Abstract
In light of the urgent need to combat climate change and attain carbon neutrality, the development of blue carbon has emerged as a pivotal strategy for the global community. This approach offers significant potential for both mitigating and adapting to the impacts of climate change. As a result, international collaboration on blue carbon initiatives has become a focal point in the worldwide response to the climate crisis. China, blessed with extensive blue carbon resources, recognizes the development of these ecosystems as a critical component in its efforts to make a substantial contribution to the global endeavor to curb climate change and achieve sustainable environmental goals. This article offers a comprehensive analysis of China's opportunities and challenges in international blue carbon collaboration. Despite its vast potential, China faces significant hurdles, including the degradation of blue carbon ecosystems, a delayed start in implementing blue carbon practices, and inconsistencies in the blue carbon standard system. To enhance its participation in global blue carbon initiatives, China should pursue several key strategies, including preserving and restoring its blue carbon ecosystems, strengthening domestic protection and application mechanisms, promoting the construction of an international blue carbon system, establishing a scientific cooperation platform to facilitate capacity building and technology transfer and advocating for an international blue carbon market trading mechanism. By prioritizing these key areas, China can simultaneously foster domestic blue carbon conservation and development while solidifying its role as a pivotal contributor to global climate change mitigation efforts.
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1. Introduction
The ocean, which stores an astonishing 93% of the Earth's CO2, is the world's largest active carbon reservoir (Khatiwala et al 2009). As the global community grapples with the urgent need to address climate change, the immense carbon sink potential of the ocean has gradually come to light. Consequently, ocean-based measures have emerged as a crucial strategy for mitigating and adapting to the impacts of climate change. Blue carbon, the carbon captured and stored by marine and coastal ecosystems and species, offers potential as a 'nature-based solution' to climate change (Christianson et al 2022). Addressing climate change is a universal challenge that transcends national boundaries, and effective global climate governance necessitates coordinated cooperation from the international community. The development and application of blue carbon solutions have reached a critical juncture, with the active engagement and commitment of key countries playing a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory and efficacy of international blue carbon cooperation. By leveraging their resources, expertise, and influence, these nations can catalyze the adoption of blue carbon strategies and drive meaningful progress towards achieving global climate goals.
This study focuses on China, a developing nation that has demonstrated a strong commitment to achieving its ambitious 'dual carbon' goals, as a case study for examining the role of key countries in international blue carbon cooperation. As a contracting party to the Paris Agreement, China has taken significant strides in deeply engaging with global climate governance and making substantial contributions to addressing the pressing issue of climate change. These efforts serve as the foundational underpinnings for China's active participation in international blue carbon cooperation. The article delves into the various facets of China's blue carbon efforts, including its policy frameworks, institutional arrangements, and on-the-ground implementation, to identify areas of strength and potential barriers to success. Through this in-depth investigation, this study seeks to offer practical recommendations and strategic insights to guide China's future actions and enable more effective participation in international blue carbon cooperation. These recommendations include actively participating in the development of an international blue carbon governance framework, advocating for the establishment of an international blue carbon trading market, and strengthening global and regional capacity building and technology transfer exchanges related to blue carbon. By pursuing these strategic actions, China can leverage its resources, expertise, and influence to drive progress in global blue carbon cooperation and contribute to the collective effort to mitigate climate change and safeguard marine ecosystems.
2. Tracing the trajectory: the evolution and development of blue carbon issues in the context of global climate change mitigation efforts
Nature-based solutions to climate change are one of the most cost-effective ways (Howard et al 2023). Marine ecosystems serve as vital carbon sinks, playing a crucial role in mitigating the impacts of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Faced with the pressing need to balance economic development and combat climate change, the international community has increasingly turned its attention to the ocean, recognizing the immense potential of ocean-based natural solutions in both mitigating and adapting to the effects of a changing climate. This renewed focus on the marine environment has sparked a global effort to explore and implement innovative strategies that harness the power of the ocean to absorb and store carbon, while simultaneously promoting sustainable economic growth and enhancing the resilience of coastal communities.
In 2009, the United Nations Environment Program, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cutural Orgainzation (UNESCO) jointly released 'Blue carbon: the role of healthy oceans in binding carbon' (UNEP 2009). It confirms the vital role of the ocean in global climate change and the carbon cycle, and clarifies that blue carbon refers to the processes, activities, and mechanisms that use ocean activities and marine organisms to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and fix it in the ocean (Zhu and Liu 2021). The intricate relationship between the ocean and climate change has emerged as a central focus in climate governance, with the concept of blue carbon gaining widespread recognition and incorporation into relevant systems and plans. The scientific community has been swift in its response to this growing interest in the ocean's role in climate change mitigation. In 2010, a collaborative effort by Conservation International, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature led to the establishment of the Blue Carbon Initiative (BCI), a platform designed to facilitate exchange and cooperation among scientists (Conservation International 2010). This initiative has been instrumental in catalyzing the rapid advancement of blue carbon science, fostering a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which marine ecosystems sequester and store carbon, and informing the development of effective strategies for harnessing the potential of blue carbon in the fight against climate change.
Moreover, the concept of blue carbon has been progressively integrated into the international legal framework on climate change, as evidenced by its inclusion in key agreements such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol, and most recently, the Paris Agreement. The Paris Agreement, which represents the latest milestone in global climate governance, has taken a significant step forward in recognizing the potential of blue carbon by incorporating it into its core implementation mechanism, the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) (UN 2015a). The 'Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate' released by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2019 recognizes coastal blue carbon ecosystems as critical components of global climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies (IPCC 2019). The report's findings had a direct and significant impact on the discussions and outcomes of the 25th Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Paris Agreement, where the 'Ocean-Climate' nexus emerged as one of the central themes of the conference. This heightened focus on the interconnections between the ocean and climate change, coupled with the growing body of scientific evidence showcased in the IPCC report, has served to elevate the role of blue carbon in the global climate governance agenda (Hu 2023). The United Arab Emirates (UAE) Consensus achieved in COP 28 also emphasized the implementation of the newly adopted global goal to protect 30% of land and sea by 2030, which could help protect blue carbon (UN 2023).
The Paris Agreement, which serves as a guiding framework for global climate governance, sets forth an ambitious goal of limiting the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. Crucially, the Agreement recognizes the paramount importance of international cooperation in addressing the complex and far-reaching challenges posed by climate change. To ensure that collective efforts are on track to meet this goal, the Paris Agreement mandates the conduct of a periodic Global Stocktake to comprehensively assess the collective progress made by countries in implementing their climate action commitments and the support provided and mobilized for this purpose (UN 2015b). This mechanism emphasizes the need for transparency, accountability, and the continuous enhancement of the collective effectiveness of global climate governance efforts. In this context, the Paris Agreement provides a clear direction and a robust foundation in international law for strengthening international cooperation on blue carbon initiatives.
3. Embracing collaboration: examining the necessity and feasibility of China's participation in international blue carbon cooperation
3.1. Fulfilling international obligations: a call to action
In order to fulfill its commitments under the Paris Agreement, China has set forth the ambitious 'dual carbon' goal, which aims to achieve peak carbon dioxide emissions before 2030 and attain carbon neutrality by 2060. However, research shows that if China wants to achieve the goal of carbon neutrality in 2060, even if alternative energy sources are fully used to reduce CO2 emissions, huge gaps still exist (Fuhrman et al 2021). This reinforces the urgency of deploying negative emission technologies and enhancing ocean carbon sinks in stark terms (Liu et al 2022). As a developing country and one of the world's largest carbon emitters, China's early involvement in blue carbon initiatives represents not only a significant contribution to the global fight against climate change but also an opportunity to strengthen the influence and voice of developing countries in global climate governance. This is particularly crucial given the impacts of climate change on developing countries and their limited resources to adapt to and mitigate these impacts. The Paris Agreement reaffirmed the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), a cornerstone of international climate negotiations. The CBDR principle recognizes that while all countries have a shared obligation to address global environmental problems, their roles and contributions should be differentiated based on their respective capabilities, historical responsibilities, and national circumstances (Cai and Chang 2004). By actively participating in international blue carbon cooperation, China can demonstrate its commitment to taking responsibility for its carbon emissions, while also advocating for a more equitable and inclusive approach to global climate action that takes the unique challenges and needs of developing countries into account.
3.2. Vast potential for blue carbon resource development
China stands out as one of the few countries worldwide that possesses all three primary coastal blue carbon ecosystems: mangroves, seagrass beds, and salt marshes. With its extensive and high-quality blue carbon storage areas, China boasts unique conditions for the development and utilization of blue carbon resources. Simultaneously, China's diverse aquatic ecosystems, which have flourished under the Chinese government's advocacy for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, contribute to enhancing the robustness, resilience, and adaptability of the nation's marine carbon sinks. This abundance of blue carbon resources presents China with a wide range of opportunities and substantial potential for the development and management of these valuable assets, positioning the country as a key player in the global effort to harness the power of blue carbon in combating climate change and promoting sustainable coastal development. Research shows that China's total ocean carbon sink is 69.83–106.46 Tg C yr−1, among which the mariculture, coastal wetlands, and offshore carbon sinks are 2.27–4.06, 2.86–5.85, and 64.70–96.55 Tg C yr−1, respectively (Liu et al 2022).
China has made significant strides in advancing basic theories, methodologies, and applied technologies related to blue carbon, providing a crucial and robust foundation for the development of its blue carbon resources. A notable example is China's pioneering role in proposing the theoretical framework of the microbial carbon pump (MCP) (Jiao et al 2010), which opens up possibilities for enhancing the efficiency of marine microbiological carbon pumps (Liu and Zheng 2021). Moreover, theories such as land-sea coordination and artificial upwelling in marine aquaculture areas offer practical solutions for harnessing blue carbon to tackle climate change, with related technologies based on these theories already being implemented in Aoshan Bay, Qingdao, China (Wu et al 2020). Another milestone is the compilation of China's first comprehensive marine carbon sink accounting standard by the First Institute of Oceanography of the Ministry of Natural Resources, which came into effect on 1 January 2023. This standard provides a complete implementation plan to address the quantitative assessment of marine carbon sinks (Ministry of Natural Resources of The People's Republic of China 2023a). Furthermore, in 2023, the Ministry of Natural Resources of China issued the 'series of technical regulations on Blue carbon,' serving as the top-level design for the development of blue carbon technology in the country (Ministry of Natural Resources of The People's Republic of China 2023b). These regulations bridge the gap in technical guidelines for operational investigation and monitoring of blue carbon ecosystems, facilitating a better understanding of the carbon storage background and carbon sink potential of China's blue carbon ecosystems while maximizing their carbon sequestration capabilities.
China's extensive marine territory and diverse marine ecosystems provide tremendous potential for the development of its blue carbon resources. Concurrently, ongoing research and advancements in blue carbon technology have substantially increased the utilization efficiency of China's blue carbon assets, enabling the country to attain the dual benefits of environmental protection and economic development in its blue carbon initiatives. By strategically capitalizing on its favorable conditions, China is poised to become one of the most critical partners in international blue carbon cooperation, playing a crucial role in the global effort to harness the power of blue carbon for climate change mitigation, sustainable coastal development, and the conservation of marine biodiversity.
3.3. Institutional guarantees for China's participation in international blue carbon cooperation
Since 2013, China has progressively established a comprehensive strategic top-level design for blue carbon protection and cooperation through a 'top–down' approach (see table 1). It serves as a roadmap for China's blue carbon protection and cooperation efforts, providing clear direction and prioritization for the development and implementation of policies, programs, and projects related to blue carbon. This design encompasses a wide range of aspects, including blue carbon monitoring, assessment, quantification, and market transactions, and aligns the efforts of various government agencies, research institutions, and other stakeholders towards a common set of goals and objectives.
Table 1. China's policies on blue carbon cooperation.
| Year | Policy | Relevant content |
|---|---|---|
| 2013 | Twelfth Five-Year Plan for National Marine Development (The State Council of the People's Republic of China 2013) | Mentioned for the first-time contents related to blue carbon resources such as mangroves and coastal wetlands, emphasizing the restoration and protection of marine ecosystems. |
| 2015 | Opinions of the Communist Party of China Central Committee and the State Council on Accelerating the Construction of Ecological Civilization (The State Council of the People's Republic of China 2015). | Pointed out that increasing ocean carbon sinks should be one of the ways to deal with climate change, and proposed effective mechanisms and functions for increasing blue carbon. |
| 2017 | Vision for Maritime Cooperation under the Belt and Road Initiative (The State Council of the People's Republic of China 2017) | Listed research of blue carbon in ocean and coastal ecosystem as key areas for cooperation with "Belt and Road" countries and explores the establishment of a blue carbon cooperation mechanism. |
| 2021 | China's Policies and Actions to Address Climate Change (The State Council of the People's Republic of China 2021a) | Clearly proposes to promote the joint construction of a global climate governance system that is fair, reasonable, cooperative and win–win, and emphasizes strengthening pragmatic actions and cooperation to improve ecological carbon sink capabilities. |
| 2021 | Working Guidance for Carbon Dioxide Peaking and Carbon Neutrality in Full and Faithful Implementation of the New Development Philosophy (The State Council of the People's Republic of China 2021b) | Underlined strengthening research on basic theories, basic methods, and cutting-edge technologies in relation to carbon sinks in marine ecosystems, and monitoring and evaluating carbon sink capacities of protected and restored ecosystems. |
| 2021 | Action Plan for Carbon Dioxide Peaking Before 2030 (The State Council of the People's Republic of China 2021c) | Underlined strengthening research on basic theories, basic methods, and cutting-edge disruptive technologies for carbon sinks in marine ecosystems. |
| 2022 | National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy 2035 | Requested to implement marine ecological protection and restoration projects to improve the quality of the marine environment and enhance its carbon sink capacity. |
The strategic top-level design provides both policy support and institutional guarantees for China to participate in international blue carbon cooperation in a more standardized and effective manner. First, this comprehensive approach has ensured that its blue carbon initiatives are guided by a coherent and overarching framework and has enabled China to systematically address the multiple dimensions of blue carbon protection and cooperation, from the scientific understanding of blue carbon ecosystems to the establishment of market-based mechanisms for blue carbon trading. Second, it promotes the effective integration of domestic blue carbon protection efforts with international blue carbon cooperation initiatives, ensuring that China's actions are aligned with global best practices and contribute to the collective effort to address climate change through blue carbon solutions.
3.4. China's practical actions to promote international cooperation on blue carbon
China has been actively exploring and advancing practical measures to transform concepts and ideas into substantive results. In 2015, under the initiative of Jiao Nianzhi, an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, scientists from China, the United States, Europe, and Canada established a joint working group of the North Pacific Marine Science Organization (PICES) and the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). The purpose of this collaboration was to conduct research on ocean carbon sinks based on the MCP theory. In 2018, the 'BCI' international conference was held in Weihai, Shandong, China (The People's Government of Weihai 2018). The conference aimed to promote blue carbon-related scientific research cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region and provide innovative ideas and solutions for the development of global ocean carbon sinks technology (Wang 2023). In 2019, Chinese scientists made a significant stride with the launch of the Ocean Negative Carbon Emissions (ONCE) initiative (ONCE 2019), which aims to foster interdisciplinary and integrated research on the key processes involved in ocean carbon sinks. Another notable development occurred in 2022 when the Hainan International Carbon Emissions Trading Center was approved for establishment. This center is China's first carbon market with internationalization as its main feature, aiming to facilitate the international market-oriented trading of blue carbon products (Hainan Provincial People's government 2022). The Chinese government, committed to achieving a seamless integration of science and policy, has been proactive in promulgating and implementing a series of blue carbon policies at multiple levels (see figure 1). By fostering interdisciplinary research and collaborating with international organizations, China has created a solid foundation for bilateral and multilateral cooperation in the field of blue carbon.
Figure 1. Timetable of key actions for blue carbon development in China.
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4. Navigating obstacles: challenges faced by China in participating in international blue carbon cooperation
4.1. Degradation of blue carbon ecosystems
Blue carbon ecosystems face the combined pressures of climate change and human activities, resulting in a decline in blue carbon resources. Statistical data reveals that since 1950, China's three primary blue carbon ecosystems—mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrass beds—have collectively lost between 9236 and 10 059 square kilometers. The primary factors contributing to this decline include land reclamation, marine aquaculture pollution, sea level rise, seawall obstruction, and other related issues (Zhu and Liu 2021). The degradation of the blue carbon ecosystem will not only diminish China's innovative capacity in the realm of blue carbon technology but also intensify the pressure on China to tackle global climate change. This deterioration may lead to the international community questioning China's commitment to its 'dual carbon' goals, thereby undermining China's discursive influence in international climate negotiations. Consequently, this could impair China's ability and efficacy in engaging in international blue carbon cooperation.
4.2. Delayed initiation of blue carbon-related practices
China remains in the preliminary exploratory phase in several critical areas of blue carbon application. For instance, China's first project to achieve institutional carbon neutrality through blue carbon was not completed until 2021 (Ministry of Natural Resources of The People's Republic of China 2021), and the country's first blue carbon auction was only officially achieved in 2023 (Ministry of Natural Resources of The People's Republic of China 2023c). Moreover, China has yet to establish a blue carbon financial service system and third-party certification, registration, and other institutional mechanisms that align with international standards (Sun and Zhang 2023). This lack of practical experience limits China's ability to effectively participate in blue carbon cooperation. While foreign counterparts have made significant progress in advancing carbon sequestration through various fields, demonstrating a diligent approach to scientific research, Chinese research efforts in this area are still in their early stages. Fortunately, many companies and research teams have already undertaken practical attempts, some of them are genuinely committed to ecological restoration and on-site research.
4.3. Inconsistency in the blue carbon standard system
Since the publication of 'Blue carbon: the role of healthy oceans in binding carbon', the international community has gradually recognized the nature, function, development status, and carbon sequestration role of blue carbon, subsequently initiating various research projects. However, due to the relatively short history and scientific complexity of blue carbon research, a standardized system for measuring and monitoring blue carbon ecosystems has not yet been established as a unified international standard. Researchers from different countries employ different methods to measure blue carbon, and their parameter estimates are not consistent, leading to discrepancies in the estimation results (Wang and Xiao 2013). This inconsistency makes it challenging to accurately assess data such as global blue carbon coverage, carbon storage, growth parameters, conversion rates, and carbon capture and storage levels. In addition, licensing restrictions or incompatible development methods between countries make it difficult to access blue carbon databases freely worldwide, which has greatly affected the exchange of blue carbon ecosystem data at the international level. If blue carbon accounting data cannot be shared on a large scale, the establishment of international standards will lack practical support, which will slow down the process of international blue carbon cooperation in the long run (Li and Li 2022).
5. Charting the course: exploring implementation pathways for China's strategic engagement in international blue carbon cooperation
5.1. Advancing the preservation and restoration of blue carbon ecosystems
Abundant blue carbon resources are the basis for China's participation in international blue carbon cooperation. To address the pressing need for blue carbon ecosystem conservation, China should develop and implement a comprehensive action plan. This plan should begin with a thorough assessment of the nation's blue carbon potential, taking regional variations into account and identifying areas that warrant prioritized protection. Concerted efforts should be made to improve the ecological environment in harsh habitat areas, thereby fostering the growth and expansion of blue carbon ecosystems. It is particularly imperative to protect existing seaweed farming industries and preserve intertidal habitats. This involves implementing measures to reduce human disturbance and minimize the exploitation of vegetation resources in tidal plains. The increased blue carbon resulting from ecological protection can then be utilized for carbon sink trading. By channeling the income generated from carbon sink trading back into ecological conservation and the cultivation of new blue carbon resources, a virtuous cycle of environmental stewardship and economic sustainability can be established. In these processes, it is crucial to restoring the inherent value of blue carbon resources, rather than subjecting them to increasing human interference under the guise of carbon sink trading. The primary focus should be on genuinely developing the blue carbon resources, instead of merely capitalizing on the concept of carbon sinks. Engaging in blue carbon work solely for financial gain undermines the fundamental objectives of ecological conservation and sustainable development.
5.2. Enhancing domestic blue carbon protection and application mechanism
Orderly development and sustainable utilization of blue carbon depend heavily on robust institutional frameworks and guarantees. First, to minimize potential negative environmental impacts during project construction, it is necessary to promptly introduce environmental impact assessments and implement ecological compensation mechanisms. Second, blue carbon trading, a crucial aspect of blue carbon application, requires a systematic market trading system to realize its economic value. Specifically, the government should introduce relevant policies to incentivize organizations, such as emission control companies, to actively invest in activities like blue carbon ecosystem restoration to offset a portion of their emission reductions. It is also crucial to ensure the orderly operation of the blue carbon market and establish the information disclosure system to maintain transparency in all aspects of blue carbon trading (Bai and Hu 2021). Although China's latest revision of the Marine Environment Protection Law does not explicitly mention the concept of blue carbon, it has indirectly considered the protection of marine resources and the marine environment through blue carbon ecosystems. Regarding its future development, reasonable optimizations should be carried out, including clarifying the legal attributes of blue carbon, improving the institutional design of ocean carbon sink enhancement technologies, appropriately exercising judicial initiative, and ensuring robust regulatory frameworks for the blue carbon market (Feng and Liao 2023).
5.3. Active participation in the construction of an international blue carbon system
After exploring and improving the domestic blue carbon system, it is essential to integrate it with the international system to ensure consistency and compatibility. Establishing an international blue carbon system will enable the uniform protection and management of blue carbon resources on a global scale, mitigating the disadvantages caused by disparate standards across countries. Achieving a consensus within the international community and fostering a robust cooperation mechanism will allow for the most effective utilization of blue carbon resources. Nations should actively incorporate blue carbon considerations into existing international policy frameworks, including the Paris Agreement's collective progress assessments, NDCs, and other relevant mechanisms. By aligning international blue carbon cooperation with national obligations under the global climate governance framework, we can establish a standardized system for measuring and monitoring blue carbon. This will facilitate comprehensive accounting and evaluation of global blue carbon mitigation and adaptation potential. Additionally, it will leverage existing resources, such as financial and technical support, to keep pace with advancements in blue carbon science. In May 2024, China and France issued a joint statement on strengthening cooperation on biodiversity and the ocean. In the statement, China and France announced their cooperation to finance the restoration of marine and coastal ecosystems, recognizing the important role the ocean plays in carbon storage and sequestration. Bilateral cooperation in this regard will enhance the international community's interest and attention in the international blue carbon system. Furthermore, the synergy of non-climate international mechanisms shall also be leveraged, such as capacity-building and financial mechanisms under the Convention on Biological Diversity.
5.4. Establishing a scientific blue carbon cooperation platform to promote capacity building and technology transfer
The science and technology innovation cooperation platform is an essential medium for conducting technology transfer and disseminating knowledge (Mao and Zhang 2024). In the process of blue carbon cooperation, China should leverage existing cooperation platforms, such as the UN Ocean Decade, Boao Forum for Asia, and the Belt and Road Initiative International Green Development Coalition, to expand areas of collaboration and strengthen ties with the scientific community (Yu and Wang 2023). In the process, capacity building and technology transfer should be prioritized to ensure that all countries, regardless of their economic or technical capabilities, can participate in the collection, analysis, and sharing of blue carbon data. This can be accomplished through international partnerships, training programs, and the provision of resources and expertise to countries in need. China should actively participate in sharing international blue carbon research results and assist countries with less advanced technologies in obtaining state-of-the-art blue carbon technology, cultivating their related capabilities through international cooperation. This approach will contribute to improving the global overall strength in the sustainable use of blue carbon resources.
As for the obstacles to access blue carbon databases freely worldwide, it is imperative for countries to work towards creating a more open and accessible platform for sharing blue carbon data. This can be achieved through the development of compatible data management systems, the promotion of open-access policies, and the establishment of international agreements that facilitate data sharing while respecting intellectual property rights. Addressing the challenges associated with accessing and sharing blue carbon data is essential for the establishment of international standards and the advancement of global blue carbon cooperation. By fostering a culture of collaboration, transparency, and open access in blue carbon scientific research, the international community can work towards a more integrated and effective approach to protecting and managing blue carbon resources while supporting the implementation of global blue carbon initiatives.
5.5. Advocating for the establishment of an international blue carbon market trading mechanism
An effective market serves as the facilitator for smooth transactions of blue carbon projects and provides the foundation for blue carbon to fulfill its social and economic functions. Increased investments in blue carbon projects through a blue carbon market could enhance the protection or restoration of blue carbon ecosystems, resulting in a 'win–win' situation for both climate change regulation and coastal habitat conservation (Sutton-Grier et al 2014). Article 6 of the Paris Agreement encourages international cooperation in emissions reduction through a market-based approach (Vanderklift et al 2019). Currently, many countries, including China, have established domestic blue carbon markets, and carried out related transactions, but a global blue carbon trading market has not yet been built. The purpose of establishing an international blue carbon market is to maximize the value and utilization of blue carbon to the greatest extent possible, and the international community should adhere to the principle of integrity, comprehensively considering various market factors to build an effective and robust international blue carbon market. As a developing country and a nation rich in blue carbon resources, China should actively participate in the specific steps and strategic framework of constructing the global blue carbon trading market. Specific measures should include advocating for the establishment of a transparent and information-based trading platform, improving the collection and disclosure of market information (Zhao et al 2021), fairly allocating carbon emission quotas, setting rational prices for carbon trading, and promoting the formation of a blue carbon market price system and competition mechanism.
6. Conclusion
As the global community increasingly recognizes the urgent need to address climate change, blue carbon has emerged as a promising and effective solution. This study aims to systematically analyze the challenges and opportunities that China faces in engaging in international blue carbon cooperation.
Firstly, it is important to note that promoting international cooperation on blue carbon initiatives is a crucial avenue for China to fulfill its international obligations and demonstrate its commitment to addressing climate change. With its vast coastline and diverse marine ecosystems, China is endowed with abundant blue carbon resources, providing a substantial scope for participation in international blue carbon projects. Moreover, the Chinese government's continuous efforts to improve the top-level design of its climate policies, coupled with the country's rapid advancements in scientific research and technological development, offer a robust institutional guarantee and strong technical support for engaging in international cooperation on blue carbon. Furthermore, China's growing experience in implementing blue carbon projects domestically has gradually accumulated valuable knowledge and best practices that can be shared with the international community.
Secondly, the study recognizes that, in the process of participating in international blue carbon cooperation, China will inevitably face various challenges. These include the degradation of blue carbon ecosystems due to factors such as pollution, coastal development, and climate change impacts; the relatively delayed initiation of blue carbon-related practices and policies compared to other climate change mitigation and adaptation measures; and inconsistencies and gaps in the current international blue carbon standard system. To address these challenges and effectively engage in international blue carbon cooperation, China should adopt a proactive and multifaceted approach. This could involve advancing the sustainable development and management of its domestic blue carbon resources, enhancing its national blue carbon protection and application mechanisms, actively participating in the construction and refinement of an international blue carbon system, establishing a scientific blue carbon cooperation platform to promote capacity building and technology transfer among countries, and advocating for the establishment of an international blue carbon market trading mechanism to incentivize and support blue carbon conservation and restoration efforts globally. By addressing these challenges and seizing the opportunities for international collaboration, China can not only enhance its own climate resilience and sustainability but also play a potential key role in shaping the global agenda on climate action and sustainable development.
China's participation in global blue carbon initiatives is characterized by a proactive approach, a willingness to explore new ideas and solutions, and a commitment to translating research and policy into tangible actions on the ground. By sharing its knowledge, expertise, and resources, China is well-positioned to play a more influential role in shaping the future of international blue carbon cooperation and driving progress towards the sustainable management of global blue carbon resources.
Data availability statement
No new data were created or analysed in this study.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Author contributions
Z J Z: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft. Z K M:Writing—original draft. J P W: Supervision; Writing—review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Finanzierung
This research was funded by the Major Program of National Fund of Philosophy and Social Science of China (Project No. 23&ZD166).