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(Qjlqhhulqj'Udzlqj: Introductory Engineering Design 111
(Qjlqhhulqj'Udzlqj: Introductory Engineering Design 111
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Engineering drawing is a means of communication. Communication usually connotes writing
and speaking, because they are more commonly employed in the course of everyday life. Writing
and speaking, however, are insufficient to communicate design ideas. For one thing, the many languages around the world tend to inhibit written and verbal communication. It is more effective to
transmit and receive design intent through drawings, sketches, pictures, graphs, etc. Graphic communication is clear, precise and unambiguous, conveying the same meaning anywhere in the world.
This is increasingly important as the world develops into a global economy.
Both hand sketching and computer-aided design (CAD) are the two main tools to formulate and
convey design intent. While CAD is an important tool for the engineering designer, hand sketching is
still extremely important. The ability to clearly communicate design ideas on a blackboard or a piece
of paper is an essential skill for an engineer. In the early conceptual stages of the design process,
CAD can actually interfere with the creative flow of ideas.
Four aspects of engineering graphics are discussed in this chapter. First, the creation of pictorial drawings to show the three-dimensional (3D) form of objects is presented. The multi-view convention of engineering drawing is discussed next, followed by a discussion of the necessary
dimensions and specifications that engineering drawings need to contain in order to portray clear
communication of design intent. Finally, a broad overview of CAD, including an introduction to SolidWorks 98 software, is presented. For more in-depth coverage of engineering drawing, consult a
comprehensive textbook [1].
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A pictorial drawing is a 2D illustration of a 3D object. Many people have a difficult time mentally
assembling the three standard engineering views (front, top and side) to see an object; pictorial
drawings effectively convey its form, bringing objects to life. Because pictorials are so easy to visualize, they are often used for catalogs, maintenance manuals and assembly instructions.
Three different types of pictorials are commonly used:
Isometric
Oblique
Perspective
A simple cube drawn in the three different types of pictorials is illustrated in Figure 10.1. The
isometric pictorial is drawn with its three axes spaced 120 apart. The term isometric means equal
measurement, indicating that the sides are all scaled by the same factor relative to their true length.
Parallel lines defining edges on the object are also parallel on the isometric drawing. Drawing paper
with isometric axesavailable in good office and drafting supply storesgreatly facilitates drawing
an isometric pictorial. Also, most 3D CAD programs generate isometric views automatically.
Oblique pictorials are drawn with the front view shown to true scale in the x-y plane. Oblique
lines, which represent the z-axis, are projected at some angle, usually 30- 45. Parallel lines defining edges on the object are also parallel on the oblique drawing.
A perspective drawing represents most realistically what is actually seen. Artists draw or paint
using perspective style. While engineers sometimes represent their designs in this style, it is the
most difficult of the three types of pictorials to master. In perspective drawing, there is no well-
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In an isometric pictorial, the three axes are equally spaced 120 from each other, as shown in
Figure 10.2. The axes divide the paper into three zones that represent three views of the object. If
the axes make a Y, as in Figure 10.2, the view is downward toward the object. The top view is drawn
in between the top branches of the Y. The left-side view appears to the left of vertical axis, and the
front view is displayed to the right of this axis.
Figure 10.2. Isometric axes equally spaced at 120 angles divide the drawing into three regions: front,
top and left-side views.
The isometric pictorial in Figure 10.3 was drawn on isometric paper, which provides evenly
spaced lines parallel to the isometric axes to facilitate hand sketching, either freehand or guided by a
straight edge. Also, Figure 10.3 depicts the three orthogonal views of the same object, with corresponding planes numbered in circles. A good exercise is to re-create the isometric view from the
three views given.
Figure 10.3. Isometric pictorial of a block with a step and tapered side.
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Oblique drawings are the easiest type of pictorial to draw by hand, but they are also the least
realistic. Oblique and isometric pictorials are similar because both use parallel lines in constructing
the three views. The difference between oblique and isometric pictorials lies in the definition of the
axes. Oblique drawings use an x-, y- and z-coordinate system as shown in Figure 10.6. The three
coordinate axes divide the sheet into three regions for drawing the front-, top- and right-side views.
With the axes defined as shown in Figure 10.6, the object is viewed from above, looking from right to
left. The z-axis, which is the receding axis in Figure 10.6, is drawn at a 45 angle relative to the xaxis; however, other angles such as 30 or 60 are often employed.
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Figure 10.7 shows a simple oblique pictorial of a cube. The front view is drawn full size, which
means that horizontal and vertical dimensions may be accurately scaled. The z-axis depth, however,
is usually drawn at a lesser scale because drawing its true size creates an illusion of exaggerated
depth. In this case, the receding z-axis is drawn at 30 to the horizontal. Figure 10.8 is a more complex oblique drawing of two connected blocks, along with the three orthogonal views of the same
object, with corresponding planes numbered in circles. A scaling factor of is used for the depth for
better realism.
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igure 10.8.
Three-view drawing of a pair of connected blocks and an oblique pictorial of the same
object.
Figure 10.9 illustrates how circles appear in oblique pictorials. Circular features in the front view
appear as true circles, which facilitates hand drawing. A compass or circle template can be used to
accurately depict the circular feature. However, circular features on the top or side planes would
appear to be elliptical. Notice that only a portion of the circle formed where the hole intersects the
back plane of the object is visible in Figure 10.9(b).
Figure 10.9. Oblique pictorials. (a) Right-circular cylinder (b) Rectangular block with circular hole.
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Prior to the Renaissance in the 15th Century, paintings looked flat and unrealistic. Then, artists
discovered how to create drawings that represent on a 2D medium what the human eye (or a camera) sees. The role for perspective drawing in engineering is primarily to communicate to others how
objects appear.
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Figure 10.10. Parallel tracks converge and the ties appear to shorten as they recede in this photograph of
railroad tracks.
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An object can be represented using one-, two- or three-point perspective. In one-point perspective, the true width and height of an object in the front view are placed in the picture plane as illustrated in Figure 10.11. A horizontal construction line represents the horizon. The location of this line
depends on the viewing point and the viewing direction. In Figure 10.11, the block is viewed straight
on and from above. The elevation is taken into account by raising the horizon line. The vanishing
point is centered on the horizon line because the view of the block is straight on. Construction lines
are drawn from the vanishing point to the top corners of the block in the front view. The back edge on
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One-point perspective is useful when an object is viewed straight on so that its front view lies in
the picture plane. However, if the object is rotated so that neither the front or side view is in the picture plane, as illustrated in Figure 10.13, a two-point perspective is required.
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Figure 10.13. The direction from which an object is viewed controls the degree of perspective: (a)
Straight onuse one-point perspective (b) Angle viewuse two-point perspective.
Consider a rectangular block that is viewed diagonally, so that only one vertical edge lies in the
picture plane. Figure 10.14 shows the two-point perspective and its construction. First, an elevated
horizon line is drawn because the viewpoint is above the block. Two vanishing points (VP-R and VPL) are drawn; spacing these points at different distances reflects viewing the block from a slight
angle. Then, a true-length vertical line is drawn (1), and its endpoints are connected to both VP-R
and VP-L with construction lines. The two vertical surfaces can then be drawn (ABCD and ABEF).
Finally, points D and F are connected to the appropriate vanishing points to define the top surface.
Notice that in one-point perspective, two edges of the top cube face are parallel and two are not
(Figure 10.11), while in two-point perspective, none of the top edges are parallel (Figure 10.14).
Figure 10.15 shows a two-point perspective drawing and the construction of the coffee table
previously shown in one-point perspective. The front-most vertical edge is drawn true length, but the
vertical lines which define the width and depth of the table are drawn by eye to obtain correct proportions for the table.
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Three-point perspective is used when an object is very tall. Architects drawing a city view with
skyscrapers use three-point perspective and taper the building as it extends into the sky. Engineers
usually deal with smaller objects that can be represented in pictorials with either one- or two-point
perspective. Therefore, three-point perspective is not described in this chapter, but Powell [2] provides an excellent in-depth description of perspective drawing.
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Multi-view engineering drawings are the standard format for communicating design details from
the designer to the manufacturer. A multi-view drawing consists of as many 2D views of a part as are
necessary to define it completely and unambiguously. A multi-view drawing is universal shorthand
that contains all the information necessary to allow a part to be accurately and repeatedly fabricated.
The ability to create and read engineering drawings is an important skill for design engineers. Even if
the same person is designing and fabricating the part, which is often the case for student projects,
an accurate engineering drawing is an invaluable tool for both design and manufacturing.
Consider a rectangular block with a slot, shown in an isometric pictorial in Figure 10.16. The
arrows represent different directions of viewing the block, which isolate the front, side and top views.
A three-view drawing of the block is shown in Figure 10.17. The single pictorial drawing of the block
is now represented by three different 2D drawings representing the front, top and side views. These
three drawings completely define the proportions of the block, its size and the location and size of
the principle feature (the slot). Each view is accurately scaled.
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The arrangement of the views is important because anyone reading the drawing will assume
that this convention is being followed. A drawing that does not follow convention may be confusing.
The front view is placed in the lower left-hand corner of the paper, the top view is directly above it,
and the side view is directly to the right of the front view. This arrangement is called orthographic
projection, allowing dimensions to be projected from one view to another. The width of the object is
shared in both the top and front views, and the front and side views share the height dimensions of
the block.
Figure 10.17 also illustrates another convention in engineering drawings; namely, solid lines are
used to show lines that are visible in a view, and dashed lines represent edges that are hidden in
that view. For example, all of the edges formed by intersections of planes are visible in the front and
top views, so all the object lines are solid. However, in the side view, the line formed by the inside
corner of the slot is hidden from view. Adding the dashed line to the side view clarifies the drawing.
Drawings differ from photographs by the use of dashed lines to indicate hidden features.
Figure 10.18 shows the conventional meanings of different types of lines.
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Object Line
Dimension Line
Hidden Line
Center Line
Figure 10.18. Conventions for line styles in engineering drawings.
Next, consider a block with both a slot and a step, as shown in Figure 10.19. Figure 10.20
shows the three-view drawing for that part. The front view is drawn first, in the lower left-hand corner
of the paper. Even with the step and slot, the outline of the block is shown as a rectangle in the front
view. The lines defining the slot and step are added next, completing the front view. The top view is
constructed next, based on the thin construction lines projecting upward, as well as the known
dimensions of the depths of the block, slot and step. Finally, the side view is drawn, based on the
information contained in the front and top views. In this case, projecting the top view to the right to
intersect the 45 construction line, and then projecting downward helps to define the geometry of the
side view. Notice the hidden line, which again shows the depth of the slot.
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Figure 10.21. Isometric pictorial of a block with a circular step and hole.
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Multi-view drawings are drawn to a precise scale, so theoretically they contain adequate information about the size of parts. However, for a variety of reasons, an engineering drawing must also
contain explicit numerical dimensions that precisely define its geometry.
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No part can be manufactured exactly to specification, so designers dimension components so
that they will function correctly when assembled into a system. Associated with dimensions are tolerances, the allowable variation in dimensions that still creates a functioning product. Tolerances can
be stated explicitly; e.g., a dimension of X = 2.500 .001 in. says that the part is acceptable as long
as dimension X lies between 2.499 and 2.501 in. It is important to realize that the tolerances are
implicit, even if they are not explicitly stated. Table 10.1 gives commonly agreed-upon values for
implicit tolerances based on the number of significant figures in the dimension value. CAD systems
have the capability to change the decimal precision of dimensions to imply the correct tolerance.
As tolerances become tighter, the manufacturing cost increases significantly. Therefore, designers use tolerances that are as loose as possible, providing the product will still function correctly.
Table 10.1. Tolerances implied by dimensional precision.
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Dimensions are important from two points of view. The designer of a new component starts with
a blank sheet of paper and assigns dimensions that optimize the design of the component. In redesigning an existing component, the designer begins with the drawing (or CAD model) of the part and
modifies existing dimensions as appropriate to refine the design. Dimensions are also critical for a
person using the drawing, as s/he may manufacture the
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dimension value. Rather, they are specified in the drawing block, described in detail in Figure 10.24. Dimension
lines and extension lines (the lines to which the arrowheads point) are usually fine lines, as opposed
to the heavier lines that define the object. In a CAD drawing, line weights can be set to follow this
convention.
Holes and other circular features are located from an edge of the part to the centerline of the
hole, because the drill that is used to make the hole enters the part at the intersection of centerlines.
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Figure 10.23. Dimensioning example showing centerlines, leaders, and radius and diameter
specifications.
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The drawing block serves an important function on an engineering drawing by specifying many
details that are necessary to define the part. As illustrated in Figure 10.24, the drawing block is
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Figure 10.24. The Drawing block summarizes essential information about the part.
CAD programs usually have pre-defined drawing blocks in which the designer can store information common to most drawings and easily add the information specific to each individual drawing.
The specific format is not as important as the information the drawing block conveys.
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Historically, engineering drawings were done by hand and in pencil so that they could be
changed. Because of the requirements for precision, this usually involved many hours of laborious
work with drawing instruments (e.g., T-square, compass, triangles, etc.) on a specially designed
drafting table. Drawings were difficult to alter, which discouraged iteration to optimize a design concept. Most drawings were 2D multi-view drawings; realistic images of the 3D part were usually left to
photographs or technical illustrators.
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Recent advances in computer hardware and software allow a part to be represented as a full 3D
solid model, which is a 3D digital representation of the part, instead of just its edges (Figure 10.26).
This offers tremendous advantages to the designer, including the capability of performing complex
finite element analysis to predict the stress and strain inside the part or the flow of heat through it.
Another advantage that solid models offer is the capability to be automatically produced by computer-controlled machine tools, known as computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
Solid modeling changes the way designers work. The designer starts with a sketch, manipulates the sketch to form features, then builds parts from those features. The 2D multi-view drawings,
which still play a role, are created last to document the end result of the design process.
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Created by engineers from Parametric Technology Corporation (producers of ProEngineer)
and Autodesk (producers of AutoCAD), SolidWorks is mechanical design-automation software
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A part is a completely defined single component, made from a single material. The creation
of parts is the first step in the design process.
An assembly is a combination of parts that are connected together as they would be in the
physical system. Parts are mated together in an assembly according to kinematic constraints that define how parts can move relative to each other. This allows fully mobile 3D
mechanisms to be simulated, as well as checking for how individual parts will fit together in
the actual assembly.
Creating parts by stamping and then bending sheet metal (Figure 10.28).
Creating molds from solid models that could be used, for example, to mass-produce plastic
parts by injection molding.
Using a design table, which allows an easy way to design families of parts with similar features, but different dimensions (Figure 10.29).
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1. Earle, J. H., Engineering Design Graphics, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, 1983.
2. Powell, W. F., Perspective, Walter Foster Publishing, Laguna Hills, CA, 1989.
3. Learning to Use SolidWorks 98, SolidWorks Corporation, Concord, MA.
4. SolidWorks 98 Users Guide, SolidWorks Corporation, Concord, MA.
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