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Environmental Studies 3rd Edition
Benny Joseph
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Environmental Studies
simplified
Third Edition
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Benny Joseph graduated in Civil Engineering from Regional
Engineering College, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu. He obtained a
master’s degree in Environmental Engineering from College of
Engineering, Trivandrum, Kerala, and a PhD from Anna University,
Chennai. He has been teaching graduate and postgraduate courses
in various engineering colleges since 1990 and his subjects include
Environmental Engineering, Air and Noise Pollution, Environmental
Safety, Environmental Pollution, Environmental Impact Assessment,
Integrated Water Resources Management, and Environmental Science.
Currently he is working as Principal of Vimal Jyothi Engineering College, Kannur, Kerala.
He has more than 10 research papers in diverse fields to his credit.
Environmental Studies
SIMPLIFIED
Third Edition
Benny Joseph
Principal
Vimal Jyothi Engineering College
Kannur, Kerala
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Dedicated to
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CONTENTS
Preface xv
Visual Walkthrough xviii
1. Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Importance of Environmental Education 2
1.3 Environmental Engineering 4
1.4 Environmentalism 5
1.4.1 The Gaia Theory 5
1.5 Environmental Studies—The Subject and its Multidisciplinary Nature 6
1.6 Components of the Environment and their Interactions 7
1.7 Humans and the Biosphere 10
1.8 Impacts of Development on the Environment 11
1.8.1 Environmental Impacts of Urbanization 11
Review Questions 15
Objective-Type Questions 15
Short-Answer Questions 17
Descriptive Questions 18
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 19
2. Natural Resources 20
2.1 Forest Resources 20
2.1.1 Key Benefits of Intact Forests 22
2.1.2 Deforestation 22
2.1.3 Causes of Deforestation 23
2.1.4 Effects of Deforestation 23
2.1.5 Solutions to the Problems of Deforestation 24
2.1.6 Mining 25
2.1.7 Mineral Resources of India 26
viii Contents
2.2 Dams 27
2.2.1 Dams and Civilization 27
2.2.2 Purposes of Dams 27
2.2.3 Benefits of Dams 27
2.2.4 Problems with Dams 28
2.2.5 Socio-economic Impacts of Dams 28
2.2.6 Controversy on Hydropower 29
2.2.7 Possible Solutions to Improve the Acceptability of Dam Projects 30
2.3 Water Resources 30
2.3.1 Drought 31
2.3.2 Conflicts Over Water 32
2.4 Food Resources 32
2.4.1 Global Food Problems 32
2.4.2 Food Security 32
2.4.3 Adverse Effects of Modern Agriculture on Soil and Water Resources 33
2.4.4 Problems with Fertilizers 34
2.4.5 Pesticides 35
2.4.6 Alternative Methods of Insect Control 36
2.4.7 Organic Agriculture 36
2.4.8 Advantages of Organic Fertilizers 36
2.5 Energy Resources 37
2.5.1 Types of Energy 38
2.5.2 Energy Characteristics 40
2.5.3 Energy and the Environment 40
2.5.4 Fuel Cell 40
2.5.5 Saving Energy 42
2.6 Land Resources 42
2.6.1 Land Degradation 43
2.6.2 Soil Erosion 44
2.6.3 Desertification 45
2.6.4 Landslides 45
Review Questions 47
Contents ix
3. Ecology 54
3.1 Ecosystem 54
3.2 Ecosystem–Anthroposystem Comparison 57
3.3 Biome and Ecosystem 57
3.4 Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem 58
3.5 Ecological Succession 59
3.6 Food Chains and Webs 59
3.7 Ecological Pyramids 60
3.8 Biological Magnification or Biomagnification 61
3.9 Human Versus Natural Food Chains 62
3.10 Biogeochemical Cycles 62
3.11 Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle) 63
3.12 Carbon Cycle 63
3.13 Oxygen Cycle 65
3.14 Nitrogen Cycle 66
3.15 Phosphorus Cycle 68
3.16 Sulphur Cycle 69
3.17 Forest Ecosystems 69
3.17.1 Vertical Structure—Vegetation Layers 70
3.17.2 Horizontal Structure 71
3.17.3 Environmental Influences 71
3.17.4 Forest Ecosystem Processes 71
3.17.5 Biomass and Productivity 72
3.17.6 Functions of Forest Ecosystems 72
3.18 Grassland Ecosystems 72
3.19 Aquatic Ecosystems 73
3.19.1 Environmental Factors Affecting the Aquatic Ecosystem Performance 73
Review Questions 74
4. Biodiversity 79
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Genetic Diversity 80
4.3 Species Diversity 81
4.4 Ecosystem Diversity 81
x Contents
4.5 Value of Biodiversity 82

4.6 Value of Genes 84
4.7 Biopiracy 84
4.8 Biogeographical Classification of India 85
4.9 India as a Mega Diverse Nation 86
4.10 Endemic Species of India 87
4.11 Threats to Biodiversity 87
4.12 Hotspots of Biodiversity 88
4.12.1 Hotspots in India 89
4.13 Endangered Species of India 89
4.14 Conservation of Biodiversity 90
4.14.1 In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation 90
4.14.2 Preservation and Conservation 90
4.14.3 Project Tiger 91
4.14.4 Project Elephant 91
4.15 Genetic Engineering and Biodiversity 91
Review Questions 93
5. Environmental Pollution 96
5.1 Air Pollution 96
5.1.1 General 96
5.1.2 Sources of Air Pollution 97
5.1.3 Major Air Pollutants 97
5.1.4 Effect of Air Pollution on Animals, Plants and Property 99
5.1.5 Toxic Air Pollution 99
5.1.6 Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants 100
5.1.7 Smog 100
5.1.8 Photochemical Smog 100
5.1.9 Automobile and Air Pollution 100
5.1.10 Air Pollution Control Technologies 101
5.1.11 Catalytic Converter 104
5.2 Water Pollution 105
5.2.1 Major Forms of Water Pollution 105
5.2.2 Sources of Water Pollution 106
Contents xi
5.2.3 Point and Non-point Sources 106

5.2.4 Groundwater Pollution and its Control 106
5.2.5 Management of Municipal Sewage 106
5.3 Soil Pollution 118
5.3.1 Control of Soil Pollution 118
5.4 Marine Pollution 118
5.5 Noise Pollution 120
5.5.1 Sources of Noise 120
5.5.2 Measurement of Noise 120
5.5.3 Effects of Noise 120
5.5.4 Noise Pollution Control 121
5.6 Thermal Pollution 121
5.7 Solid Waste Management 122
5.7.1 Solid (Non-Hazardous) Waste 122
5.7.2 Refuse 122
5.7.3 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 122
5.7.4 Hazardous Waste 122
5.7.5 Illegal Dumping 122
5.7.6 MSW Management Practices 122
5.7.7 Source Reduction 130
5.7.8 Recycling 130
5.7.9 Composting 130
5.7.10 Classification of Composting Based on Oxygen Use 131
5.7.11 Vermicomposting 131
5.7.12 Landfills 131
5.7.13 Combustion/Incineration 132
5.7.14 Disposal and Recycle Options 132
5.7.15 Prohibited Wastes 133
5.8 Hazardous Waste Management 133
5.8.1 Hazardous Waste 133
5.8.2 General Hazardous Waste Management Strategies 134
5.8.3 Treatment Technologies for Hazardous Wastes 134
5.8.4 Land Disposal Methods for Hazardous Wastes 135
5.8.5 Radioactive Wastes 135
5.8.6 Not In My Backyard Principle (NIMBY) 135
5.8.7 Guidelines for Handling Household Hazardous Chemicals 136
5.8.8 Disposal Methods for Household Hazardous Wastes 136
5.8.9 Chemical Waste 137
xii Contents
5.8.10 Chemical Incompatibilities 137

5.8.11 Biomedical Waste 137
5.8.12 Infectious Waste 138
5.8.13 Central Pollution Control Board Standards 138
5.8.14 Computer and Electronic Scrap Recycling 138
5.8.15 Technology for Processing Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) 139
5.9 Pollution Prevention 139
5.10 Disaster Management 140
5.10.1 Major and Minor Calamities 140
Review Questions 141
6. Social Issues and the Environment 151
6.1 From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development 152
6.1.1 Sustainability: Theory and Practice 152
6.2 Urban Problems Related to Energy 155
6.2.1 Urban Energy Crisis 155
6.2.2 Renewable Energy 155
6.3 Water Conservation 156
6.3.1 Some Ancient Indian Methods of Water Conservation
and Harvesting 156
6.3.2 Rainwater Harvesting 156
6.3.3 Reducing Water Demand in Agriculture 157
6.4 Watershed Management 159
6.5 Environmental Ethics 159
6.6 Green Chemistry and its Twelve Principles 159
6.7 Acid Rain 160
6.7.1 Effects of Acid Rains 161
6.8 Ozone-Layer Depletion 161
6.8.1 Chlorofluorocarbons 163
6.8.2 Measuring Ozone Depletion 163
6.8.3 Impacts of Ozone Depletion 164
6.8.4 Steps to Protect the Ozone Layer 164
6.9 Greenhouse Effect, Global Warming and Climate Change 165
6.9.1 Effects of Global Warming 167
Contents xiii
6.9.2 Solutions for Global Warming 167

6.10 Pollution Control Boards and Control Pollution Acts in India 169
6.10.1 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) 169
6.10.2 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 169
6.10.3 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 170
6.10.4 The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 170
6.10.5 The Wildlife Protection Act, 1971 170
6.10.6 The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 170
6.10.7 Constitutional Provisions 171
6.11 Nuclear Hazards and Accidents 171
6.11.1 Facts About Radiological Accidents 172
6.11.2 Ways to Minimize Radiation Exposure 172
6.12 Environmental Impact Assessment 173
6.12.1 Different Types of Impact Assessments 173
6.12.2 The Benefits of EIA 174
6.12.3 The EIA Process 175
6.12.4 Contents of a Typical Environmental Impact Assessment 175
6.12.5 Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation 176
6.13 Risk Management 177
6.14 Precautionary Principle 178
6.15 Polluter-Pays Principle 178
6.16 The Beneficiary-Pays Principle 178
6.17 The ISO 14000 Series of Environmental Management Standards 178
6.18 Economy and Environment 180
6.18.1 Environmental Economics 180
7. Human Population and the Environment 186
7.1 Population Growth 186
7.1.1 Population Variations among Nations 188
7.1.2 Population Pyramids 189
7.1.3 Problems of Population Growth 190
7.2 Human Rights 197
7.2.1 Human Rights as Inspiration and Empowerment 197
xiv Contents
7.2.2 Human Right Act, 1993 198

7.2.3 Amnesty International 203
7.3 Value Education 204
7.4 HIV/AIDS 205
7.4.1 Process of Infection 206
7.4.2 HIV Test 207
7.4.3 Transmission of HIV 207
7.4.4 Survival of HIV Outside the Body 208
7.4.5 HIV and AIDS in India 208
7.5 Environment and Human Health 209
7.5.1 A History of Pandemics 209
7.6 Family Welfare Programmes 209
7.7 Women and Child Welfare 210
7.7.1 Subjects Allocated to the Department 210
7.7.2 Child Development 211
7.8 Role of Information Technology in Environment and Human Health 212
Appendix 1 International Conventions and Protocols 218
Appendix 2 Glossary 223
Index 240
PREFACE
Introduction to the Course
A course on Environmental Studies or Environmental Science and Engineering is offered

with the intention of imparting an understanding of the impact of technological solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and to enable the students to demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development. Basic topics such as natural resources,
ecology, biodiversity, and environmental pollution are dealt in detail in this book. In
addition to these topics, the concept of sustainable development and population growth
related issues are also discussed.
Target Audience
This textbook is designed to cater to the needs of all the discerning learners of this course
at undergraduate level in Indian universities. Efforts are made to accommodate the widest
possible variations in the background of the students.
Objective of the Revision
Since the first edition of Environmental Studies, the level of environmental awareness
among the general public and graduate students of India have gone up extensively, and
hence it was felt that a lot of introductory explanations and details in the earlier edition
were becoming incongruous. The above perspective is the rationale behind this edition
and it is also kept in mind that the course on Environmental Studies should not be felt
as a difficult requirement or unnecessary academic hurdle by the students. The main
objective of this revision is to ease the learning curve and to reduce the amount of time to
complete the course successfully without omitting the core concepts. The strategy adopted
for attaining the above objective is the conversion of considerable amount of theory to
graphical representations. In addition to the above, facts and figures are updated based
on recent developments around the world.
xvi Preface
Roadmap to Target Courses
For courses offered in engineering programmes, all the topics dealt in this book may be
taken up with careful details. For other degree programmes, some of the topics such as
water treatment, wastewater treatment, air pollution control equipment, municipal solid
waste management, etc. may be dealt with a lesser rigorousness.
What is New in This Edition
A large number of illustrations and tables are added to this version for easy understanding
by converting the existing knowledge base. Every chapter is provided with learning
outcomes to make the learning process more focused and conclusion based.
Organization of the Book
Chapter 1 tries to sensitize the students about the importance of Environmental Studies
and its multidisciplinary nature. It also draws a broader picture of the role of human beings
in biosphere and major environmental issues that our planet is currently facing.
Chapter 2 deals in major natural resources such as water, forest, minerals and energy
resources. It also highlights the current issues affecting these natural resources and
possible ways for conservation. Topics relating to food security and land resources are
also discussed in detail.
Chapter 3 discusses ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles. The material and energy flow
in an ecosystem is illustrated and the same is compared with that of an anthroposystem.
Chapter 4 looks at biodiversity, its importance, threats to biodiversity, and conservation
efforts. India as a mega biodiverse nation is discussed and some of the endemic species
facing extinction are also highlighted.
Chapter 5 on environmental pollution discusses air, water, soil and marine pollution
in detail with their causes, effects and solutions. Some associated topics such as noise
pollution and thermal pollution are also discussed. The issue of management of municipal
solid waste and hazardous waste is illustrated in detail.
Chapter 6 introduces the concept of sustainable development and looks at the underlying
social concerns behind the environmental issues. Topics such as climate change and ozone
hole are dealt in detail here.
Preface xvii
Chapter 7 considers the universal issues relating to human population changes (both
growth and reduction) in various parts of the globe. Topics such as human rights, HIV and
value education are also dealt here.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to place on record his heartfelt thanks to the entire editorial team of
McGraw Hill Education, India, for their hand-holding during the revision process with a
special mention of Ms Piyali Chatterjee and Mr Atul Gupta. I would express my gratitude
to Ms Shobhika Puri for painstakingly making all the illustrations within the chapters.
I would also like to acknowledge various reviewers who took out time to review this book
and gave their valuable feedback and suggestions. Their names are given below.
Himanshu Sharma Meerut Institute of Engineering and Technology, Meerut,
Uttar Pradesh
Laiju A.R. National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand
Kritanjali Jaiswal Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management and Technology,
Guwahati, Assam
Arup Ratan Biswas Techno India University, Kolkata, West Bengal
Prasant Rath Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Manoj H. Mota Sharad Institute of Technology, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Thirumala Prasad Kota DVR & Dr. HS MIC College of Technology, Kanchikacherla,
Andhra Pradesh
H. Ramamohan Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Srikakulam,
Andhra Pradesh
Debapriya Dey MCKV Institute of Engineering, Howrah, West Bengal
Benny Joseph
VISUAL WALKTHROUGH
The readers can take a tour of this book through the visual walkthrough given below. It
highlights different elements present within the chapters and also gives a brief introduction
about them.
3 ECOLOGY
“The first law of ecology is that everything is related to everything else.”

Barry Commoner
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning Outcomes
Chapters are organized into multiple
learning objectives which help students
� Explain the concept of ecosystem and compare it with anthroposystem.
and instructors to indulge in planned � Illustrate the terms Food Chain, Food Web and Ecological Pyramid.
and focussed learning of concepts. � Sketch and explain the major biogeochemical cycles.
�
3.1 ECOSYSTEM
Ecology is the study of the relationship between organisms and their environment.
An ecosystem is a biotic assemblage of plants, animals, and microbes, taken together with
their physico-chemical environment. In an ecosystem the biological cycling of materials
Visual Walkthrough xix
FIGURES AND TABLES

The figures illustrate the various concepts
discussed in the chapter. This makes the
learning process stimulating. Details pertaining
to different concepts have been presented in
tabular form at various places.
A typical rainwater harvesting facilty for a building is shown in Fig. 6.4.
Fig. 6.4 Typical Rainwater Harvesting Facility for a Building
Table 2.2
Energy type Advantages Disadvantages

Renewable � Wide availability � Unreliable supply
� Lower running cost � Usually produced in small quantities
� Decentralized power production � Often very difficult to store
� Low pollution � Currently per unit cost of energy is
� Available for the foreseeable future more compared to other types
Non-renewable � Available in highly concentrated form � Highly polluting
� Easy to store � Available only in a few places
� Reliable supply � High running cost
� Lower cost per unit of energy produced � Limited supply and will one day get
as the technology is matured exhausted
Sustainable � Highly reliable � Risk of radioactivity
(Nuclear power) � Produces large amounts of energy � High waste disposal costs
with very little CO2 emissions � High capital investment and
� Uses small amount of raw material maintenance cost
per unit energy production
xx Visual Walkthrough
CASE STUDIES AND BURNING TOPICS

Latest case studies and burning topics are also
covered in book for better understanding of
different topics.
CASE Canada: Education, Migration, Divorce

STUDY Cause, Fall in Birth Rate
Canada’s birth rate fell to 10.5 births for every 1,000 people, down by 25% in the last decade of 20th
century. Women are having the same 1.5 babies that they’ve been having for the past 10 years but
there are fewer women in the fertile age group 25 to 30. Experts point to an array of factors, including
increasing education for women, the urbanization of society and the breakdown in family units. Where
a new generation was born every 20 years, it’s now closer to 30. When you increase the time between
generations, there will be fewer children. All agree that the fertility rate has seen a decline over the
last 40 years. One factor is higher education that has given women career opportunities that caused
women to delay pregnancies until their careers have been established. Education has also given women
better knowledge about birth control products. The move to urban living has an effect as agrarian
societies, babies are viewed as a source of future labour supply but in urban settings, children are
more likely to be economic drains on their parents. Urban parents rely on pension plans, rather than
their children. Many working class women are putting off children because they simply can’t afford
to support them. Family change, such as divorce, cohabitation and looseness of relationships, comes
with fewer children because there’s less security.
BURNING
Climate Change: An Inconvenient Truth
TOPIC
Weather is the mix of events that happen every day in our atmosphere including temperature, rainfall
and humidity. Climate is the average weather pattern in a place over many years.
Climates will change if the factors that influence them fluctuate. To change climate on a global scale,
either the amount of heat that is let into the system changes, or the amount of heat that is let out of
the system changes. For instance, warming climates are either due to increased heat let into the Earth
or a decrease in the amount of heat that is let out of the atmosphere.
In the early 19th century, scientists discovered that trace amounts of atmospheric gases, including
carbon dioxide and methane, were responsible for retaining some of the sun’s heat in the lower
atmosphere. They theorized that without these gases, the earth’s temperature would not support the
variety of life found on this planet. However, the huge amount of fossil fuels burned since the Industrial
Revolution has increased the atmospheric concentration of these gases and dramatically changed the
energy balance of the planet, retaining heat that otherwise would be radiated out into space. Like the
glass in a greenhouse, this raises the average air temperature in the lower atmosphere.
The gases responsible for this phenomenon are known as greenhouse gases (GHG). CO2 is the
major GHG and the other gases that could contribute this effect are identified as CH4, N2O, HFCs
(hydrofluorocarbons), PFCs (perfluorocarbons) and SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) (Fig. 6.11).
Visual Walkthrough xxi
CHAPTER-END EXERCISE
More than 400 chapter-end exercises are con-
structed to assess the student’s understanding
of concepts discussed in each chapter. These
are formed as objective-type questions, short-
answer questions and descriptive questions.
Answer to MCQs have been provided at the
end of each chapter.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Objective-Type Questions
1. As per the FAO definition the minimum percentage of depletion of tree crown
cover, that can be considered as deforestation is
(a) 50% (b) 60%
(c) 70% (d) 90%
2. Which of the following statements about the forest is not correct?
(a) Reduces soil erosion
(b) Provides recreational opportunities
(c) Provides a source of economic development
Short-Answer Questions
(d) None of the above
3. Which of the following1. type
Define
ofthe term extraction
timber deforestation.
is least damaging to the
environment? 2. Differentiate between deforestation and forest degradation.
(a) Clear felling 3. Cite examples for aesthetic, recreational, economic, historical, cultural and religious
(b) Reduced impact loggingvalues of forests around your place.
(c) Mechanized logging4. List the effects of deforestation.
(d) Hand logging
5. List the possible social impacts of mining on local communities.
6. Write a short note on the mineral resources of India.
7. Identify the core causes of currentt water crisis in the world.
8. Define meteorological drought.
Descriptive Questions
9. Define food security. 1. Describe the history of population growth on earth mentioning the factors
contributing to it.
10. Enumerate the desired qualities off an ideal pesticide.
2. Draw a typical population pyramid of a developing country and discuss how it is
11. Define organic farming. likely to differ from that of a developed country.
12. List the advantages of organic agriculture
riculture over thethe
3. Explain conventional one.problems posed by population explosion.
environmental
13. What are the major energy sourcess of4.planet earth?
Discuss the salient features of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by UN.
14. Differentiate between renewable, non-renewable
5. Explainand
thesustainable
steps that sources of energy
are being taken in India to impart value education from
with examples. school days.
h h l 6. Discuss the process of HIV infection.
7. What are the modes of transmission of HIV and how can it be prevented?
8. What are the steps that have to be taken to control the AIDS epidemic in India?
9. Discuss the role of Information Technology in the protection of environment
and human health.
Answers to Objective-Type Questions

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a)
8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (a)
15. (d)
xxii Visual Walkthrough
APPENDICES
∑ Book-end appendix will give the reader

knowledge about major International
Environmental Conventions and Environ-
mental Protocols.
∑ Glossary of technical terms frequently used APPENDIX INTERNATIONAL
in environmental science has been included
at the end of book. This will help readers
improve their vocabulary on the subject.
1 CONVENTIONS
AND
PROTOCOLS
In order to deal with regional and global environmental changes, it is necessary to develop
new scientific and political mechanisms that could operate at the international level. An
international convention is intended to build an international consensus that a particular
ecological, wildlife or pollution problem exists. The convention is worded in general terms
to allow all countries to “sign on” recognizing that the problem exists and that there is
some need for concern and multinational action.
Once a convention has been established, countries can then begin to negotiate specific
control actions. The protocol mechanisms allow large problems to be broken down into more
achievable steps. The protocol mechanism allows for a wide range of actions to be agreed
upon including the control
contr of emissions, the control of production, trade in substances of
concern, and financial aid
ai mechanisms. It would not be possible to negotiate all of these
items at one time or with
within one time frame but the protocol process allows for substantial
APPENDIX progress to be made in sspite of great complexities of the overall actions being taken.
The protocol process can virtually supersede the convention itself. In the case of
2 GLOSSARY
stratospheric ozone depletion,
dep
leading to the Montreal Protocol.
the Vienna Convention which was the umbrella agreement
I. MAJOR INTERNATIONAL
INTERN ENVIRONMENTAL
CONVENTIONS
CONVENTION
Ramsar Convention (Convention
(Co on Wetlands of International Importance especially
as Waterfowl Habitat)
Most of the waterfowl th
that inhabit marshes or swamps are migratory birds. International
cooperation to preserve
preserv the marshlands has been regarded as necessary in order to
A
Abiotic: A non-living (physical or chemical) component of the environment.
Abatement: The reduction in degree or intensity of pollution.
Acid rain: Precipitation which has a pH of less than 5.6.
Acute toxicity: Any poisonous effect produced within a short period of time, resulting in
severe biological harm and often, death.
Adsorption: The adhesion of a substance to the surface of a solid or liquid. Adsorption
is often used to extract pollutants, by causing them to be attached to adsorbents such as
activated carbon or silica gel. Hydrophobic, or water-repulsing adsorbents, are used to
extract oil from waterways in oil spills.
Advanced wastewater treatment: The removal of any dissolved or suspended contaminants
beyond secondary treatment. Often, it is the removal of the nutrients—nitrogen and/or
phosphorus.
Aeration: The process by which air is circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a
liquid or substance.
Aerobes: Organisms which require molecular oxygen as an electron acceptor for energy
production.
Agricultural pollution: The liquid and solid wastes from farming, including runoff from
pesticides, fertilizers, and feedlots; erosion and dust from plowing; animal manure and carcasses.
1 INTRODUCTION
“The earth provides enough to satisfy every person’s need but not every
person’s greed.”
Mahatma Gandhi
Learning Outcomes
On successful comple on of this chapter, students will be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding of the significance of environmental educa on.
Outline the Gaia theory in the context of environmentalism.
Comprehend the mul disciplinary nature of the course Environmental Studies.
Illustrate the components of the environment and its interac ons.
Outline the causes, effects and management op ons for various environmental
problems related to air, water and land.
1.1 GENERAL
Throughout history, humankind has adapted to the natural variations of the earth’s system
and its climate. However, in the last century, human population and consumption of
various natural resources have increased significantly and this essentially is the root cause
of all the environmental issues. Figure 1.1 shows some of the current impacts of human
activities on the environment.
2 Environmental Studies: Simplified
Fig. 1.1 Impacts of Human Activities on the Environment
Environmental awareness among the public and policymakers has been growing since
the 1960s, when it became widely recognized that human activities were having harmful
and largescale effects on the environment.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Environment is the physical and biotic habitat that surrounds us. Environmental issues
affect, and are affected by, all our activities to varying degrees. The need to have a
working knowledge of environmental issues is not confined to environmental scientists,
engineers and policymakers. In our society, all the educated citizens need to have a
working understanding of the fundamental principles involved in environmentally
Introduction 3
responsible decision-making to protect planet earth. Figure 1.2 lists some of the functions
of environmental education.
Fig. 1.2 Functions of Environmental Education
The following are some of the guiding principles and features suggested for effective
environmental education.
Environmental Education
Considers the environment in its totality, i.e., ecological, political, natural,
technological, sociological, aesthetic and built environments.
Develops awareness of the importance, beauty and wonders that can be found in
these aspects of the environment.
Explores not only the physical qualities of the human relationship with the
environment, but also the spiritual aspect of this relationship.
Is a response to the challenge of moving towards an ecologically and socially
sustainable world.
Is concerned with the interaction between the quality of the biophysical environment
and the socio-economic environment.
Transcends the division of knowledge, skills and attitudes by seeking commitment
to action in an informed manner to realistic sustainability.
Recognizes the value of local knowledge, practices and perceptions in enhancing
sustainability.
Supports relevant education by focusing on learning local environments.

Considers the global as well as the local environment. Since the world is a set of inter-
related systems, there is a need for a world perspective on environmental issues.
Focuses on current and future perspectives on environmental conditions.
Is interdisciplinary and can be taught through and used to enhance all subjects in
the curriculum.
Emphasizes participation in preventing and solving environmental problems and
revokes the passive accumulation of information about the environment.
Environmental literacy is the capability for a contextual and detailed understanding of an
environmental problem in order to enable analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and ultimately sound
and informed decision-making at a citizen’s level.
1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Environmental Engineering is one of the most complex and fastest growing disciplines
of Engineering. The scope of this field includes issues from public health protection to
aesthetics, and from impact on business development to the development of legislation,
standards, regulations, and guidelines, to their enforcement and environmental protection.
A challenging aspect of Environmental Engineering is the rapid changes in the field
due to the rate of knowledge increase in the fields of science, technology and health.
Figure 1.3 illustrates some of the core areas of Environmental Engineering.
Fig. 1.3 Some Core Areas of Environmental Engineering

Introduction 5
1.4 ENVIRONMENTALISM
Although it can be argued that environmental consciousness is ancient, and forms part of
many religions, it was not until the 1960s that environmentalism became an organized
force. The milestone marking the birth of the environmental movement was the publication
of the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson in 1962 in the USA. Silent Spring inspired a
new public awareness that human beings were harming the environment. Since the 1960s,
the movement has grown dramatically. In Silent Spring, Carson exposed the perils of the
indiscriminate use of pesticides, particularly DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane).
Fig. 1.4 Silent Spring by Rachel Carson – The book that marked the Birth of Environmental Movement
1.4.1 The Gaia Theory

Named after the Greek mother Earth goddess, Gaia, the theory was developed in the 1960s
by scientist Dr James Lovelock. This theory suggests a holistic view of the world, where all
life on earth interacts with the physical environment to form a complex system that can
be thought of as a single super organism. Thus, the earth acts as a superorganism with the
ability to regulate environmental conditions needed to sustain itself, as much as the human
body keeps its water content, temperature, and other conditions at a relatively constant
state to keep the body alive. Lovelock believed that the earth is a self-regulating system
and is able to keep its climate and chemical composition comfortable for living organisms.
In particular, it regulates the chemistry of the oceans, composition of the atmosphere and
the surface temperature. The film Avatar (2009) is an illustration of the Gaia theory where
a world (Pandora) functions like a single organism.
Fig. 1.5 Lovelock and the Gaia Theory
Fig. 1.6 Daisyworld Mathematical Model
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES—THE SUBJECT AND

ITS MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE
Environmental Studies is a distinct programme that gives the students an opportunity
to experience the interdisciplinary nature of the subject. Environmental Studies educate
students in the fundamentals of environmental and social sciences along with major
environmental issues.
An understanding of the working of the environment requires the knowledge from
wide-ranging fields. Table 1.1 shows a list of topics dealt commonly in air pollution and
Introduction 7
the related traditional fields of knowledge, illustrating the interdisciplinary nature of the
subject.
Table 1.1 Interdisciplinay Nature of the Subject—Air Pollution
Environmental issue/Topic Major subject/ Topic knowledge required

Nature and reactions of air pollutants Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
Effects of air pollutants on human beings, animals, Zoology and Botany and various branches of life
plants and materials science, Physics, and Chemistry
Effect of climate on air pollution Meteorology, Thermodynamics, Geography,
Mathematical modelling, etc.
Air pollution control devices Physics, Chemistry and various branches of
Engineering
History of air pollution and air pollution episodes History
Economic impacts of air pollution Economics, Demography
Sociological impacts of air pollution Sociology
Alternative fuels Various branches of physical sciences
Conservation of resources and pollution control Various branches of physical and political sciences
Ozone hole and global warming Almost every branch of study has got something to
contribute to the understanding of this phenomenon.
1.6 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND

THEIR INTERACTIONS
Chemicals on earth are distributed among four major environmental components or
conceptual spheres—atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. While such a
classification of nature is arbitrary, it helps in organizing and extending our knowledge of
distribution and flow of chemicals. A schematic representation of the four environmental
components and their interrelationships is shown in Fig. 1.7. The circles represent the
spheres and the curved arrows the flow pathways of the matter. In the diagram, circles
and curved arrows are used instead of boxes and straight line connections to emphasize
the close, dynamic, inseparable, organic coupling among the environmental components.
If one component or linkage changes, all other components respond. In this conceptual
frame, every sphere has a two-way linkage to every other sphere, including itself. The two-
way linkage signifies that the matter may flow from one component to another in both
directions. Some arrows show the transfer within a given component from one location
to another indicating movement of the substance from one physical location to another
without leaving the sphere. Since matter cannot be created or destroyed, the major objective
is to find the location and chemical form of the substance at any given time.
Fig. 1.7 Components of the Environment
Fig. 1.7(a) Atmosphere

Introduction 9
Fig. 1.7(b) Hydrosphere
Fig. 1.7(c) Lithosphere

Fig. 1.7(d) Biosphere
1.7 HUMANS AND THE BIOSPHERE

Humans are part of the biosphere, and human activities most closely resemble the functions
of the biosphere. Humans are responsible for the largescale redistribution of chemicals
on earth. Population explosion, coupled with increased per capita consumption of natural
resources, is the root cause of all the adverse human impacts on the biosphere.
The atmosphere and the hydrosphere are effective transporters of matter; and, as a
result, many of the anthropogenic chemicals are transferred to the land or the oceans
where they are subsequently incorporated in these long-term geochemical reservoirs.
Much of the environmental damage is done in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere
and biosphere during the transit from one long-term geochemical reservoir to another.
Introduction 11
1.8 IMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT ON THE

ENVIRONMENT
Over the years, in the name of development, man has been unscrupulously exploiting the
environmental resources and which, in turn, has resulted in many adverse effects on air,
water and land. The extent of impact is so much that it even threatens the very existence
of life on earth.
1.8.1 Environmental Impacts of Urbanization

Table 1.2 shows a list of adverse effects of urbanization on the various environmental
components such as atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Table 1.2 Environmental Impacts of Urbanization
Environmental Population Urban component

component (numbers and density) Land use Transportation Services
Atmosphere Increased release Increased average Air pollution Particulate matter
of CO2, decreased temperature for from combustion and noxious fumes
O2 production, as most urbanized of fuel creation from incinerators,
plant colonies areas. of photo- landfills and
are destroyed by chemical smog. sewage treatment
spreading urban plants.
areas.
Hydrosphere Greater demand on More intense use of Rain and Leaching of
water resources (both hydrologic resources surface waters pollutants
surface and ground causing increased polluted with from landfills.
water). pollution. lead. Drainage Discharges from
patterns sewage outfalls
altered by pollution from
infrastructure. boats.
Lithosphere Increased Complete changes Disruption or Sanitary landfill of
transformation due to construction, disfigurement of urban wastes and
of uninhabited landscaping, etc. landscape, etc. installation/repairs
agricultural or of services disturb
unutilized land to landscape.
urban uses.
Causes, effects and management options for various environmental problems related to
air, water and land are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Summary of Urban Environmental Issues and Options
Problem area Effects Causes Management options

Ambient air Health problems Industrialization Fuel pricing
pollution Economic costs from Increase in motorized Regulations, standards,
healthcare costs and fleet and congestion emissions charges
productivity losses Use of highly polluting Demand management
Amenity losses fuels Transport planning
(aesthetic, cultural, and Energy pricing policies Appropriate technology
recreational) Topography and climate (clean fuels, air
pollution control
equipment, etc.)
Indoor air Health problems Use of low-quality fuels Substitution of fuel and
pollution (chronic obstructed for cooking and heating equipment pricing
lung disease, acute (biomass and high Fuel switching
respiratory infections, sulphur coal) Building codes
low birth weights, Poorly ventilated Public education
cancer) dwellings and Tax hazardous products
Economic costs workplaces and processes
from healthcare and Passive smoking
productivity losses Cottage industry
activities
Surface water Health problems Pricing policies Regulations, standards,
pollution Economic costs Poor regulations and/or licensing, charges
(additional treatment, enforcement Improve monitoring
new sources of supply, Municipal and and enforcement
health costs) industrial waste Demand management
Amenity losses disposal practices and wastewater reuse
Urban runoff Appropriate technology
Irrigation practices Land use controls
Waste management
Groundwater Reduced water quality Pricing policies Regulation, standards,
pollution from saline intrusion Poor regulations and/or licensing charges
depletion Health impacts enforcement Waste management
Economic costs Unsustainable Appropriate technology
extraction (rain water harvesting)
Sanitation, municipal Demand management
and industrial waste Controls on land
disposal practices use and sources of
Poor demand infiltration
management
(Contd.)
Introduction 13
Table 1.3 (Contd.)

Coastal/lake Health effects due to Unclear property rights Regulations, standards,
pollution contaminated seafood Poor regulations and/or licensing charges
and direct contact enforcement Appropriate technology
Loss of recreational Municipal and Coastal zone
resources and tourism industrial waste management and
revenues disposal practices preservation
Damage to fisheries Disposal of shipboard Shipping facilities
Amenity losses wastes Waste management
Eutrophication Land use control
Degradation of Declining agricultural Changes in relative Internalize ecological
land productivity value of land uses value in land prices
Reduced renewable Uncontrolled urban Designate special areas
resource base growth for management
(deforestation, lost soil Unclear property rights Local participation
fertility) Mining and quarrying Clarify property rights
Erosion and siltation activities Economic resource
Amenity losses Land disposal of pricing
Loss of natural habitat municipal and Land use controls
and species industrial wastes
Loss of cultural Loss of heritage Lack of regulation and/ Internalize costs of
and historical Loss of tourism or enforcement loss in redevelopment
property revenues Air pollution planning
Damage to culturally Land subsidence and Tax incentives for
values buildings, poor drainage preservation
monuments, natural Zone and building codes
sites Pollution control
Degradation of Health hazards Failure to anticipate Public education
ecosystems Resettlement costs effects in planning and Internalize costs of
Loss of habitat and development rural degradation
species Pricing policies Resource pricing
Air, water, and land Lack of rural political Clarify property rights
pollution power
Municipal solid Household costs related Poor management Private sector delivery
wastes to blocked drainage and (improper collection of collection and
flooding and disposal, little disposal
Water pollution from resource recovery) Waste minimization
leachates Pricing (no cost recovery) (recycling, recovery,
Air pollution from Disposal impacts source reduction)
burning external to the Regulations, standards,
Amenity losses community licensing, charges
Input pricing Institutional
Expanded coverage strengthening
(Contd.)
Table 1.3 (Contd.)

Hazardous wastes Surface, ground, coastal Inadequate regulations Regulations, standards,
water contamination and/or enforcement licensing and standards
Related health, economic No incentives for Improve monitoring
and resource impacts treatment and enforcement
Accumulation of toxics in Input pricing for waste- Treatment and disposal
the food chain producing industries incentives
Reduced property values Low visibility, Economic input pricing
nonlinear, long-term Waste minimization
effects Marginal cost pricing
Dispersed small-scale Special incentives for
and cottage industries small-scale generators
Privatization of
treatment and disposal
operations
Natural and man- Health effects (death, Natural forces Reduce constraints on
made hazards injuries) Land market failures supply of usable land
Economic costs (loss (lack of alternatives for Appropriate incentives
of lives, property, squatters, artificially (prices, taxes, tenure,
infrastructure) constrained supply) housing finance)
Land degradation Land policies (no Land use controls
(flooding, landslides, taxation, no/ Improve knowledge
earthquakes) unenforced protection about risks and
Amenity losses of high risk lands) alternatives
Poor construction
practices
Inadequate Health impacts Inappropriate technology Gear sanitation options
sanitation (diarrhoeal diseases, Pricing (no cost recovery) to willingness to pay
parasites, high infant Poor management Community approaches
mortality, malnutrition) (lack of operations Cost recovery
Related economic costs and maintenance, Hygiene education
Eutrophication uncoordinated
Amenity losses investments)
Inadequate hygiene
education
Inadequate Health effects Inadequate hygiene Community
drainage Property damage education management of
Accidents Increased urban maintenance
Reduced urban runoff due to Strategic investment in
productivity (shutdown impermeabilization and drainage
of business, transport upstream deforestation Land use controls and
systems) Occupation of low-lying market liberalization
lands Solid waste
management
Introduction 15
Table 1.4 Pros and Cons of Biofuels
Biofuels
Pros Cons
Promoted as a planetfriendly, renewable source of Critics argue that biofuel production takes valuable
energy. agricultural land.
Substitute for coal and oil. Sugarcane cultivation encroaches on wildlife habitat,
degrades soil and causes pollution when fields are
burned.
Burn cleaner and produce less greenhouse gas than Causes destruction of rain forests.
fossil fuels.
Farmers can produce them domestically, reducing About 70% more energy is required to produce
dependence on foreign sources of oil. ethanol than the energy that actually is in ethanol.
Fig. 1.8 Composition and Examples of Biofuel
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Objective-Type Questions
1. Who is the author of the book ‘Silent Spring’?
(a) Robin Cook (b) Arthur Hailey
(c) Rachel Carson (d) Charles Darwin
2. DDT is
(a) not soluble in water (b) more soluble in fat than water
(c) less soluble in fat than water (d) not soluble in fat
3. Which of the following scientists rediscovered DDT in 1939?
(a) Paul Hermann Müller (b) Madam Curie
(c) Rachel Carson (d) Alexander Fleming
4. POPs is
(a) Persistent Oxidizing Pollutants
(b) Permanent Organic Pesticides
(c) Persistent Organic Pesticides
(d) Persistent Organic Pollutants
5. Who proposed the Gaia theory?
(a) Rachel Carson (b) James Lovelock
(c) Charles Darwin (d) William Golding
6. The objective of environmental education is
(a) to raise consciousness about environmental conditions
(b) to teach environmentally appropriate behaviour
(c) to create an environmental ethic that fosters awareness about the ecological
inter-dependence of economic, social and political factors in a human
community and the environment
(d) all of the above
7. Which of the following is not influenced by human activities?
(a) Depletion of ground water
(b) Destruction of mangroves and wetlands
(c) Increased extinction rates of species
(d) None of the above
8. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) was signed in
the year
(a) 1999 (b) 1998
(c) 2000 (d) 2001
9. Which of the following statements about environmental education is false?
(a) Environmental education is evolving to be education for sustainable and
ethical development both at local and global levels.
(b) Environmental education will prepare the next generation to plan appropriate
strategies for addressing developmental environmental issues.
Introduction 17
(c) Environmental education does not advocate a particular viewpoint or course

of action.
(d) Environmental education is essential for the younger generation only.
10. Which of the following conceptual spheres of the environment is having the least
storage capacity for matter?
(a) Atmosphere (b) Lithosphere
(c) Hydrosphere (d) Biosphere
11. Which of the following components of the environment are effective transporters
of matter?
(a) Atmosphere and hydrosphere (b) Atmosphere and lithosphere
(c) Hydrosphere and lithosphere (d) Lithosphere and hydrosphere
12. Which of the following one is not related to the loss of productivity of croplands?
(a) Desertification (b) Waterlogging
(c) Salt buildup in topsoil (d) None of the above
13. Biosphere is
(a) the solid shell of inorganic materials on the surface of the earth
(b) the thin shell of organic matter on the surface of the earth comprising all the
living things
(c) the sphere which occupies the maximum volume of all the spheres
(d) all of the above
14. Which of the following is an example of impact of developmental activities on the
hydrosphere?
(a) Air pollution (b) Soil pollution
(c) Soil erosion (d) Water pollution
15. Global atmospheric temperatures are likely to be increased due to
(a) burning of fossil fuels (b) water pollution
(c) soil erosion (d) none of the above
16. Which of the following is a management option for air pollution?
(a) Regulations and standards (b) Emission charges
(c) Transport planning (d) All of the above
Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the factors that have led to the increased resource consumption on earth
in recent years?
2. Define the term “environment”.

3. What are the major objectives of environmental education?
4. Define environmental literacy.
5. List the instances pointing to the fact that humans have significantly affected the
earth’s natural systems.
6. What is the role of science and engineering in the protection of the environment?
7. Why is it beneficial to follow a student-centered and participatory process for
environmental education?
8. List the pesticides polluting the environment in your locality.
9. Why is the ban on DDT not imposed in certain parts of the world?
10. List the four conceptual spheres in the earth’s environment.
11. Differentiate between biosphere and lithosphere.
12. What are the impacts of urbanization on atmosphere?
13. Differentiate between conveyor and reservoir.
14. What are the impacts of urbanization on hydrosphere?
15. List the causes, effects and management options for the following environmental
issues.
∑ Air pollution
∑ Water pollution
∑ Land degradation
∑ Loss of cultural and historical property
∑ Degradation of ecosystems
∑ Municipal solid waste management
∑ Hazardous waste management
∑ Inadequate drainage and sanitation
Descriptive Questions
1. Explain the importance of environmental education in the present-day context.
2. Explain the scope of environmental engineering.
3. ‘Knowledge about the environment is not an end, but rather a beginning.’ Explain.
4. List the types of environmental engineering taking place around your locality and
analyze its root causes.
5. Explain the scope of environmental engineering.
Introduction 19
6. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the flow of matter among the various
components of the environment.
7. Explain the role of human beings in the grand-scale redistribution of chemicals on
earth.
8. List the major urban environmental issues in India.
9. Explain the components of environment and their major interactions.
10. Explain the impact of urbanization on the environment.
11. Explain the causes, effects and management options for the various urban
environmental issues.
12. What are the impacts of urbanization on the air quality in your locality?
13. What are the major obstacles in maintaining air quality in your locality?
14. Explain the impact of land use changes on the water quality of your nearest river.
15. If environmenal degradation is considered as a side-effect of development, express
your views on the current pattern of development activities in India.
16. ‘Biofuel is a cure worse than the disease.’ Comment on the statement.
17. Conduct a survey and find out how chemicals and various materials are distributed/
cycled in your campus.
Answers to Objective-Type Questions

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d)
8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d)
15. (a) 16. (d)
2 NATURAL
RESOURCES
“ Adopt the pace of nature: her secret is patience.”

Ralph Waldo Emerson
Learning Outcomes
On successful comple on of this chapter, students will be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding of the significance of forest resources and the major threats to it
such as mining and dams.
Summarize the water resources of the planet and discuss the topics such as drought and conflicts
over water.
Explain the terms Food Resources and Food Security in the context of modern-day agriculture.
Compare and contrast various energy resources.
2.1 FOREST RESOURCES

Due to rapid urbanization, the area of forest is decreasing all over the world. The protection
of forest resources is essential for the survival of our species. This section explains the
components, benefits and uses of forest to underline the necessity of protection of forest
resources.
Natural Resources 21
Figure 2.1 depicts the various living and non-living components of a natural forest.
Fig. 2.1 Components of Forest

2.1.1 Key Benefits of Intact Forests

The following is a list of key uses and benefits of intact forests.
Fig. 2.2 Some Uses and Benefits of Forests for Humans
2.1.2 Deforestation
Deforestation refers to the loss of forest cover; land that is permanently converted from
forest to agricultural land, golf courses, cattle pasture, homes, lakes, or desert. The depletion
of forest tree crown cover less than 90% is considered forest degradation. Logging most
often falls under the category of forest degradation and thus is not included in deforestation
Natural Resources 23
statistics. Therefore forest degradation rates are considerably higher than deforestation
rates.
If the current rate of deforestation continues, the world’s forests will vanish within the
next 100 years—causing unknown effects on global climate and eliminating the majority
of plant and animal species on the planet.
2.1.3 Causes of Deforestation

The causes of deforestation are very complex. A competitive global economy drives the need
for money in economically weak developing countries. At the national level, governments
sell timber to raise money for projects, to pay international debt, or to develop industry.
Fig. 2.3 Major Causes of Deforestation
2.1.4 Effects of Deforestation

Since many people are dependent on the world’s forests, deforestation will have many social,
economic and ecological effects. The major effects of deforestation on the environment
are classified and illustrated in Fig. 2.4.
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THE KIND BROTHER.
Boy. Where is James.

Lady. He is in the house; you may go to him there.
Boy. If you please, I like to stay here.
Lady. What shall we do?
Boy. I wish to have my knife and a stick; then with this small piece
of board I will make a chair for Jane’s doll.
Lady. That will please Miss Jane; that piece will do for a couch;
you might stuff it with wool.
Boy. I wish I could; pray will you teach me how to do it?
Lady. If you make the frame well, I will stuff it for you.
Boy. Thank you; I think Jane will dance for joy.
Lady. She does not dream of such a nice chair; stay, this is the
right way to cut it; you must not notch it so.
Boy. I think I hear Jane’s voice; I would not have her come till it is
done. Will she thank me?
Lady. Yes, sure; she ought to thank you.
Boy. Why does she sleep in the day?
Lady. She is a babe—you slept at noon, when you were so young.
Boy. Now I do not sleep till night. I hear my ducks; what do you
quack for?—May I fetch them some bread? Here is a crust which I
left; pray may I give it to them?
Lady. If it be clean, some poor child would be glad of it; that is a
large piece—We will give chaff to the ducks.
Boy. This bread is made of wheat; wheat grows in the earth; wheat
is a grain. I am to see Tom bind a sheaf: and when Tom goes home
to shear his sheep, I am to see him. He will throw them in a pond:
plunge them in! Our cloth is made of wool; how can they weave
cloth, and how can they stain it? How light this chair will be! it will not
weigh much.
Lady. Who heard the clock; I meant to count it. I left my watch in
my room.
Boy. Why did you leave it?
Lady. The chain was broken last night.
Boy. I like to have my couch of green. Jane loves green. What do
you call this?
Lady. A blush, or faint bloom; some call it bloom of peach; it is
near white. That is quite white.
Boy. May I sit on the grass? I love to sit in the shade, and read my
book.
Lady. The earth is as dry as a floor now.
Boy. If I could reach those sweet peas I would get some seed;
they are such nice round balls. Jane likes them to play with.
Lady. You may go now and fetch a quill for me; do not put it in your
mouth. While you go, I shall go on with the work.
THE BEES.
A little girl was eating her supper; it was bread and milk, with some
honey. “Pray,” said the little girl, “who makes honey for my supper?”
Mother. The bees collect it.
Girl. Where do they find it?
Mother. In the flowers.
Girl. Where do the bees live?
Mother. Those which supply us with honey, live in a hive.
Girl. What is it made of?
Mother. Ours are made of straw.
Girl. Pray, mamma, tell me a great deal about the bees, whilst I eat
my milk.
Mother. In the night, and when the weather is cold, they keep in
the hive. When the sun shines, and the days are warm, they fly
abroad. They search far and near for such flowers as supply them
with honey or wax. Of the wax they make cells which we call comb.
In some of the cells they lay up stores of honey to support them in
the winter, when they can not venture out to seek for food. In some
of the cells they nurse their young ones, who have no wings. They
are very neat creatures; they keep the hive quite clean. They carry
out the dead bees.
THE FLIES.
The next morning this same little girl was eating her breakfast. It
chanced that the maid had let fall a drop of honey as she mixed her
milk; and a fly came and stood on the edge of her basin to suck it.
The good child laid aside her spoon to avoid frightening the poor
fly.
What is the matter, Sarah? are you not hungry?
Yes, mamma; but I would not hinder this little fly from getting his
breakfast.
Good child! said her mother, rising from her tea; we will look at him
as he eats. See how he sucks through his long tube. How pleased
he is!
Mother, can not flies make honey? said the little girl.
“No,” said her father, “they are like you, they can not make honey,
but they are very fond of eating it.”
What do flies do, father?
Father. They are as idle as any little girl of you all; they frisk and
buzz about all the summer, feeding upon what is made by others.
Girl. And in winter what do they do?
Father. Creep into some snug corner.
Girl. But what do they eat then?
Father. They sleep, and want no food.
THE SPIDER.
A little boy saw a spider; its legs were all packed close to its body;
the boy thought it was a bit of dirt, and was going to pick it up.
His father stopped him, lest he should chance to hurt the spider;
he told him that the poor creature had rolled himself up from fear;
that if he stood still he would soon see the spider move.
The little boy kept close and quiet some time, watching the spider;
he saw it unfold one leg, then another, till at last they were all loose,
and away it ran. Then the little boy ran after his father, and heard the
history of spiders.
He told him a great deal about them. Then he talked to him of
other insects, which disguise themselves to escape the dangers
which they meet with.
He picked up a wood-louse, and laid it gently in his little hand.
There, said he, you see the wood-louse roll itself into a little ball, like
a pea: let it lie awhile and when it thinks that you do not observe it—
Boy. Ah! it unrolls.—O! it will run away: shall I not hold it?
Father. No, my dear, you would hurt it.
Boy. I would not hurt any creature.
Father. No! surely—He who made you, made all creatures to be
happy.
THE BIRD.
A boy was walking with his mother; he saw a bird fly past, with
some food in its mouth.
Boy. Is not that bird hungry? for I see that he carries his meat fast
in his mouth.
Mother. She is a mother bird, and has young ones in her nest.
Boy. Who makes the nest?
Mother. The old birds.
Boy. How do they make the nests?
Mother. Some make their nests of sticks; some of dry leaves;
some use clay; some straw: they use all sorts of things; each kind of
bird knows what is fit for its use.
Boy. What do they make nests for?
Mother. To nurse their young in.
Boy. And are they warm?
Mother. The old birds line them with moss, with wool, or with
feathers, to make them warm and soft.
Boy. Where do they get all these things?
Mother. They fly a great way to fetch them; and sometimes they
pluck their own breasts to supply down for their young to lie upon.
Boy. How kind they are!
Mother. So kind are good parents to their children.
Boy. Pray why do the birds sing?
Mother. One old bird sings whilst one sits on the eggs.
Boy. Why do they sit on the eggs?
Mother. To keep them warm, so that they may hatch.
Boy. What do you mean by that, pray, mother?
Mother. The young birds break the shells and come out.
Boy. What do they do then? do they fly?
Mother. Not at first: babes, you know, cannot walk.
Boy. But what do young birds do?
Mother. They lie in the nests, and gape for food.
Boy. And do they get it?
Mother. The old birds fly far and near to fetch it. You saw one with
some in its bill.
Boy. I see a bird now with some in its mouth.
Mother. Do not make a noise, lest you fright the poor thing.—
Hush! hush!—let us creep gently, and see the bird go to her nest.
They saw the bird alight on a bush just by: she hopped from twig
to twig till she got to the nest: she gave the little worm which she had
in her beak to her young, and then flew away in search of more.
Boy. Now may I talk?
Mother. Yes, my dear;—are you not pleased to see the birds?
Boy. Yes, mother.—When will the little ones fly?
Mother. When they have got all their feathers.
Boy. How will they learn?
Mother. The old birds will teach them to fly as I taught you to walk.
Boy. I hope the little birds will always love their mothers. I shall
always love you; mother, pray kiss me.
THE HAPPY FAMILY.
There were eight boys and girls of the name of Freelove; their kind
parents taught them to do as they were bid in all things. They were
the happiest children in the world; for, being used to control, they
thought it no hardship to obey their friends. When one of them had a
mind to do anything, and was not sure whether it would be right, he
went in to inquire, and was always content with the answer. If it was
proper, he was certain to have leave: and if it was not proper, he had
no longer a wish to do it, but was glad that he had asked.
Mr. and Mrs. Freelove took great pains with their children, and
taught them, as soon as they could learn, all that was proper for their
age; and they took delight in learning, so that it was a pleasure to
teach them.
Such a family is the most pleasing scene upon earth.
The children were all very fond of each other. No one had an idea
of feeling joy in which the rest did not share. If one child had an
apple, or a cake, he always parted it into eight pieces; and the owner
kept the smallest for himself; and when any little treasure was given
which could not be so divided, the rest were summoned to see it, to
play with it, and to receive all the pleasure which it could afford.
The little folks were fond of books: the elder ones would often lay
aside their own, to read aloud to the younger ones in such as were
suited to them. In short, they were a family of perfect love. Each boy
had a little piece of ground for a garden, in which he might work to
amuse himself. It would have made you smile to see how earnest
they were at their work—digging, planting, weeding, and sometimes
they had leave to water. Each was ready to lend any of his tools to
his brother. Each was happy to assist in any plan, if his brother
needed help.
The boys did the chief work in their sisters’ gardens; and their
greatest joy was to present little nosegays to their mother and
sisters.
There were sheep kept upon the lawn; the pretty creatures were
so tame that they would eat out of a person’s hand. You may believe
that the children were very fond of feeding them; they often gave
them their little barrow full of greens. There was no danger of the
little folks not thinking to perform so pleasing a task as this. One day
George was reading aloud to a younger brother, whose name was
William—‘Do as you would be done by.’
William. Pray what does that mean?
George. I will show you now; you hear the sheep bleat.
So he ran and got some greens, and gave to the sheep.
George. You see what it is to do as we would be done by; the poor
sheep are hungry and I feed them.
William. I should like to feed them; but I have no greens.
George. Here are some of mine: take some, and give to them.
William. I thank you, brother; now you do to me as you would wish
to be done by.
The next day, William saw a poor woman standing on the outside
of the iron gates. She looked pensive; and the child said:
What do you want, poor woman?
Woman. A piece of bread; for I have had none to eat.
William had a bit in his hand; he had just begun to eat it. He
stopped, and thought to himself—If I had nothing to eat, and I saw a
person who had a great piece of bread, what should I wish?—that he
should give me some. So the good child broke off all but a very little
bit, (for he was very hungry) and said,
You shall have this bread which the maid gave me just now. We
should ‘do as we would be done by.’
Good boy! said his mother, who chanced to pass that way, come
and kiss me. William ran to his dear mother, and hugged her; saying,
I am never so happy as when you say, good boy.
Mother. I was seeking for Mary to tell her that Mrs. Lovechild has
sent to have you all go with us: but for your reward, you shall carry
the message to the rest. Go; I know it will give you great pleasure to
rejoice your brothers and sisters.
THE FAIR.
James and Edward Franklin, with their Sisters, had leave to walk
about, and amuse themselves in a fair. They saw a great many
people who seemed very happy, many children merry and joyous,
jumping about, and boasting of their toys. They went to all the stalls
and bought little presents for those who were at home. They saw
wild beasts; peeped in show-boxes; heard drums, trumpets, fiddles,
and were as much pleased with the bustle around them, as you, my
little reader, would have been, had you been there.
Mrs. Franklin had desired them not to ride in a Merry-go-round,
lest they should fall and hurt themselves.
Did you ever see a Merry-go-round? If you never passed through
a country fair, I dare say you never did.
As they passed by, the children who were riding called, “will you
ride? will you ride?”
James. No, I thank you, we may not.
Edward. I should like it, if I might.
One girl called, “See how we ride!” One said, “O! how charming
this is!” One boy said, “You see we do not fall!”
James. I am not fearful; but my mother forbade us to ride.
One boy shouted aloud, “Come, come, you must ride; it will not be
known at home. I was bid not to ride, but you see I do.”
Just as he spoke, the part upon which he sat broke, and down he
fell.
In another part of the fair, the boys saw some children tossed
about in a Toss-about.
They were singing merrily the old nurse’s ditty:
“Now we go up, up, up,
“Now we go down, down, down,
“Now we go backward and forward,
“Now we go round, round, round.”
The voices sounded pleasantly to Ned’s ear; his heart danced to

the notes; jumping, he called to his brother James, “Dear James!
look! if I thought our mother would like it, I would ride so.”
James. My dear Ned! I am sure that mother would object to our
riding in that.
Ned. Did you ever hear her name the Toss-about?
James. I am certain that if she had known of it, she would have
given us the same caution as she did about the Merry-go-round.
Ned paused a moment; then said, “How happy am I to have an
elder brother who is so prudent!”
James replied—“I am not less happy that you are willing to be
advised.”
When they returned home, each was eager to relate his brother’s
good conduct; each was happy to hear his parents commend them
both.
THE STUBBORN CHILD.
Mr. Steady was walking out with his little son, when he met a boy
with a satchel on his shoulder, crying and sobbing dismally. Mr.
Steady accosted him, kindly inquiring what was the matter.
Mr. Steady. Why do you cry?
Boy. They send me to school: and I do not like it.
Mr. Steady. You are a silly boy! what! would you play all day?
Boy. Yes, I would.
Mr. Steady. None but babies do that; your friends are very kind to
you.—If they have not time to teach you themselves, then it is their
duty to send you where you may be taught; but you must take pains
yourself, else you will be a dunce.
Little Steady. Pray, may I give him my book of fables out of my
pocket?
Mr. Steady. Do, my dear.
Little Steady. Here it is—it will teach you to do as you are bid—I
am never happy when I have been naughty—are you happy?
Boy. I cannot be happy; no person loves me.
Little Steady. Why?
Mr. Steady. I can tell you why; because he is not good.
Boy. I wish I was good.
Mr. Steady. Then try to be so; it is easy; you have only to do as
your parents and friends desire you.
Boy. But why should I go to school?
Mr. Steady. Good children ask for no reasons; a wise child knows
that his parents can best judge what is proper; and unless they
choose to explain the reason of their orders, he trusts that they have
a good one; and he obeys without inquiry.
Little Steady. I will not say why again, when I am told what to do;
but will always do as I am bid immediately. Pray, sir, tell the story of
Miss Wilful.
Mr. Steady. Miss Wilful came to stay a few days with me; now she
knew that I always would have children obey me: so she did as I
bade her; but she did not always do a thing as soon as she was
spoken to; and would often whine out why?—that always seems to
me like saying—I think I am as wise as you are; and I would disobey
you if I durst.
One day I saw Miss Wilful going to play with a dog, with which I
knew it was not proper for her to meddle; and I said. Let that dog
alone.
Why? said Miss—I play with Wag, and I play with Phillis, and why
may I not play with Pompey.
I made her no answer—but thought she might feel the reason
soon.
Now the dog had been ill-used by a girl, who was so naughty as to
make a sport of holding meat to his mouth and snatching it away
again; which made him take meat roughly, and always be surly to
girls.
Soon after Miss stole to the dog, held out her hand as if she had
meat for him, and then snatched it away again. The creature
resented this treatment, and snapped at her fingers. When I met her
crying, with her hand wrapped in a napkin. “So,” said I, “you have
been meddling with the dog! Now you know why I bade you let
Pompey alone.”
Little Steady. Did she not think you were unkind not to pity her? I
thought—do not be displeased, father—but I thought it was strange
that you did not comfort her.
Mr. Steady. You know that her hand was not very much hurt, and
the wound had been dressed when I met her.
Little Steady. Yes, father, but she was so sorry!
Mr. Steady. She was not so sorry for her fault, as for its
consequences.
Little Steady. What, father?
Mr. Steady. Her concern was for the pain which she felt in her
fingers; not for the fault which had occasioned it.
Little Steady. She was very naughty, I know; for she said that she
would get a pair of thick gloves, and then she would tease Pompey.
Mr. Steady. Naughty girl! how ill-disposed! then my lecture was
lost upon her. I bade her while she felt the smart, resolve to profit by
Pompey’s lesson; and learn to believe that her friends might have
good reasons for their orders; though they did not think it proper
always to acquaint her with them.
Little Steady. I once cut myself with a knife which I had not leave
to take; and when I see the scar, I always consider that I ought not to
have taken the knife.
Mr. Steady. That, I think, is the school-house; now go in, and be
good.
THE PICTURES.
Mrs. Lovechild had one room in her house fitted up with books,
suited to little people of different ages.—She had likewise toys, but
they were such as would improve, as well as amuse her little friends.
The book-room opened into a gallery, which was hung with prints
and pictures, all chosen with a view to children. All designed to teach
little folks while they were young; in order that when they grew up,
they might act worthily.
There were written accounts of each picture, with which her
ladyship would often indulge good children.
Sometimes she walked about herself and explained a few of the
pictures to her little guests.
One day I chanced to be present when she was showing a few of
them to a little visiter; and I think my young reader may like to hear
what passed.
Mrs. Lovechild. That is Miss Goodchild.—I have read an account
of her, written by her mother.
Miss. Pray, madam, what was it?
Mrs. Lovechild. It is too long to repeat now, my dear; but I will tell
you a part.—She was never known to disobey her parents; never
heard to contradict her brothers or sisters; nor did she ever refuse to
comply with any request of theirs.—I wish you to read her character,
for she was a pattern of goodness.
Miss. Pray, madam, was she pretty?
Mrs. Lovechild. She had a healthful color: and her countenance
was sweet, because she was always good-humored.—That smile on
her mouth seems to say—I wish you all happy; but it was not for her
beauty, but her goodness, that she was beloved: and on that account
only did I wish for her picture.
Miss. Pray, madam, why is that boy drawn with a frog in his hand?
Mrs. Lovechild. In memory of a kind action which he did to a poor
harmless frog.—You shall hear the whole story.—I was taking my
morning walk pretty early one day, and I heard a voice say, “Pray do
not kill it; I will give you this penny, it is all I have, and I shall not mind
going without my breakfast, which I was to have bought with it.”
“You shall not lose your meal!” exclaimed I; “nor you, naughty
boys, the punishment which you deserve for your cruel intention.”
Miss. Pray, madam, what was the good boy’s name?
Mrs. Lovechild. Mildmay! he was always a friend to the helpless.
Miss. How cruel it is in a great boy to be a tyrant!
Mrs. Lovechild. Dunces are often cruel.—My young friend
redeemed a linnet’s nest from a stupid school-fellow, by helping him
in his exercise every day for a fortnight, till the little birds were flown.
Here a servant entered the gallery, and announced company,
which put an end to Mrs. Lovechild’s account of the picture.
THE HEDGE-HOG.
Master William Gentle was riding on the back of his dog Cæsar,
when his grandfather called to him and invited him to take a walk.
They went out together, and as they were walking, they met some
boys who had a hedge-hog, which they were going to hunt.—Mr.
Gentle ordered them to release it.—The boys pleaded that the
hedge-hog would injure the farmers by sucking their cows, and that it
therefore ought to be killed.

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Environmental Studies 3rd Edition

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education Ofﬁces

Environmental Studies: Simplified, 3e

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

Managing Director: Kaushik Bellani

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

4.5 Value of Biodiversity 82

5.2.3 Point and Non-point Sources 106

5.8.10 Chemical Incompatibilities 137

6.9.2 Solutions for Global Warming 167

7.2.2 Human Right Act, 1993 198

A course on Environmental Studies or Environmental Science and Engineering is offered

Objective of the Revision

Roadmap to Target Courses

What is New in This Edition

Organization of the Book

“The first law of ecology is that everything is related to everything else.”

FIGURES AND TABLES

A typical rainwater harvesting facilty for a building is shown in Fig. 6.4.

Fig. 6.4 Typical Rainwater Harvesting Facility for a Building

Energy type Advantages Disadvantages

CASE STUDIES AND BURNING TOPICS

CASE Canada: Education, Migration, Divorce

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

∑ Book-end appendix will give the reader

Fig. 1.1 Impacts of Human Activities on the Environment

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Fig. 1.2 Functions of Environmental Education

Supports relevant education by focusing on learning local environments.

1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Fig. 1.3 Some Core Areas of Environmental Engineering

1.4.1 The Gaia Theory

Fig. 1.5 Lovelock and the Gaia Theory

Fig. 1.6 Daisyworld Mathematical Model

1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES—THE SUBJECT AND

Environmental issue/Topic Major subject/ Topic knowledge required

1.6 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND

Fig. 1.7 Components of the Environment

Fig. 1.7(a) Atmosphere

Fig. 1.7(b) Hydrosphere

Fig. 1.7(c) Lithosphere

Fig. 1.7(d) Biosphere

1.7 HUMANS AND THE BIOSPHERE

1.8 IMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT ON THE

1.8.1 Environmental Impacts of Urbanization

Environmental Population Urban component

Table 1.3 Summary of Urban Environmental Issues and Options

Problem area Effects Causes Management options

Table 1.3 (Contd.)

Table 1.3 (Contd.)

Table 1.4 Pros and Cons of Biofuels

Fig. 1.8 Composition and Examples of Biofuel

(c) Environmental education does not advocate a particular viewpoint or course

2. Define the term “environment”.

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

“ Adopt the pace of nature: her secret is patience.”

2.1 FOREST RESOURCES

Fig. 2.1 Components of Forest

2.1.1 Key Beneﬁts of Intact Forests

Fig. 2.2 Some Uses and Beneﬁts of Forests for Humans

2.1.3 Causes of Deforestation

Fig. 2.3 Major Causes of Deforestation