Full Transport Processes and Separation Technologies J.M.P.Q. Delgado Ebook All Chapters

Full download test bank at ebook textbookfull.
com
Transport Processes and Separation
CLICK LINK TO DOWLOAD
https://textbookfull.com/product/transport-
processes-and-separation-technologies-j-m-p-
q-delgado/
textbookfull
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Hygrothermal Behaviour and Building Pathologies

J.M.P.Q. Delgado
https://textbookfull.com/product/hygrothermal-behaviour-and-
building-pathologies-j-m-p-q-delgado/
Case Studies in Building Rehabilitation J.M.P.Q.

Delgado
https://textbookfull.com/product/case-studies-in-building-
rehabilitation-j-m-p-q-delgado/
Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles

5th Edition Christie John Geankoplis
https://textbookfull.com/product/transport-processes-and-
separation-process-principles-5th-edition-christie-john-
geankoplis/
Rotary Kilns, Second Edition: Transport Phenomena and

Transport Processes Boateng
https://textbookfull.com/product/rotary-kilns-second-edition-
transport-phenomena-and-transport-processes-boateng/
Separation Processes in Biotechnology First Edition
Asenjo
https://textbookfull.com/product/separation-processes-in-
biotechnology-first-edition-asenjo/
Novel Catalytic and Separation Processes Based on Ionic

Liquids Dickson Ozokwelu
https://textbookfull.com/product/novel-catalytic-and-separation-
processes-based-on-ionic-liquids-dickson-ozokwelu/
Industrial Separation Processes Fundamentals 2nd

Edition André B. De Haan
https://textbookfull.com/product/industrial-separation-processes-
fundamentals-2nd-edition-andre-b-de-haan/
The Application of Green Solvents in Separation

Processes Francisco Pena-Pereira And Marek Tobiszewski
(Eds.)
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-application-of-green-
solvents-in-separation-processes-francisco-pena-pereira-and-
marek-tobiszewski-eds/
Advanced Engineering for Processes and Technologies

Azman Ismail
https://textbookfull.com/product/advanced-engineering-for-
processes-and-technologies-azman-ismail/
Advanced Structured Materials
J. M. P. Q. Delgado
A. G. Barbosa de Lima Editors
Transport
Processes and
Separation
Technologies
Volume 133
Series Editors
Andreas Öchsner, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Esslingen University of
Applied Sciences, Esslingen, Germany
Lucas F. M. da Silva, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Holm Altenbach , Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany
Common engineering materials reach in many applications their limits and new
developments are required to fulfil increasing demands on engineering materials.
The performance of materials can be increased by combining different materials to
achieve better properties than a single constituent or by shaping the material or
constituents in a specific structure. The interaction between material and structure
may arise on different length scales, such as micro-, meso- or macroscale, and offers
possible applications in quite diverse fields.
This book series addresses the fundamental relationship between materials and their
structure on the overall properties (e.g. mechanical, thermal, chemical or magnetic
etc.) and applications.
The topics of Advanced Structured Materials include but are not limited to
• classical fibre-reinforced composites (e.g. glass, carbon or Aramid reinforced
plastics)
• metal matrix composites (MMCs)
• micro porous composites
• micro channel materials
• multilayered materials
• cellular materials (e.g., metallic or polymer foams, sponges, hollow sphere
structures)
• porous materials
• truss structures
• nanocomposite materials
• biomaterials
• nanoporous metals
• concrete
• coated materials
• smart materials
Advanced Structured Materials is indexed in Google Scholar and Scopus.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8611

J. M. P. Q. Delgado A. G. Barbosa de Lima
•
Editors
Transport Processes
and Separation Technologies
123
Editors
J. M. P. Q. Delgado A. G. Barbosa de Lima
CONSTRUCT-LFC, Department of Civil Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Federal University of Campina Grande
University of Porto Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
Porto, Portugal
ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-47855-1 ISBN 978-3-030-47856-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47856-8
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
1 Clay Ceramic Materials: From Fundamentals and Manufacturing

to Drying Process Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
A. G. Barbosa de Lima, J. M. P. Q. Delgado, L. P. C. Nascimento,
E. S. de Lima, V. A. B. de Oliveira, A. M. V. Silva, and J. V. Silva
1.1 Ceramic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 The Ceramic Industry and Clay Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Red Ceramic Product Manufacturing Process . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 The Drying Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 The Mathematical Modeling of the Drying
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Lumped Model Application: Drying of Clay Ceramic Brick . . . . . 13
1.3.1 The Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Phenomenological Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.3 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2 Vegetable Fiber Drying: Theory, Advanced Modeling
and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
J. F. Brito Diniz, A. R. C. de Lima, I. R. de Oliveira, R. P. de Farias,
F. A. Batista, A. G. Barbosa de Lima, and R. O. de Andrade
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Drying of Sisal Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.1 Experimental Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.2 Theoretical Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
v
vi Contents
3 Foam-Mat Drying Process: Theory and

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61
E. R. Mangueira, A. G. Barbosa de Lima, J. de Assis Cavalcante,
N. A. Costa, C. C. de Souza, A. K. F. de Abreu, and A. P. T. Rocha
3.1 Drying Theory of Porous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.2 Mathematical Modeling in Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2 Foam-Mat Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.1 General Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.2 Different Methods for Foam Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.3 Foaming Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3 Applications: Drying of Egg White and Yolk of Duck Egg . . . . . . 70
3.3.1 Material Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3.2 Experimental Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3.3 Experiment of Foam-Mat Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.3.4 Analysis of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4 Final Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4 Drying Process of Jackfruit Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 89
T. M. Q. de Oliveira, R. A. de Medeiros, V. S. O. Farias,
W. P. da Silva, C. M. R. Franco, and A. F. da Silva Júnior
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2.1 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2.2 Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5 Spouted Bed Drying of Fruit Pulps: A Case Study on Drying
of Graviola (Annona muricata) Pulp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
F. G. M. de Medeiros, I. P. Machado, T. N. P. Dantas, S. C. M. Dantas,
O. L. S. de Alsina, and M. F. D. de Medeiros
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.2 Fundamentals of Spouted Bed Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3 Spouted Bed Drying of Fruit Pulps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4 Phytochemicals on Spouted Bed Dried Fruit
Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.4.1 Impact of Spouted Bed Drying on the Phytochemicals
Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4.2 Use of Drying Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.5 Spouted Bed Drying of Graviola (Annona muricata) Pulp:
A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.5.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.5.2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Contents vii
5.5.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

5.5.4 Final Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6 Osmo-convective Dehydration of Fresh Foods: Theory
and Applications to Cassava Cubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
T. R. Bezerra Pessoa, A. G. Barbosa de Lima, P. C. Martins,
V. C. Pereira, T. C. O. Alves, E. S. da Silva, and E. S. de Lima
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.1.1 Drying Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.1.2 The Focus of This Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2 Application: Hybrid Drying of Cassava Cubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2.1 The Raw Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2.2 Osmotic Dehydration Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.2.3 Convective Drying Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.2.4 Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7 Heat Transfer in a Packed-Bed Elliptic Cylindrical Reactor:
Theory, Heterogeneous Transient Modeling, and
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
A. S. Pereira, R. M. da Silva, R. S. Santos, A. G. Barbosa de Lima,
R. O. de Andrade, W. M. P. B. de Lima, and G. S. de Lima
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.2 Porous Media and Packed-Bed Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.2.1 Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.2.2 Chemical Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3 Heat Transfer in Fixed-Bed Elliptical Reactor via Two-Phase
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.3.1 Physical Problem and Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.3.2 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.3.3 Numerical Treatment of Heat Transport
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.4 Application: Heat Transfer in an Elliptic Cylindrical Reactor
Filled with Spheroidal Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Chapter 1
Clay Ceramic Materials: From
Fundamentals and Manufacturing
to Drying Process Predictions
A. G. Barbosa de Lima, J. M. P. Q. Delgado, L. P. C. Nascimento,

E. S. de Lima, V. A. B. de Oliveira, A. M. V. Silva, and J. V. Silva
Abstract This chapter is devoted to study heat and mass transfer and dimension
variations of arbitrary-shaped porous materials. The focus is on the drying process
of clay ceramic materials. Here, different topics related to history, manufacturing,
drying process, phenomenological lumped modeling, and parameters estimation are
present and discussed. Emphasis is given to industrial clay bricks, with theoretical
and experimental approaches.
Keywords Drying · Brick · Experimental · Simulation · Lumped model
A. G. B. de Lima (B) · L. P. C. Nascimento · E. S. de Lima · A. M. V. Silva · J. V. Silva

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Campina Grande, Av. Aprígio
Veloso, 882, Bodocongó, Campina Grande, PB 58429-900, Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]
L. P. C. Nascimento
E. S. de Lima
A. M. V. Silva
J. V. Silva
J. M. P. Q. Delgado
CONSTRUCT-LFC, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto,
Porto, Portugal
V. A. B. de Oliveira
State University of Paraiba, Rodovia PB 075, S/N, km 1, Guarabira, PB 58200-000, Brazil
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 1
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
J. M. P. Q. Delgado and A. G. Barbosa de Lima (eds.), Transport Processes
and Separation Technologies, Advanced Structured Materials 133,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47856-8_1
2 A. G. B. de Lima et al.
1.1 Ceramic Materials
1.1.1 History
The art of pottery is one of the oldest in the world due mainly to the abundance of
clay and the ease of extraction and fabrication. There is evidence of activity of this
art in almost all peoples of antiquity and to improve their quality of life, man has
always been seeking to perfect the various uses of ceramic materials.
Pottery was invented in the Neolithic (polished stone age) in 25000 BC and during
this period prehistoric man-made wicker baskets with clay, that is, the first objects
were intended to store grain and liquids and were just simple objects. Later, the
plasticity of clays was discovered, where it was noted that by adding water the clay
could be molded, dried in the sun, and hardened when exposed to high temperatures.
Following, ceramics were widely used for various purposes, such as pieces with
nozzles and handles made with relief images, or with living paintings that were
considered decorative objects (Cavalcanti 2010).
Each civilization and each culture have developed its own forms and characteris-
tics in the use of clay, so that pottery is one of the greatest auxiliaries in historical
research. One of the greatest ancient peoples who have strong ties to ceramics is the
Greeks, who for a long time produced the finest pieces in the Mediterranean world.
It was common at that time to sell these products at fairs and there was a continuous
export of generally ovoid and handled vessels (Phoenician amphora), which could
often be used to serve water, wine, and olive oil (Silva 2009).
In addition to the Greeks and Romans, other ancient peoples such as the Byzan-
tines and Arabs were responsible for transmitting their practices throughout Europe,
which consequently have varied styles of construction in their territories. It was
precisely with the growth of civil construction that the manufacture of ceramic pieces
evolved from a more artisanal activity to an industrial one. Initially, around 1850,
the first bricks were made on animal-powered molding machines, only later that the
manufacturing would go through a major leap.
Production systems were stagnant until the nineteenth century, i.e., drying was
still done in the sun, burning in trapezoidal ovens and production was still mostly by
hand. Only with the emergence of the first steam-powered machines, it was possible
to increase production as raw material extraction, preparation, and forming opera-
tions became mechanized. Thus, in the modern era countries like Spain, France and
Germany stood out in the market as producers of red ceramics and as equipment
manufacturers. It is important to highlight that Italy was one of the great pioneers in
the production of bricks in series with good quality (Silva 2016).
Later, in the mid-twentieth century, the technological development of the ceramic
industry boosted the manufacture of high strength and low weight cast structural
blocks, a major evolution compared to previously manufactured solid bricks. At this
time, including Brazil, there was a resurgence of structural masonry with ceramic
products, competing economically with conventional reinforced concrete structures
in medium-sized buildings (up to about 8–10 floors) (Silva 2009).
1 Clay Ceramic Materials: From Fundamentals … 3
Following, the ceramic industry underwent major developments, now based on

research, technology, and studies by specialized laboratories. Along with the study
of ceramics, the study of ovens, better glazing, molding apparatus, dry molding, high
strength porcelain was developed and it was possible that the field of use of ceramics
grew a lot, enabling aerospace and technology applications, such as space shuttle
thermal shielding, nanofilm production, sensors to detect toxic gases, and among
others.
With regard to Brazil, construction ceramics currently occupies a prominent place
in the national economy. Great growth came in the industry when the Government’s
Growth Acceleration Programs (PAC) and My House My Life (MCMV) were imple-
mented. Therefore, because it represents a sector of great importance in job creation
and income distribution, it has received the attention of government sectors, research
institutes, universities, and various entities (Rodrigues Neto and Mota 2016).
1.1.2 Fundamental Concepts
Ceramic or ceramic material can be defined as any non-metallic and inorganic mate-
rial whose structure, after heat treatment at high temperatures, is wholly or partially
crystallized. They are composed of total or predominantly ionic interatomic bonds,
but having some covalent character. Ceramics are known to have different raw mate-
rials in their composition, but the main one is clay, which can be defined as an earthy,
thin, and natural material that, by adding water, acquires a certain plasticity and can
be easily molded (Callister 2007; Callister and Rethwisch 2008).
Ceramic materials have a wide range of structural arrangement types. The exis-
tence of several ceramic phases makes possible the combinations of metallic and
non-metallic atoms (which form many structural arrangements) making them widely
applicable in various sectors besides construction. It is noteworthy that the structure
of the ceramic material defines its properties (Silva 2009; Callister 2007; Callister
and Rethwisch 2008).
1.1.3 The Ceramic Industry and Clay Products
The ceramic industry sector plays a very important role in Brazil’s economy, with a
share of approximately 1% of GDP. Gaining prominence, the evolution of Brazilian
companies has been very fast, mainly due to the abundance of natural raw material,
alternative sources of energy, and the availability of practical technologies. Among
the regions of the country, the ones that stand out and have a large concentration of
industries are the Southeast and the South; this is because they have higher demo-
graphic density, greater industrial and agricultural activity, better infrastructure, and
better income distribution. It is noteworthy that the other regions of the country have
shown a certain degree of development, especially in the northeast due to the large
occurrence of mineral resources, abundance of natural gas, expanding market, and

great export potential (Silva 2009).
Despite the greatness of the Brazilian ceramics industry and its great potential,
it is quite heterogeneous. In addition to the red ceramics industries, several mining
companies, ceramic tiles, sanitary ware, thermal ceramics, enamels, and others have
already been installed or are in phase of deployment. However, within the current
scenario of globalization, it can be said that the segments that are best adapted and
structured are the covering, refractory, and sanitary ware. In the other segments, there
are some modern companies that stand out from the others, but this contingent is not
so expressive.
One of the most important areas in the industry is related to red ceramic products.
According to data from SEBRAE/Brazil (SEBRAE 2019), there is a range of 8500–
11,000 companies in the country, generating around 300,000 direct jobs and 1.5
million indirect jobs. Despite having good numbers, the production activity of the
sector has a great technological backwardness, since most of the companies are of
small or medium size and family order. It is also worth noting that this large number of
jobs that the sector generates is caused by the low level of knowledge and investment
required to start activities.
In the northeast region, and especially in the State of Paraíba (Brazil), there is
a marked industrial activity in this area. There are around 60 active red ceramic
factories throughout the state, distributed in at least 30 towns, offering about 3000
direct jobs. Research carried out in the state of Paraíba shows, as to geographic
regions and watersheds, that studies in the area are concentrated in some specific
regions of the state, especially in the coast and in the Agreste. On the other hand,
in the Sertão and Cariri regions there is a large concentration of potentially usable
deposits, but, to date, there is no systematic study regarding their exploitation and
use.
Red ceramics encompass various products such as blocks, tiles, solid bricks,
plumbing pipes, slabs, castings, and also expanded clay, which are often used in
construction. It is also present in household items such as filters, decorative vases,
and clay pots. This type of ceramics has the nomenclature “red” due to the presence
of ferrous compounds that develop reddish coloration.
The basic raw material of structural ceramics is common clay, which is used in
a single dough to shape products, unlike other segments of the ceramics industry
that mix clay with other substances such as talc, kaolin, and others (Callister 2007;
Callister and Rethwisch 2008; Cabral et al. 2008). Natural clay seeks an ideal compo-
sition of plasticity and fusibility so that it provides good workability and mechanical
resistance during firing.
Red ceramic products are classified according to the manufacturing process used
and can be pressed or extruded. In summary, red or structural ceramics can be grouped
generically according to Table 1.1, as follows.
The clay used for the production of red ceramics is composed of a large amount
of amorphous material, in other words, those that do not have long-distance spatial
ordering; however, the crystalline material predominates, which is grouped in well-
defined mineralogical species. From the physicochemical point of view, clays can be
Table 1.1 Types and characterization of red ceramics (Silva 2009)

Types Description
Porous Solid bricks, pressed solid bricks, laminated bricks, hollow bricks,
prefabricated panels, tiles, components for slabs, tiles, conductors for electrical
cables, and others (sills, cladding plates, etc.)
Glazed Tiles, glazed glazes, laminated bricks, pipes, glazed internally, glazed internally
and externally, and unglazed
Expanded clay Obtained from thermo-expansion of some types of clays (illite). In the
production process, mineral oil is added to the ceramic mass. They are launched
in an inclined rotary kiln with a burner at the bottom
considered as dispersed mineral systems in which particles below 2 µm in diameter

predominate (Silva 2016).
A great advantage of the clay used in red ceramics is that it has great plasticity
while wet, allowing the manufacture of pieces of various shapes using simple equip-
ment. Another important point is that when cooked at more than 800 °C it has a good
mechanical resistance, making the final product suitable for various applications
(Brito 2016).
To produce bricks and tiles the clay used is generally quaternary and sometimes
tertiary. One of the main characteristics is to present, in large quantities, iron, and
alkalis in their composition. They are fine-grained and have a considerable organic
matter content, factors that are responsible for their high plasticity.
It is recommended that the clays used have easy molding, flexural strength before
and after sintering, have a reddish color after sintering, with a minimum of cracks
and warping. It is noteworthy that high levels of bivalent iron and alkaline elements
may reduce the range of vitrification and cause undesirable coloration (Silva 2009).
1.1.4 Red Ceramic Product Manufacturing Process
Red ceramics can generate a wide variety of products and for this it goes through
a specific production process, which is sometimes still poorly evolved compared to
other segments of the ceramic industry. However, due to the increasing emergence
of technological innovations in some companies, we can find good quality produc-
tion processes with high production rates. Most of these technological advances are
related to equipment automation and, consequently, the reduction of labor costs.
The production process, exemplified in Fig. 1.1, is common to all red ceramic
companies in general, with slight variations depending on the particular charac-
teristics of each raw material or end product. For example, some companies use
rudimentary equipment and others have more modern equipment, or some have a
much higher degree of production, among other differences.
The production process of pieces with red ceramic comprises several steps that
can be divided into four major stages, namely, extraction and preparation of raw
Fig. 1.1 Manufacturing flowchart of red ceramic pieces
materials, mechanical forming, thermal processing, and shipping. The following

best describes these steps:
1.1.4.1 Extraction and Preparation of Raw Materials
The manufacturing process begins with the extraction of clay, which is removed from
the deposits with the aid of backhoes and then transported to storage sheds, which
may be owned by companies or third parties. At this stage, the material goes through
a “rest”, thus undergoing chemical changes and being unpacked. Shed storage also
ensures continued production in rainy seasons. After this phase, we have the dosage,
in which the clays are proportionally dosed in a feeder coffin obeying their ceramic
characteristics.
Following the manufacturing process is disintegration, which is the step respon-
sible for bringing the hardest and most compacted clays to a disintegrator that will
crush the larger clumps of clay to facilitate subsequent operations. Then, the raw
material goes to the mixer, where it will be homogenized, thus allowing the addition
of water in the mixture to obtain adequate moisture and plasticity for extrusion.
The last step of this first major stage is lamination, which is responsible for a
thickening of the mixture, eliminating air bubbles or clumps that may have remained
so far. With the end of this stage, the raw material already prepared can be directed
to the extruders, which may even have a rolling mill attached to them.
1.1.4.2 Mechanical Forming
The mechanical conformation stage is responsible for transforming the clay plastic
mass into products with different shapes and sizes. Thus, according to the type of
product to be obtained and also depending on the plasticity characteristics of the
available raw material, it will be possible to choose the appropriate forming system.
The main systems of this stage are extrusion and cutting. Firstly, the clay mass
will take the desired shape upon entering the extruder, which contains a steel plate
perforated in a vacuum chamber. Then, through the manual or automatic cutter, the
extruded block is cut to standard sizes, thus obtaining products such as bricks, tiles,
ceramic tubes, and among others (Oliveira and Bernils 2006).
1.1.4.3 Thermal Processing
This stage consists of the drying and burning steps of the already formed parts. This
is where the composition and structure transformations will occur, generating the
final properties of the product, such as color, gloss, porosity, flexural strength, high
temperatures, and among others (Silva 2009).
During drying, a large amount of thermal energy is used to slowly and evenly
evaporate the water added during the molding process. This step usually takes place
inside drying chambers and aims to reduce the moisture content of the products from
20–25% to 3–10% after the process.
An important property of any clay is that it has water in the constitution of its
crystal lattice. Thus, during the drying process, the water that has been added is
easily removed, with the temperature starting from room temperature and reaching
approximately 110 °C. However, water that is in the clay crystal lattice will only be
removed at temperatures above 400 °C and may vary to even higher values depending
on the type of clay.
During the drying process, the clay may contract as the spaces that were occupied
by water inside the material become empty after evaporation. This shrinkage is
proportional to the degree of moisture removed. Thus, it is important to control
the process well, as a possible consequence of this shrinkage is that it can cause
deformation or cracking in the material.
Following is the firing step, in which the product is taken to a kiln and, as well
as drying, will receive an even greater amount of thermal energy. Once these steps
are completed, the product will have lower porosity and greater mechanical strength
and will also be ready for commercialization and use.
1.1.4.4 Expedition
Shipment is the final stage of the production process, where finished product is
inspected to identify excessively cracked, broken, chipped, or burned products. Then,
the parts are stored in a covered area until they leave for delivery to the customer. In
Brazil, transportation of the parts is usually made by trucks on the highways of the
country.
The thermal processing stage must be performed correctly, otherwise the parts
could present a series of defects and thus, the products will not be able to perform
their respective functions. Given this, the most common defects are as follows (Silva
2009; Silva et al. 2011):
(a) Commitments—This defect is a deformation of the part usually caused by
residual shrinkage stresses, which arise when one side of the material dries faster
than the other, i.e., it is important that the drying is done evenly. Commitments
may also arise due to poor positioning of the product on the drying support.
(b) Cracks—It is important that during the drying process the air velocity and
temperature are controlled, because when we have a very fast drying, it is
common the appearance of cracks, which are nothing more than small fissures
that start at the edges and spread until the center of the piece. Cracks may also
appear in the firing step, which may be by heating or cooling. The heating ones
are characterized by being open, little winding, and with jagged edges, while the
cooling ones are characterized by being closed and very thin, usually S-shaped
edges. It is important to point out that all drying starts must be done with the
plastic-covered part, to prevent a very fast outflow of water that is closer to the
surface, causing a localized shrinkage that can cause cracks.
(c) Black heart—This type of defect is black or gray spots that can be seen along the
cross section of the part and appear after the firing process. The existence of the
“black heart” is associated with the presence of carbon-containing compounds,
which are formed due to the small amount of oxygen, preventing the complete
oxidation of carbon compounds and organic matter.
(d) Efflorescence—Efflorescence occurs on the outer surface of the product and
is a salt deposit accumulated in some regions, which may cause undesirable
stains and colors. This defect appears as the water interferes with salts. If the
piece, after burning, absorbs moisture, the salts will be dissolved; however, if
the external environment becomes dry, the opposite process occurs, the surface
water is evaporated and the crystallization of the salts occurs.
(e) Defects related to steps before or after drying—It is common for small cracks
to occur when the clay paste is improperly mixed in the mixing step. This defect
is most pronounced in areas with higher moisture content and is quite common
in manual manufacturing processes. Finally, it is worth mentioning the problem
of moisture absorption. Depending on the type of clay, if the time elapsed from
the clay leaves the dryer to when it is introduced into the kiln is large and the
ambient absolute humidity is very high, a rehydration (reabsorption) process
may occur, which may cause breakage and/or explosion when material enters
the kiln.
1.2 The Drying Process
1.2.1 General Principles
Drying can be explained as a thermodynamic process responsible for the partial

removal of a liquid, usually water, from the porous material by providing energy to it
and providing water loss by evaporation. In this process, there is a simultaneous heat
and mass transfer, and the transport of moisture from the interior to the surface of the
material may occur in the form of liquid and/or vapor, depending on the percentage
of moisture present and the type of product (Brooker et al. 1992; Strumillo and Kudra
1986).
The drying process has become, among many other uses, one of the most important
steps in the manufacture of ceramic parts. In the case of red ceramic, this step is of
relevant importance, since if the moisture is not removed properly, severe stresses
occur inside the part, causing deformations, cracks, and reducing the quality of the
product post-drying process. Thus, it is noteworthy that the in-depth study related
to drying of ceramic materials increases the overall efficiency of the ceramic sector
by reducing losses and increasing material quality and provides an environment
conducive to progress and sustainable development.
There are three ways to classify drying: natural, artificial, or mixed. Whatever the
type of drying, it has to fulfill four basic functions: the transport of the heat necessary
for water evaporation, the removal of the produced water vapor, the reduction of the
saturated vapor layer formed on the product surface and the movement of liquid,
and/or vapor inside the part.
The process time depends on the special conditions of the drying environment,
such as temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity, and may reach periods of up
to six weeks (natural drying). Artificial drying is carried out in drying chambers or
dryers, usually taking advantage of the residual heat of the kiln, which significantly
reduces the drying time. In addition, the artificial drying period also depends on the
characteristics of the raw material, the shape of the parts, and the type of dryer.
Convective drying technique differs from other separation techniques such as
osmotic dehydration, evaporation, and decantation by the way water is removed from
the solid. In convective drying, there is a difference between the partial pressure of
the water vapor at the surface of the product and the surrounding air, which allows
the migration of the liquid from the inside and consequently the removal of the water
molecules from it. In osmotic dehydration, for example, this moisture removal may
occur due to a pressure difference between the product and a hypertonic solution,
due to a density difference, or due to temperature increase (Silva 2016; Brooker et al.
1992; Strumillo and Kudra 1986).
In order, to perform a thermodynamic analysis of drying it is necessary to under-
stand the influence of velocity, relative humidity, and temperature of the drying air on
the process. Relative humidity can be defined as the ratio of the vapor partial pressure
in the air to the vapor saturation pressure, which varies with temperature. The ability
of air to absorb water vapor will be higher when the saturation pressure of water
vapor is greater than the partial pressure of water vapor. Therefore, the ability of air
to absorb water vapor increases with temperature, so that the higher the air temper-
ature, the greater its drying capacity, in fixed conditions of the air relative humidity.
In addition, if the air is warmer, the volume of air needed for drying decreases and,
as a result, the powers of the hoods and air circulators are reduced, reducing drying
costs.
The speed with which the product is dried can be affected by many factors, such
as moisture movement mechanism, product shape, external environment conditions,
and green product porosity. Thus, it is of great importance to verify the influence
of the shape and volume of the pores in the part, because it is inside them that
is the moisture, that even under favorable conditions can be retained inside these
pores. This occurs when the surface of the part is dried very quickly, as the pores,
being very narrow, reduce moisture migration for a rate less than the evaporation
rate. Another important point is that with a higher drying air temperature and lower
relative humidity there will be an increase in drying rate.
The drying process is generally divided into four distinct phases: adaptation,
colloidal water outlet, void formation, and interstitial moisture expulsion. In the first
phase occurs the adaptation of the product to environmental conditions (tempera-
ture, relative humidity, and pressure), in which drying will be performed. In the
second phase, there is evaporation of the colloidal water, and sensible variations in
the dimensions of the part occur due to the approximation of the particles of its
microstructure. Even at this stage water continually migrates to the surface of the
part, constantly forming an evaporating saturated wet film. In the third phase occurs
the disappearance of the water film on the surface of the piece, which provokes
changes in color. The last drying phase, which is not always reached in the dryers
and is often performed in the kilns, is the expulsion of the last amounts of moisture
from interstitial origin, in which the moisture removal rate decreases to near zero
(Silva 2009).
Given the importance and complexity of the drying process, a large number of
researchers have been working intensively on its analysis. Some focus on external air
conditions, such as temperature, relative humidity, and velocity, correlated with the
product’s drying rate, while others consider the internal conditions of the product,
with emphasis on the mechanisms of moisture movement and their effects on it. In
this regard, several drying theories have been proposed to describe heat and mass
transport in capillary porous media, namely,
(a) Liquid diffusion theory;
(b) Vaporization–condensation theory;
(c) Cappilary theory;
(d) Kricher’s theory;
(e) Luikov’s theory;
(f) Philip and De Vrie’s theory;
(g) Berger and Pei’s theory;
(h) Fortes and Okos theory.
A more detailed discussion of drying theories can be found in the literature

(Brooker et al. 1992; Strumillo and Kudra 1986; Lima et al. 2014). According to
the drying theories listed before, the following mechanisms of moisture transport in
porous material have been cited in the literature:
(a) Transport of liquid by diffusion due to moisture concentration gradients;
(b) Transport of vapor by diffusion due to moisture concentration gradients and
vapor partial pressure (caused by temperature gradients);
(c) Transport by effusion (Knudsen flow) that occurs when the average free path
of vapor molecules is of the same order as the pore diameter. It is important for
high vacuum conditions such as freeze drying;
(d) Transport of vapor by thermofusion due to temperature gradients;
(e) Transport of liquids by capillary forces due to capillarity phenomena;
(f) Transport of fluid by osmotic pressure due to osmotic force;
(g) Transport of liquid due to gravity;
(h) Transport of liquid and vapor due to total pressure difference caused by external
pressure, shrinkage, high temperature, and capillarity;
(i) Transport of liquid and vapor by surface diffusion due to the migration of these
phases through the pores of the product surface.
Then, based on the drying theories and moisture migration mechanisms, several
drying models have been reported in the literature. This topic will be discussed
following.
1.2.2 The Mathematical Modeling of the Drying Process
The main objective of an appropriated drying modeling is to mathematically describe

the physical phenomena, so that it is possible to choose appropriate operating condi-
tions, the most appropriate method of drying and also to control and know the process
deeply. Thus, we can optimize the steps of drying and eliminate or minimize existing
irregularities.
The development of mathematical models to describe the drying process is
increasingly recurrent and has been studied for several decades. This is because the
process has great importance in the production of different products and also involves
complex phenomena of heat and mass transfer, linear momentum, and dimension
variations of the product.
The principle of modeling is based on having a system of mathematical equations
that completely characterizes the system to be modeled. In particular, the solution
of these equations makes it possible to predict process parameters as a function of
drying time based only on initial and boundary conditions, and some simplifications.
The starting point in mathematical modeling is the definition of the process to be
modeled, in particular the description of the input data that influence the process, as
well as the variables that depend on the process behavior.
The complexity of the drying process depends on the geometric and thermophys-
ical parameters of the material and thickness of the material layer in study. They
can then be classified in thin-layer drying models (particle level models) and thick-
layer models (dryer models). The dryer mathematical models (thick-layer model)
most used by the researchers take into account the thermophysical properties, drying
kinetics, and mass and energy balance in the device. Some researchers have applied
dryer model to predict drying process of clay ceramic materials with particular refer-
ence to industrial clay bricks (Almeida et al. 2013; Tavares et al. 2014; Almeida et al.
2016; Silva 2018). From a practical point of view, thin-layer drying is very limited.
But to have a good understanding of the thick-layer drying process it is necessary to
have thin-layer equations for the drying kinetics of a particular material under certain
predetermined operating conditions (Macedo 2016).
Several thin-layer mathematical models have been proposed to describe the rate
of moisture loss during drying and can be divided into two large groups: lumped
and distributed models. Distributed models express heat and mass transfer rates as
a function of position within the part and drying time, taking into account external
and internal resistances. Lumped models, on the other hand, express the same rates
only as a function of process time and ignoring the existing internal resistance for
heat end mass transfer.
The following general balance equation (distributed model) has been applied to
predict drying process (by diffusion only) of irregularly-shaped porous body:
d(λΦ)
= ∇ · (Γ Φ ∇Φ) + Φ (1.1)
dt
where λ and Γ Φ are transport properties. Φ is the unknow, Φ is the source term,
and t is the time.
Distributed models based on the liquid diffusion theory have been applied to
predict drying of ceramic porous materials. For example, clay plates (Silva et al.
2009), clay pipes (Santos 2018), roof tiles (Farias et al. 2013; Silva et al. 2012;
Farias et al. 2012), and bricks (Araújo et al. 2019a, b, 2017; Brito et al. 2017; Araújo
et al. 2017; Silva et al. 2011; Lima et al. 2015; Santos et al. 2020).
This chapter addresses the use of the lumped model to describe the drying process.
The equations of the lumped model can be classified as empirical, semi-empirical,
and theoretical. It is noteworthy that in this analysis the effects of temperature and
moisture variation inside the material are neglected during the process.
When it comes to empirical equations, they have a direct link between mois-
ture content and drying time, while semi-empirical ones are analogous to Newton’s
law of cooling, assuming that the drying rate is proportional to the difference
between moisture content of the product and its equilibrium moisture content for
the specified drying conditions. Theoretical equations generally use heat and mass
balances between the product and air surrounding it, taking account different phys-
ical phenomena during the process. Some researchers have applied lumped models
to describe drying process of clay porous materials. For example, clay pipes (Silva
et al. 2016), bricks (Silva 2009; Almeida et al. 2013; Tavares et al. 2014; Silva 2018;
Fig. 1.2 Representative scheme of the drying process of an arbitrarily-shaped solid based on a
lumped analysis
Silva et al. 2011; Lima et al. 2015), and others geometries (Silva et al. 2016; Lima
et al. 2018; Lima 2017).
For a better understanding of the lumped analysis method (theoretical model),
consider the solid with arbitrary geometry, illustrated in Fig. 1.2.
In this scheme, the arbitrary solid will receive on its surface a flux per unit area
of the potential of interest Φ and has uniformly distributed internal generation per
unit volume. According to what has already been mentioned, when applying the
lumped analysis method, the effects of the potential variation within the material are
neglected. Thus, all flux of Φ received and generated will diffuse instantly through the
solid. In order for this condition to be physically possible and well approximated, the
flux resistance within the solid must be much lower than the flux resistance between
the solid and its vicinity.
Thus, the balance of Φ (potential of interest) can be obtained as follows:

d λΦ
V = Φ S + Φ V (1.2)
dt
in which Φ and Φ are flux of Φ per unit area and source term, respectively. Further,
λ includes transport parameters and S and V are the surface area and volume of the
porous material, respectively.
1.3 Lumped Model Application: Drying of Clay Ceramic

Brick
As an application, in this topic will be developing new research methods and tech-
niques, particularly process modeling and simulation involving heat and mass trans-
port in solid–liquid systems, with particular reference to drying of clayey ceramic
materials, via lumped models.
The focus is to develop a phenomenological mathematical modeling and its analyt-

ical solution via method of separation of variables to predict heat and mass transfer
in clayey, cast, and arbitrary-shaped ceramic materials (industrial ceramic bricks).
1.3.1 The Experimental Data
The materials used for drying in oven were parallelepiped-shaped ceramic bricks with
8 rectangular holes (industrial ceramic bricks). Figure 1.3 illustrates the test body
model used, as well as the positions where the measurements of length (R1 ), width
(R2 ), height (R3 ), and dimensions that characterize the brick holes, a1 , a2 , a3 , and
a4 , were obtained. Initially, dimensions were measured with a digital caliper, mass
with a digital scale, brick temperature (vertex) with infrared thermometer, and room
temperature and relative humidity with thermohygrometer. Then, the samples were
taken inside the forced-air oven where drying was performed. In this process, the
internal temperature of the oven was set as desired with the temperature controller. At
predefined intervals, the brick was taken from the oven and measured its temperature,
mass, and dimensions.
Table 1.2 summarizes, for each experimental condition, the product, and air data.
Table 1.3 presents, for each operating condition, the dimensions, volume, and surface
area of the sample before the drying process begins.
During the process, measurements were taken every 10 min until the mass had
minimal variation. Then, the measurements were changed every 30 min, and the next
measurements were taken every 60 min until it reached constant mass. Soon after, the
Fig. 1.3 Hollow brick with dimensions

Table 1.2 Experimental air and brick parameters for each drying test (Silva 2009)
T (°C) Air Brick Time, t (h)
UR (%) V(m/s) M o (db) M f (db) M e (db) θ o (°C) θ f (°C)
50 80 0.05 0.13969 0.0 0.00011 20.6 41.0 18.5
60 79 0.06 0.14795 0.0 0.00268 20.5 50.2 13.7
70 69 0.07 0.15414 0.0 0.00076 26.0 64.5 17.8
80 66 0.08 0.15248 0.0 0.00039 21.4 69.2 15.0
90 68 0.09 0.15921 0.0 0.00151 21.0 78.5 11.5
100 52 0.10 0.16903 0.0 0.00038 26.1 93.2 12.3
sample was dried for 24 h at the same drying temperature to obtain the equilibrium
mass and then, for another 24 h at 105 °C to obtain the mass of the dried product.
All experiment was performed by Silva (2009). This author also performed an
adjustment of experimental data related to mass transfer (moisture content) during the
process and proposed an exponential equation with two terms and four parameters.
The equation has the form:
M = A1 exp(k1 t) + A2 exp(k2 t) (1.3)
where t is given in minutes. The A1 , A2 , k 1 , and k 2 parameters were estimated using

the Statistica® Software, the Rosembrock and Quasi-Newton numerical method, and
a convergence criterion of 0.001. After fitting, Silva (2009) presented the parameters
reported in Table 1.4.
The experimental data of the brick vertex temperature was fitted to an equation
with four parameters. The equation has the form:

θ = B1 + B2 log10 t K 1 + B3 (1.4)
where t is given in minutes. Parameters B1 , B2 , K 1 , and B3 were estimated using

Statistica® Software, the Quasi-Newton numerical method, and with a convergence
criterion of 0.0001.
Table 1.5 summarizes the coefficients of Eq. 1.4 obtained after fitting to the
experimental data.
1.3.2 Phenomenological Mathematical Modeling
To predict the drying process was developed an advanced and phenomenological

mathematic model. It is based on the following hypotheses:
16
Table 1.3 Brick dimensions before the drying process begins (Silva 2009)
T R1 (mm) R2 (mm) R3 (mm) a1 (mm) a2 (mm) a3 (mm) a4 (mm) V o (mm3 ) S o (mm2 )
(°C)
50 93.36 197.00 200.00 9.04 7.10 7.88 6.30 141,5643.80 371,100.44
60 92.75 195.00 200.00 8.34 7.32 7.11 6.45 1,367,269.30 369,020.69
70 93.16 197.00 203.00 8.54 9.87 7.99 6.96 1,621,580.85 162,158.85
80 92.76 197.00 201.00 8.16 7.20 7.84 6.66 1,408,074.95 37,214.46
90 93.10 197.00 201.00 8.88 7.95 6.57 6.78 1428,426.08 37,233.87
100 92.80 198.00 202.00 1.70 9.41 8.74 8.00 1,734,026.10 36,116.49
A. G. B. de Lima et al.
Table 1.4 Parameters of Eq. 1.3 obtained after fitting to experimental data of average moisture
content
T (°C) Parameter R (–) Explained
A1 (–) k 1 (mm−1 ) A2 (–) k 2 (mm−1 ) variance (%)
50 0.576178 −0.004711 0.482232 −0.004711 0.997676745 0.995358888

60 0.547740 −0.005945 0.513349 −0.005945 0.997968284 0.995940696
70 0.000000 −0.006781 1.045050 −0.0070948 0.999112861 0.998226509
80 0.535201 −0.009190 0.527668 −0.009190 0.998502641 0.997007523
90 10.63554 −0.014298 −9.613313 −0.015018 0.998876724 0.997754709
100 4.875507 −0.008383 −3.827964 −0.007881 0.998297496 0.996597890
Table 1.5 Parameters of Eq. 1.4 obtained after fitting to experimental data of the vertex temperature
B1 (°C) B2 (°C/min) k 1 (–) B3 (min) variance (%)
50 −546.0430 283.1605 0.42554 101.18296 0.960840804 0.923215051

60 −48.7454 39.22594 0.86804 66.362934 0.981233190 0.962818573
70 −18.4408 40.19277 0.698315 11.943974 0.953411275 0.908993060
80 −21.3661 37.35810 0.871389 14.410538 0.970896765 0.942640529
90 −30.7995 33.11958 1.222654 47.338410 0.981074082 0.962506354
100 −2.86969 15.41788 2.234665 118.38213 0.984632771 0.969501694
(a) Brick is composed of liquid water and solid matter;

(b) Water migrates from the interior of the brick in liquid form and evaporates on
the surface;
(c) On the solid surface there is thermal convection, evaporation, and heating of
produced vapor;
(d) Dimensional variations were considered during drying process;
(e) Heat and mass generation were neglected;
(f) Constant mechanical and thermophysical properties.
1.3.2.1 Geometric and Dimensional Analysis
From the various measurements of the brick dimensions, made during the drying
process, mathematical equations were proposed to calculate the volume and surface
area of the brick (Fig. 1.3). The brick volume at any time t was calculated as follows:
Vf = aV aH R3 (brick holes volume) (1.5)
V = (R1 R2 R3 ) − (8Vf )(brick volume) (1.6)

The brick surface area at any time t was determined by using the following
equation:
S = (2R1 R3 ) + (2R2 R3 ) + 2[(R1 R2 ) − (8aH aV )] + 8[(2aH R3 ) + (2aV R3 )]

(1.7)
where in Eqs. 1.5, 1.6, and 1.7:
aV = (R2 − 2a1 − 3a3 )/4 (height of a hole) (1.8)
aH = (R1 − 2a2 − a4 )/2 (width of a hole) (1.9)
After determination of the volume and surface area at different moments of drying,
it was possible to adjust them to mathematical models that describe the volumetric
variation and surface area of the brick during the drying process. This procedure was
realized by using Statistica® software (Simplex numerical method and convergence
criterion of 0.00001). For this, a third-degree polynomial model was proposed for
both volume and surface area, as follows:
V (t) = C1 t 3 + C2 t 2 + C3 t + C4 (1.10)
S(t) = D1 t 3 + D2 t 2 + D3 t + D4 (1.11)
1.3.2.2 Mass Transfer Analysis
The complexity of the drying process depends, among other parameters, on the
analysis taken into account. Distributed models express heat and mass transfer rates
as a function of position within the part and drying time, taking into account external
and internal resistances. Already the lumped models express the same rates only as
a function of the process time and ignoring the existing internal resistance for this
transfer. This study makes use of the lumped model analysis to describe the drying
process of ceramic brick. Thus, from Eq. 1.2, we have the following mass balance:
dM
V = −h m S(M − Me ) + V Ṁ (1.12)
dt
where S and V represent the surface area and volume of the solid at any time t, hm
is the convective mass transfer coefficient, M is the average moisture content, M e is
the equilibrium moisture content of the brick, and t is the time.
Considering M = M − M e , it is valid dM = dM. Therefore, it is possible to
write:
dM
V = −h m S M + V Ṁ (1.13)
dt
Separating the variables and rearranging the terms, Eq. 1.13 results in:
dM hm S
=− dt (1.14)

(M ) − h m S
V Ṁ V
Since that M = M 0 at t = 0, and that there are no reactions that can generate water
inside the product, it was considered Ṁ = 0. So, Eq. 1.14 can be integrated from the
initial condition. Thus, it is possible to write:
M−Me t
dM hm S
=− dt (1.15)
(M ) V
M0 −Me 0
Putting Eqs. 1.10 and 11.11 into Eq. 1.15 and integrating it, we obtain the following
equation, which defines the mass transfer, considering dimensional variations during
the process:
⎧ ⎡ ⎧ ⎫⎤⎫

⎨ ⎨ a 1 t + a 2 arctan a 3 a 4 + 2t + a 5 log a 6 − t ⎬ ⎬
M = (M0 − Me ) exp⎣−h m ⎦ + Me (1.16)
⎩ ⎩ + a 7 log a 8 + a 9 t + t 2 − a 10 ⎭ ⎭

where the coefficients a k are specified according to drying conditions.
1.3.2.3 Heat Transfer Analysis
Similarly, to mass transfer, for heat transfer analysis, considering constant the heat
flux per area unit, the following energy balance is given:
dθ
ρV Cp = [h c S(θ∞ − θ )] + q̇ V (1.17)
dt
where ρ and C p represent the density and specific heat of the brick, respectively,
hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient, θ and θ ∞ represent, respectively, the
average product temperature at any time t and the equilibrium temperature (which
is equal to the drying air temperature).
Considering T = θ∞ − θ , it turns out that dT = −dθ. Then, putting this result
into Eq. 1.17, separating the variables, this equation can be rewritten as follows:
dT hc S
=− dt (1.18)
T + q̇ V ρV Cp
(h c S)
Since that θ = θ 0 at t = 0, and that there are no chemical reactions that can
generate heat inside the product, it is possible to consider q̇ = 0. So, Eq. 1.18 can be
integrated from the initial condition. Thus, we have that:
θ∞ −θ t
dT hc S
=− dt (1.19)
[T ] ρV Cp
θ∞ −θo 0
Now, putting Eqs. 1.10 and 1.11 into Eq. 1.19 and integrating it, we obtain as results
the following equation, which defines the heat transfer, considering dimensional
variations during the process:
⎧ ⎡ ⎧ ⎫⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎨ b1 t + b2 arc tan b3 b4 + 2t + b5 log b6 − t ⎪
⎬ ⎪

⎨ ⎬
⎢ hc ⎥
θ = θ∞ − (θ∞ − θo ) exp⎣− ⎦
⎪ ρCp ⎪ ⎪
⎭ ⎪

⎩ ⎩ + b7 log b8 + b9 t + t 2 − b10 ⎭
(1.20)

where the coefficients bk are specified according to drying conditions.

Equations 1.16 and 1.20 were fitted to the experimental data of the average mois-
ture content (Eq. 1.3) and surface temperature (Eq. 1.4) of the ceramic brick using the
Statistica® software (Quasi-Newton numerical method and convergence criterion of
0.0001). From the non-linear regression, it was possible to estimate the convective
mass transfer (hm) and heat transfer (hc) coefficients.
1.3.3 Results Analysis
1.3.3.1 Dimensional Variations
Tables 1.6 and 1.7 summarize the parameters obtained for Eqs. 1.10 and 1.11,
respectively.
Table 1.6 Parameters of Eq. 1.10 that describe the volumetric behavior of the brick during drying
process
C1 (m3 /min3 ) C2 (m3 /min2 ) C3 (m3 /min) C4 (m3 ) variance (%)
50 −0.000862 1.76499 −1099.66 1,381,400 0.98227288 96.486

60 −0.001538 2.46177 −1213.49 1,356,500 0.98812668 97.639
70 −0.000678 1.36975 −911.113 1,546,700 0.94004504 88.368
80 −0.001273 2.02475 −977.457 1,374,700 0.94563064 89.422
90 −0.003695 4.40681 −1596.91 1,392,300 0.9535488 90.926
100 −0.003480 5.278373 −2066.011 1,551,571 0.81039933 65.675
Table 1.7 Parameters of Eq. 1.11 that describe the surface area behavior of the brick during drying
process
D1 (m2 /min3 ) D2 (m2 /min2 ) D3 (m2 /min) D4 (m2 ) variance (%)
50 −0.000126 0.259821 −163.671 371,912 0.99130038 98.268

60 −0.000315 0.45662 −202.289 368,692 0.98169467 96.372
70 −0.000200 0.366684 −192.89 366,801 0.93426766 87.286
80 −0.000267 0.41566 −190.31 370,685 0.9335808 87.157
90 −0.000628 0.761024 −271.251 373,572 0.95696019 91.577
100 −0.000226 0.322700 −134.0546 355,682 0.82398847 67.896
Statistica® software also provides graphs of the estimated functions compared to

the collected experimental points. Thus, Figs. 1.4 and 1.5 show the transient volume
and surface area variations under operating conditions from 50 to 100 °C.
After analysis of Figs. 1.4 and 1.5, it is possible to notice that the volume and
surface area have a decreasing behavior over time. This is because the water inside the
brick is being evaporated during drying (shrinkage) and it is being heated during the
process (volumetric expansion). Since that, drying at higher temperatures provokes
increases in the drying and heating rates, these phenomena are more intensive.
It is also possible to see that the experimental data found at 100 °C have a less
accurate adjustment for both volume and surface area variation. This is due to possible
measurement errors with brick drying and large temperature variations due to the
fact that the brick was removed from the oven so that measurements could be made.
It can be verified that at 50 °C, the brick volume decreased by 17.88% and at
100 °C a reduction of 20.57% occurred. At 100 °C, the amount of evaporated water
is greater. With regard to surface area at temperature 50 °C the brick was reduced
in surface area by 8.46% and at 100 °C by 5.83%. Thus, we can see that the area
reduction was much smaller than the volume, which shows that the drying was done
properly and the brick did not suffer large deformations, maintaining its original
shape, but in a smaller size.
1.3.3.2 Drying Process
Table 1.8 summarizes the coefficients of Eqs. 1.16 and 1.20. With this, it was possible
to adjust these equations to the experimental data of moisture content (Eq. 1.3) and
surface temperature (Eq. 1.4) and to estimate the convective heat transfer and mass
transfer coefficients.
Figures 1.6 and 1.7 illustrate a comparison between the predicted and experimental
brick average moisture content as a function of time for drying at 50 and 100 °C,
respectively.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
prejudice against it and persisted in resorting to the water of the
shallow pump-wells. In the autumn of last year diarrhœa was very
prevalent in Croydon, and Mr. Carpenter found that this also was
caused by the impure water of the pump-wells. Nine-tenths of the
people of Croydon were drinking the new water supplied by the
Board of Health, but, out of thirty-two patients with diarrhœa who
came under the notice of Mr. Carpenter, twenty-five were drinking
well-water entirely, five drank water from both sources, and the
other two could not decidedly say that they had not drank well-water.
Intermittent fevers are so fixed to particular places that they have
deservedly obtained the name of endemics. They spread occasionally,
however, much beyond their ordinary localities, and become
epidemic. Intermittent fevers are undoubtedly often connected with
a marshy state of the soil; for draining the land frequently causes
their disappearance. They sometimes, however, exist as endemics,
where there is no marshy land or stagnant water within scores of
miles. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, intermittent
fevers were, for the first time, attributed by Lancisi to noxious
effluvia arising from marshes. These supposed effluvia, or marsh
miasmata, as they were afterwards called, were thought to arise from
decomposing vegetable and animal matter; but, as intermittent
fevers have prevailed in many places where there was no
decomposing vegetable or animal matter, this opinion has been given
up in a great measure; still the belief in miasmata or malaria of some
kind, as a cause of intermittents, is very general. It must be
acknowledged, however, that there is no direct proof of the existence
of malaria or miasmata, much less of their nature.
CAUSE OF That preventive of ague, draining the
INTERMITTENT land, must affect the water of a district quite
FEVERS. as much as it affects the air, and there is
direct evidence to prove that intermittent fever has, at all events in
some cases, been caused by drinking the water of marshes. In the
“General Report of the Poor Law Commissioners on the Sanitary
Condition of Great Britain,”[39] Mr. Wm. Blower, surgeon, of Bedford,
states that typhus and ague, which had long infested the village of
Wootton, near Bedford, had been much diminished by digging a few
wells, and obtaining good water. He also states that, in the
neighbouring parish of Houghton, almost the only family which
escaped ague, at one time, was that of a respectable farmer who used
well-water, whilst all the other families had only ditch water.
M. Boudin[40] relates a very marked instance in which intermittent,
and apparently also remittent, fever were caused by drinking marsh
water. It is as follows:—
“In July 1834, 800 soldiers, all in good health, embarked on the
same day in three transports at Bona, in Algeria, and arrived
together at Marseilles; they were exposed to the same atmospheric
influences, and were, with one essential difference, supplied with the
same food, and subjected to the same discipline. On board one of the
vessels were 120 soldiers: of these, 13 died on the passage, from a
destructive fever, and 98 more were taken to the military hospital of
the lazaretto at Marseilles, presenting all the pathological characters
proper to marshy localities. On seeing the physiognomy of these
patients, altogether so unusual for Marseilles, one would have said
that the Gulf of Mexico, the Delta of the Ganges, and the marshes of
Senegal and of Holland, had supplied passengers to this ship. In
short, by the side of a simple intermittent, there was a pernicious
fever. On an inquiry being instituted, it was ascertained that on
board the affected ship the water supplied for the soldiers, owing to
the haste of the embarkation, had been taken from a marshy place
near Bona; whilst the crew, not one of whom was attacked, were
supplied with wholesome water. It further appeared that the nine
soldiers who had escaped had purchased water of the crew, and had
consequently not drunk the marsh water. Not a single soldier or
sailor of the other two transports, who were supplied with pure
water, suffered.”
Mr. Grainger, who quotes the above circumstance in his Appendix
to the Report on Cholera, also says:[41] “Dr. Evans, of Bedford, related
to me an equally well-marked instance. A few years ago, he was
staying at Versailles, with his lady, when they both became affected
with the ague, and, on inquiry, the following facts were disclosed.
The town of Versailles is supplied with water for domestic purposes
from the Seine, at Marli. At the time in question, a large tank,
supplying one particular quarter, was damaged, and the mayor,
without consulting the medical authorities, provided a supply of
water, consisting of the surface-drainage of the surrounding country,
which is of a marshy character. The regular inhabitants would not
use this polluted water; but Dr. and Mrs. Evans, who were at an
hotel, drank of it unwittingly, and it was also used by a regiment of
cavalry. The result was, that those who drank the water suffered from
intermittent fever of so severe a type, that seven or eight of the
soldiers, fine young men, died on one day, Sept. 1, 1845. On a careful
investigation it was ascertained that those only of the troops who had
drunk the marsh water were attacked; all the others, though
breathing the same atmosphere, having escaped, as did also the
townspeople.”
In all the instances I have just quoted, the cause of ague, whatever
it may be, was swallowed with the water, not inhaled with the air;
and on questioning two patients, ill with this complaint, in St.
George’s Hospital, after harvesting in Kent, they told me that they
had often been obliged to drink water from the ditches. The disease
of the liver and spleen, to which persons are subject after attacks of
intermittent fever, also confirms the view that its material cause
enters the system by the alimentary canal, and not by the lungs; and
it is of importance to remark, that Hippocrates observed, that
drinking stagnating waters caused hard swellings of the spleen.[42]
Whether the unknown cause of ague has been produced in the
system of a previous patient, like the pus of small-pox and the eggs of
tape-worm, or whether it has been produced externally, there is, at
present, no sufficient evidence to show. In the case first supposed,
the disease would be a communicable one, in the second it would
not.
There is one circumstance which seems to indicate that the specific
cause of intermittent fevers undergoes a development or
multiplication within the system of the patient,—it is, that a period of
dormancy, or incubation, has been observed, in many cases, between
the visit to the unhealthy locality and the illness which followed; for,
as I have already remarked, every poisonous or injurious substance
causes symptoms as soon as it has been absorbed in sufficient
quantity.
The communication of ague from person to person has not been
observed, and supposing this disease to be communicable, it may be
so only indirectly, for the materies morbi eliminated from one
patient may require to undergo a process of development or
procreation out of the body before it enters another patient, like
certain flukes infesting some of the lower animals, and procreating
by alternate generations.
The measures which are required for the prevention of cholera,

and all diseases which are communicated in the same way as cholera,
are of a very simple kind. They may be divided into those which may
be carried out in the presence of an epidemic, and those which, as
they require time, should be taken beforehand.
The measures which should be adopted during the presence of
cholera may be enumerated as follows:—
1st. The strictest cleanliness should be observed by those about the
sick. There should be a hand-basin, water, and towel, in every room
where there is a cholera patient, and care should be taken that they
are frequently used by the nurse and other attendants, more
particularly before touching any food.
2nd. The soiled bed linen and body linen of the patient should be
immersed in water as soon as they are removed, until such time as
they can be washed, lest the evacuations should become dry, and be
wafted about as a fine dust. Articles of bedding and clothing which
cannot be washed, should be exposed for some time to a temperature
of 212° or upwards.
MEASURES 3rd. Care should be taken that the water
REQUIRED FOR employed for drinking and preparing food
THE (whether it come from a pump-well, or be
PREVENTION
OF CHOLERA.
conveyed in pipes) is not contaminated with
the contents of cesspools, house-drains, or
sewers; or, in the event that water free from suspicion cannot be
obtained, it should be well boiled, and, if possible, also filtered.
Works are in progress for supplying a great part of London with
water from the Thames, obtained, like that of the Lambeth Company,
above Teddington Lock. Although this is not the best possible source
for supplying a large town, it is a great improvement on the practice
of many of the water companies; and the water, owing to filtration,
and especially to its detention in large reservoirs, will probably be
quite salubrious: at all events it will be much safer than that of the
shallow pump-wells of London, which are fed from very polluted
sources. It is very desirable that the handles of nearly all the street-
pumps of London and other large towns should be fastened up, and
the water used only for such purposes as watering the streets. A
proper supply of water for the shipping in the Thames is much
wanted. Water acquires a flat taste by being boiled; but if it is filtered
after it becomes cold, it gets re-aerated, and the flat or vapid taste is
entirely removed.
4th. When cholera prevails very much in the neighbourhood, all
the provisions which are brought into the house should be well
washed with clean water, and exposed to a temperature of 212°
Fahr.; or at least they should undergo one of these processes, and be
purified either by water or by fire. By being careful to wash the
hands, and taking due precautions with regard to food, I consider
that a person may spend his time amongst cholera patients without
exposing himself to any danger.
5th. When a case of cholera or other communicable disease
appears among persons living in a crowded room, the healthy should
be removed to another apartment, where it is practicable, leaving
only those who are useful to wait on the sick.
6th. As it would be impossible to clean out coal-pits, and establish
privies and lavatories in them, or even to provide the means of eating
a meal with anything like common decency, the time of working
should be divided into periods of four hours instead of eight, so that
the pitmen might go home to their meals, and be prevented from
taking food into the mines.
7th. The communicability of cholera ought not to be disguised
from the people, under the idea that the knowledge of it would cause
a panic, or occasion the sick to be deserted.
British people would not desert their friends or relatives in illness,
though they should incur danger by attending to them; but the truth
is, that to look on cholera as a “catching” disease, which one may
avoid by a few simple precautions, is a much less discouraging
doctrine than that which supposes it to depend on some mysterious
state of the atmosphere in which we are all of us immersed and
obliged to breathe.
The measures which can be taken beforehand to provide against
cholera and other epidemic diseases, which are communicated in a
similar way, are—
8th. To effect good and perfect drainage.
9th. To provide an ample supply of water quite free from
contamination with the contents of sewers, cesspools, and house-
drains, or the refuse of people who navigate the rivers.
10th. To provide model lodging-houses for the vagrant class, and
sufficient house room for the poor generally.
The great benefit of the model lodging-houses arises from the
circumstance that the apartments for cooking, eating, and sleeping,
are distinct, and that all the proper offices which cleanliness and
decency require are provided. The very poor who choose to avail
themselves of these institutions, suffer a rate of mortality as low as
that of the most opulent classes. The public washhouses, which
enable poor persons to wash the soiled linen of the sick or the
healthy, without doing it in the midst of the plates and dishes and
provisions of the family, are well calculated to prevent the spread of
disease.
11th. To inculcate habits of personal and domestic cleanliness
among the people everywhere.
12th. Some attention should undoubtedly be directed to persons,
and especially ships, arriving from infected places, in order to
segregate the sick from the healthy. In the instance of cholera, the
supervision would generally not require to be of long duration.
In the autumn of 1853, certain German emigrants, on their way to
America, who had crossed the sea from Hamburgh and Rotterdam,
where cholera was prevailing, to the port of Hull, and had gone
thence, by rail, to Liverpool, were seized with cholera (some of them
fatally) in the latter town; and it is most likely to the well-regulated
Emigrant’s Home, in which these cases occurred, that the town of
Liverpool owed its freedom from the epidemic at that time. And a
little medical supervision, and the detention of some of the
emigrants for a short time in Liverpool, before their embarcation,
would probably have prevented the great mortality which occurred in
some of the emigrant ships during their passage to America.
The measures which are intended to prevent disease should be
founded on a correct knowledge of its causes. For want of this
knowledge, the efforts which have been made to oppose cholera have
often had a contrary effect. In 1849, for instance, the sewers of
London were frequently flushed with water,—a measure which was
calculated to increase the disease in two ways: first, by driving the
cholera evacuations into the river before there was time for the
poison to be rendered inert by decomposition; and second, by
making increased calls on the various companies for water to flush
the sewers with,—so that the water which they sent to their
customers remained for a shorter time in the reservoirs before being
distributed. It should be remarked, also, that the contents of the
sewers were driven into the Thames by the flushing, at low water,
and remained flowing up the stream for four or five hours
afterwards. Flushing the sewers was not repeated during the recent
epidemic, but increased quantities of water were distributed by some
of the Companies, and at more frequent intervals, causing the water-
butts to overflow for hours together into the drains, and producing
nearly the same effect as flushing the sewers; in addition to which,
the water in the butts of the Southwark and Vauxhall Company’s
customers was prevented from settling, as it might have done if less
frequently disturbed.
I feel confident, however, that by attending to the above-
mentioned precautions, which I consider to be based on a correct
knowledge of the cause of cholera, this disease may be rendered
extremely rare, if indeed it may not be altogether banished from
civilized countries. And the diminution of mortality ought not to stop
with cholera. The deaths registered under the name of typhus consist
chiefly of the typhoid fever mentioned above. Its victims are
composed chiefly of persons of adult age, who are taken away from
their families and connections. In 1847 upwards of 20,000 deaths
were registered in England from typhus, and in 1848 upwards of
30,000 deaths. It is probable that seven times as many deaths have
taken place from typhus as from cholera, since the latter disease first
visited England in 1831; and there is great reason to hope that this
mortality may in future be prevented by proper precautions,
resulting from a correct knowledge of the mode of communication of
the malady.
APPENDIX,
Containing the number of deaths from cholera registered in the

four weeks ending 5th August, 1854, together with the supply of
water in the houses in which the fatal attacks took place, in all
the sub-districts to which the water supply of either the
Southwark and Vauxhall or the Lambeth Company extends. (See
Table VII, page 84.) The registers of deaths are copied from the
Weekly Returns of the Registrar-General.
St. Saviour, Southwark. Christchurch.
At 34, Charlotte Street, on 29th July, a stock-maker, aged 29,
“Asiatic cholera 18 hours”
Lambeth.
At 45, Gravel Lane, on 1st August, the widow of a farmer, aged 48,
“cholera 12 hours”
Southwark & Vauxhall.
At 1, Alpha Place, on 1st August, a barrister’s clerk, aged 57,

Southwark and Vauxhall.

St. Saviour, Southwark. St. Saviour.
At 1, Park Street, on 25th July, the wife of a labourer, aged 35,
“Asiatic cholera 14¹⁄₂ hours”
At 40, Bankside, on 25th July, the son of a locksmith, aged 5 years,

At same house, on 26th July, the daughter of a locksmith, aged 9

yrs., “cholera 12 hours”
At same house, on 28th July, the daughter of a locksmith, aged 13

yrs., “cholera 12 hours”
At 97, Bridge Road, on 28th July, a hatter, aged 36, “Asiatic

cholera 24 hours”
At 49, Great Guildford Street, on 29th July, a coal-porter, aged 44,

At 20, Zoar Street, on 31st July, a female, formerly a domestic

servant, aged 79, “diarrhœa 2 days, cholera 12 hours”

At 22, America Street, on Aug. 1, the wife of an engine-driver, aged
38, “cholera 12 hours”
At 5, Pleasant Place, August 1, the daughter of a coal-porter, aged 5

years, “Asiatic cholera 13 hours”
At 10, Castle Street, on 1st August, the son of an engineer, aged 7

years, “cholera 12 hours”
At 36, New Park Street, on 1st August, the son of an artist, aged 2
years, “Asiatic cholera 10¹⁄₂ hours”
Thames water from the tank of a saw-mill.
At 54¹⁄₂, Great Guildford St., on 2nd Aug., a labourer aged 51,

At the same house, same day, the wife of a labourer, aged 48,
At 2, Emerson Place, on 3rd August, the wife of an engineer, aged

30, “cholera 2 days”
At 29, Norfolk St., on 2d Aug., the son of a labourer, aged 3 years,


At 68, Great Guildford St., on 3rd Aug., the widow of a labourer,
aged 40, “cholera 19 hours”
At 10, Castle Street, on 3rd August, the daughter of a labourer,
aged 4 years, “cholera 12 hours”
At White Hart Inn Yard, on 3rd August, the wife of a porter, aged
At 22, America Street, on 3rd August, an engine-driver, aged 35,

At 15, Essex Street, on 4th August, a packer, aged 65, “diarrhœa 4

days, cholera 11 hours”
At 17, Southwark Square, on 3rd August, the wife of an engineer,

aged 31, “diarrhœa 1 day, cholera 3 days”
At 31, York Place, 5th Aug., the daughter of a labourer, aged 5 yrs.
“Asiatic cholera, 11¹⁄₂ hours”
At 50, Great Guildford Street, on 4th August, a baker’s

shopwoman, aged 21, “Asiatic cholera”
At 10, Russell Place, on 5th August, the widow of a steam-boat

stoker, aged 38, “diarrhœa 4 weeks, Asiatic cholera 20 hours”
At 14, Keppel St., 31st July, the daughter of a cooper, aged 4 years,
At 3, Bank End, on 2nd August, a widow of a coach-trimmer, aged

73, “Asiatic cholera 14 hours”
Thames water from tank at Messrs. Barclay & Perkins.

St. Olave, Southwark. St. Olave.
At St. Thomas’s Hospital (from Grey Eagle Street, Spitalfields), on
27th July, a labourer, aged 32, “rheumatism, cholera 20 hours”. This
patient, named John Moull, was admitted with rheumatism on 25th
July. Water supply of hospital
Southwark and Vauxhall and pump-wells on the premises.
At 5, Marble Court, July 28, the son of a basket maker, aged 4

years, “malignant cholera 12 hours”
At the same house, July 30, a stonemason’s daughter, aged 2 yrs.,

“choleraic diarrhœa 2 days”
At 3, Gimber’s Rents, July 31, a labourer’s daughter, 13 months,

At Guy’s Hospital, July 30, a dressmaker, aged 19, “cholera”;

admitted with cholera from 2, Port Place, Walworth Common
At 3, Gimber’s Rents, Aug. 1, a labourer’s daughter, 3 years,

On board the “Prince Cobourg”, Cotton’s Wharf, on August 2nd, a

seaman, aged 38, “Asiatic cholera 14 hours”
Most likely Thames water.
At 5, Marble Court, August 1, the daughter of a basket maker, aged

1 year and 4 months, “cholera, congestion of brain”
At 6, Darley’s Buildings, August 2, the daughter of a labourer, 2
yrs., “Asiatic cholera 14 hrs.”
Southwk. & Vauxhall.
At Guy’s Hospital, on August 1st, a sailor, aged 16, “cholera”;
admitted with cholera from a ship in the Thames
At Guy’s Hospital, on 2nd August, a bookbinder, aged 30,
“cholera”; was taken ill in the train on his way from Portsmouth
Water supply not ascertained.
At Guy’s Hospital, on 3rd August, the daughter of a block-turner,
aged 11 yrs., “cholera”; admitted with cholera from 7, Mint Street,
Southwark.
At St. Thomas’s Hospital, supposed from Red Cross Street,
Southwark, on 31st July, a charwoman, aged 50, “cholera”
Water supply not ascertained.
At St. Thomas’s Hospital, from (28) Cole Street, Dover Road, on
2nd August, a cab-driver, aged 40, “cholera”; admitted with cholera
At St. Thomas’s Hospital, from (1 Star Place) Star Corner,
Bermondsey, on 3rd August, a baker, aged 27, “cholera”; admitted
with cholera.
At 10, Tattle Court, on 4th August, a labourer, aged 46, “Asiatic
cholera 12 hours”
At 11, Green Bank, on 4th August, the daughter of a pavior, aged 3
years, “Asiatic cholera 18 hours.”
At 24, Mellor Street, on 3rd August, a butcher, aged 73, “cholera 18
hours”
At 194, Tooley Street, Aug. 5th, the son of a railway porter, aged 16
months, “cholera”
St. Olave, Southwark. St. John,
Horsleydown.
At 8, Charles Street, July 20, a carman, aged 42, “diarrhœa 3 days,
Asiatic cholera 22 hours”
At 19, Bermondsey St., July 26, a labourer’s daughter, aged 5 yrs.,
“cholera Asiatica 4¹⁄₂ hours”
At 4, Abdy Street, on 29th July, a corn-turner, aged 60, “Asiatic
cholera, with premonitory diarrhœa, 18 hours”
At 12, Bermondsey Street, July 29, a railway porter, aged 34,
“malignant cholera 12 hours”
At 5, Gibbon’s Rents, July 29, wife of a railway porter, aged 39,
“malignant cholera 16 hours”
At 18, Parish Street, July 29, a carpenter’s labourer, aged 19,
“diarrhœa 4 days, cholera 3 days”
At the Union Workhouse, on 30th July, a labourer, aged 40,
“Asiatic cholera 24 hours”; admitted with cholera from 4, Bethel
Place, Vine Yard
At the Union Workhouse, on 31st July, an apprentice to the sea,
aged 16, “Asiatic cholera 36 hours”; admitted with cholera from on
board ship
At 5, Bethel Place, July 30, the wife of a corn-turner, aged 35,
At the same house, Aug. 1, daughter of a corn-turner, aged 1 year,
“Asiatic cholera 3 days”
At 8, Gibbon’s Rents, Aug. 1, the wife of a carpenter, aged 32,
At 6, Gordon Terrace, on 1st August, the daughter of a coal-porter,
aged 2 years and 7 months, “Asiatic cholera 4 hours”
At the Union Workhouse, on 1st August, a slater, aged 56, “Asiatic
cholera 24 hours”; admitted with cholera from 4, Magdalen Court,
Tooley Street
At the Union Workhouse, on 3rd August, the wife of a labourer,
aged 30, “Asiatic cholera 4 days”; admitted with cholera from 4,
Bethel Pl., Vine Yd.
At 22, Magdalen Street, Aug. 1, a single woman, aged 53, “cholera
24 hours”
At 3, Freeman’s Lane, on 2nd August, a labourer, aged 25,
“premonitory diarrhœa, with sickness, 24 hours; Asiatic cholera 9
hours”
At 2, Charles Street, July 30, the widow of a hatter, aged 62,
At 4, Charles Street, Aug. 4, a female, aged 45, “diarrhœa 7 days,
English cholera 12 hours”
Bermondsey. St. James.
On board the ship “Ouse”, off Bermondsey, July 9, a mariner, aged
At 5, Gibson’s Cottages, on 18th July, the son of a chair-marker,
aged 5 years, “choleraic diarrhœa 2 days, collapse 1 day”
At 4, Bermondsey Wall, on 23rd July, the daughter of a bookseller,
aged 4 years, “cholera 9 hours”
Thames water, by dipping a pail in the river.
At 4, Bermondsey Wall, July 24, a sawyer’s daughter, aged 3 yrs.,
Thames water, by dipping a pail.
At 9, Pleasant Row, July 25th, the wife of a labourer, aged 55,
“chronic disease of liver 2 years, choleraic diarrhœa 16 hours”
At 10, Marine Street, on 24th July, a mate, mariner, aged 34,
“Asiatic cholera 101 hours, after choleraic diarrhœa 16¹⁄₂ hours”
At 10, Marine Street, on 24th July, a mariner, aged 27, “Asiatic
cholera 13 hours, after premonitory diarrhœa 2¹⁄₂ hours”
At 4, Bermondsey Wall, July 27, a sawyer, aged 62, “cholera 32
hours”
At 6, Perseverance Court, on 28th July, the wife of a hawker, aged
30, “cholera 24 hours, no premonitory symptoms”
At 8, Foxlow Street, on 29th July, the daughter of a labourer, aged
18 years, “diarrhœa some days, cholera 13 hours”
At 14, Gedling Terrace, Aug. 2, a carman’s daughter, aged 2 years,
“cholera maligna 4 days”
At 22, George Row, August 3, a stonemason, aged 30, “cholera
maligna 10 hours”
At Bermondsey Wall, on 3rd August, the wife of a publican, aged
34, “Asiatic cholera 19 hours”
At 6, Pleasant Row, on 3rd August, the daughter of a currier
deceased, aged 5 years, “Asiatic cholera 7 hours”
At 3, Parker’s Terrace, on 3rd August, the son of an oil-cooper,
aged 1 year, “diarrhœa 10 days, cholera 2 days”
At 36, Ernest Street, on 4th August, the wife of an engineer, aged
37, “premonitory diarrhœa 24 hours, cholera 41 hours”
At 1, Bermondsey Wall, on 4th August, the son of a mariner, aged 2
years, “diarrhœa 10 days, cholera 2 days”
At 5, George Row, Aug. 2, the son of a lighterman, aged 3 yrs.,
“choleraic diarrhœa 3¹⁄₂ days”
At Water Lane, on 29th July, a domestic servant, aged 23, “cholera
10¹⁄₂ hours”
At 16, Marine Street, on 30th July, the daughter of a labourer, aged
9 yrs., “cholera 11 hrs.”
At 8, Printer’s Place, July 30, the widow of a publican, aged 70,
At 4, Green Walk, on Aug. 1, the wife of a hoop-bender, aged 47,
“Asiatic cholera 7 days”

Full Transport Processes and Separation Technologies J.M.P.Q. Delgado Ebook All Chapters

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full Transport Processes and Separation Technologies J.M.P.Q. Delgado Ebook All Chapters

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full download test bank at ebook textbookfull.

Transport Processes and Separation

CLICK LINK TO DOWLOAD

Hygrothermal Behaviour and Building Pathologies

Case Studies in Building Rehabilitation J.M.P.Q.

Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles

Rotary Kilns, Second Edition: Transport Phenomena and

Novel Catalytic and Separation Processes Based on Ionic

Industrial Separation Processes Fundamentals 2nd

The Application of Green Solvents in Separation

Advanced Engineering for Processes and Technologies

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8611

ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic)

1 Clay Ceramic Materials: From Fundamentals and Manufacturing

3 Foam-Mat Drying Process: Theory and

5.5.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

A. G. Barbosa de Lima, J. M. P. Q. Delgado, L. P. C. Nascimento,

Keywords Drying · Brick · Experimental · Simulation · Lumped model

A. G. B. de Lima (B) · L. P. C. Nascimento · E. S. de Lima · A. M. V. Silva · J. V. Silva

1.1 Ceramic Materials

Following, the ceramic industry underwent major developments, now based on

1.1.2 Fundamental Concepts

1.1.3 The Ceramic Industry and Clay Products

occurrence of mineral resources, abundance of natural gas, expanding market, and

Table 1.1 Types and characterization of red ceramics (Silva 2009)

considered as dispersed mineral systems in which particles below 2 µm in diameter

1.1.4 Red Ceramic Product Manufacturing Process

Fig. 1.1 Manufacturing flowchart of red ceramic pieces

materials, mechanical forming, thermal processing, and shipping. The following

1.1.4.1 Extraction and Preparation of Raw Materials

1.1.4.2 Mechanical Forming

1.1.4.3 Thermal Processing

1.2 The Drying Process

1.2.1 General Principles

Drying can be explained as a thermodynamic process responsible for the partial

A more detailed discussion of drying theories can be found in the literature

1.2.2 The Mathematical Modeling of the Drying Process

The main objective of an appropriated drying modeling is to mathematically describe

1.3 Lumped Model Application: Drying of Clay Ceramic

The focus is to develop a phenomenological mathematical modeling and its analyt-

1.3.1 The Experimental Data

Fig. 1.3 Hollow brick with dimensions

M = A1 exp(k1 t) + A2 exp(k2 t) (1.3)

where t is given in minutes. The A1 , A2 , k 1 , and k 2 parameters were estimated using

where t is given in minutes. Parameters B1 , B2 , K 1 , and B3 were estimated using

1.3.2 Phenomenological Mathematical Modeling

To predict the drying process was developed an advanced and phenomenological

50 0.576178 −0.004711 0.482232 −0.004711 0.997676745 0.995358888

50 −546.0430 283.1605 0.42554 101.18296 0.960840804 0.923215051

(a) Brick is composed of liquid water and solid matter;

1.3.2.1 Geometric and Dimensional Analysis

Vf = aV aH R3 (brick holes volume) (1.5)

V = (R1 R2 R3 ) − (8Vf )(brick volume) (1.6)

S = (2R1 R3 ) + (2R2 R3 ) + 2[(R1 R2 ) − (8aH aV )] + 8[(2aH R3 ) + (2aV R3 )]

where in Eqs. 1.5, 1.6, and 1.7:

aV = (R2 − 2a1 − 3a3 )/4 (height of a hole) (1.8)

aH = (R1 − 2a2 − a4 )/2 (width of a hole) (1.9)

1.3.2.2 Mass Transfer Analysis

where the coefficients a k are specified according to drying conditions.

1.3.2.3 Heat Transfer Analysis

where the coefficients bk are specified according to drying conditions.

1.3.3 Results Analysis

1.3.3.1 Dimensional Variations