Palladian architecture

Palladian architecture is a European style of architecture derived from and

inspired by the designs of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580).
That which is recognised as Palladian architecture today is an evolution of
Palladio's original concepts. Palladio's work was strongly based on the
symmetry, perspective and values of the formal classical temple architecture of
the Ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 17th century Palladio's
interpretation of this classical architecture was adapted as the style known as
Palladianism. It continued to develop until the end of the 18th century
.
A villa with a superimposed portico, from
Palladianism became popular briefly in Britain during the mid-17th century,
Book IV of Palladio's I quattro libri
but its flowering was cut short by the onset of the English Civil War and the dell'architettura, in an English translation
imposition of austerity which followed. In the early 18th century it returned to published in London, 1736.
fashion, not only in England but also, directly influenced from Britain, in
Prussia. Count Francesco Algarotti may have written to Burlington from
Berlin that he was recommending to Frederick the Great the adoption in
Prussia of the architectural style Burlington had introduced in England[1] but
Knobelsdorff's opera house on the Unter den Linden, based on Campbell's
Wanstead House, had been constructed from 1741. Later in the century, when
the style was falling from favour in Europe, it had a surge in popularity
throughout the British colonies in North America, highlighted by examples
such as Drayton Hall in South Carolina, the Redwood Library in Newport,
Rhode Island, the Morris-Jumel Mansion in New York City, the Hammond-
Harwood House in Annapolis, Maryland and Thomas Jefferson's Monticello
and Poplar Forest in Virginia.[2]

The style continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th
centuries, where it was frequently employed in the design of public and
municipal buildings. From the latter half of the 19th century it was rivalled by Plan for Palladio's Villa Rotonda. Features
the Gothic revival in the English-speaking world, whose champions, such as of the house were to become incorporated
in numerous Palladian style houses
Augustus Pugin, remembering the origins of Palladianism in ancient temples,
throughout Europe over the following
deemed it too pagan for Anglican and Anglo-Catholic worship.[3] However, as
centuries.
an architectural style it has continued to be popular and to evolve; its
pediments, symmetry and proportions are clearly evident in the design of many
modern buildings today.

Contents
Palladio's architecture
The Venetian window
Early Palladianism
Neo-Palladian
English Palladian architecture
Irish Palladianism
North American Palladianism
Legacy
 See also
Notes
References
External links

Palladio's architecture
Buildings entirely designed by Palladio are all in Venice and the Veneto, with
an especially rich grouping of palazzi in Vicenza. They include villas, and
churches such as Redentore in Venice. In Palladio's architectural treatises he
followed the principles defined by the Roman architect Vitruvius and his 15th-
"True Palladianism" in Villa Godi by century disciple Leon Battista Alberti, who adhered to principles of classical
Palladio from the Quattro Libri Roman architecture based on mathematical proportions rather than the rich
dell'Architettura. The extending wings are ornamental style also characteristic of theRenaissance.[4]
agricultural buildings and are not part of
the villa. In the 18th century they became Palladio always designed his villas with reference to their setting. If on a hill,
an important part of Palladianism—see such as Villa Capra, facades were frequently designed to be of equal value so
photograph of Woburn Abbey below. that occupants could have fine views in all directions. Also, in such cases,
porticos were built on all sides so that occupants could fully appreciate the
countryside while being protected from the sun, similar to many American-
style porches of today. Palladio sometimes used a loggia as an alternative to the portico. This can most simply be described as a
recessed portico, or an internal single storey room, with pierced walls that are open to the elements. Occasionally a loggia would be
placed at second floor level over the top of a loggia below, creating what was known as a double loggia. Loggias were sometimes
given significance in a facade by being surmounted by a pediment. Villa Godi has as its focal point a loggia rather than a portico, plus
loggias terminating each end of the main building.[5]

Palladio would often model his villa elevations on Roman temple facades. The temple influence, often in a cruciform design, later
became a trademark of his work. Palladian villas are usually built with three floors: a rusticated basement or ground floor, containing
the service and minor rooms. Above this, the piano nobile accessed through a portico reached by a flight of external steps, containing
the principal reception and bedrooms, and above it is a low mezzanine floor with secondary bedrooms and accommodation. The
proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3:4 and 4:5, and the different rooms
within the house were interrelated by these ratios. Earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical
[5]
facade; however, Palladio's designs related to the whole, usually square, villa.

Palladio deeply considered the dual purpose of his villas as both farmhouses and palatial weekend retreats for wealthy merchant
owners. These symmetrical temple-like houses often have equally symmetrical, but low, wings sweeping away from them to
accommodate horses, farm animals, and agricultural stores. The wings, sometimes detached and connected to the villa by colonnades,
were designed not only to be functional but also to complement and accentuate the villa. They were, however, in no way intended to
be part of the main house, and it is the design and use of these wings that Palladio's followers in the 18th century adapted to become
an integral part of the building.[6]

Palladio's Four Books of Architecture was first published in 1570, This architectural treaty contains descriptions and illustrations of
his own architecture along with the Roman building that inspired him to create the style.[7] Palladio reinterpreted Rome's ancient
[8]
architecture and applied it to all kinds of buildings from grand villas and public buildings to humble houses and farm sheds.

The Venetian window

The Palladian, Serlian, or Venetian window features largely in Palladio's work and is almost a trademark of his early career. It
consists of a central light with semicircular arch over, carried on an impost consisting of a small entablature, under which, and
enclosing two other lights, one on each side, are pilasters. In the library at Venice, Sansovino varied the design by substituting
columns for the two inner pilasters. To describe its origin as being
either Palladian or Venetian is not accurate; the motif was first used
by Donato Bramante[9] and later mentioned by Sebastiano Serlio
(1475–1554) in his seven-volume architectural book Tutte l'opere
d'architettura et prospetiva expounding the ideals of Vitruvius and
Roman architecture, this arched window is flanked by two lower
rectangular openings, a motif that first appeared in the triumphal
arches of ancient Rome. Palladio used the motif extensively, most
notably in the arcades of the Basilica Palladiana in Vicenza. It is also
a feature of his entrances to bothVilla Godi and Villa Forni Cerato. It
is perhaps this extensive use of the motif in the Veneto that has given
the window its alternative name of the Venetian window; it is also
Claydon House in Buckinghamshire (begun 1757);
known as a Serlian window. Whatever the name or the origin, this here the Venetian window in the central bay is
form of window has probably become one of the most enduring surrounded by a unifying blind arch. This house
features of Palladio's work seen in the later architectural styles was intended to be one of two flanking wings to a
evolved from Palladianism.[10] According to James Lees-Milne, its vast Palladian house; the scheme was never
completed.
first appearance in Britain was in the remodelled wings of Burlington
House, London, where the immediate source was actually in Inigo
Jones's designs for Whitehall Palace rather than drawn from Palladio himself.[11]

A variant, in which the motif is enclosed within a relieving blind arch that unifies the motif, is not Palladian, though Burlington
seems to have assumed it was so, in using a drawing in his possession showing three such features in a plain wall (see illustration of
Claydon House above right). Modern scholarship attributes the drawing to Scamozzi. Burlington employed the motif in 1721 for an
elevation of Tottenham Park in Savernake Forest for his brother-in-law Lord Bruce (since remodelled). Kent picked it up in his
Holkham Hall.[12]
designs for the Houses of Parliament, and it appears in Kent's executed designs for the north front of

Early Palladianism
In 1570 Palladio published his book, I Quattro Libri
dell'Architettura, which inspired architects across Europe.

During the 17th century, many architects studying in Italy learned of

Palladio's work. Foreign architects then returned home and adapted
Palladio's style to suit various climates, topographies and personal
tastes of their clients. Isolated forms of Palladianism throughout the
world were brought about in this way. However, the Palladian style
did not reach the zenith of its popularity until the 18th century,
Inigo Jones was the designer of theQueen's primarily in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland and later North
House, Greenwich, begun in 1616, the first English
America.[13] In Venice itself there was an early reaction to the
Palladian house.
excesses of Baroque architecture that manifested itself as a return to
Palladian principles. The earliest neo-Palladians there were the exact
contemporaries, both trained up as masons, Domenico Rossi (1657–1737)[14] and Andrea Tirali (1657–1737).[15] Tommaso
Temanza, their biographer, proved to be the movement's most able and learned proponent; in his hands the visual inheritance of
neoclassicism.[16]
Palladio's example became increasingly codified in correct rules and drifted towards

The most influential follower of Palladio anywhere, however, was the Englishman Inigo Jones, who travelled throughout Italy with
the 'Collector' Earl of Arundel, annotating his copy of Palladio's treatise, in 1613–14.[17] The "Palladianism" of Jones and his
contemporaries and later followers was a style largely of facades, and the mathematical formulae dictating layout were not strictly
applied. A handful of great country houses in England built between 1640 and c. 1680, such as Wilton House, are in this Palladian
style. These follow the great success of Jones' Palladian designs for the Queen's House at Greenwich and the Banqueting House at
Whitehall, the uncompleted royal palace inLondon of King Charles I.[18]
However, the Palladian designs advocated by Inigo Jones were too closely associated with the court of Charles I to survive the
turmoil of the civil war. Following the Stuart restoration Jones's Palladianism was eclipsed by the baroque designs of such architects
as William Talman and Sir John Vanbrugh, Nicholas Hawksmoor, and even Jones' pupilJohn Webb.[19]

Neo-Palladian

English Palladian architecture

The baroque style, popular in continental Europe, was never truly to the
English taste and was considered excessively flamboyant, catholic and 'florid'.
It was quickly superseded when, in the first quarter of the 18th century, four
books were published in Britain which highlighted the simplicity and purity of
classical architecture. These were:

1. Vitruvius Britannicus published by Colen Campbell, 1715 (of which

supplemental volumes appeared through the century)
2. Palladio's Four Books of Architecturetranslated by Giacomo Leoni,
published from 1715 onwards. English Palladianism: Stourhead House,
3. Leone Battista Alberti's De Re Aedificatoria, translated by Giacomo East facade, based on Palladio's Villa
Leoni, published 1726. Emo. Image is from Colen Campbell's
4. The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs , Vitruvius Britannicus
published by William Kent, 2 vols., 1727 (A further volume,Some
Designs of Mr. Inigo Jones and Mr. William Kent was published in
1744 by the architect John Vardy, an associate of Kent.)
The most popular of these among the wealthy patrons of the day was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell.
Campbell was both an architect and a publisher. The book was basically a book of design containing architectural prints of British
buildings, which had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio; at first mainly those of Inigo Jones, but the later
tomes contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects. These four books greatly contributed to Palladian
architecture becoming established in 18th-century Britain. Their three authors became the most fashionable and sought after
architects of the era. Due to his book Vitruvius Britannicus, Colen Campbell was chosen as the architect for banker Henry Hoare I's
Stourhead house (illustration above), a masterpiece that became the inspiration for dozens of similar houses across England.

At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect
earl", Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington; in 1729, he and William
Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of
Palladio's Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and
ornament. This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the
Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of
England's finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in
Norfolk. The main block of this house followed Palladio's dictates quite
closely, but Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were
elevated in significance. Kent attached them to the design, banished the
English Palladianism. Woburn Abbey,
designed by Burlington's studentHenry farm animals, and elevated the wings to almost the same importance as
Flitcroft in 1746. Palladio's central temple is no the house itself. These wings were often adorned with porticos and
longer free standing, the wings are now pediments, often resembling, as at the much later Kedleston Hall, small
elevated to near equal importance, and the country houses in their own right. It was the development of the flanking
cattle sheds terminating Palladio's design are
wings that was to cause English Palladianism to evolve from being a
now clearly part of the façade.
pastiche of Palladio's original work.

Architectural styles evolve and change to suit the requirements of each

individual client. When in 1746 the Duke of Bedford decided to rebuild Woburn Abbey, he chose the Palladian style for the design,
as this was now the most fashionable of the era. He selected architect Henry Flitcroft, a protege of Burlington. Flitcroft's designs,
while Palladian in nature, would not be recognised by Palladio himself. The central block is small, only three bays, the temple-like
portico is merely suggested, and it is closed. Two great flanking wings containing a vast suite of state rooms replace the walls or
colonnades which should have connected to the farm buildings; the farm buildings terminating the structure are elevated in height to
match the central block, and given Palladian windows, to ensure they are seen as of Palladian design. This development of the style
was to be repeated in countless houses, and town halls in Britain over one hundred years. Falling from favour during the Victorian
era, it was revived by Sir Aston Webb for his refacing of Buckingham Palace in 1913. Often the terminating blocks would have blind
porticos and pilasters themselves, competing for attention with, or complementing the central block. This was all very far removed
from the designs of Palladio two hundred years earlier
.

English Palladian houses were now no longer the small but exquisite weekend retreats from which their Italian counterparts were
conceived. They were no longer villas but "power houses" in Sir John Summerson's term, the symbolic centres of power of the Whig
"squirearchy" that ruled Britain. As the Palladian style swept Britain, all thoughts of mathematical proportion were swept away.
Rather than square houses with supporting wings, these buildings had the length of the façade as their major consideration; long
houses often only one room deep were deliberately deceitful in giving a false impression of size.

Irish Palladianism
During the Palladian revival period in Ireland, even quite modest mansions
were cast in a neo-Palladian mould. Palladian architecture in Ireland subtly
differs from that in England. While adhering as in other countries to the basic
ideals of Palladio, it is often truer to them – perhaps because it was often
designed by architects who had come directly from mainland Europe, and
therefore were not influenced by the evolution that Palladianism was
undergoing in Britain. Whatever the reason, Palladianism still had to be
adapted for the wetter, colder weather.

One of the most pioneering Irish architects was Sir Edward Lovett Pearce
Russborough, Co. Wicklow: a notable (1699–1733), who became one of the leading advocates of Palladianism in
example of Irish Palladianism[20]
Ireland. A cousin of Sir John Vanbrugh, he was originally one of his pupils,
but rejecting the baroque, he spent three years studying architecture in France
and Italy, before returning home to Ireland. His most important Palladian work is the former
Irish Houses of Parliamentin Dublin. He
was a prolific architect who also designed the south façade ofDrumcondra House in 1725 and Summerhill House in 1731, which was
completed after Pearce's death byRichard Cassels.[21]

Pearce oversaw the building of Castletown House, near Dublin, designed by the Italian architect Alessandro Galilei (1691–1737). It
is perhaps the only Palladian house in Ireland to have been built with Palladio's mathematical ratios, and one of the three Irish
mansions which claim to have inspired the design of theWhite House in Washington.

Other examples include Russborough, designed by Cassels, who also designed the Palladian Rotunda Hospital in Dublin, and
Florence Court, County Fermanagh. Irish Palladian Country houses often feature robust Rococo plasterwork, frequently executed by
the Lafranchini brothers, an Irish speciality, which is far more flamboyant than the interiors of their contemporaries in England. So
much of Dublin was built in the 18th century that it set a Georgian stamp on the city; however arising out of bad planning and
poverty, until recently Dublin was one of the few cities where fine 18th-century housing could be seen in ruinous condition.
Elsewhere in Ireland after 1922, the lead was removed from the roofs of unoccupied Palladian houses for its value as scrap, with the
houses often abandoned owing to excessive roof-rate based taxes. Some roofless Palladian houses can still be found in the
depopulated Irish countryside.

North American Palladianism

Palladio's influence in North America[22] is evident almost from the beginning of
architect-designed building there though the Anglo-Irish philosopher, George
Berkeley, may have been America's pioneering Palladian. Acquiring a large
farmhouse in Middletown, near Newport in the late 1720s, Berkeley dubbed it
"Whitehall" and improved it with a Palladian doorcase derived from William Kent's
Designs of Inigo Jones (1727), which he may have brought with him from
London;[23] Palladio's work was included in the library of a thousand volumes he
amassed for the purpose and sent to Yale College.[24] In 1749 Peter Harrison
adopted the design of his Redwood Library in Newport, Rhode Island, more
directly from Palladio'sQuattro Libri, while his Brick Market, also in Newport, of a American Palladianism:The Rotunda
at the University of Virginia, designed
decade later is also Palladian in conception.[25]
in the Palladian manner byThomas
Jefferson.
The Hammond-Harwood House in Annapolis, Maryland (illustration) is an
example of Palladian architecture in the United States. It is the only existing work
of colonial academic architecture that was principally designed from a plate in Andrea Palladio’s Quattro Libri. The house was
designed by the architect William Buckland in 1773–74 for wealthy farmer Matthias Hammond of Anne Arundel County, Maryland.
It was modeled on the design of theVilla Pisani in Montagnana, Italy in Book II, Chapter XIV ofI Quattro Libri dell’Achitettura.

The politician and architect Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) once referred to Palladio's Quattro Libri as his bible. Jefferson acquired
an intense appreciation of Palladio's architectural concepts, and his designs for his own beloved Monticello,[26] the James Barbour
Barboursville estate, Virginia State Capitol, and the University of Virginia were based on drawings from Palladio's book.[27]
Realizing the powerful political significance pertaining to ancient Roman buildings, Jefferson designed his civic buildings in the
Palladian style. Monticello (remodelled between 1796 and 1808) is quite clearly based on Palladio's Villa Capra, however, with
modifications, in a style which is described in America today as Colonial Georgian. Jefferson's Pantheon, or Rotunda, at the
University of Virginia is undeniably Palladian in concept and style.[28]

In Virginia and Carolina, the Palladian manner is

epitomised in numerous Tidewater plantation houses, such
as Stratford Hall or Westover Plantation, or Drayton Hall
near Charleston. These examples are all classic American
colonial examples of a Palladian taste that was transmitted
through engravings, for the benefit of masons—and
The Hammond-Harwood Housewas modeled after theVilla patrons, too—who had no first-hand experience of
Pisani at Montagnana from The Four Books of Architecture European building practice. A feature of American
by Andrea Palladio
Palladianism was the re-emergence of the great portico,
which again, as in Italy, fulfilled the need of protection
from the sun; the portico in various forms and size became a dominant feature of American colonial architecture. In the north
European countries the portico had become a mere symbol, often closed, or merely hinted at in the design by
pilasters, and sometimes
in very late examples of English Palladianism adapted to become a porte-cochere; in America, the Palladian portico regained its full
glory.

One house which clearly shows this Palladian-Gibbs influence isMount Airy, in Richmond County, Virginia, built in 1758–62.[29]

At Westover the north and south entrances, made of imported Portland stone, were patterned after a plate in William Salmon's
Palladio Londinensis (1734).[30]

[31]
The distinctive feature ofDrayton Hall, its two-storey portico, was derived directly from Palladio.

The neoclassical presidential mansion, the White House in Washington, was inspired by Irish Palladianism. Both Castle Coole and
Richard Cassel's Leinster House in Dublin claim to have inspired the architect James Hoban, who designed the executive mansion,
built between 1792 and 1800. Hoban, born in Callan, County Kilkenny, in 1762, studied architecture in Dublin, where Leinster
House (built c. 1747) was one of the finest buildings at the time. The White House is more neoclassical than Palladian; particularly
the South façade, which closely resembles James Wyatt's 1790
design for Castle Coole, also in Ireland. Castle Coole is, in the words
of the architectural commentator Gervase Jackson-Stops, "A
culmination of the Palladian traditions, yet strictly neoclassical in its
chaste ornament and noble austerity."[32]

One of the adaptations made to Palladianism in America was that the

piano nobile now tended to be placed on the ground floor, rather than
above a service floor, as was the tradition in Europe. This service
floor, if it existed at all, was now a discreet semi-basement. This
negated the need for an ornate external staircase leading to the main
entrance as in the more original Palladian designs. This would also
be a feature of the neoclassical style that followed Palladianism. Nova Scotia Legislature Building, sandstone, 1819.

The only two houses in the United States—from the English colonial
period (1607–1776)—that can be definitively attributed to designs from the Four Books of Architecture are architect William
Buckland's Hammond-Harwood House (1774) in Annapolis, Maryland, and Thomas Jefferson's first Monticello. The design source
for the Hammond-Harwood House is Villa Pisani at Montagnana (Book II, Chapter XIV), and for the first Monticello (1770) the
design source is Villa Cornaro at Piombino Dese (Book II, Chapter XIV). Thomas Jefferson later covered this façade with additions
.[33]
so that the Hammond-Harwood House remains the only pure and pristine example of direct modeling in America today

Because of its later development, Palladian architecture in Canada is rare. One notable example is the Nova Scotia Legislature
building, completed in 1819. Another example is Government House in St. John's, Newfoundland.

The Center for Palladian Studies in America, Inc., a non-profit membership organization, was founded in 1979 to research and
promote understanding of Palladio’s influence in the United States.

Legacy
By the 1770s, in Britain, such architects as Robert Adam and Sir William Chambers were in huge popular demand, but they were
now drawing on a great variety of classical sources, including ancient Greece, so much so that their forms of architecture were
eventually defined as neoclassical rather than Palladian. In Europe, the Palladian revival ended by the end of the 18th century. In
North America, Palladianism lingered a little longer; Thomas Jefferson's floor plans and elevations owe a great deal to Palladio's
Quattro Libri. The term "Palladian" today is often misused, and tends to describe a building with any classical pretensions. There
was, however, a revival of Palladian ideas amongst the colonial revivalists of the early 20th century, and the strain has been
unbroken, even through the modernist period.

In the mid-20th century, the originality of the approach of the architectural historian Colin Rowe had the effect of re-situating the
assessment of modern architecture within history and acknowledged the Palladian architecture as an active influence. In the later 20th
century, when Rowe's influence had spread worldwide, this approach had become a key element in the process of architectural and
urban design. If "the presence of the past" was evident in the work of many architects in the late 20th century, from James Stirling to
Aldo Rossi, Robert Venturi, Oswald Matthias Ungers, Peter Eisenman, Michael Graves and others, this was largely due to the
influence of Rowe. Colin Rowe's unorthodox and non-chronological view of history then made it possible for him to develop
theoretical formulations such as his famous essay "The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa" (1947) in which he theorised that there were
compositional "rules" in Palladio’s villas that could be demonstrated to correspond to similar "rules" in Le Corbusier’s villas at
Poissy and Garches.[34] This approach enabled Rowe to elaborate an astonishingly fresh and provocative trans-historical assessment
of both Palladio and Le Corbusier, in which the architecture of both was assessed not in chronological time, but side by side in the
present moment.[34]

See also
 New Classical Architecture
Kerelaw House
Palladian Villas of the Veneto
City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto
Poplar Forest
Stoke Park Pavilions
Vincenzo Scamozzi
Giacomo Quarenghi
Riviera del Brenta

Notes
1. James Lees-Milne, The Earls of Creation 1962:120.
2. The Center for Palladian Studies in America, Inc.
, "Palladio and English-American Palladianism."(http://www.palladi
ancenter.org/timeline-Palladianism.html)
3. Frampton, p. 36
4. Copplestone, p.250
5. Copplestone, p.251
6. Copplestone, pp.251–252
7. [email protected], Victoria and Albert Museum, Digital Media. "Style Guide: Palladianism"(http://www.vam.ac.
uk/content/articles/s/style-guide-palladianism/)
. www.vam.ac.uk. Retrieved 2017-07-07.
8. Kerley, Paul (2015-09-10). "Palladio: The architect who inspired our love of columns"(https://www.bbc.com/news/ma
gazine-34143566). BBC News. Retrieved 2017-07-07.
9. Ackerman, Jaaes S. (1994).Palladio (series "Architect and Society")
10. Andrea Palladio, Caroline Constant.The Palladio Guide. Princeton Architectural Press, 1993. p. 42.
11. "The earliest example of the revived Venetian window in England", Lees-Milne,The Earls of Creation, 1962:100.
12. James Lees-Milne 1962:133f.
13. Copplestone, p.252
14. Rossi built the new façade for the rebuiltSant'Eustachio, known in Venice as San Stae, 1709, which was among the
most sober in a competition that was commemorated with engravings of the submitted designs, and he rebuiltCa'
Corner della Regina, 1724–27 (Deborah Howard and Sarah Quill,The Architectural history of Venice, 2002: 238f).
15. His façade of San Vidal is a faithful restatement of Palladio'sSan Francesco della Vigna and his masterwork isSan
Niccolò Tolentino, 1706–14 (Howard and Quill 2002)
16. Robert Tavernor, Palladio and PalladianismThames & Hudson, 1991:112.
17. Hanno-Walter Kruft. A History of Architectural Theory: From Vitruvius to the Present. Princeton Architectural Press,
1994 and Edward Chaney, Inigo Jones's 'Roman Sketchbook, 2006).
18. Copplestone, p.280
19. Copplestone, p.281
20. "Andrea Palladio 1508–1580"(https://iarc.ie/exhibitions/previous-exhibitions/andrea-palladio-1508-1580/)
. Irish
Architectural Archive. 2010. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
21. Sheridan, Pat (2014). "Sir Edward Lovett Pearce 1699–1733: the Palladian architect and his buildings".
Dublin
Historical Record. 67 (2): 19–25. JSTOR 24615990 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24615990).
22. A brief survey is Robert Tavernor, "Anglo-Palladianism and the birth of a new nation" inPalladio and Palladianism,
1991:181–209; Walter M. Whitehill, Palladio in America, 1978 is still the standard work.
23. Edwin Gaustad, George Berkeley in America(Yale University Press, 1979): "Berkeley's one architectural
achievement in the New World" (p. 70).
24. Gaustad, p. 86.
25. The Center for Palladian Studies in America, Inc.
, "Building America." (http://www.palladiancenter.org/patternbooks.h
tml)
26. Fiske Kimball, Thomas Jefferson, Architect, 1916.
27. Frederick Nichols, Thomas Jefferson's Architectural Drawings, 1984.
28. Joseph C. Farber, Henry Hope Reed (1980). Palladio's Architecture and Its Influence: A Photographic Guide
. Dover
Publications. p. 107. ISBN 0-486-23922-5.
29. Roth, Leland M., A Concise History of American Architecture, Harper & Row, Publishers, NY, 1980
30. Severens, Kenneth, Southern Architecture: 350 Years of Distinctive American Buildings, E.P. Dutton, NY 1981 p 37;
specifically, both doors seem to have been derived from plates XXV and XXVI ofPalladio Londinensis, a builders
guide first published in London in 1734, the very year when the doorways may have been installed. (Morrison, High,
American's First Architecture: From the First Colonial Settlements to the National Period.
Oxford University Press,
NY 1952 p. 340).
31. Severens, Kenneth, Southern Architecture: 350 Years of Distinctive American Buildings, E.P. Dutton, NY 1981 p 38
32. Jackson-Stops p. 106
33. "The Palladian Connection"(http://www.hammondharwoodhouse.org/index.php?id=33). Hammond-Harwood House
Association. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
34. The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa and Other Essays, MIT Press, Main essay reprinted in collected works volume,
(1976).

References
Ackerman, Jaaes S. (1994).Palladio (series "Architect and Society").
Chaney, Edward (2006). "George Berkeley's Grand T ours: The Immaterialist as Connoisseur of Art and
Architecture", in The Evolution of the Grand Tour: Anglo-Italian Cultural Relations Since the Renaissance(2nd ed.).
Routlege. ISBN 0-7146-4474-9.
Copplestone, Trewin (1963). World Architecture. Hamlyn.
Dal Lago, Adalbert (1966).Ville Antiche. Milan: Fratelli Fabbri.
Frampton, Kenneth. (2001).Studies in Tectonic Culture. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-56149-2.
Halliday, E" E. (1967). Cultural History of England. London: Thames and Hudson.
Jackson-Stops, Gervase (1990).The Country House in Perspective. Pavilion Books Ltd.
Kostof, Spiro. A History of Architecture. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lewis, Hilary, and John O'Connor (1994).Philip Johnson: The architect in His Own Words . New York: Rizzoli
International Publications.
Marten Paolo (1993). Palladio. Koln: Benedikt Taschen Verlag GmbH. (Photos of Palladio's surviving buildings)
Reed, Henry Hope, and Joseph C. Farber (1980).Palladio's Architecture and Its Influence. New York: Dover
Publications.
Ruhl, Carsten (2011). Palladianism: From the Italian Villa to International Architecture, European History Online.
Mainz: Institute of European History. Retrieved: May 23, 2011.
Tavernor, Robert (1979). Palladio and Palladianism(series "World of Art").
Watkin, David (1979). English Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson.
Wittkower, Rudolf. Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism .

External links
Chiswick House
Holkham Hall
(in English), (in Italian) International centre for the study of the architecture of Andrea Palladio (CISA)
Palladian Architecture in England
The Center for Palladian Studies in America, Inc.
Palladio's Villas
Thomas Jefferson's architecture
Woburn Abbey
Wallington Hall – National Trust
The Palladian Way long distance walk
"Palladianism Style Guide". British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-07-17.

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