PART – A –TWO MARK

QUESTIONS
1. Write about Mechatronics?
2. What are the components in a Mechatronics system?
3. What is the use of actuators and sensors?
4. What is the use of digital devices?
5. What is the function of conditioning and interfacing Circuits and graphical displays?
6. Give some examples of Mechatronics systems?
7. What are the important sub-systems involved in Mechatronic system?
8. What is the use of control system?
9. What are the important elements of measurement system?
10. What is the function of sensor?
11. What is the function of signal conditioner?
12. What is the use of Display system?
13. How the control system is classified?
14. What is meant by open loop control system?
15. What is meant by closed loop control system in CNC machine?
16. What are the import elements of a closed loop control system?
17. What is the use of comparison element?
18. What is meant by error signal?
19. What is the use of control element?
20. What is the function of the correction element?
21. What is meant by process element?
22. What is meant by sequence control?
23. Why mechatronic systems are also known as smart devices?
PART – B
QUESTIONS

1. Explain the closed loop system with example.

2. What are the basic components of closed loop system? Explain.
3. Describe the sequential controllers.
4. Explain the microprocessor controlled automatic camera.
5. Explain the microprocessor controlled engine management system.
6. Explain the mechatronics approach with its advantages.

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 ME 1402 – MECHATRONICS (UNIT – II)
ACTUATORS

ACTUATIONSYSTEM:
The actuation systems are the elements of the control system
and they are responsible for transforming the output of a
microprocessor into a controlling action on a machine or device.
Actuators produce physical changes such as linear and angular
displacement.
There are four types of actuators.
1. Mechanical actuators.
2. Electrical actuators.
3. Hydraulic actuators.
4. Pneumatic actuators.
Example:
In a CNC milling machine, there may be an electrical signal
output from the CNC controller to move the milling table in the x
direction for a certain length. There you need an actuation system.
PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS:
Power from one point to another point can also be transmitted
using air as medium called pneumatic transmission or liquid as
medium called hydraulic transmission. In case of hydraulic system,
liquid, which may be water or hydraulic oil is pressurized to 20 to 250
atm pressures and transmitted through pipe line. The pressurized
liquid is made to actuate rotary or linear actuator through control
valves to get required function. Hydraulic system of power
transmission is preferred over mechanical or electrical system on the
following grounds.
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 1. Compact size.
2. Less moving parts.
3. Less wear and tear & self lubricating.
4. Controlled motion.
5. Adaptability for automatic control.
However, the initial cost of hydraulic transmission will be high.
Improperly filled hydraulic system will give maintenance problem and
cost of spares will be high. Some of the applications of hydraulic
system are hydraulic presses, fork lifts, hydraulic jacks and hydraulic
shaper etc.
In hydraulic actuation system, the hydraulic signals are used to
control device but are more expensive than pneumatic system. Oil leak
is another problem in hydraulic system.
Basic components of hydraulic system are
1. Reservoir to hold oil,
2. Hydraulic pump normally positive displacement type,
3. Electric motor to drive the pump,
4. Actuator, which may be rotary or linear,
5. Control valves for controlling flow, direction and pressure, and
6. Pipe lines and fittings to transmit oil power.
In pneumatic control system, the moister should be separated, to
avoid presence of free moisture during expansion. Besides, this
moisture will pose problems in line especially in pilot operator solenoid
valves. Pneumatic system is fast comparable to hydraulic system. But
positioning and speed control is difficult because of compressibility of
air.

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 In the pneumatic actuation system pneumatic signals are used to
control the system. The pneumatic signals can be used to actuate

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large valves and other high power control device and so it can be used
to move heavy loads. Pneumatic system consists of a compressor,
control valves and actuators. Since air is used as medium, reservoir is
not required.
Power supplies:
Hydraulic power supply:
Hydraulic systems are design to move large loads by controlling a
high pressure fluid in distribution lines and piston with mechanical or
electromechanical valves.
The basic components of a hydraulic system are,
In a hydraulic system, pressurized oil is provided by a hydraulic
pump driven by an electric motor.
The hydraulic pump pumps the oil from a sump through a non-
return valve and an accumulator to the system.
A pressure relief valve is circulated to release the pressure when
it rises above the safe level.
The non return valve is to prevent the oil returning back to the
pump.
The accumulator is a reservoir in which the oil is held under
pressure.
The accumulator is used to store the oil and provides a smooth
drive during any short term fluctuation in the output oil pressure.

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 Fig. Hydraulic Power Supply
Pneumatic System:
The basic components of a pneumatic system are,
In a pneumatic power supply an electric motor drives an air
compressor.
Before the air enters the compressor, it passes through a filter
and a silencer.
In the filter all the dust particles present in the inlet air is
removed.

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Fig. Pneumatic power supply

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 In the silencer the noise level is reduced.
A pressure relief valve is provided to protect the system in case
of pressure rises above the safe level.
Since the air compressor increases the temperature of the air, a
cooler is provided to reduce the temperature of air.
In the filter and water trap, the water from the air and other
unwanted particles in air are removed.
An air receiver increases the volume of air in the system and
smoothens out any short term pressure fluctuation.
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES:
The direction control valves are used in the pneumatic and
hydraulic system to direct the flow of liquid through a system. They are
used for varying the rate of flow of liquid. They are either completely
open or closed.
There are two types of direction control valves. They are.
1. Spool valve.
2. Poppet valve.
Spool Valve:
A spool moves horizontally within the valve body to control the
flow.
In fig a, the air supply is connected to port 1. The port 3 is closed.

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 The device is connected to port 2, and device is pressurized.
In fig. b when the spool is moved to the left, the air supply is cut
off.
Port 2 and port 3 are connected.
So the air in the system connected to port 2 is allowed to go out
to the atmosphere through port 3.
In fig. a air is allowed to flow into the system.
In fig. the air is allowed to flow out of the system.
Poppet Valve:

This valve is normally in the closed

condition.
The port 1 is connected to pressure
supply.
The Port 2 is connected to the system.
Initially there is no connection between
port 1 and port 2.
Here balls, discs, or cones are used as a
valve to be seated in the valve seat to
control the flow.
Here a ball is used as shown in fig.
When the push button is depressed, the ball is pushed out of its
seat.
This allows the flow from port 1 connected to port 2.
When the button is released, the spring forces the ball back to its
seat and so closes off the flow.
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Valve Symbols

The symbol used for control valves consists of a square for each
of its switching positions.
A two position valve will have two squares; a three position valve
will have three squares.
The arrow headed lines are used to indicate the direction of flow
in each of the position.
The blocked-off lines indicate the flow is closed.
In the fig the valve has four ports.
The ports are labeled by a number or a letter according to their
function.
The ports are labeled 1 (or P) for pressure supply.
The ports are labeled 3 (or T) for hydraulic return port, 3 or 5 (or
R or S) for pneumatic exhaust port and 2 or 5 (or B or A) for
output ports.

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 Example
The following are some of the illustrations of how these various
symbols can be combined to describe how a valve operates. The Fig.
is a 2/2 valve, because it has 2 ports and 2 positions. The first number
(numerator) indicates the number of ports. The second number
(denominator) indicates the number of .positions. The valve symbol in
Fig. is 2/2, solenoid operated, push button valve.

Fig. 2/2 Valve

The valve symbol in Fig. , is 3/2 because it has 3 ports and 2
positions.

Fig. 3/2 Valve

The valve symbol in Fig. is 4/2 valve because it has 4 port and 2
positions.

Fig. 4/2 Valve

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 The following is an example for the application of valves in a
pneumatic lift system.

The push button 2/2 valves are used. When the up valve is pressed
the load is lifted. When the bottom valve is pressed the load is
lowered. An open arrow is used to indicate a vent to the
atmosphere.
Pilot Operated Valve:
The force required to move the ball or shuttle in a valve can
often be too large for manual or solenoid operation. To overcome this
problem a pilot operated system is used. Where one valve is used to
control second valve. Figure illustrates this. The pilot valve is small
capacity and can be operated manually or by a solenoid. It is used to
allow the main valve to be operated by the system pressure. The pilot
pressure line is indicated by dashes. The pilot and main valve can be
operated by two separate valves but they are often combined in a
single housing.

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Direction Valves

Figure shows a simple direction control valve and its symbol.

Free flow can occur in one direction through the valve, that which
results in the ball being pressed against the spring. Flow in the other
direction is blocked by the spring forcing the ball against its seat.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE:
There are three types of pressure control valve.
1. Pressure regulating valves.
2. Pressure limiting valves.
3. Pressure sequence valves.
1. Pressure regulating valves:
This is used to control the operating pressure in a circuit and
maintain it at a constant value. The compressed air produced by the
compressor may fluctuate. Changes in the pressure may affect. The
switching characteristics of the cylinder the running times of the
cylinders. The timing characteristics of flow control valve. Thus the
constant pressure level is required for the trouble free operation of a
pneumatic control. A pressure regulator is fitted downstream of the
compressed air filter. It provides a constant set pressure at the outlet
of the regulator. The pressure regulator is also called as pressure
reducing valve or pressure regulating valve. There are two types of
pressure regulators. They are
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 1. Diaphragm type pressure regulator (with or without vent holes).
2. Piston spool type pressure regulator.
1. Diaphragm type pressure regulator:
Two types of pressure regulators with diaphragm are available.
(a)With vent holes and
(b) Without vent holes.
(a)Diaphragm type pressure regulator (with vent holes):
A diaphragm type pressure regulator is shown in figure (a) &
(b).In this type pressure is regulated by a diaphragm. The output
pressure acts on one side of the diaphragm. On the other side of the
diaphragm, a spring (set spring) force acts. The spring force can be
adjusted by an adjusting screw provided at the bottom of the
regulator.
When the pressure output increases:
The diaphragm moves against the spring force. Due to this, the
outlet area of cross-section at the valve seat reduces or closes
entirely. Thus the quantity of air flowing is regulated.
When the air drawn off on the outlet side:
The operation pressure drops. The spring force opens the valve.
Thus, the continual opening and closing of the valve seat
regulates the preset output pressure. a damper spring is provided
above the valve disc to avoid fluttering. A pressure gauge is fitted to
the outlet of the regulator for monitoring and setting of the circuit
pressure.

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If the pressure on the outlet side increases considerably:
The diaphragm is pushed down against the spring force. The
center piece of the diaphragm opens. The compressed air flows to the
atmosphere through the vent holes in the housing.
(b) Diaphragm type pressure regulator (without vent holes):
A diaphragm pressure gauge without vent holes is shown in the fig.
With these valves, it is not possible to exhaust the compressed air.
The spring is pre-stressed by means of adjusting screw. Thus the
diaphragm is also pre-stressed. The plunger is raised with the
diaphragm to a greater or lesser extent from the seat. Therefore, the
flow from the primary to the secondary side increases or decreases
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 depending on the setting of the spring. If no air is drawn off on the
outlet side, the diaphragm moves down against the compression
spring. The damper spring moves the plunger downward to its seat.
Thus the flow of air is closed off at the sealing seat. The compressed
air can continue to flow only when the air is drawn off on the outlet
side.
Piston - spool type pressure regulator:
A piston type pressure regulator is shown in fig.

The valve is of piston type. It is kept on its seat by a spring force.

The spring force can be adjusted screw provided at the bottom. In the
normal piston, the valve is open and the compressed. Air freely flows
from inlet A and outlet B. The valve spool is kept in equilibrium by the
spring force on one side and air pressure on the other side through
secondary circuit. When the pressure in the secondary side rises, the
pressure on the spool face increases. The spool moves and partly
closes the outlet side. This reduces the volume of air going to the
secondary side and hence pressure is reduced. If the pressure in the
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secondary side increases considerably, the outlet port is completely
closed. The flow is completely closed.

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2. Pressure limiting valves:
These are used as safety devices to limit the pressure in a circuit
to below some safe value. The valve opens and vents to the
atmosphere or back to the sump, if the pressure rises above the set
safe value. A simple pressure relief valve is shown in the fig. it consists
of conical poppet valve, spring, adjusting screw. The force exerted by
the spring on the poppet can be varied by the pressure adjusting
screw.
Under normal conditions:
The spring presses the conical poppet valve in its seat. The oil flow
path is closed.
When the system pressure exceeds the set value:
The increased pressure presses the poppet against the spring
force. Oil flow through the exhaust port T to the reservoir. Thus the
excessive pressure is released. When the pressure drops below the
set value, the poppet again closes.

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3. Pressure Sequence Valves:
The sequence valve helps two or more cylinders to work in a
particular sequence. It makes sure that the operation of one cylinder is
completed before the start of the operation of another cylinder. For
example, consider two hydraulic cylinders which operate in sequence.
The sequences of operations to be performed are
(i) Lifting the weight up to the floor level by the first cylinder
(ii) Pushing the weight into the floor by the Second Cylinder
The sequence valve is connected in the hydraulic circuit as shown
in the fig.

DCV is shifted in one extreme position

The fluid from the pump enters into the inlet of the sequence valve
and comes out and enters into the first cylinder through a check valve
and causes the piston to rise up.
Now the load is lifted up to the floor level. During this operation fluid
on its top is going back to the reservoir. After lifting the load, the piston

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comes to rest. Thus the first operation is over. As soon as the piston
has come to rest, the oil does not find any passage for its flow.

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 Thus the pressure in the sequence valve increases. The increase in
pressure lifts the valve piston and the oil is now entering to the second
cylinder. The piston of the second cylinder pushes the load into the
floor.
During this operation the fluid on the left side is discharged to the
reservoir. Thus the secondary operation is completed.
DCV is shifted in another extreme position
Now the outlet port in sequence valve is closed as the piston of the
sequence valve move down. The fluid now entering into the second
cylinder causes the piston to move from the left to right while the fluid
on the other side is connected to the reservoir through the check valve
After the second cylinder piston has come to rest, the pump supply
enters into the top of the first cylinder. The piston in the first cylinder
lower down while fluid at its bottom is flowing to the reservoir through
the check valve and sequence valve. The pressure setting of the
sequence valve is adjusted by adjustment screw.
CYLINDERS
The hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder is an example of a linear
actuator. The principles for both hydraulic and pneumatic versions are
the same. Only difference is big size cylinder are used in hydraulic due
to high pressure.
Construction
A cylinder consists of a cylindrical type along which a piston/ ram can
slide. There are two types of cylinder. They are.
1. Single acting cylinder.
2. Double acting cylinder.

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1. Single acting cylinder:
The simple level of control for the single acting cylinder involves
direct control signals. Direct control is used when. The flow rate
required to operate the cylinder is relatively small. The size of the
control valve is small with low actuating forces. The circuit for the direct
control of single acting cylinder is shown in the fig.

A 3/2 directional control valve is used. The cylinder is of small

capacity and the air consumption is low. Hence the operation can be
directly controlled by a push button 3/2 direction control valve with
spring return. When the push button is pressed, the air passes through
the valve from pressure port (P) the cylinder port (A). The piston rod
extends against the force of the cylinder return spring. Thus the work
piece is clamped. When the push button is released, the valve spring
returns the 3/2 D.C.V. to its initial position. The cylinder retracts by the
return spring force. The air form the cylinder returns through the
exhaust port (R).Cylinder is the only working element or actuator.

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2. Double acting cylinder:
They are used when the control pressures are applied to each side
of the piston.

A difference in pressure between the two sides, result in motion

of the piston. The circuit includes a double acting cylinder with 5/2
D.C.V.
When the spool of the DCV is at extreme left:
Air flows from pressure port (P) to the working port (B).Then air is
allowed to enter the right end of the cylinder. The piston moves from
right to left. At the same time air in the left end of the cylinder flows into
the valve through port 'A' and exhausted through exhaust port 'R'. The
other exhaust port 'S' is blocked.
When the spool of DCV is at extreme right:
Air flows from inlet pressure port (P) to the working port (A). Air is
allowed to enter the left end of the cylinder. The piston moves from left
to right .At the same time the air in the right end of the cylinder flows
into the valve through the exhaust port 'S'. The other exhaust port 'R' is
blocked. This is the principle of working of the double acting cylinder.

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CYLINDER SEQUENCING:
Many control system employ pneumatic (or) hydraulic cylinders as
actually elements and require a sequence of extensions and retraction
of the cylinder to occur.

For example,
There are two cylinders A & B. When the start button is pressed,
the piston of cylinder A extends. When it is fully extended, the piston of
cylinder B extends. The sequence of operation of these two cylinders
is explained.

Each cylinder is given a reference letter A & B. To indicate the

extension of the piston in cylinder. A, a+ sign is used. To indicate the
retraction of the piston in cylinder A a - sign is used. Similarly for
cylinder B, b+ (for extension) and b - (for retraction) are used.

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Sequence of operation:
Initially both the cylinder has retracted pistons. Start push button on
valve 1 is pressed. This applies pressure to valve 2 as the limit switch
b – is activated. So the supply is given to valve 3, and from valve 3 the
air enters the left side of the piston in cylinder A. As the pressure built
up on the left side, the piston starts extending towards right side till the
limit switch a+ operates. Once limit switch a+ is operated, it gives a
supply to valve 5 and then causes pressure to valve 6. Then air enters
in the left side the piston in the cylinder B through valve 6.So the piston
moves towards right side, and then the piston actuates the limit switch
b+. Once limit switch b+ is actuated, it gives a supply to valve 4 and
then causes pressure to valve 3. So the air enters the cylinder A,
through the left end of the piston. It moves in the piston from left to
right through retraction and finally the switch a - is actuated. Once limit
switch a - is actuated, it gives a supply to valve 7, then gives a
pressure to valve 6. Now air enters the cylinder B, through the left end
of the piston and the piston moves from left to right end then it will
retract. This cycle can be started again by pushing the start button. If
we want to run the system continuously, then the last movement in the
sequence should be used to trigger the first movement.
PROCESS CONTROL VALVES:
Process control valves are used to control the rate of fluid flow. For
example it can be used to control the rate of flow of a liquid into a tank.
Principle:
The basis of such valve is an actuator used to move a plug into the
flow pipe and alter the cross section of the pipe. Therefore the liquid
flow through. The cross section can be increased or decreased. A
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common type of pneumatic actuator used with the process control
valves is the diaphragm actuator. The diaphragm is made of rubber
which is sand winched in its centre between two circular steel disc, as
shown in the fig.

The effect of changes in the input pressure results in the movement

of the central part of the diaphragm. This movement is communicated
to the final control element by a shaft which is attached to the
diaphragm.
The force F acting on the shaft is the force that is acting on the
diaphragm and it is equal to the gauge pressure P multiplied by the
diagram area.
F= PA 1
Restoring force is provided by the spring. Assume shaft moves
through a distance x and the compression of the spring is proportional
to the force F,
(ie) F = kx. 2
Where k is a constant.
Therefore comparing equation (1) and (2)
kx = PA

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 Thus the displacement of the shaft is proportional to the gauge
pressure.

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 The above fig. shows the cross-section of a valve for the control of
rate of flow of a fluid. The pressure change in the actuator causes the
diaphragm to move and results in the movement of the stem. When
the stem moves, it results in the movement of the inner valve plug
within the valve body. The plug restricts the fluid flow and the position
of the plug determines the flow rate.
Valve bodies
There are many types of valve bodies. They are
i) Single seated valve.
ii) Double seated value.

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 through the valve and so just one plug is needed to control the
flow. In double seated valve, the fluid after entering the valve splits into
two streams and this needs two plugs.
Valve plugs:
The shape of the valve plug determines the relationship between
the stem movement and the effect on the flow rate. There are three
commonly used types:
a) Quick opening type - A large change in flow rate occurs for a small
movement of the valve stem. Such a plug is used where on/off control
of flow rate is required.
Linear - Contoured type - The change in flow rate is proportional to
the change in displacement of the valve stem

Equal Percentage type - Equal percentage changes in flow rate

occur for equal changes in the valve stem position.

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ROTARY ACTUATORS:
There are many methods to achieve the rotary motion. Three
types of Rotary activators are discussed below.
A linear cylinder to produce rotation.

As shown in the fig. 3.25 a linear cylinder with the help of suitable
mechanical linkages can be used to produce rotary movement through
angles less than 360°.
Semi - Rotary Actuator

It has two ports clockwise port and anticlockwise Port, and also
has a vane attached with rotor of the actuator. The pressure difference
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between the two ports causes the vane to rotate. When the vane
rotates, the shaft attached to the vane also rotates. Therefore the shaft
rotation is a measure of the pressure difference between the two ports.
Depending on the pressures, the vane can be rotated clockwise (or)
anticlockwise.
Vane motor:
The vane motor is a pneumatic motor through which a rotation
angle greater than 360° can be achieved. It has an eccentric rotor with
slots in which vanes are forced outwards against the wall of the
cylinder by the rotation. The vane divides the chamber

In to separate compartments which increase in size from the inlet

port round to the outlet port. The air entering each compartment exerts
a force and the vane and causes the rotor rotates. The motor can be
made to rotate in both clockwise and anticlockwise directions.

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 MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS
Mechanical systems
Mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be
motion converters in that they transform motion from one form to
other form. They might, for example, transform linear motion in
to rotational motion, or motion in one direction into a motion
direction at right angles, or perhaps a linear to into rotary motion,
as in the internal combustion the reciprocating motion of the
pistons is cons of the crank and hence the drive shaft. Mechanical
elements can include the use of gears, rack-and-pinion, chains,
belt drives; etc rack-and-pinion can be used to convert rotation
motion. Parallel shaft gears might be used to re Bevel gears might
be used for the transmission through 90°. A toothed belt or chain
drive might form rotary motion about one axis to motion at and
linkages can be used to obtain motions which are prescribed to
vary in a particular manner. This chapter is the basic characteristics
of a range of such mechanisms.
Many of the actions which previously were obtained by use
of mechanisms are, however, often nowadays the use of
microprocessor systems. For example rotating shafts were
previously used for machines in order to give a timed
sequence. Let us opening a valve to water into the drum,
switching a heater on/off, etc. Modern washing microprocessor-
based system with the programmed to switch on outputs in the
required Mechanisms still, however, have a role in me For example,
the mechatronic system in us camera for adjusting the aperture for
correct exposures involves a m echanism for adjusting the size of
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the diaphragm. While electronics might now be used often for
many functions that previously were fulfilled by mechanisms,
mechanisms might still be used to provide such functions as:
1. Force amplification, e.g. that given by levers.
2 Change of speed, e.g. that given by gears.
3Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another,
e.g. a timing belt.
4. Particular types of motion, e.g. that given by a quick-return
mechanism.
The term kinematics is used for the study of motion without
regard to forces. When we consider just the motions without any
consideration of the forces or energy involved then we are carrying
out a kinematics analysis of the mechanism. This chapter is an
introduction to such a consideration.
Types of motion
A rigid body can have a very complex motion which might seem
difficult to describe. However, the motion of any rigid body can be
considered to be a combination of translational and rotational
motions. By considering the three dimensions of space, a
translation motion can be considered to be a movement which can
be resolved into components along one or more of the three axes
(Fig. (a)). A rotation can be considered as a rotation which has
components rotating about one or more of the axes (Fig. (b)).

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 A complex motion may be a combination of translational and
rotational motions. For example, think of the motion required for
you to pick up a pencil from a table. This might involve your hand
moving at a particular angle towards the table, rotation of the hand,
and then all the movement associated with opening your fingers
and moving them to the required positions to grasp the pencil. This
is a sequence of quite complex motions. However, we can break
down all, these motions into combinations of translational and
rotational motions. Such an analysis is particularly relevant if we
are not moving a human hand to pick up the pencil but instructing
a robot to carry out the task. Then it really is necessary to break
down the motion into combinations of translational and rotational
motions so that we can design mechanisms to carry out each of
these components of the motion.
For example, among the sequence of control signals sent to a
mechanism might be such groupings of signals as those to instruct

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joint I to rotate by 20° and link 2 to be extended by 4 mm for
translational motion.

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Freedom and constraints

An important aspect in the design of mechanical elements is

the orientation and arrangement of the elements and parts. Body
that is free in space can move in three, independent, mutually
perpendicular directions and rotate in three ways about those
directions (Fig). It is said to have six degrees of freedom. The
number of degrees of freedom are the number of components of
motion that are required in order to generate the motion. If a joint is
constrained to move along a line then its translational degrees of
freedom are reduced to one.

Figure (a) shows a joint with just this one translational

degree of freedom. If a joint is constrained to move on a
plane then it has two translational degrees of freedom.

Fig. (b) Shows a joint which has one translational

degree of freedom and one rotational degree of freedom.
The problem in design is often to reduce the number of degrees
of freedom and this then requires an appropriate number and
orientation of constraints. Without any constraints a body would
have six degrees of freedom. A constraint is needed for each
degree of freedom that is to be prevented from occurring.

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Provided we have no redundant constraints then the number of
degrees of freedom would be 6 minus the number of constraints.

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However, redundant constraints often occur and so for constraints
on a single rigid body we have the basic rule:
6 - Number of constraints = number of degrees of freedom
- number of redundancies

Thus if a body is required to be fixed, i.e. have zero degrees

of freedom, then if no redundant constraints are introduced
the number of constraints required is 6. A concept that is used in
design is that of the principle of least constraint. This states that
in fixing a body or guiding it to a particular type of motion, the
minimum number of constraints should be used, i.e. there should
be no redundancies. This is often referred to as kinematics design.
For example, to have a shaft this only rotates about one axis with
no translational motions. We have to reduce the number of
degrees of freedom to 1. Thus the minimum number of
constraints to do this is 5. Any more constraints than this will
give redundancies. The mounting that might be used to mount the
shaft has a ball bearing at one end and a roller bearing at the
other (Fig.).

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 The pair of bearings together prevents translational
motion at right angles to the shaft. The y-axis and rotations
about the z-axis and the Y-axis. The ball bearing prevents
translational motion along the x-axis and along the z-axis.
Thus there is a total of five constraints. This leaves just one
degree of freedom, the required rotation about the x-axis. If there
had been a roller bearing at each end of the shaft then both the
bearings could have prevented translational motion along the x-
axis and the z-axis and thus there would have been redundancy.
Such redundancy might cause damage. If ball bearings are used at
both ends of the shaft, then in order to prevent redundancy one of
the bearings would have its outer race not fixed in its housing so
that it could slide to some extent in an axial direction.
Loading

Mechanisms are structures and as such transmit and

support loads . Analysis is thus necessary to determine the
loads to be carried by individual elements. Then consideration
can be given to the dimensions of the element so that it might, for
example, have sufficient strength and perhaps stiffness under such
loading.
Kinematics chains

When we consider the movements of a mechanism

without any reference to the forces involved, we can treat the
mechanism as being composed of a series of individual links.
Each part of a mechanism which has motion relative to some
other part is termed a link. A link need not necessarily be a rigid
body but it must be a resistant body which is capable of
32
transmitting the required force with negligible deformation. For
this reason it is usually taken as being represented by a rigid body
which has two or more points of attachment to other links, these
being termed nodes . Each link is capable of moving relative to its
neighboring links . Figure shows examples of links with two, three
and four nodes .

A joint is a connection between two or more links at their

nodes and which allows some motion between the connected
links. Levers, cranks, connecting rods and pistons, sliders,
pulleys, belts and shafts are all examples of links.
A sequence of joints and links is known as a kinematics chain.
For a kinematics chain to transmit motion, one link must be fixed.
Movement of one link will then produce predictable relative
movements of the others. It is possible to obtain from one
kinematics chain a number of different mechanisms by having a
different link as the fixed one.

33
 As an illustration of a kinematics chain, consider a
motor car engine where the reciprocating motion of a piston is
transformed into rotational motion of a crankshaft on bearings
mounted in a fixed frame (Fig. (a)). We can represent this as
being four connected links (Fig. (b)). Link I is the crankshaft, link 2
the connecting rod, link 3 the fixed frame and link 4 the slider, i.e.
piston, which moves

Relative to the fixed frame The designs of many mechanisms

are based on two basic forms of kinematics chains, the four-bar
chain and the slider-crank chain. The following illustrates some
of the forms such chains can take.

The four-bar chain

The four-bar chain consists of four links connected to give four

joints about which turning can occur. Figure shows a number of
forms of the four-bar chain produced by altering the relative
lengths of the links. If the sum of the length of the shortest link
plus the length of the longest link is less than or equal to the sum of
the lengths of the other two links then at least one link will be
34
capable of making a full revolution with respect to the fixed link. If
this condition is not met then no link is capable of a complete
revolution. This is known as the Grashof condition. in Fig. (a), link 3
is

fixed and the relative lengths of the links are such that links l and 4
can oscillate but not rotate. The result is a double- lever
mechanism. By shortening link 4 relative to link 1, then link 4
can rotate (Fig. (b)) with link 1 oscillating and the result is termed a
lever-crank mechanism. With links 1 and 4 the same length and
both able to rotate (Fig. (c)), then the result is a double-crank
mechanism. By altering which link is fixed, other forms of mechanism
can be produced.

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 The above Figure illustrates how such a mechanism can be used
to advance the film in a cine camera. As link 1 rotates so the end of
link 2 locks into a sprocket of the film pulls it forward before
releasing and moving up and back to lock into the next
sprocket.
Some linkages may have toggle positions. These are
positions where the linkage will not react to any input from one of its
links. Figure illustrates such a toggle,

being the linkage used to control the movement of the

tailgate of a truck so that when link 2 reaches the horizontal
position no further load on link 2 will cause any further
movement. There is another toggle position for the linkage and
that is when links 3 and 4 are both vertical and the tailgate is
vertical.
The slider-crank mechanism

This form of mechanism consists of a crank, a connecting rod

and a slider and is the type of mechanism described in Fig. which
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36
showed the simple engine mechanism. With that configuration,
link 3 is fixed, i.e. there is no relative movement between the
centre of rotation of the crank and the housing in which the
piston slides. Link 1 is the crank that rotates, link 2 the
connecting rod and link 4 the slider which moves relative to the
fixed link. When the piston moves backwards and forwards, i.e.
link 4 moves backwards and forwards, then the crank, link 1, is
forced to rotate. Hence the mechanism transforms an input of
backwards and forwards motion into rotational motion.

The above Figure. Shows another form of this type of

mechanism, a quick -return mechanism. It consists of a rotating
crank, link AB, which rotates round a fixed centre, an oscillating
lever CD, which is caused to oscillate about C by the sliding of
the block at B along CD as AB rotates, and a link DE which
causes E to move backwards and forwards. E might be the ram
of a machine and have a cutting tool attached to it. The ram will be
at the extremes of its movement when the positions of the crank are
AB, and AB2. Thus as the crank moves anti-clockwise from B, to
B2 the ram makes a complete stroke, the cutting stroke. When
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the crank continues its movement from B2 anti-clockwise to B, then

38
38
the ram again makes a complete stroke in the opposite
direction, the return stroke. With the crank rotating at constant
speed, then, because the angle of crank rotation required for the
cutting stroke is greater than the angle for the return stroke, the
cutting stroke takes more time than the return stroke. Hence the
term, quick- return for the mechanism.
Cam

A cam is a body which rotates or oscillates and in doing

so i mparts a reciprocating or oscillatory motion to a second body,
called the follower, with which it is in contact (Fig.).

As the cam rotates so the follower is made to rise,

dwell and fall, the lengths of times spent at each of these positions
depending on the shape of the cam. The rise section of the cam
is the part that drives the follower upwards, its profile determining
how quickly the cam follower will be lifted. The fall section of the
cam is the part that lowers the follower, its profile determining how
quickly the cam follower will fall. The dwell section of the cam is the
part that allows the follower to remain at the same level for
a significant period of time. The dwell section of the cam is where it
is circular with a radius that does not change. The cam shape38
38
required to produce a particular motion of the follower will
depend on the shape of the cam and the type of follower
used.

The above Figure. Shows the types of follower

displacement diagrams that can be produced with different
shaped cams and either point or knife followers. The radial
distance from the axis of rotation of the carp to the point of
contact of the carp with the follower gives the displacement of the
follower with reference to the axis of rotation of the cam. The
figures show how these radial distances and hence follower
displacements. Vary with the angle of rotation of the cams.

The eccentric cam Fig. (a) is a circular cam with an offset

centre of rotation. It produces an oscillation of the follower which is
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39
simple harmonic motion and is often used with pumps. The
heart-shaped cam Fig. (b) gives a follower displacement which
increases at a constant rate with time before decreasing at a
constant rate with time, hence a uniform speed for the follower.
The pear-shaped cam Fig. (c)) gives a follower motion which is
stationary for about half a revolution of the cam and rises and
falls symmetrically in each of the remaining quarter revolutions.
Such a pear-shaped cam is used for engine valve control. The dwell
holds the valve open while the petrol/air mixture passes into
the cylinder. The longer the dwell, i.e. the greater the length of
the cam surface with a constant radius, the more time is allowed
for the cylinder completely charged with flammable vapors.

The above Figure shows a number of examples of different

types of cam followers. Roller followers are essentially ball or
roller bearings. They have the advantage of lower friction than a
sliding contact but can be more expensive. Flat-faced followers are
often used because they are cheaper and can be made
smaller than roller followers. Such followers are widely used with
40
40
engine valve cams. While cams can be run dry, they are often
used with lubrication and may be immersed in an oil bath.

Gears
Rotary motion can be transferred from one shaft to another
by a pair of rolling cylinders (Fig.) however; there is a possibility of
slip. The transfer of the motion between the two cylinders
depends on the frictional forces between the two surfaces in
contact. Slip can be prevented by the addition of meshing teeth to
the two cylinders and the result is then a pair of meshed gear
wheels. Gears can be used for the transmission of rotary motion
between parallel shafts Fig. (a) and

for shafts which have axes inclined to one another Fig.

(b). the term bevel gear is used when the lines of the shafts
intersect, as illustrated in Fig. (b). When two gears are in mesh,
the larger gear wheel is often called the spur or crown wheel
and the smaller one the pinion.

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 Gears for use with parallel shafts may have axial teeth with the
teeth cut along axial lines parallel to the axis of the shaft Fig. (a). Such
gears are then termed spur gears. Alternatively they may have helical
teeth with the teeth being cut on a helix Fig. (b) and are then termed
helical gears. Helical gears have the advantage that there is a gradual
engagement of any individual tooth and consequently there is a
smoother drive and generally prolonged life of the gears. however, the
inclination of the teeth to the axis of the shaft results in an axial force
component on the shaft bearing. This can be overcome by using
double helical teeth.(fig.)
Gear trains

The term gear train is used to describe a series of

intermeshed gear wheels. The term simple gear train is used
for a system where each shaft carries only one gear wheel, as in
Fig. For such a gear train, the overall gear ratio is the ratio of the
angular velocities at the input and output shafts and is thus

Consider a simple gear train consisting of wheels A, B and C,

as in Fig. with A having 9 teeth and C having 27 teeth. Then, as
the angular velocity of a wheel is inversely proportional to the
number of teeth on the wheel, the gear ratio is 27/9 = 3. The
effect of wheel B is purely to change the direction of rotation of the
output wheel compared with what it would have been with just
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the two wheels A and C intermeshed. The intermediate wheel,
B, is termed the idler wheel.

We can rewrite this equation for the overall gear ratio G as

A A B
G
B B C

A B
But is the gear ratio for the first pair of gears and the
B C

gear ratio for the second pair of gears. Thus the overall gear ratio
for a simple gear train is the product of the gear ratios for each
successive pair of gears.
The term compound gear train is used to describe a gear train
when two wheels are mounted on a common shaft. Figure (a) and
(b) shows two examples of such a compound gear train. The gear
train in Fig. (b) Enables the input and output shafts to be in line.

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43
 When two gear wheels arc mounted on the same shaft they
have the same angular velocity. Thus, for both of the compound
gear trains in Fig. B C The overall gear ratio G is thus

A A B C A C
G
D B C D B D

For the arrangement shown in Fig. (b), for the input and
output shafts to be in line we must also have for the radii of the
gears:
rA rB rD rC

Consider a compound gear train of the form shown

in Fig. (a). with A, the first driver, haying 1 5 teeth. B 10
teeth. C 18 teeth and D. the final driven wheel. 36 teeth.
Since the angular velocity of a wheel is inversely
proportional to the number of teeth on the wheel. The
overall gear ratio is

30 36
G 4
15 18

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 Thus, if the input to wheel A is an angular velocity of
160 rev/min, then the output angular velocity of wheel D is 160/4
=40 rev/min.
A simple gear train of spur, helical or bevel gears is usually
limited to an overall gear ratio of about 10. This is because of the
need to keep the gear train down to a manageable size if the
number of teeth
on the pinion is to be kept above a minimum number which is
usually about 10 to 20. Higher gear ratios can, however, be
obtained with compound gear trains. This is because the gear
ratio is the product of the individual gear ratios of parallel
gear sets.

Ratchet and Pawl

Ratchets can be used to lock a mechanism when it is

holding a load. Figure shows a ratchet and pawl. The
mechanism consists of a wheel, called a ratchet, with saw-shaped
teeth which engage with an arm called a pawl. The arm is
pivoted and can move back and forth to engage the wheel. The

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45
shape of the teeth is such that rotation can occur in only one
direction. Rotation of the ratchet wheel in a clockwise direction

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46
 is prevented by the pawl and can only take place when the pawl is
lifted. The pawl is normally spring loaded to ensure that it
automatically engages with the ratchet teeth. Thus a winch used
to wind up a cable on a drum may have a ratchet and pawl to
prevent the cable unwinding from the drum when the handle is
released.
Belt drives
Belt drives are essentially just a pair of rolling cylinders,
as described in Fig. with the motion of one cylinder being
transferred to the other by a belt. Belt drives use the friction that
develops between the pulleys attached to the shafts and the belt
around the arc of contact in order to transmit a torque. Since
the transfer relies on frictional forces then slip can occur.
The transmitted torque is due to the differences in tension
that occur in the belt during operation. This difference results in a
tight side and a slack side for the belt. If the tension on the tight
side is Ti, and that on the slack side T. then
with pulley A in Fig. as the driver:

Torque on A = (T 1 – T 2)r A
Where r A is the radius of pulley A. For the driven pulley B we
have:
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47
Torque on B = (T 1 – T 2)rB
Where re is the radius of pulley B. Since the power transmitted is
the product of the torque and the angular velocity, and since the
angular velocity is v/r A for pulley A and v/re for pulley B, where v is
the belt speed, then for either pulley we have:
Power = (T1 - T2)v

As a method of transmitting power between two shafts, belt

drives have the advantage that the length of the belt can easily be
adjusted to suit a wide range of shaft-to-shaft distances and the
system is automatically protected against overload because
slipping occurs if the loading exceeds the maximum tension that
can be sustained by frictional forces. If the distance between
shafts is large, a belt drive is more suitable than gears, but over
small distances gears are to be preferred. Different size pulleys
can be used to give a gearing effect. However, the gear ratio is
limited to about 3 because of the need to maintain an adequate arc
of contact between the belt and the pulleys.

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48
 The belt drive shown in Fig. gives the driven wheel
rotating in the same direction as the driver wheel. Figure a & b

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49
shows two types of reversing drives. With both forms of drive,
both sides of the belt come into contact with the wheels and so
V-belts or timing belts cannot be used.

Types of belts
The four main types of belts (Fig.) are:
1. Flat
The belt has a rectangular cross-section. Such a drive has an
efficiency of about 98% and produces little noise. They can
transmit power over long distances between pulley centres
crowned pulleys are used to keep the belts from running off the
pullets.

2 Round
The belt has a circular cross-section and is used with grooved
pulleys.
3 V-belts
V-belts are used with grooved pulleys and are less efficient than
flat belts but a number of them can be used on a single wheel and
so give a multiple drive.
4. Timing

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48
Timing belts require toothed wheels, having teeth which fit into he
grooves on the wheels. The timing belt, unlike the other belts,
does not stretch or slip and consequently transmits power

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 at a constant angular velocity ratio. The teeth make it possible
for the belt to be run at slow or fast speeds.
Chains

Slip can be prevented by the use of chains which lock into

teeth on the rotating cylinders to give the equivalent of a
pair of intermeshing gear wheels.A chain drive has the same
relationship for gear ratio as a simple gear train. The drive
mechanism used with a bicycle is an example of a chain
drive. Chains enable a number of shafts to be driven by a single
wheel and so give a multiple drive. They are not as quiet as timing
belts but can be used for larger torques.

Bearings

Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in

contact with another, either by rotating or sliding, the resulting
frictional forces generate heat which wastes energy and results in
wear. The function of a bearing is to guide with minimum
friction and maximum accuracy the movement of one part relative
to another.

Of particular importance is the need to give suitable

support to rotating shafts, i.e. support radial loads. The term
thrust bearing is used for bearings that are designed to
withstand forces along the axis of a shaft when the relative
motion is primarily rotation. The following sections outline the
characteristics of commonly used forms of bearings.
Plain journal bearings

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50
 Journal bearings are used to support rotating shafts which
are loaded in a radial direction. The term journal is used for a
shaft.

The bearing basically consists of an insert of some

suitable material which is fitted between the shaft and the
support (Fig. ). Rotation of the shaft results in its surface sliding
over that of the bearing surface. The insert may be a white
metal, aluminum alloy, copper alloy, bronze or a polymer such as
nylon or PTFE. The insert provides lower friction and less wear
than if the shaft just rotated in a hole in the support. The bearing
may be a dry rubbing bearing or lubricated. Plastics such as
nylon and PTFE are generally used without lubrication, the
coefficient of friction with such materials being exceptionally low.
A widely used bearing material is sintered bronze, This is
Bronze with a porous structure which allows it to be impregnated
with oil and so the bearing has a `built in' lubricant. The lubricant
may be:
1. Hydrodynamic
The hydrodynamic journal bearing consists of the shaft
rotating continuously in oil in such a way that it rides on oil and

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50
 is not supported. by metal (Fig.). The load is carried by the
pressure generated in the oil as a result of the shaft rotating.

2. Hydrostatic
A problem with hydrodynamic lubrication is that the shaft
only rides on oil when it is rotating and when at rest there is metal-
to-metal contact. To avoid excessive wear at start-up and when
there is only a low load, oil is pumped into the load-bearing
area at a high-enough pressure to lift the shaft Off the metal when
at rest.
3. Solid-film
This is a coating of a solid material such as graphite or
molybdenum disulphide.
4. Boundary layer
This is a thin layer of lubricant which adheres to the surface of the
bearing.
Ball and roller bearings
With this type of bearing, the main load is transferred from
the

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 rotating shaft to its support by rolling contact rather than sliding
contact. A rolling element bearing consists of four main elements:
an inner race, an outer race, the rolling element of either balls or
rollers, and a cage to keep the rolling elements a part (Fig.). The
inner and outer races contain hardened tracks in which the
rolling elements roll.
There are a number of forms of ball bearings:
1. Deep-groove
This is good at withstanding radial loads but is
only moderately good for axial loads. It is a versatile bearing
which can be used with a wide range of load and speed

2. Filling-slot
This is able to withstand higher radial loads than the deep-
groove equivalent but cannot be used when there are axial loads.

3. Angular contact
This is good for both radial and axial loads and is better for axial
loads than the deep-groove equivalent.
4.Double-row
Double-row ball bearings are made in a number of types and are
able to withstand higher radial loads than their single-row
equivalents. The figure shows a double-row deep-groove ball
bearing, there being double-row versions of each of the above single-
row types.
5.Self-aligning
Single-row bearings can withstand a small amount of shaft
misalignment but where there can be severe misalignment a self-
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52
aligning bearing is used. This is able to withstand only moderate
radial loads and is fairly poor for axial loads.
6. Thrust grooved race
These are designed to withstand axial loads but are not
suitable for radial loads.

There are also a number of forms of roller bearing, the

following being common examples:
1. Straight roller
This is better for radial loads than the equivalent ball bearing but is
not generally suitable for axial loads. They will carry a greater load
than ball bearings of the same size because of their greater
contact area. However, they are not tolerant of misalignment.
2. Taper rollers
This is good for radial loads and good in one direction for axial
loads.
3. Needle rollers
This has a roller with a high length/diameter ratio and tends to be
used in situations where there is insufficient space for the
equivalent ball or roller bearing.
Selection of bearings

In general, dry sliding bearings tend to be only used for

small diameter shafts with low load and low speed situations, ball
and roller bearings, i.e. bearings involving rolling, with a much wider
range of diameter shafts and higher load and higher speed, and
hydrodynamic bearings for the high loads with large diameter
shafts. Figure shows a chart indicating the selection of
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53
bearings based on their load-shaft speed characteristics for a number
of different diameter shafts. Thus suppose we want a bearing for
a 25 mm diameter shaft rotating at 10 rev/s and carrying a
radial load of 10 000 N. This is beyond the limit for a dry sliding
bearing and is a point on the graph below the line for rolling
bearings for such a diameter and speed, hence rolling
bearings can be used.

Failure of ball and roller bearings generally occurs as a result of

fatigue. With fatigue failures there is always a scatter of values at
which failure of an individual item occurs. The life of a bearing is thus
defined as the number of millions of shaft revolutions that 90% of
the bearings are expected to exceed before failing. This life L10
depends on the applied load F. For ball bearings the
relationship is:

3
C
L10
F

where C is a constant for a particular form of bearing. For roller

bearings:
10
C 3
L10
F

Manufacturers often tabulate data for bearings in terms of the

number of hours of life at a particular speed given in units of
rev/min. The life in hours = 10 6/(3600 x n/60) x Lo in millions of revs
= (16 667/n) x Lo in millions of revs; n is the number of
revolutions per minute. For example, a particular ball bearing

54
54
may be rated as 3000 h at 500 rev/min for a radial loading of
10 kN. This gives L1, as 90 million revs and hence C as 44.8 kN.
Thus with a load of, say, 20 kN at 400 rev/min then the life we
can expect is 11.2 million revolutions or 468 h. If this is not long
enough we need to select a ball bearing with a higher rating.

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55
 ELECTRICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

Any discussion of electrical systems used as actuators for

control. The discussion has to include:
1. Switching devices such as mechanical switches. e.g. relays, or
solid-state switches, e.g. diodes, thyristors, and transistors, where the
control signal switches on or off some electrical device, perhaps a
heater or a motor.
2. Solenoid type devices where a current through a solenoid is used to
actuate a soft iron core. as, for example, the solenoid operated
hydraulic/pneumatic valve where a control current through a solenoid
is used to actuate a hydraulic/pneumatic flow.
3. Drive systems, such as d.c. and a.c. motors, where a current
through a motor is used to produce rotation. This chapter is an
overview of such devices and their characteristics.
Mechanical switches
Mechanical switches are elements which are often used as sensors
to give inputs to systems. e.g. keyboards. In this chapter we are
concerned with their use as actuators to perhaps switch on electric
motors or kiting elements, or switch on the current to actuate solenoid
valves controlling hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders. The electrical relay
is an example of a mechanical switch used in control systems as an
actuator.
Relays
The electrical relay offers a simple on/off switching action in
response to a control signal. Figure illustrates the principle. When a

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56
current flows through the coil of wire a magnetic field is produced. This
pulls a movable arm, the armature that forces the contacts to open or

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dose; usually there are two sets of contacts with one being opened
and the other closed by the action. This action might then be used to
supply a current to a motor or perhaps an electric heater in a
temperature control system.
As an illustration of the ways relays can be used in control systems,
Fig. shows how two relays might be used to control the operation of
pneumatic valves which in turn control the movement of pistons in
three cylinders A, B and C. The sequence of operation is:
1. When the start switch is closed, current is applied to the A and B
solenoids and results in both A and B extending, i.e. A+ and B+.
2.The limit switches a+ and b+ are then closed, the a+ closure results
in a current flowing through relay coil 1 which then closes its contacts
and so supplies current to the C solenoid and results in it extending,
i.e. C+.
3. Its extension causes limit switch c+ to close and so current to switch
the A and B control valves and hence retraction of cylinders A and B,
i.e. A- and B-.
4. Closing limit switch a- passes a current through relay coil 2; its
contacts close and allows a current to valve C and cylinder C to
retract, i.e. C-. ,

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 The sequence thus given by this system is A+ and B+ concurrently,
then C+, followed by A- and concurrently and finally C-.Time-delay
relays are control relays that have a delayed switching action. The time
delay is usually adjustable and can be initiated when a current flows
through the relay coil or when it ceases to flow through the coil.
SOLID STATE SWITCHES:

Here are number of solid-state devices which can be used to

electronically switch circuits. These include:
1. Diode.
2 .Thyistors and triacs.
3 .Bipolar transistors.
4. Power MOSFETs
DIODES
The diode has the characteristic shown in Fig. and so allows a
significant current in one direction only. A diode can thus be regarded
as a 'directional element', only passing a current with forward biased.
i.e. with the anode being positive with respect to the cathode. If the
diode is sufficiently reversed biased, i.e. a very high voltage, it will
break down. If an alternating voltage- is applied across diode, it can be
regarded as only switching on when the direction of the voltage is such
as to forward biased it and being off in the reverse biased direction.
The result is that the current through the diode is half –rectified to
become just the current due to the positive halves of the input voltage
(Fig.).

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Thyristors and triacs
The thyristor, or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), can be regarded
as a diode which has a gate controlling the conditions under which the
diode can be switched on. Fig shows the thyristor characteristic. With
the gate current zero. The thyristor passes negligible current when
reverse biased (unless sufficiently reverse biased, hundreds of volts,
when it breaks down).

When forward biased the current is also negligible until the forward
breakdown voltage is exceeded. When this occurs the voltage across
the diode falls, to a low level, about 1 to 2 V, and the current is then
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60
only limited by the external resistance in a circuit. Thus, for example, if
the forward breakdown is at 300 V then. When this voltage is reached
the thyristor switches on and the voltage across it drops to I or 2 V. If
the thyristor is in series with a resistance of. say. 20 ohm (Fig.)

then before breakdown we have a very high resistance in series

with the 20 and so virtually all the 300 V is across the thyristor and
there is negligible current. When forward breakdown occurs, the
voltage across the thyristor drops to, say, 2 V and so there is now 300
– 2 = 298 V across the 20 Ω resistor, hence the current rises to 298/20
= 14.9 A. When once switched on the thyristor remains on until the
forward current is reduced to below a level of a few milliamps. The
voltage at which forward breakdown occurs is determined by the
current entering the gate, the higher the current the lower the
breakdown voltage. The power-handling capability of a thyristor is high
and thus it is widely used for switching high power applications.

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Triac
The triac is similar to the thyristor and is equivalent to a pair of
thyristors connected in reverse parallel on the same chip. The triac can
be turned on in either the forward or reverse direction. Figure shows
the characteristic.

Bipolar transistors
Bipolar transistors come in two forms, the npn and the pnp. Figure
shows the symbol for each. For the npn transistor, the main current
flows in at the collector and out at the emitter, a controlling signal being
applied to the base. The pnp transistor has the main current flowing in
at the emitter and out at the collector, a controlling signal being applied
to the base.

npnTransistor pnpTransistor
For an npn transistor connected as shown in Fig.(a) These so
termed common-emitter circuit, the relationship between the collector
current IC and the potential difference between the collector and emitter
VCE is described by the series of graphs shown in Fig.(b)
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 When the base current Is is zero the transistor is cut off. In this state
both the base emitter and the base collector junctions are reverse
biased. When the base current is increased, the collector current
increases and VCE decreases as a result of more of the voltage being
dropped across Rc. When VCE reaches a value VC the base-collector
junction becomes forward biased and the collector current can
increase no further, even if the base current is further increased. This
is termed saturation. By switching the base current between 0 and a
value that drives the transistor into saturation, bipolar transistors can
be used as switches. When there is no input voltage V, then virtually
the entire VEC voltage appears at the output. When the input voltage is
made sufficiently high the transistor switches so that very little of the
VCC voltage appears at the output (Fig. (c)).

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MOSFETs
MOSFETs (metal-oxide field-effect transistors) come in two
types the n-channel and the p-channel. Figure shows the symbols. The
main difference between the use of a MOSFET for switching and a
bipolar transistor is that no current flows into the gate to exercise the
control. The gate voltage is the controlling signal. Thus drive circuitry
can be simplified in that there is no need to be concerned about the
size of the current.

n- Channel p- channel
SOLENOID

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63
 It is used to provide electrically operated actuator. Example:-
solenoid valves are used in hydraulic and pneumatic valves. A current
passes through a coil. Due to this current, a soft iron core is pulled into

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the coil. In doing so it can open or close the ports to allow the flow of a
fluid.
D.C Motor
Electric motors are frequently used as the final control element in
positional or speed-control systems. Motors can be classified into two
main categories: d.c. motors and a.c. motors. Most motors used in
modern control systems being d.c. motors
Constructionofd.cmotor

* YOKE:
1. It is the outermost covering of the machine. 2. It provides
mechanical support for the poles. 3. It is a stationary part. 4. It carries
magnetic flux produced by the poles. 5. It is made of cast iron.
* FIELD SYSTEM:
(a) Pole core
(b) Pole shoe
(c) Field coil.

(a) Pole core:

1. They are fabricated by laminations of steel.

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2. They are laminated so as to avoid eddy current loss.

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65
(b) Pole shoe:
1. They act as a mechanical support to the field coil.
2. They reduce the reluctance of the magnetic flux.
3. They spread out the flux in the air gap uniformly.
(c) Field coil:
1. These coils are wound on the pole core. 2. When current is passed
through this coil, they electromagnetic.
* Inter poles:
1. They are fixed between the main poles.
2. They are in-line with the neutral axis.
3. They are smaller in size than main poles.
4. They are used for spark less commutation.
* Armature:
1. It is the rotating part of the machine.
2. It is cylindrical in shape.
3. It is fabricated by means of steel laminations.
4. It is laminated to avoid the eddy current loss.
5. The periphery of the armature is cut into slots and teeth's.
6. The conductors are placed in the slots.
7. Due to loss, heat is developed in the armature.
8. Therefore to dissipate heat a fan is provided at one end of the
armature.
* Commutator:
1. It is made up of copper segments insulated from each other by mica
sheets.
2. The armature conductors are soldered to Commutator.
3. It is used to convert bidirectional current to unidirectional current.
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* Brushes:
1. These are made of carbon. It is rectangular in shape.
2. The brush holders are kept passed against the Commutator.
3. It collects current from the line to the Commutator.

Principle of Working:
The armature is made up of magnetic material with coils of core
wound on it. The armature is mounted on bearings and is free to
rotate. They are field coils wound and permanent magnet W
electromagnets fixed to the carrying [w] starter. The ends of the
armature coil are connected to Commutator. When the current is
applied to the field coil it cuts the magnetic flux near to armature, and
armature start rotating. The direction of rotation of the D.C motor can
be changed by reversing either the armature current (or) the field
current.
TypesofD.C.motor

1. Series wound motor (fig. a)

With the series wound motor the armature and fields coils are in
series. Such a motor exerts the highest starting toque and has the
greatest no-load speed. With light loads there is a danger that a series
wound motor might run at too high a speed. Reversing the polarity of
the supply to the coils has no effect on the direction of rotation of the
motor. It will continue rotating in the same direction since both the field
and armature currents have been reversed.

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2. Shunt wound motor (fig.b)
With the shunt wound motor the armature and field coils are in
parallel. It provides the lowest starling toque, a much lower no-load
speed and has good speed regulation. Because of this almost constant
speed regardless of load, shunt wound motors are very widely .used.
To reversed the direction of rotation. either the armature or field
supplied must be reversed. For this reason, the separately excited
windings are preferable for such a situation.
3. Compound motor (fig. c)
The compound motor has two field windings. One in series with the
armature and one in parallel. Compound wound motors aim to get the
best features of the series and shunt wound motors, namely a high
starting torque and good sped regulation.
4. Separately excited motor (fig. d)
The separately excited motor has separate control of the armature
and field currents and can be considered to be a special case of the
shunt bound motor.

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Control of D.C. Motor:

1. The speed of the permanent magnet motor depends upon the

current through the armature coil.
2. In a field coil D.C motor, the speed can be changed by varying the
armature current or the field current.
3. Generally it is the armature current that is varied.
4. To obtain a variable voltage at the armature an electric circuit is
used.
5. Usually the D.C motors are controlled by the signals coming from
microprocessors.
6. In such cases the technique knows as pulse width modulation
(PWM) is used, to obtain a variable voltage.
7. This PWM can be obtained by means of a basic transistor circuit.
8. This technique can be used to drive the motor in one direction only.
9. By involving four transistors which is know as H - circuit, the
direction change in rotation of motor can be obtained
In a closed loop control system, the feed back signals are
used to modify the motor speed. There are three methods for doing it.
Method-I

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68
1. Here the feed back signal is provided by a tachometer.
2. The analogue signal from the tachometer is converted into digital
signal by using ADC.
3. This digital signal is given as input to the microprocessor is
converted into analogue by using DAC.
4. This signal is used to vary the voltage applied to the armature of the
D.C. motor.
Method–II

1. The feed back signal is coded using a encoder.

2. In the code converter, the digital output is obtained.
3. This digital signal is given as an input to the microprocessor.

Method–III

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1. The system is completely digital.
2. PWM is used to control the average voltage applied to the armature.
A.C MOTOR
Types of A.C motor:
1. Squirrel cage induction rotor.
2. Slip ring (or) wound rotor.
Construction of A.C Motor
STATOR:
1. It is the stationary part of the machine.
2. It is made of high grade silicon steel laminations.
3. it is laminated so as to avoid eddy current loss.

4. The stator windings are placed in the slots on the inner surface of
stator core.
5. The windings are wound for a particular number of poles.
6. The three phase stator windings are fed from three phase supply.
7. The stator windings are sometimes known as primary windings.

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70
ROTOR:
Squirrel cage rotor:
1. The construction is very simple.2. It is the rotating part of the
machine.
3. It is cylindrical in shape with slots on its outer surface.
4. The rotor conductors are heavy bars of copper or aluminum.
5. All the ends of the bars are short circuited by means offend rings on
both sides.
6. The slots are slightly angled to prevent hum noise and locking of
stator and rotor.

Slip ring or wound rotor:

1. The rotor is wound for the same numbers of poles as that of the
stator.
2. The rotor is made up of silicon steel laminations.
3. The open ends of the rotor windings are brought out and they are
connected to three slip rings.

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4. The three slip rings are mounted on the shaft.
5. The slip rings are insulated from each other.
6. The slip rings are made of phosphor bronze.

Principle of Operation:
1. A three phase supply is given to the stator winding.
2. A rotating magnetic field is produced in the stator which rotates in
synchronous speed.
3. Synchronous speed depends upon supply frequency and number of
poles.
4. In rotor short circuited copper bars are provided.
5. The rotating magnetic field cuts the short circuited copper
conductors, thereby inducing an emf in the rotor conductors.
6. Hence a magnetic field is setup in the rotor.
7. Due to the interaction between the stator and rotor magnetic flux,
the rotor rotates.
8. The direction of rotation of rotor is same as that of rotating magnetic
field but with the speed lesser than the synchronous speed.

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72
Control of A.C Motor:

1. The speed control of A.C motor is more complex than the D.C
motors.
2. The speed of the A.C motor is determined by the frequency of
supply.
N= 120 F/P Where, N = speed in rpm.
F = frequency
P = no. of poles.
3. Therefore the control of A.C motor is based on the variable
frequency supply.
4. The change in the frequency can be achieved by two methods.
A. using a converter and an inverter.
B. using cyclo converter.

Using a converter and an inverter:

1. The three phase A.C is rectified to D.C by a converter.

2. Then it is inverted back to A.C. again but at a frequency that can be
selected.
Cyclo converter:
1. It is used to operate slow speed motors.
2. This converts A.C at one frequency directly to A.C at another
frequency without the intermediate D.C conversion.

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STEPPER MOTORS:

1. It is a device that produces rotation through equal angle called steps

for each digital input.
2. for example :-Suppose say one phase input produces 6O of rotation,
then60 phase of input produces 360° of rotation.
Construction and working principle:

1. Stepper motor is a special type synchronous motor.

2. It converts electrical pulses applied to it into discrete rotor
movements called steps.
3. A 30° per step motor will require 12 pulses to move through one
revolution.
4. From diagram, A, B and C are the three stator coils placed at 120°
apart around the circumference of the stator.
5. A four pole rotor made of soft iron is placed in between stator coils
so as to rotate.
6. When coil A is excited, the rotor teeth 1 & 3 are aligned along 'A'
axis as shown in figure (i).
7. When excitation of coil A is removed and if coil B is excited, the
rotor teeth 2 is attracted by coil B and thus rotor teeth2 and 4 are
aligned 'B' axis as shown in figure (ii).

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74
8. Now when the coil C is excited after removing the excitation of coil
B, the rotor teeth 3 gets aligned along 'C' axis as shown in figure
(iii).
9. Hence a clockwise motion of the motor is produced when pulses
are given in the order of A, B, c, A, B, C.... etc.
10. For each pulse, the rotor moves 30° per step.
11. If no coil is excited, then the rotor stands at any position.
12. When pulses are given for the coils in the order A, C, B, A, C, B....
etc., the rotor rotates in anticlockwise direction.
Application:
1. Used in X - Y plotters.
2. Used in machine tools.
3. Used in robots.
4. Used in computer peripherals like floppy disc drives line printers etc.
5. Used in watches.

Types of stepper motor:

1. Variable reluctance of stepper motor.
The rotor is made of soft steel and is cylindrical in the four poles.
The rotor will rotate until rotor and stator poles line up. This is termed
as position of minimum reluctance. This form of stepper gives step
angle of7.50(or) 150

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75
2. Permanent magnet stepper motor:

1. The rotor is a permanent magnet.

2. The motor has a stator with four poles.
3. Each pole is wound with a field winding.
4. The coils in position pair of poles are connected in series.
5. When the current is supplied to the stator windings, the rotor which
is a permanent magnet will move to line up with the stator poles.
6. From the figure shown, the rotor will move to the 450osition.
7. When the polarity is reversed for the current supply to stator coil,
thus the rotor will move on the reversed side to450positions.
8. Thus by switching through the coils the rotor rotates in 450teps.
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76
9. The usual step angles are 1.80 7.50 150 30°, or 90°.

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77
3. Hybrid stepper

1. It combines feature of both the variable reluctance and permanent

magnet motor.
2. It has a permanent magnet encased in iron caps.
3. The iron caps are cut to have teeth.
4. The typical steps angles are 0.90to1.80
5. Used in high accuracy positioning application.

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78
 MECHATRONICS (UNIT – III)

SYSTEMMODELS
This chapter determines how the systems behave with time when
subjected to some disturbance. E.g. A microprocessor switches on a
motor. The speed will not attain immediately but it will take some
time to attain full speed.
In order to understand the behavior of the systems,
mathematical models are needed. These models are equations
which describe the relationship between the input and output of a
system. The basis for any mathematical model is provided by the
fundamental physical laws that govern the behavior of the system. In
this chapter a range of systems will be considered including
mechanical, electrical, thermal & fluid examples.
Systems can be made up from a range of building blocks from a
number of basic building blocks.
MECHANICAL SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS
The basic building blocks of the models used to represent
mechanical systems are
1) Springs 2) dashpots 3) masses
Springs
Springs represents the stiffness of the system. The fig. shows a
spring subjected to force F.

1
 In case of spring the extension (or) compression is proportional to
the applied forces.
F K .x

F – Applied force x – extension k – a constant

The spring when stretched stores energy, the energy being
released when the spring back to its original length. The energy
stored,
1 FI2
E K .x 2
2 2K

Dash Pots
Dashpots building blocks represent the types of forces
experienced when we push the object through a fluid or move an
object against frictional forces.

In ideal case damping or resisting force F is proportional to the

velocity of the piston. Thus
F=Cv
V – Velocity of piston C – a constant
dx
F C (Since velocity is the rate of change of displacement x.)
dt

2
 Masses

According to Newton’s II law F = ma

2
dv dI x
m = m 2
dt dt

There is also energy stored in mass, when it is moving with

velocity V1. The energy being referred to as kinetic energy, and
released when it stops moving.
1 2
E mv
2

However there is no energy stored in the dashpot. It does not

return to the original position, when there is no force input. The
dashpot dissipates energy rather than spring. The power dissipated
depending on the velocity V and being given by.
P = C V2
ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS
The spring, dashpot and mass are the basic building blocks for
mechanical systems when forces and straight line displacements
are involved without any rotation.
If there is rotation then the equivalent three building blocks are a
torsional spring, a rotary damper and the moment of inertia, i.e,

4
the inertia of a rotating mass. With such building blocks the inputs
are torque and the outputs angle rotated.
With a torsional spring the angle θ rotated is proportional to the
toque T. Hence

With the rotary damper a disc is rotated in a fluid and the resistive
toque T is proportional to the angular velocity ω, and since angular
d
velocity is the rate at which angle changes. i.e. dt
.

The moment of inertia building block exhibits the property that

the greater the moment of inertia I the greater the torque needed
to produce an angular acceleration α.
Thus, since angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular
d
velocity, i.e. , and angular velocity is the rate of change of
dt

angular displacement, then

5
The torsional spring and the rotating mass store energy; the rotary
damper just dissipates energy. The energy stored by a torsional
spring when twisted through an angle θ is ½ kθ2 and since T = k θ
this can be written as

The energy stored by a mass rotating with an angular velocity ω

is the kinetic energy E, where

The power P dissipated by the rotary damper when rotating with an

angular velocity ω is

6
BUILDING UP A MECHANICAL SYSTEM
TRANSLATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEM
Spring mass damper system:

A spring mass damper system is shown in fig. The system is fixed

at one end and the mass is supported by a spring and damper. The
mass is excited by force and free to oscillate. The equation of motion
related to horizontal motion x of mass to applied force can be
developed with of a free body diagram

Net force applied to mass

m F k.x B.v

8
 dx
F kx B
dt ------- (1)

d 2x
Also net force applied to mass = mass x acceleration = m -----
dt 2
(2)
Equation (1) = (2) Apply Newton’s II law of motion
d 2x F kx dx
m 2 B
dt dt

dI2 x dx
F m kx B
dt 2 dt

This equation is called as the differential equation that describes

the relation between input and output.
ILLUSTRATIONS
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR A MACHINE MOUNTED ON THE
GROUND

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF A WHEEL OF A CAR MOVING

ALONG A ROAD

7
 PROBLEMS

I Derive the differential equation describing the relationship

between the input of the foree F and the output of
displacement x for the system shown in Fig.
The net force applied to the mass is F minus the resisting
forces exerted by each of the springs. Since these are k,x and
klX. then

Net force a. F - ka - k,x

Since the net force causes the mass to accelerate. then

Net force = m ~f
F
Hence

m fdiJl +(k1 +k2)r = F

2 Derive the differential equation describing the motion of the

mass m, in Fig. when a force Fis applied. . _
Consider the free-body diagrams · . . For mass m1 , "3
these arc the force F and the force exerted by the upper
spring. The force exerted by the upper spring is due to it
being stretched by (x1 - x1) and so is ki(x1 - x1). Thus the net
force acting on the mass is: , "2

Net force = F - ki(XJ - x1)

"1
This force will cause the mass to accelerate and so:
F · Foree exerted
.....-....a,__;;..,.,Uppefspring

8
9
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS
The basic building blocks of electrical building blocks are
inductors, capacitors, and resisters.
Resistors:
Resistance is an opposition to movement of flow of material or
energy. An electric resistor opposes the flow of current, the voltage
V across the resistor is given by V= I R,
Where R= resistance.

Capacitors
Capacitors are used to stored charge to increase the voltage by
iV. A capacitor consists of two parallel plates separated by insulating
material and capacitor act as a strong device of energy. The voltage
equation for a capacitor is
1
V
C
idt Where c = capacitor.

Inductors:
It consists of a coil wire. When current flows through the
wire, a magnetic field surrounding the wire is produced. Any attempt
to change the density of this magnetic field leads to the induction of
voltage. The inductor equation is
di
V L
dt

10
10
Kirchhoff’s law:
Electrical networks can be analyzed using Kirchhoff’s current and
voltage laws.
1. The current law states that the sum of the current flowing into a
junction equals to the sum of the current flowing out of a
junction.
2. The voltage law state that the sum of the voltage input equal
the sum of the voltage drop in any closed loop.

BUILDING UP A MODEL FOR ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

NODE ANALYSIS

11
11
MESH ANALYSIS

12
 To illustrate the use of mesh analysis for the circuit in Fig.
we assume there are currents circulating in each mesh in the way
shown in Fig. 8.14. Then Kirchhoff's second law is applied to
each mesh. Thus for the mesh with current t, circulating, since
the current through R1 is;, and that through R2 is (i, - i1), then

Similarly for the mesh with current h circulating, since there is

no source of e.m.f., then

We thus have two simultaneous equations which can be solved to

obtain the two mesh currents and hence the currents through each
branch of the circuit. In general, when the number of nodes in a
circuit is less than the number of meshes it is easier to employ
nodal analysis.
RESISTOR CAPACITOR SYSTEM (RC SYSTEM)
R

Now consider a simple electrical system consisting of a resistor

and capacitor in series, as shown in Fig. . Applying
Kirchhoff's second law to the circuit loop gives

V = VR + Ve

13
RESISTOR INDUCTOR SYSTEM (RL SYSTEM)

14
RESISTOR INDUCTOR CAPACITOR SYSTEM (RLC SYSTEM)

15
ANOTHER ILLUSTRATION FOR RLC SYSTEM

16
 FLUID SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS
The three basic building blocks of a fluid flow system can be
considered to be equivalent of electrical resistance, inductance and
capacitance. Fluid systems can be considered to fall in to two
categories.
1. Hydraulic. 2. Pneumatic
In hydraulic the fluid is a liquid and considered to be
incompressible. In pneumatic gas is used and which can be
compressed.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
1. Hydraulic resistance(R)
It is the resistance to flow which occurs as a result of a liquid
flowing through valves or changes in pipe diameter. The relationship
between the volume flow rate and resistance element and the
resulting pressure difference
P1 P2 R.q Where R = hydraulic resistance.

17
17
2. Hydraulic capacitance
This term is used to describe energy storage with a liquid when it
is stored in the form of potential energy.
h = height of liquid.
q1,q2 = rate of liquid flow.
P = pressure difference
.

dv dv
Then q1 q2 where = rate of change of volume V in
dt dt
container.
d AH dH
q1 q2 A
dt dt
P gH
P
H
g
P
d
g
q1 q2 A
dt
A dP
g dt
dP
C
dt
whereC A
, hydraulicc apaci tan ce.
g

18
18
3. Hydraulic inertance
It is equivalent of inductance in electrical systems or a spring in
mechanical systems. To accelerate a fluid and so increase its
velocity a force is required. Consider a block of liquid of mass m.
The net force acting on the liquid,
F1 F2 P1 A P2

P1 P2 A

This net force cause the mass to accelerate with an acceleration a,

therefore

P1 P2 A m.a

dv
m
dt

dv
AL
dt

Volume flow rate q= A.v

dQ1
P1 P2 A L
dt
L dQ1
P1 P2
A dt
dQ1
I
dt

Where I= hydraulic inertance.

19
19
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

20
21
22
Building up a model for fluid system

23
Derive the relationship between the height of liquids in the two
containers with time.

Capacitor for the container 1

dp
q1 q2 c1
dt
A1
c1 & p1 h1 g
g

A1 d h1 g
q1 q2
g dt
A1 dh1
g.
g dt

dh1
A1 . ----------- (1)
dt

The q2= rate at which the liquid leaves the container that
equals the rate at which it leaves the valveR1
p1 p2 R1 .q 2

h1 . g h2 . g R1 .q 2

h1 h2 g R1 .q 2

24
24
 h1 h2
g q2
R1 (2)
-------------------

h1 h2 dh1
Sub (2) in (1) q1 g A1 . -----------(3)
R1 dt

The above equations describe how the height of liquid in

container 1 depends on the input rate of flow.
Capacitor for container 2
dp
q2 q3 c2 .
dt
dh2
A2 . ---------------- (4)
dt

The rate at which liquid leaves the container q3 equals to the rate
at which it leaves the valve R2
For resistor p2 p 3 R2 .q 3 p3 = 0
p2 R2 .q 3

h2 g
R2
---------- (5)
h2 g dh2
Sub (5) in (4) q2 A2 ------------------ (6)
R2 dt

Sub (2) in (6)

h1 h2 g h2 . g dh2
A2
R1 R2 dt

The above equations describe how the height of liquid in container 2

change with time.

Fig.

25
25
26
27
THERMAL SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS
For thermal system, there are only two building blocks.
1. Thermal Resistance.2. Thermal Capacitance.
Thermal resistance
If Q is the rate of heat flow and (T2-T1) is the temperature
difference, then
T2 T1
Qth = Rth

The value of Rth depends on mode of heat transfer. In case of

conduction through solid
T2 T1 L
Q KA For this Rth
L KA

When mode of heat transfer is convection.

Q Ah T2 T1 1
For this mode Rth
Ah

Thermal capacitance
28
28
 It is a measure of the store of energy in a system.
dT
Q1 Q2 m c
dt
dT
Q1 Q2 Ch
dt

Q1= rate of flow of heat into the system.

Q2= rate of flow of heat out from the system
M= mass C= specific heat. Ch= thermal capacitance
dT
dt
Rate of change of temperature.

BUILDING UP A MODEL FOR THERMAL SYSTEM

29
29
30
31
`

32
ROTATIONAL – TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS

35
ELECTRO- MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

POTENTIOMETER

36
 The rotary potentiometer (Fig. ) is a potential divider and
thus: ·
Vo _ _lL_
V - 9J'IW4.

where V is the potential difference across the full length of the

potentiometer track and Omo. is the total angle swept out by the
slider in being rotated from one end of the track to the other. The
output is Vo for the input 9.
HYDRAULIC – MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Sp
oolvalve

Load
m

AruA
P,
Piston in cylinder

Hydraulic-mechanical converters involve the transfonnation of

hydraulic signals to translational or rotational motion, or vice
versa. Thus, for example, the movement of a piston in a cylinder
as a result of hydraulic pressure involves the transformation of a
hydraulic pressure input to the system to a translational motion
output
Figure shows a hydraulic system in which an input of
displacement x. Is, aft.er passing through the system. transformed
into a displacement xo of a load. The system consists of a spool
valve and a cylinder. The input displacement r. to the left results
in the hydraulic fluid supply pressure p, causing fluid to flow into
the left-hand side of the cylinder. This pushes the piston in the
cylinder to the right and expels the fluid in the right-hand side of
the chamber through the exit port at the right-hand end of the 37

spool valve.
38
39
40
41
42
 CONTROLLERS
Open-loop control is essentially just a switch on-switch off form
of control, e.g. an electric fire is either switched on or off in order to
heat a room. With closed-loop control systems, a controller is used
to compare the output of a system with the required condition and
convert the error into a control action designed to reduce the error.
In this chapter we are concerned with the ways in which controllers
can react to error signals, i.e. the control modes as they are termed,
which occur with continuous processes.
Control modes:

43
TWO – STEP MODE

44
 An example of the two-step mode of control is the bimetallic
thermostat that might be used with a simple
temperature control system. This is just a switch which is
switched on or off according to the temperature. If the room
temperature is above the required temperature then the bimetallic
strip is in an off position and the heater is off. If the room
temperature falls below the required temperature then the
bimetallic strip moves into an on position and the heater is
switched fully on. The controller in this case can be in only two
positions, onor of( as indicated by Fig.
· With the two-step mode the control action is discontinuous. A
consequence of this is that oscillations of the controlled variable
occur about the required condition. This is because of lags in the
time ~ control system and the process take to respond. For ...
example, in the case of t)le temperature control for a domestic
central heating system, when the room temperature drops below
the required level the time that elapses before the control system
responds and switches the heater on might be very small in
comparison with the time that elapses before the heater begins to
have an effect on the room temperature. In the meantime the
temperature has fallen even more. The reverse situation occurs
when the temperature has risen to the required temperature. Since
time elapses before the control system reacts and switches the
heater off, and yet more time while the heater cools and stops

Oscillations with two step mode Two step control with two
Controler swlch positions
controller switch points
\
I
I-
Heater supply

Switch
On
Dead bend

Switc h
I I
Time off on
I I

!o"I H.:
Off._ ~_._
,n:·
_,
\
Off
/
Controller
Temperature
 heating the room, the room temperature goes beyond the required
value. The result is that the room temperature oscillates above
and below the required temperature
With the simple two-step system described above there is the .
problem that when the room temperature is hovering about the set
value the thermostat might be almost continually switching on or
off, reacting to very slight changes in temperature. This can be
avoided if, instead of just a single temperature value at which the
controller switches the heater on or off, two values are used and
the heater is switched on at a lower temperature than the one at
which it is switched· off (Fig. · . The term dead band is used
for the values between the on and off values. A large dead band
results in large fluctuations of the temperature about the set
temperature; a small dead band will result in an increased
frequency of switc~ng.-· The bimetallic element shown in Fig.
has a permanent magnet for a switch contact; this has the
effect of producing a dead band.
Two-step control action tends to be used where changes are
taking place very slowly, i.e. with a process with a large capacit•
ance. Thus, in the case of heating a room, the effect of switching
the heater on or off on the room temperature is only a . slow
change. The result of this is an oscillation with a long periodic
time. Two-step control is thus not very precise. but it docs involve
simple devices and is thus fairly cheap. On-off control is not
restricted to mechanical switches such as bimetallic strips or
relays; rapid switching can be achieved with the use of thyristor
circuits such a circuit might be used for
controlling the speed of a n,ntnr_ and oeerational amplifiers.
PROPORTIONAL MODE (P)
100% I
I

i )
Set
I
I
L-1
--
-
i point
1
I
I
---1---
0
--• I
°" I
I
I
With the two-step method of control, the controller output is
either an on or an off signal, regardless of the magnitude of the
error. With the proportional mode, the size of the controller
output is proportional to the size of the error. This means the
correction element of the control system, e.g. a valve, will receive
a signal which is proportional to the size of the correction
required.
Figure shows how the output of such a controller varies
with the size and sign of the error. The linear relationship
between controller output and error tends to exist only over a .
certain range of errors, this range being called the proportional
band. Within the proportional band the equation of the straight
line can be represented by

Change in controller output from set point = K,e

where e is the error and KP a constant. K, is thus the gradient of

the straight line in Fig.
The controller output is generally expressed as a percentage of
the full range of possible outputs within the proportional band.
This output can then correspond to, say, a correction valve
changing from fully closed 'to fully open. 'Similarly, the error is
expressed as a percentage of the full-range value, i.e. the error
range correspondingto the Oto 100% controller output. Thus

% change in controller output from set point

= K» x % change in error
Hence, since 1 OOo/o controller .output corresponds to an error
percentage equal to the proportional band
K _ 100
P- proportional band

We can rewrite the equation as

change in output= I~ - 10 = Kpe

47
DERIVATIVE CONTROL (D)

48
PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL (PD)

49
 Hence

lou • K,.e + Ko di +lo

where Io is the output at tbe set point, Iou tbe output when the
error is e, K» is tbe proportionality constant and Ko the derivative
constant. de/dJ is tbe rate of change of error. The system bas a
transfer function given by

(J-. - loXs) = K.,E(s) + KoSE(s)

Hence the transfer function is K, + Kor. This is often written as:

transferfunct.ioo • Ko(s+ T~)

where To= Kr/KPand isthe derivative lime constant.

Figure shows how the controller output can vary when
there is a constantly changing error. There is an initial quick
change in controller output because of the derivative action
followed by the gradual change due to proportional action. This
fonn of control can thus deal with fast process changes; however,
a change in set value will require an offset error (see earlier
discussion of proportional control).
INTEGRAL CONTROL (I)
The integral mode of control is one where the rate of change of
the control output I is proportional to the input error signal e.

K1 is the constant of proportionality and, when the controller

output is expressed as a percentage and the error as a percentage,
has units of s-•. Integrating the above equation gives
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50
K, is the constant of proportionality and, when the controller i
output is expressed as a percentage and the error as a percentage. o i------.-----
Tlme
has unit& of s". Integrating the above equation gives

Jr,'.• di= J' KaedJ

0

IN -1, = J:K,edt
0
1~ is the coauoller output at zero time. J.,. is the outpUt at ume r,
The transfer function is obtained by taking ~ Laplace
transf'onn. Thus \

(/... -1,Xs) • tKaE(s)

and so

Transfer function= tK1

Figure 1llustralcs the action of an integral controller when
there is a constant error input lo the controller.' We can consider
the graphs in two ways. When the controller output is constant
the error is zero; when the controller output varies at a constant
rate the error has a constant value. The alternative way of
considering the graphs is in_ terms of the area under the error
graph.

Arca under the error graph between t • 0 and t • J~ e di

Thus up to the time when the error occurs the value of the
integral is zero. Hence /Otll. = /o. When the error occurs it
maintains a constant value. Thus the area under the graph is
increasing as the time increases. Since the area increases at a
constant rate the controller output increases at a constant rate.

lnlegrllof

v.

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51
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL (PD)

52
PID CONTROLLERS

53
DIGITAL CONTROLLERS
The digital controller requiring inputs which are digital, process
the information in digital form and give an output in digital form. The
controller performs the following functions:
1) Receives input from sensors.
2) Executes control programs
3) Provides the output to the correction elements.
As several control systems have analog measurements an analog
– to digital converters (ADC) is used for the inputs. The fig shows the
digital closed – loop control system which can be used with a
continuous process.

The clock supplies a pulse at regular time intervals, and dictates

when samples of controlled variables are taken by ADC.
These samples are then converted into digital signals which are
compared by the microprocessor with the set point value to give the
error signal. The error signal is processed by a control mode and
digital output is produced.

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54
 The digital output, generally offer processing by an DAC since
correction elements generally require analog signals, can be used to
initiate the corrective action.
Sequence of operation
1) Samples the measured value.
2) Compares this measured value with the set value and stored
values of previous inputs and outputs to obtain the output
signal.
3) Send the output signal to DAC
4) Waits until the next samples time before repeating the cycle.
VELOCITY CONTROL
A second order system with proportional control system will take
more time to reach the required output when step input is given.
Consider the problem of controlling the movement of a load by
means of a motor. This is an example to control velocity, because
the motor system is likely to be second order, proportional control
will lead to the system output taking time to reach the required
displacement when step input is given. Such a system is shown in
the fig.

55
55
 A higher speed response, with fewer oscillations, can be
obtained by using the PD control. An alternative of achieving the
same effect and this is by the use of a second feedback loop that
gives a measurement related to the rate at which the displacement is
changing. This is termed as velocity feed back.
The velocity feed back might involve the use of a tacho-generator
giving a signal proportional to the rotational speed of the motor shaft
and hence the rate at which the displacement is changing and the
displacement might be monitoring using a rotary potentiometer.
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
The adaptive controllers change the controller parameter to adapt
to the changes and fit the prevailing circumstances. Often the control
parameters of the process changes with time (or) load. This will alter
the transfer functions of the system. Therefore returning of the
system is desirable, for the controllers. OR
For a control system it has been assumed that the system once
tuned retains its value of proportional, derivative, and integral
constant until the operator decides to retune. The alternative to this
is an adaptive control system which adapts to changes and changes
its parameters to fit the circumstances prevailing.
The adaptive control system can be considered to have three
stages of operation,
1) Starts to operate with controller conditions set on the basis of an
assumed condition.

56
56
2) The designed performance in continuously compared with the
actual system performance.

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57
3) The control system mode and parameters are automatically and
continuously adjusted in order to minimize the difference between
the desired and actual system performance.
Adaptive control system can take a number of forms. The three
commonly used forms are:
1. Gain scheduling control
2. Self – tuning control
3. Model – reference adaptive control.
Gain scheduling control

With gain scheduling control, present changes in the parameter of

the controller are made on the basis of some auxiliary measurement
of some process variable. The term gain – scheduled control was
used because the only parameter originally adjusted was to gain is
kp
Self tuning

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58
 With self tuning control system continuously tunes its own
parameter based on monitoring the variable that the system is
controlling.
Self- tuning is found in PID controllers. It is generally refers to
auto- tuning. When the operator presses a button, the controller
injects a small disturbance into the system and measures the
response. This response is compared to the desired response and
the control parameters are adjusted.
Model – reference control

Model reference system is an accurate model of the system

is developed. The set value is then used as input to both model
systems and actual systems and the difference between the actual
output and output from the model compared. The difference in these
signals is then used to adjust the parameters of the controller to
minimize the difference.

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