
Determine the seepage through the dam.

5/11/2023 157
 Fig.: Definition sketch

30m

M A B

1V:2.5H
H=100m
1V:2.5H Base Horizontal Blanket
h
parabola

F
b 100m

5/11/2023 158
 Question

5/11/2023 159
 1.Determine the phreatic surface and seepage rate per foot
length normal to the section that discharges into the blanket
drain.
Solution.

5/11/2023 160
 Chapter 4
Dam Outlet Works

 Dam outlet works consists of spillways and bottom outlets.

 The spillway design depends primarily on the design flood, dam type and
location, and reservoir size and operation.

 The design of bottom outlet works depends primarily on the purpose of

the reservoir and the sediment inflow and deposition in the reservoir.
 Classification of outlets

 Outlets are classified on the basis of the following;

 Classification based on purpose; River outlet, Canal outlet & Pipe outlet
 Classification based on physical feature and structural arrangement; Open
channel & closed conduit
 Classification based on shape: Circular & rectangular conduit
 Classification based on hydraulic action; Open channel & Pipe flow
 Classification based on gates; Gated & Ungated outlets
 Component parts of outlet works are entrance channel, intake structure,
waterway, control device, terminal structure and exit channel
  Generally the following are the functions of sluices

 Fulfilling commitments (riparian rights ) on the lower reaches of the river

by outflow into the river.

 De-silting the reservoir by draining out by silt loaded water.

 Routing the flood.

 River diversion construction as well as temporary fish pass by putting

baffles.

 Empting the reservoir for inspection of the dam at low levels.

 Determination of required dam outlet capacities

• Outlet works controls are designed to release water as specific rates,

as indicated by downstream needs, flood control regulation, storage
canted regulation, storage considerations, or legal requirements.

• The capacity of the flood control outlet is determined by the required

time of evacuation of a given storage space considering the inflow into
the reservoir during this emptying period.
 Cont’d
 If an outlet is to serve as a service spillway in releasing surplus inflows
from the reservoir, the required discharge for this purpose may fix the
outlet capacity
 The costs of operation, maintenances, modification, and possible
replacement should be included in economic studies used to optimize dam
design concepts.
 Project requirements are a primary consideration. It will include properly
positioning intakes gating, terminal structures, sizing components,
selecting appropriate components including operation controls, providing
adequate means for maintenance and replacement of components.
 The type of dam (concrete or embankment) greatly affects the design
and the cost of an outlet.
 Outlet works Position in relation to Reservoir Storage Levels

 In order to attain the required discharge capacity, the outlet must be

placed sufficiently below minimum reservoir operating level to provide
head for effecting outlet works flows.
 Outlet works for small detention dams are generally constructed near
river bed level since permanent storage space, except for silt retention,
is ordinarily not provided
 For dams which impound water for irrigation, domestic, or other
conservation purposes, the outlet works must be placed low enough to
draw the reservoir down to the bottom of the allocated storage space.
 Hydraulics of Outlet Works

 Bottom outlet is type of closed conduit system and it is commonly

called outlet sluices.

 The hydraulics of outlet works usually involve either one or both of two
conditions of flow-open channel (or free) flow and full conduit (or
pressure) flow

 Hydraulic jump basin, baffle or impact block dissipaters or other

stilling devices normally are employed to dissipate the energy of flow
at the downstream end of the outlet works
 Open Channel Flow in Outlet Works
 Flow in an open channel outlet works will be similar to that in open
channel spillways. Where un submerged radial or slide gates are used,
discharge through the control with the gates completely opened will be
computed by:
Q= CLH3/2
 where C is the discharge coefficient, L is the crest length & H is
differential head causing flow.
 When open channel outlet flow is controlled by partly opened surface
gates, sluice flow will result.

 Outlet conduit losses are losses due to trash rack, entrance, gate and
valve, transition, contraction and expansion, bends, friction, and exit
losses.
 Spillway
 A spillway is a structure constructed at or near the dam site to dispose of
surplus water from the reservoir to the channel downstream.
 Spillways are provided for all dams as a safety measure against
Overtopping and the consequent damages and failure.
 A spillway may be located either in the middle of the dam or at the end of
the dam near abutment.
 Spillway Function
 To release surplus water that cannot be contained in the allotted
storage space
 Passes excess flow in a controlled manner
 Many dam failures caused by spillways that were improperly designed
or designed with insufficient capacity

Essential requirements of a spillways

 It must have adequate discharge capacity.
 It must be hydraulically and structurally safe.
 The surface of the spillway must be erosion resistance.
 The spillway must be located that the spillway discharge doesn't erode the
downstream of the dam.
 It should provide with some device for dissipation of excess energy.
 Component Parts of a Spillway
A spillway generally has the following component parts.
• Entrance channel
• Control structure
• Discharge channel (or waterway)
• Terminal structure (energy dissipator)
• Exit channel

 Control Structure
 Discharge Channel
 Terminal Structure
 Outlet Channel
 Classification of spillways
The spillway can be classified into different types based on
various criteria.
a. Classification based on purpose

1. Main (or service) spillway

2. Auxiliary spillway

3. Emergency spillway

b. Classification based on control

1. Controlled or gated spillway

2. Uncontrolled or ungated spillway

 Classification of spillways

C. Classification based on prominent features

1. Free over fall spillway

2. Ogee spillway

3. Side channel spillway

4. Chute spillway

5. Shaft spillway

6. Siphon spillway
 Free Overfall spillway
 This is the simplest type of spillway.

 In this type of spillway, the water freely drops down from the crest.

 Flows may be free discharging, as will be the case with a sharp-crested

weir or they may be supported along a narrow section of the crest.
Occasionally, the crest is extended in the form of an overhanging lip.

 This is suitable for arch dams or dams with downstream vertical faces;
and this is suitable for small drops and for passing any occasional flood.
Free Over fall
 Ogee spillway
 This is the most widely used spillway.

 Is an improvement over free over fall spillway.

 The overflow type spillway has a crest shaped in the form of an ogee or S-
shape.

 The upper curve of the ogee is made to conform closely to the profile of
the lower nappe of a ventilated sheet of water falling from a sharp crested
weir.
 Ogee spillway

 It is most commonly used with gravity dams. However, it is also used with
earth and rock fill dams with a separate gravity structure;

 The ogee crest can be used as control in almost all types of spillways; and
it has got the advantage over other spillways for its high discharging
efficiency.
Ogee type Spillway
 Overflow Spillway

Q  CL H e
3/ 2

C  f ( P, H e ,  , downstreamsubmergence)
H o

L  effectivewidth of spillway
H e
 total energyhead over crest

H o
 designenergyhead overcrest
 Effective width of spillway defined below, where

L L  2( N K 
'
p K )H
a e

L = effective width of crest

L’ = net width of crest
N = number of piers
Kp = pier contraction coefficient,

Ka = abutment contraction coefficient,

 Chute spillway

 A chute spillway, variously called as open channel or trough spillway, is one

whose discharge is conveyed from the reservoir to the downstream river
level through an open channel, placed either along a dam abutment or
through a saddle. Generally, the chute spillway has been mostly used in
conjunction with embankment dams.
 Side channel spillway

 A side channel spillway is one in which the control weir is placed

approximately parallel to the upper portion of the discharge channel,

 It is usually constructed in a narrow canyon where sufficient space is not

available for an overflow spillway.

 A side channel spillway is also usually required in a narrow valley where

there is neither a suitable saddle, nor wide side-flanks to accommodate a
chute spillway.
 Shaft spillway

 A shaft (or morning glory) spillway consists of a large vertical funnel, with
its top surface at the crest level of the spillway and its lower end connected
to a vertical (or nearly vertical) shaft.

 The structure may be considered as being made up of three elements,

namely, an overflow control weir, a vertical transition, and a closed
discharge channel.

 When the inlet is funnel shaped, the structure is called a Morning Glory
Spillway.
 Conduit (or Tunnel) Spillway
 Where a closed channel is used to convey the discharge around a dam
through the adjoining hill sides, the spillway is often called a tunnel or
conduit spillway.

 Tunnel spillways are advantageous for dam sites in narrow gorges with
steep abutments or at sites where there is danger to open channels from
rock slides from the hills adjoining the reservoir.
 Energy Dissipaters

 Hydraulic Jump type – induce a hydraulic jump at the end of spillway to

dissipate energy

 Bureau of Reclamation did extensive experimental studies to determine

structure size and arrangements – empirical charts and data as design
basis.
 Hydraulic Jump energy dissipater

 Froude number

Fr = V/(gy)1/2

Fr > 1 – supercritical flow

Fr < 1 – subcritical flow

 Transition from supercritical to subcritical on a mild slope – hydraulic

jump
Hydraulic Jump
 Hydraulic Jump

V2 y2
y1 V1
Lj
 Hydraulic Jump

 Jump in horizontal rectangular channel

y2/y1 = ½ ((1+8Fr12)1/2 -1)
y1/y2 = ½ ((1+8Fr22)1/2 -1)

 Loss of energy
E = E1 – E2 = (y2 – y1)3 / (4y1y2)

 Length of jump
Lj  6y2
 Hydraulic Jump

 Design guidelines
- Provide a basin to contain the jump
- Stabilize the jump in the basin: tail water control
- Minimize the length of the basin

 to increase performance of the basin

- Add chute blocks, baffle piers and end sills to increase energy loss –
Bureau of Reclamation types of stilling basin
Type IV Stilling Basin – 2.5<Fr<4.5
Stilling Basin – 2.5<Fr<4.5
Stilling Basin – 2.5<Fr<4.5
 Type IV Stilling Basin – 2.5<Fr<4.5

 Energy loss in this Froude number range is less than 50%.

 To increase energy loss and shorten the basin length, an alternative

design may be used to drop the basin level and increase tail water
depth.
 Stilling Basin – Fr>4.5

 When Fr > 4.5, but V < 60 ft/sec, use type III basin.

 Type III – chute blocks, baffle blocks and end sill.

 Reason for requiring V<60 fps – to avoid cavitation damage to the

concrete surface and limit impact force to the blocks.
Type III Stilling Basin – Fr>4.5
Type III Stilling Basin – Fr>4.5
 Type III Stilling Basin – Fr>4.5
 Calculate impact force on baffle blocks:
F = 2  A (d1 + hv1)
where F = force in lbs
 = unit weight of water in lb/ft3
A = area of upstream face of blocks

in ft2
(d1+hv1) = specific energy of flow entering the
basin in ft.
 Type II Stilling Basin – Fr>4.5

 When Fr > 4.5 and V > 60 ft/sec, use Type II stilling basin

 Because baffle blocks are not used, maintain a tail water depth 5%
higher than required as safety factor to stabilize the jump.
Type II Stilling Basin – Fr>4.5
Type II Stilling Basin – Fr>4.5
5. Hydropower component
 Introduction

 Energy can be described as potential for work, which may be withdrawn if needed. The

source for any kind of energy on earth is the sun. This is also valid for nuclear and fossil fuel
when taking into account the genesis of the earth.

 The Sun is the primary sources of energy , the energy radiated by the sun in the form of

electro- magnetic waves can be utilized for the generation of power

 Sources of Energy
 Basically the source of any energy is the sun
 Energy sources are classified into two:
A. Conventional Energy Sources
 Generally they are non-renewable
 Replenish slowly or not at all
 Toxic, exhausted, …….
 Example:
 Fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, coal, peat)
 Nuclear fuels (uranium and plutonium)
212
 Sources of Energy
B. Unconventional Energy Sources
 Renewable
 Replenish rapidly
 Clean, Non-toxic, Non-exhausted
 Example:
 Tidal energy
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Geothermal
 Hydropower

213
 Sources of Energy

214
215
 Cont’d
Fuels: thermal power
Fuels such as coal. Oil, and natural gases the most commonly used sources
of energy coal is available in huge quantities in many steam so produced is
utilized in steam turbines coupled to generators.
• Therefore, for generation of electric power, oil, acing costly ,is used for
power production only where small power is required, for instance, as stand-
by power stations.
•Natural gases available in large quantities can be used to run gas engines or
turbines or can be burnt to produce steam and steam turbines can thereafter to
produce power.
 Cont’d
Radio Active Substances:
Nuclear power Tremendous amount of heat energy can be by fission of nuclear
disintegration of uranium and other similar fissionable materials the heat energy so
librated in atomic reactors is extracted by pumping fluid or molten metal like liquid
sodium or gas through the pile .
oThe heated exchanger by circulation.
o On the heat exchanger the gas is heated or steam is generated which is utilized
to derive gas or steam turbines coupled with generators there by generating
electrical energy.
 Cont’d
Wind speed
Winds have sufficient energy, which can be utilized in wind turbines to derive small
generators. Wind turbines make use of the aerodynamic force generated by aerofoil to
extract power from the wind the method is unreliable as the production of electrical
energy depends largely up on the availability of wind pressure.
Geothermal
The earth has a molten core ,During volcanic action, the material comes out from
the bowels of earth to form volcanic explosions also produces steam vents and hot
springs. This steam can be used for the generation of electric power and space heating.
 Cont’d
Waterpower (hydropower)
•Water at high pressure or flowing with a high velocity can be used to run
turbines or water wheels coupled to generators, and therefore, for generation
of electric power.
• This method of generating electric power is well established as one of the
principal energy producing technologies around the world.
•It is widely acclaimed as the cleanest and cheapest of all energy forms.
• 90% of total energy is generated from water.
 Advantages and Disadvantage of Hydropower
Advantage
 Hydropower has a 'perpetual' source of energy, while thermal power has a depletable fossil
fuel source, besides hydropower does not consume the water.
 Running cost of hydropower plant is very low compared to thermal and nuclear plant.
 Hydropower plants can be brought in to operation in few minutes while thermal & nuclear
power plants lack this capability. Thus, hydropower plants are particularly useful in taking up
short period peak loads in a power grid system.
 Efficiency of hydropower system is very high (90-95%), while thermal power plants have
low efficiency, as low as 40%.
 Hydropower development also provides secondary benefit such as recreation, fishing, flood
control etc, where storage is contemplated.
Advantages and Disadvantage of Hydropower
Disadvantage

 It is capital intensive & therefore rate of return is low.

 The gestation period is long. This period is low for thermal power plants.
 Hydropower is dependent on natural flow of streams. Since this is very
variable, the dependable or firm power is considerably low compared to total
capacity.
 Advantages and Disadvantage of Hydropower

Advantages Of A Hydroelectric Power Plant

 No fuel is required as potential energy is stored water is used for electricity
generation
 Neat and clean source of energy
 Very small running charges - as water is available free of cost
 Comparatively less maintenance is required and has longer life
 Serves other purposes too, such as irrigation
Disadvantages
 Very high capital cost due to construction of dam
 High cost of transmission – as hydro plants are located in hilly areas which are quite
away from the consumers
Classification and types of hydropower development

Hydropower plants could be classified based on :

 Location & topographical features
 Presence or absence of storage
 The range of operating heads
 The hydraulic features of the plant
 Operating features etc.
Cont’d
Classification based on hydraulic features
1. Conventional Hydro-plants
• Use normally available hydraulic energy of the flow of the river.
Example :Run-of river plant, diversion plant, storage plant
2. Pumped storage plants
• Use the concept of recycling the same water
• Normally used with areas with a shortage of water
• It generates energy for peak load, and at off-peak periods water is
pumped back for future use.
Cont’d

3. Unconventional Hydro-plants
a. Tidal power plant
 Use the tidal energy of the seawater
 Very few have been constructed due to structural complication.
b. Wave power plant
c. Depression power plant
 Hydropower generated by diverting an ample source of water in the natural
depression
 Water level in the depression is controlled by evaporation
Cont’d

3. Unconventional Hydro-plants
a. Tidal power plant
 Use the tidal energy of the seawater
 Very few have been constructed due to structural complication.
b. Wave power plant
c. Depression power plant
 Hydropower generated by diverting an ample source of water in the natural
depression
 Water level in the depression is controlled by evaporation
•Hydropower schemes have the ability to store water behind the dam in a reservoir in
order to de-couple generation from hydro inflows

Fig. storage type HP plant

Fig. Run-off type HP plant
Run-of-river hydropower projects have no, or very little, storage capacity behind the dam and generation is
dependent on the timing and size of river flows

Fig. Diversion type HP plant

 Pumped hydroelectric storage facilities store energy in the form of water in an upper reservoir,
pumped from another reservoir at a lower elevation
• During periods of high
electricity demand, power is generated by releasing
the stored water through turbines in the same
manner as a conventional hydropower station

. During periods of low demand

(usually nights or weekends when
electricity is also lower cost), the
upper reservoir is recharged by
using lower-cost electricity from
the grid to pump the water back to
the upper

Fig. Pumped storage HP- plant

Classification based on plant capacity

According to Mossonyi Present day classification

Midget plant up to 10 KW Micro hydropower < 5 MW

Low capacity < 1000KW Medium plant 5 to 100 MW

Medium capacity < 10,000KW High capacity 100 to 1,000 MW

High capacity > 10,000KW Super plant above 1,000 MW

 Classification based on head
The most popular & convenient classification which is based on head on turbine.
1. Low head plants < 15m
2. Medium head plants 15-50m
3. high head plants 50-250m
4. very high head plants > 250m
Classification based on constructional features (layouts)

a b c d e

a. Block power plant

b. Twin block plant
c. Island plant
d. pier head plant
e. Submersible plant
 Components of Hydropower projects

Generally three basic elements are necessary in order to generate power from water:

• Creating head
• A conduit to convey water
• A power plant
 Main components

Dam: to create the head necessary to move turbines and impound. Storage is used to
maintain the daily or seasonal flow variations.
Reservoir: Consists of the Water impoundment behind a dam.
Intake: Directs water from reservoir in to the penstock Gates or valves are used to shut off
the flow of water to permit emergency unit shut down or turbine and penstock
maintenance. Racks or screens prevent trash and debris from entering the turbine units.
Penstock: conveys water from the intake structure to the power house and can take many
configurations, depending up on the projects layout.
Surge tanks :are constructed on the conduit to reduce momentum changes due to water
hammer effects.
 Main components

Dam: to create the head necessary to move turbines and impound. Storage is used to
maintain the daily or seasonal flow variations.
Reservoir: Consists of the Water impoundment behind a dam.
Intake: Directs water from reservoir in to the penstock Gates or valves are used to shut off
the flow of water to permit emergency unit shut down or turbine and penstock
maintenance. Racks or screens prevent trash and debris from entering the turbine units.
Penstock: conveys water from the intake structure to the power house and can take many
configurations, depending up on the projects layout.
Surge tanks :are constructed on the conduit to reduce momentum changes due to water
hammer effects.
 cont’d

Power house
The power house shelters the turbines, generating Units, control and auxiliary equipments,
and sometimes erection and service areas.
Power house types
There are four types of power house configurations (structure)
 Indoor: this type of structure encloses all of the power house components under one
roof.
 Semi-out door: this powerhouse has a fully enclosed generator room. The main hoisting
and transfer equipment is located on the roof of the plant and equipment is handled
through hatches located in the roof.
 cont’d

 Outdoor: a generator room is not provided with this type of power house structure.
Generators are enclosed in a weather proof individual cubicles or enclosures and are
recessed in to the floor.
 Underground: this type of powerhouse is often used in mountainous areas where there
is limited space available to locate a power plant.
Hydraulic Turbines
 Are hydraulic motors or prime movers of a water power development

 Convert water energy (hydropower) in to mechanical energy (shaft power)

 The shaft power runs electricity generators thus producing electrical power
Turbine Classification
Impulse turbine: All the available potential energy is converted in to kinetic energy

 The water after impinging on the curved vanes or bucket is discharged freely to the
downstream channel

Ex. Pelton Turbine

Fig.: 4.2 Impulse Turbine
Reaction turbines:
 the water enters the turbine in a circumferential direction in to the scroll case

 Then water moves into the runner through a series of guide vanes

 The available energy partly converted to kinetic energy & substantial magnitude
remains in the form of pressure energy

Ex. : Francis, Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb, etc

 Characteristics of Turbines
 Specific speed, Ns: the speed at which a geometrically similar runner would rotate if
it were so proportioned that it would develop 1Kw when operating under a head of
1m
 Turbine or synchronous speed: the rated speed of the turbine is the same as
synchronous speed of the generator

Where f = frequency, in Hrz (50-60Hrz)

p = number of poles
 Speed factor or peripheral coefficient, φ : the ratio of the peripheral speed, u, of
the bucket or vanes to the theoretical velocity of water under the effective head, H,
acting on the turbine
Table : suggests appropriate values of φ, which give the highest
efficiencies for the three main types of turbines
Fig. : Application of turbine based on head and
specific speed
Runaway Speed:

 If the external load on the machine suddenly drops to zero (sudden rejection) and the
governing mechanism fails at the same time, the turbine will tend to race up to the
maximum possible speed, known as runaway speed

 This limiting speed under no-load, maximum-flow must be considered for safe design
 Referring to the previous table and figure discuss which turbine type is more
appropriate in case of:
(i) high head & low discharge?
(ii) medium head & moderate discharge?
(iii) low head & large discharge?
(iv) Low head & high specific speed?
1) Mention the 3-basic components of hydropower plant?
2) Mention source of energy and their classification?
3) To achieve a given total hydropower plant capacity, one may adopt either a small number of large
units (turbines & generators) or a large number of small units. Considering the total costs and
efficiency of the units, elaborate whether you recommend large/small units in case:
(i) The power demand is reasonably uniform;
(ii) Of widely variable operating conditions i.e. wide load variation.
Thank you!