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Introduction to Buddhism
Essay by Dr. Jennifer N. McIntire

Standing Buddha Offering Protection, late 5th century, Gupta period, India, red sandstone, 33 11/16 inches high (The

Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Buddhisms

When we talk about the religion that worships the Buddha, we refer to it as singular:

Buddhism. However, it may be more accurate to talk about “Buddhisms.” The religion that

originated in India took on so many different forms and adapted in such a variety ways that it

is often difficult to see how the various sects of Buddhism are related. What do they all have
in common? The worship of the Buddha, of course! But who was Buddha? Was Buddha a

man or a god? In early forms of Buddhism, Buddha is most definitely a man. As the religion

changes and adapts, the Buddha is deified.

Origins

Buddhism originated in what is today modern India, where it grew into an organized religion

practiced by monks, nuns, and lay people. Its beliefs were written down forming a large

canon. Buddhist images were also devised to be worshiped in sacred spaces. From India,

Buddhism spread throughout Asia.

The Eight Great Places of Buddhism (Four Great Places are plotted in red)

In order to appreciate the magnitude of the Buddha’s achievement, we should try to imagine

what life was like in early India, particularly in towns and villages of the Ganges River Valley

—like Kapilavastu in the foothills of the Himalayan mountains— in what is now the country

of Nepal. This is the area in which the Buddha was likely born, in about 560 B.C.E. Every
year the river flooded the valley destroying crops. Monsoons came every year too, creating

famine. There were also severe droughts and disease such as dysentery and cholera.

The Brahmanas (the Hindu priests) chanted the Vedic hymns (the oldest scriptures of

Hinduism) and offered fire sacrifices to Brahma (the Hindu god of creation). However, they

did not improve conditions for the common man. From the earliest times, Hindu society was

stratified. Castes were firmly established in the economy with the Brahmanas the creators and

perpetuators of a social order highly favourable to themselves.

Seated Buddha, 200–300. Pakistan; perhaps Jamalgarhi, Peshawar valley, ancient region of Gandhara. Schist. The Avery

Brundage Collection, B60S393.

The Middle Way

One of the Buddha’s greatest spiritual accomplishments was the doctrine of the Middle Way.

He discovered the doctrine of the Middle Way only after he lived as an ascetic for some time.

This experience convinced him that one should shun extremes. One should avoid the pursuit

of worldly desires on the one hand and severe, ascetic discipline on the other. Despite his

doubts about existing religious practices, and his strong sense of mission, he did not think of
himself as the creator of a new religion. Rather, he felt the need to purify the religion of his

day.

Buddha took for granted the truth of cosmological perspectives indigenous to the Indus

valley—the worldview that is often associated with Hindu conceptions. One must understand

what time and space look like in the Buddhist framework of ancient India. This framework

was shared by all, whether one was an adherent of Brahmanism, Jainism, or Buddhism.

Samsara and Time

Samsara (a Sanskrit word) literally means a “round” or a “cycle.” In the ancient Indian

worldview this means the endless cycle of rebirth and death—there is no beginning and no

end. This endless cycle is governed by karma (causality).

In ancient India, time is measured in kalpa. There is an unending cycle of Destruction, Rubble,

Renovation, and Duration. Each period is 20 kalpa long and they are thought of as a circle.

Destruction: Has a great beginning, but gets progressively worse. There are scourges

of fire, water, wind.

Rubble: Space is dark and empty, only wind exists in this stage, with seeds of karma.

Renovation: This is the phase when things build up from the bottom.

4. Earth 3. Metal 2. Water 1. Wind

Whirling wind forms a disk of water. Impurities float to the top and form a disk of metal. This

disk breaks down and forms the earth.

Duration: This is the phase of preservation, and at the end of this phase, sentient

beings appear.
Space

Cosmic Mount Meru (detail), 18th century, East Tibet? China?, appliqué and embroidery with silk (The Walters Art Museum)

Mount Sumeru (or Meru) is the cosmic axis—that is, the link between heaven and earth. The

Mountain is the centre of the world in this cosmological conception, both physically and in

terms of importance. On top of Mount Sumeru are the palaces of the Gods. Mount Sumeru is

surrounded by seven chains of mountains and an ocean that has four continents: North =

rectangle; West = circle; South = trapezoid (Jambudvipa, where humans live); East = crescent

moon.

The Universe is vertically structured. At the top is the realm of “no form.” This realm has no

qualities that can be perceived by the senses. It is impossible to have a conception of it. Next

are the realms of form that can be perceived in various states of meditation. One can see

pleasant sights, bright light, and perceive coolness.

Below is the realm of desire. This realm has six levels. This is our realm. The six levels are the

six paths of rebirth. The highest realm is that of the gods (deva). Halfway between gods and

humans are demi-gods (asura). Humans and animals dwell on the surface of Jambudvipa.

Hungry ghosts inhabit the shadow world below the animals. This level has much pain and

suffering. Beings here are always hungry and never satiated. Hell beings occupy the lowest
level. There are 8 levels within this level. At the eighth and lowest level there is no rest

between tortures.

Karma

How do people (beings) move about in this world? The answer is karma. Karma is the law

that regulates all life in samsara. Existence in time and space is ruled by karma. Karma means

action or deed. Every action has a result. Every deed has an effect. Karma is a built-in universe

scale for good and evil—good leads to good result and vice versa. Karma governs the long-

term and the short-term. Karma is never destroyed. In the short term good deeds lead to a

good result and bad deeds lead to a bad result. Karma transgresses from one life to another. It

determines how a being will be reborn (higher or lower). Karma is not predestination because

the concept of predestination does not take into account free will. Your current circumstances

are determined by deed in your previous life, but between the present and the future there is

free will. Upward mobility is possible.

What are the implications of the Buddhist world view? Being reborn a human is rare and

important—rare especially in the time of Buddha. Buddha is born only in a small time period

within the phase of destruction. We are fortunate to have access to his teachings since there is

limited time and place to be given the chance to encounter Buddha. A being can only

encounter Buddha and benefit in the human realm.

Nirvana

Nirvana of the Buddha, early 14th century, Kamakura period, Japan, ink, colour, gold and silver on silk (Freer|Sackler)
How does one achieve salvation? All is impermanent. All is cyclical. All is painful. Even Gods

suffer. They are only gods for one lifetime and then they are reborn lower down. Also Gods

do not have access to Buddha. Beings need to find a way out of the endless cycle of rebirth.

The goal is Nirvana. Nirvana is extinction. Nirvana is the traditional name for that which is

not samsara. Where is Nirvana? Nowhere. Nirvana is outside the vertical concept of the

universe.

The main branches of Buddhism

Stele of the Buddha Maitreya, 687. China; Tang dynasty (618–906). Limestone. The Avery Brundage Collection, B60S36+
(Asian Art Museum)

Over the centuries, two main branches of Buddhism emerged: a transmission that travelled to Southeast
Asia, and a transmission that evolved in East Asia. A further offshoot of the northern transmission also
developed. All three branches began in India, and developed further as they moved across Asia.

Theravada Buddhism
Theravada is believed to be the oldest form of Buddhism. The term itself comes into use later, but
the Theravada tradition upholds the monastic path and adheres to the oldest surviving recorded sayings
of the Buddha, collectively called the Pali canon. These original texts were set down in the Pali
language by monks in Sri Lanka in the first century C.E. Prior to this codification, teachings had been
transmitted orally, and concern arose that original texts must be preserved in light of the growing
heterodoxy that was developing in India.
Theravada recognizes the primacy and humanity of the historical Buddha. The Buddha was an
exemplary figure. Enlightenment is an arduous task, available only to monks who explicitly pursue the
path of Shakyamuni himself. Theravada is the dominant form of Buddhism today in Sri Lanka as well as
Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. The subject matter of Buddhist art from these traditions
focuses on life events of the Buddha.

Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana is a philosophical movement that proclaimed the possibility of universal salvation,
offering assistance to practitioners in the form of compassionate beings called bodhisattvas. The goal
was to open up the possibility of buddhahood (becoming a Buddha) to all sentient beings. The Buddha
ceased to be simply a historical figure, but rather was interpreted as a transcendent figure who all could
aspire to become.
New sutras (texts) were added to the Buddhist canon, causing rifts among the various sects.
Reformers called themselves the “greater vehicle” (Mahayana), and they labelled the traditionalists the
“lesser vehicle” (Theravada). The bodhisattva developed as an enlightened being who postpones his
own salvation in order to help others. Initially understood as companions to the Buddha, bodhisattvas
are spiritual beings who compassionately vow to achieve buddhahood, but have deferred this aspiration
in order to liberate all creatures in the universe from suffering. The most popular bodhisattvas appearing
in sculpture and painting include Avalokiteshvara (bodhisattva of mercy and compassion), Maitreya (the
future Buddha), and Manjushri (bodhisattva of wisdom).
Mahayana also spread to Southeast Asia, however its greatest impact is felt in the East Asian nations
of China, Korea, and Japan. As Mahayana evolved, it continued to expand a vast pantheon of
buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other divine and semi-divine beings, drawing from and assimilating regional
and local traditions.

Tantric Buddhism: a further evolution of Mahayana Buddhism

Tantric or Esoteric Buddhism, sometimes called Vajrayana (the Vehicle of the Thunderbolt),
developed about 500–600 C.E. in India. An offshoot of Mahayana Buddhism, the origins of Tantric
Buddhism can be traced to ancient Hindu and Vedic practices as well, including esoteric ritual texts
designed to achieve physical, mental, and spiritual breakthroughs. Tantric Buddhism is sometimes
described as offering a shortcut to enlightenment. Because some practices subverted mainstream
Buddhism and Hinduism, engaging in acts otherwise considered taboo, its practitioners were secretive.
Initiates worked closely with a spiritual guide or guru.
Vajrayana Buddhism is most closely identified with Tibetan Buddhism, however, it also influenced
parts of Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism thrived in India for more than a millennium, reaching
an expansive culmination in the Pala period in eastern India. By the 1100s C.E., Buddhism had
declined mainly as a result of Muslim incursions.
Before this time, however, Buddhist doctrine had been transmitted to Sri Lanka, which became a
further point of reference for the spread of Buddhism to Southeast Asia. Travellers and missionaries
carried the message of Buddhism by sea and land routes through Central Asia into China by the first
century C.E., Buddhism flourished in China between 300 and 900 C.E. and provided a point of
reference for Buddhism as it developed in Korea and Japan. Chinese translations of Indian
texts contributed to the development of printing.
Buddhism is still strong today in Bhutan, Cambodia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Burma, Nepal, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Tibet, and Vietnam. Throughout its history and transmission, Buddhism has been
very adaptable to local beliefs and customs, and the combination of these local forms with imported
beliefs and symbols is a characteristic of Buddhist art throughout Asia.

The stupa
Essay by Dr. Karen Shelby

Stupa 3 at Sanchi, 1st century (India)

Can a mound of dirt represent the Buddha, the path to Enlightenment, a mountain and the universe all
at the same time? It can if it is a stupa. The stupa (“stupa” is Sanskrit for heap) is an important form of
Buddhist architecture, though it predates Buddhism. It is generally considered to be a sepulchral
monument—a place of burial or a receptacle for religious objects. At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt burial
mound faced with stone. In Buddhism, the earliest stupas contained portions of the Buddha’s ashes, and
as a result, the stupa began to be associated with the body of the Buddha. Adding the Buddha’s ashes to
the mound of dirt activated it with the energy of the Buddha himself.

Early stupas
Before Buddhism, great teachers were buried in mounds. Some were cremated, but sometimes they
were buried in a seated, meditative position. The mound of earth covered them up. Thus, the domed
shape of the stupa came to represent a person seated in meditation much as the Buddha was when he
achieved Enlightenment and knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. The base of the stupa represents his
crossed legs as he sat in a meditative pose (called padmasana or the lotus position). The middle portion
is the Buddha’s body and the top of the mound, where a pole rises from the apex surrounded by a small
fence, represents his head. Before images of the human Buddha were created, reliefs often depicted
practitioners demonstrating devotion to a stupa.
The ashes of the Buddha were buried in stupas built at locations associated with important events in the
Buddha’s life including Lumbini (where he was born), Bodh Gaya (where he achieved Enlightenment),
Deer Park at Sarnath (where he preached his first sermon sharing the Four Noble Truths (also called the
dharma or the law), and Kushingara (where he died). The choice of these sites and others were based
on both real and legendary events.
“Calm and glad”
According to legend, King Ashoka, who was the first king to embrace Buddhism (he ruled over most of
the Indian subcontinent from c. 269 - 232 B.C.E.), created 84,000 stupas and divided the Buddha’s
ashes among them all. While this is an exaggeration (and the stupas were built by Ashoka some 250
years after the Buddha’s death), it is clear that Ashoka was responsible for building many stupas all over
northern India and the other territories under the Mauryan Dynasty in areas now known as Nepal,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.
One of Ashoka’s goals was to provide new converts with the tools to help with their new faith. In this,
Ashoka was following the directions of the Buddha who, prior to his death (parinirvana), directed that
stupas should be erected in places other than those associated with key moments of his life so that “the
hearts of many shall be made calm and glad.” Ashoka also built stupas in regions where the people
might have difficulty reaching the stupas that contained the Buddha’s ashes.

One of the most famous stupas, The Great Stupa (Mahastupa) was built at the birthplace of Ashoka’s wife, Devi, daughter
of a local merchant. In the village of Sanchi located on an important trade route in the state of Madya Pradesh, India
(photo: Nagarjun Kandukuru, CC: BY 2.0)

Karmic benefits
The practice of building stupas spread with the Buddhist doctrine to Nepal and Tibet, Bhutan, Thailand,
Burma, China and even the United States where large Buddhist communities are centred. While stupas
have changed in form over the years, their function remains essentially unchanged. Stupas remind the
Buddhist practitioner of the Buddha and his teachings almost 2,500 years after his death.
For Buddhists, building stupas also has karmic benefits. Karma, a key component in both Hinduism and
Buddhism, is the energy generated by a person’s actions and the ethical consequences of those actions.
Karma affects a person’s next existence or re-birth. For example, in the Avadana Sutra ten merits of
building a stupa are outlined. One states that if a practitioner builds a stupa he or she will not be reborn
in a remote location and will not suffer from extreme poverty. As a result, a vast number of stupas dot
the countryside in Tibet (where they are called chorten) and in Burma (chedi).

The journey to enlightenment

Buddhists visit stupas to perform rituals that help them to achieve one of the most important goals of
Buddhism: to understand the Buddha’s teachings, known as the Four Noble Truths (also known as the
dharma and the law) so when they die they cease to be caught up in samsara, the endless cycle of birth
and death.

The Four Noble Truths:

1. life is suffering (suffering=rebirth)
2. the cause of suffering is desire
3. the cause of desire must be overcome
4. when desire is overcome, there is no more suffering (suffering=rebirth)

Once individuals come to fully understand The Four Noble Truths, they are able to achieve
Enlightenment, or the complete knowledge of the dharma. In fact, Buddha means “the Enlightened
One” and it is the knowledge that the Buddha gained on his way to achieving Enlightenment that
Buddhist practitioners seek on their own journey toward Enlightenment.

The circle or wheel

One of the early sutras (a collection of sayings attributed to the Buddha forming a religious text) records
that the Buddha gave specific directions regarding the appropriate method of honouring his remains
(the Maha-parinibbāna sutra): his ashes were to be buried in a stupa at the crossing of the mythical four
great roads (the four directions of space), the unmoving hub of the wheel, the place of Enlightenment.
If one thinks of the stupa as a circle or wheel, the unmoving centre symbolizes Enlightenment. Likewise,
the practitioner achieves stillness and peace when the Buddhist dharma is fully understood. Many
stupas are placed on a square base, and the four sides represent the four directions, north, south, east
and west. Each side often has a gate in the centre, which allows the practitioner to enter from any side.
The gates are called torana. Each gate also represents the four great life events of the Buddha: East
(Buddha’s birth), South (Enlightenment), West (First Sermon where he preached his teachings or
dharma), and North (Nirvana). The gates are turned at right angles to the axis mundi to indicate
movement in the manner of the arms of a svastika, a directional symbol that, in Sanskrit, means “to be
good” (“su” means good or auspicious and “asti” means to be). The torana are directional gates guiding
the practitioner in the correct direction on the correct path to Enlightenment, the understanding of the
Four Noble Truths.

A microcosm of the universe

At the top of stupa is a yasti, or spire, which symbolizes the axis mundi (a line through the earth’s centre
around which the universe is thought to revolve). The yasti is surrounded by a harmika, a gate or fence,
and is topped by chattras (umbrella-like objects symbolizing royalty and protection).
The stupa makes visible something that is so large as to be unimaginable. The axis symbolizes the
centre of the cosmos partitioning the world into six directions: north, south, east, west, the nadir and the
zenith. This central axis, the axis mundi, is echoed in the same axis that bisects the human body. In this
manner, the human body also functions as a microcosm of the universe. The spinal column is the axis
that bisects Mt. Meru (the sacred mountain at the centre of the Buddhist world) and around which the
world pivots. The aim of the practitioner is to climb the mountain of one’s own mind, ascending stage
by stage through the planes of increasing levels of Enlightenment.

Circumambulation
The practitioner does not enter the stupa, it is a solid object. Instead, the practitioner circumambulates
(walks around) it as a meditational practice focusing on the Buddha’s teachings. This movement
suggests the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara) and the spokes of the Eightfold Path (eight guidelines that
assist the practitioner) that leads to knowledge of the Four Noble Truths and into the centre of the
unmoving hub of the wheel, Enlightenment. This walking meditation at a stupa enables the practitioner
to visualize Enlightenment as the movement from the perimeter of the stupa to the unmoving hub at the
centre marked by the yasti.

The practitioner can walk to circumambulate the stupa or move around it through a series of
prostrations (a movement that brings the practitioner’s body down low to the ground in a position of
submission). An energetic and circular movement around the stupa raises the body’s temperature.
Practitioners do this to mimic the heat of the fire that cremated the Buddha’s body, a process that
burned away the bonds of self-hood and attachment to the mundane or ordinary world. Attachments to
the earthly realm are considered obstacles in the path toward Enlightenment. Circumambulation is not
veneration for the relics themselves—a distinction sometime lost on novice practitioners. The Buddha
did not want to be revered as a god, but wanted his ashes in the stupas to serve as a reminder of the
Four Noble Truths.

Votive Offerings

Votive Stupa, Bodhgaya, 8th century, stone, 78 x 44 x 35 cm (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford)

Small stupas can function as votive offerings (objects that serve as the focal point for acts of devotion).
In order to gain merit, to improve one’s karma, individuals could sponsor the casting of a votive stupa.
Indian and Tibetan stupas typically have inscriptions that state that the stupa was made “so that all
beings may attain Enlightenment.” Votive stupas can be consecrated and used in home altars or utilized
in monastic shrines. Since they are small, they can be easily transported; votive stupas, along with small
statues of the Buddha and other Buddhist deities, were carried across Nepal, over the Himalayas and
into Tibet, helping to spread Buddhist doctrine. Votive stupas are often carved from stone or caste in
bronze. The bronze stupas can also serve as a reliquary and ashes of important teachers can be encased
inside.
This stupa clearly shows the link between the form of the stupa and the body of the Buddha. The
Buddha is represented at his moment of Enlightenment, when he received the knowledge of the Four
Noble Truths (the dharma or law). He is making the earth touching gesture (bhumisparsamudra) and is
seated in padmasan, the lotus position. He is seated in a gateway signifying a sacred space that recalls
the gates on each side of monumental stupas.

Buddhist Monasteries
Essay by Dr. Karen Shelby

Why Monasteries?

Standing Male Worshipper, c. 2900-2600 B.C.E., Metropolitan Museum of Art

What is a monastery exactly? A monastery is a community of men or women (monks or nuns), who
have chosen to withdraw from society, forming a new community devoted to religious practice. The
word monk comes from the Greek word monos, which means alone.
It can be difficult to focus a lot of time on prayers and religious ritual when time needs to be spent on
everyday activities that insure one’s survival (such as food and shelter). Think of the ancient Sumerian
Votive Statues from Tell Asmar, for example (image, left). These statues were placed in a temple high
above the village. Each statue represented an individual in continual prayer as a stand-in for the actual
individual who was busy living, tending to crops, cooking food, and raising children. The person was
depicted with hands clasped in prayer (at the heart centre) with eyes wide open in perpetual
engagement with the gods.

The work of the monastery

In Buddhism and Christianity however, instead of statues, monks or nuns pray on behalf of the people.
The monastery typically becomes the spiritual focus of the nearest town or village. In Christianity the
monks pray for the salvation of the souls of the living. But in Buddhism, there is no concept of the soul.
The goal is not heaven, rather it is cessation from the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara), to
achieve moksha, which is freedom or release from attachment to ego or the material world and an end
to samsara, and to realize nirvana (or liberation), which is to be released into the infinite state of oneness
with everything.

The Four Noble Truths or Dharma

It is difficult to achieve moksha, which is why the Buddha’s teaching focuses on achieving
Enlightenment or knowledge that helps the practitioner. This is described succinctly in his Four Noble
Truths, also referred to as the dharma(the law):
Life is suffering (suffering = rebirth)
The cause of suffering is desire
The cause of desire must be overcome
When desire is overcome, there is no more suffering (suffering = rebirth)
Adept practitioners of Buddhism understood that not everyone was ready to perform the necessary rites
to obtain the ultimate goals of ending samsara (rebirth). The common person could, however, improve
their karma (an action or deed that enacts a cycle of cause and effect) by everyday charitable acts that
were mostly directed toward the monastic community.
The Buddhist monks and nuns meditated and prayed on behalf of the lay community (or laity—
basically everyone who is not a priest or monk), those without specialized knowledge of the faith,
assisting them in the goal of realizing The Four Noble Truths. Monks and nuns also instructed the lay
practitioner on how to conduct the rituals, how to meditate, and advised them about which Buddhist
deity to focus on (this depended on the issue or obstacle in the practitioner’s path to Enlightenment).
The laity, in turn, supported the monks with donations of food and other necessary items. It was a
mutually beneficial relationship.

The beginnings of monasteries

In the early years of Buddhism, following the practices of contemporary religions such as Hinduism and
Jainism (and other faiths that no longer exist), monks dedicated themselves to an ascetic life (a practice
of self-denial particular to the pursuit of religious or spiritual goals) wandering the country with no
permanent living quarters. They were fed, clothed, and housed in inclement weather by people wishing
to gain merit, which is a spiritual credit earned through virtuous acts. Eventually monastic complexes
were created for the monks close enough to a town in order to receive alms or charity from the villagers,
but far enough away so as not to be disturbed during meditation.

Three types of architecture: stupa, vihara and the chaitya

Buddhism, the first Indian religion to require large communal and monastic spaces, inspired three types
of architecture.
The first was the stupa, a significant object in Buddhist art and architecture. On a very basic level it is a
burial mound for the Buddha. The original stupas contained the Buddha’s ashes. Relics are objects
associated with an esteemed person, including that person’s bones (or ashes in the case of the Buddha),
or things the person used or had worn. The veneration, or respect, for relics is prevalent in many
religious faiths, particularly in Christianity. By the time the Buddhist monasteries gained importance, the
stupas were empty of these relics and simply became symbols of the Buddha and the Buddhist ideology.
Second was the construction of the vihara, a Buddhist monastery that also contained a residence hall for
the monks.
Third was the chaitya, an assembly hall that contained a stupa (though one empty of relics). This
became an important feature for the monasteries that were cut into cliffs in central India. The central
hall of the chaitya was arranged to allow for circumambulation of the stupa.
 Chaitya at Karle near Lonavala, Maharashtra, first century B.C.E

The stupa is at the end of the nave (the main central aisle), as seen in the photo above. On either side of
the columns are side aisles to help people walk through the space—around to the stupa, and back out.
This is similar to the architecture of Early Christianity (for example, the side aisles at the Early Christian
Church in Rome, Santa Sabina, which help the flow of people who come to worship at the altar at the
end of the nave).

Buddhist Monasteries in India

In India, by the 1st century, many monasteries were founded as learning centres on sites already
associated with Buddha and Buddhism. These sites include Lumbini where the Buddha was born, Bodh
Gaya where he achieved enlightenment and the knowledge of the dharma (the Four Noble Truths),
Sarnath (Deer Park) where he preached his first sermon sharing the dharma, and Kushingara where he
died.

Great Stupa, Sanchi, India, 3rd century B.C.E. to first century C.E., photo: R Barraez D´Lucca (CC BY 2.0)

Ashoka: the first King to embrace Buddhism

Sites special to King Ashoka (304–232 B.C.E.), the first king (of northern India) to embrace Buddhism,
were also integral to the building of monasteries. For example, the complex at Sanchi, where the
original Great Stupa (Mahastupa) of Sanchi was created as a reliquary for the Buddha’s ashes after his
death, became the largest of many stupas that were created later when a monastery was built at the site.
Ashoka added one of his famous pillars at this location—pillars that not only proclaimed his acceptance
of Buddhism, but also served as instructional objects on Buddhist ideology.

An example of the monastic centre at Vaishali, one can still see the remains of one of several stupas, the Ashokan pillar and
the later addition of the monks’ cells and the administrative centre,
photo: Abhishek Singh

Between 120 BCE and 200 C.E. over 1000 viharas (a monastery with residence hall for the monks), and
chaityas (a stupa monument hall), were established along ancient and prosperous trade routes. The
monasteries required large living areas.

Plan of cave 1 at Ajanta

A vihara was a dwelling of one or two stories, fronted by a pillared veranda. The monks’ or nuns’ cells
were arranged around a central meeting hall as in the plan of the Ajanta vihara (left). Each cell
contained a stone bed, a pillow and a niche for a lamp.
The monastery quickly became important and had a three-fold purpose: as a residence for monks, as a
centre for religious work (on behalf of the laity) and as a centre for Buddhist learning. During Ashoka’s
reign in the 3rd century B.C.E., the Mahabodhi Temple (the Great Temple of Enlightenment where
Buddha achieved his knowledge of the dharma—the Four Noble Truths) was built in Bodh Gaya,
currently in the Indian state of Bihar in northern India. It contained a monastery and shrine. In order to
acknowledge the exact site where the Buddha attained Enlightenment, Ashoka built a diamond throne
(vajrasana - literally diamond seat) underscoring the indestructible path of the dharma.

Rock-cut caves
The rock-cut caves were established in the 3rd century B.C.E. in the western Deccan Plateau, which
makes up most of the southern portion of India. The earliest rock-cut monastic centres include the
Bhaja Caves, the Karle Caves and the Ajanta Caves.

Bhaja Caves, c. 3rd century B.C.E. to 2nd century B.C.E., photo: Andrea Kirkby. Twenty-two caves are located at the site.

The objects found in the caves suggest a profitable relationship existed between the monks and wealthy
traders. The Bhaja caves were located on a major trade route from the Arabian Sea eastward toward the
Deccan region linking north and south India. Merchants, wealthy from the trade between the Roman
Empire and southeast Asia, often sponsored architectural additions including pillars, arches, reliefs and
façades to the caves. Buddhist monks, serving as missionaries, often accompanied traders throughout
India, up into Nepal and Tibet, spreading the dharma as they travelled.

Bhaja

Chaitya (monastic monument hall) at Bhaja, India, 1st century B.C.E. (photo: Andrea Kirkby)
At Bhaja there are no representations of the Buddha other than the stupa since Bhaja was an active
monastery during the earliest phase of Buddhism, Hinayana (lesser vehicle), when no images of the
Buddha were created. In Hinayana, the memory of the historical Buddha and his teachings were still a
very real part of the practice. The Buddha himself did not encourage worship of him (something images
would encourage), but desired that the practitioner focus on the dharma (the law, the Four Noble
Truths).
The main chaitya hall (which contained a memorial stupa, empty of relics, above) at Bhaja contains a
solid stone stupa in the nave flanked by two side aisles. It is the earliest example of this type of rock-cut
cave and closely resembles the wooden structures that preceded it. The columns slope inwards, which
would have been necessary in the early wooden structures in the north of India in order to support the
outward thrust from the top of the vault. In similar stone caves, sometimes the columns are placed in
stone pots, which mimic the stone pots the wooden columns were positioned in, in order to thwart
termites. This is an example of a practical architectural practice being adopted as the standard.

Ajanta, cave 19 (Photo: Arian Zwegers)

Ajanta
At Ajanta, the earliest phase of construction also belongs to the Hinayana (lesser vehicle) phase of
Buddhism (in which no human image of the Buddha was created). The caves are very similar to those at
Bhaja. During the second phase of construction, Buddhism was in the Mahayana (greater vehicle) phase
and images of the Buddha, predominantly drawn from the jataka stories—the life stories of the
Buddha—were painted throughout. In Mahayana, which was more distant in time from the life of the
Buddha, there was a need for physical reminders of the Buddha and his teachings. Thus images of the
Buddha performing his Enlightenment and his first sermon (when he shared the Four Noble Truths with
the laity) proliferated. The paintings at Ajanta provide some of the earliest and finest examples of
Buddhist painting from the period. The images also provide documentation of contemporary events and
social custom under Gupta reign (320-550 C.E.).

Ajanta, Cave 19 (interior), photo: Kirk Kittell (CC BY-NC 2.0)

Rock-cut monasteries become more complex

Eventually, the rock-cut monasteries became quite complex. They consisted of several stories with inner
courtyards and veranda. Some facades had reliefs, images projecting from the stone, of the Buddha and
other deities. A stupa was still placed in the central hall, but now an image of the Buddha was carved
into it, underscoring that the Buddha is the stupa. Stories from the Buddha’s life were also, at times,
added to the interior in both paintings and reliefs.
The Historical Buddha
Text by Dr. Jennifer N. McIntire

A Human Endeavour
Among the founders of the world’s major religions, the Buddha was the only teacher who did not claim
to be other than an ordinary human being. Other teachers were either God or directly inspired by God.
The Buddha was simply a human being and he claimed no inspiration from any God or external power.
He attributed all his realization, attainments and achievements to human endeavour and human
intelligence. A man and only a man can become a Buddha. Every man has within himself the potential
of becoming a Buddha if he so wills it and works at it. Nevertheless, the Buddha was such a perfect
human that he came to be regarded in popular religion as super-human.
Man’s position, according to Buddhism, is supreme. Man is his own master and there is no higher being
or power that sits in judgment over his destiny. If the Buddha is to be called a “saviour” at all, it is only
in the sense that he discovered and showed the path to liberation, to Nirvana, the path we are invited to
follow ourselves.
It is with this principle of individual responsibility that the Buddha offers freedom to his disciples. This
freedom of thought is unique in the history of religion and is necessary because, according to the
Buddha, man’s emancipation depends on his own realization of Truth, and not on the benevolent grace
of a God or any external power as a reward for his obedient behaviour.

Life of the Buddha

The main events of the Buddha’s life are well known. He was born Siddhartha Gautama of the Shaka
clan. He is said to have had a miraculous birth, precocious childhood, and a princely upbringing. He
married and had a son.

Fasting Buddha Shakyamuni, 3rd-5th century Kushan period, Pakistan/ancient Gandhara (Metropolitan Museum of Art)

He encountered an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a religious ascetic. He became aware of
suffering and became convinced that his mission was to seek liberation for himself and others. He
renounced his princely life, spent six years studying doctrines and undergoing yogic austerities. He then
gave up ascetic practices for normal life. He spent seven weeks in the shade of a Bodhi tree until, finally,
one night toward dawn, enlightenment came. Then he preached sermons and embarked on missionary
travels for 45 years. He affected the lives of thousands—high and low. At the age of 80 he experienced
his parinirvana—extinction itself.
This is the most basic outline of his life and mission. The literature inspired by the Buddha’s story is as
various as those who have told it in the last 2500 years. To the first of his followers, and the tradition
associated with Theravada Buddhism and figures like the great Emperor Ashoka, the Buddha was a man,
not a God. He was a teacher, not a saviour. To this day the Theravada tradition prevails in parts of India,
Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Thailand.
To those who, a few hundred years later, formed the Mahayana School, Buddha was a saviour and
often a God—a God concerned with man’s sorrows above all else. The Mahayana form of Buddhism is
in Tibet, Mongolia, Vietnam, Korea, China, and Japan. The historical Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) is
also known as Shakyamuni.

The Buddha Shakyamuni

The Buddha Shakyamuni, 1700–1800. Mongolia. Gilt bronze. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum, Gift of Betty and Jack Bogart, 1994.131.

How do we recognize this figure as Shakyamuni Buddha?

This is the traditional representation of the Shakyamuni Buddha or the historical Buddha. The
statue shows the moment of his enlightenment at a place called Bodh Gaya in India, which has become
the most holy site visited by Buddhist pilgrims from all over the world. Representations of the Buddha
have several physical characteristics that help us identify him. He is seated in the lotus position of
meditation—legs crossed at the ankles with the soles upward—his back is completely straight, He wears
a simple, thin monk’s robe that covers his left shoulder and arm and exposes the right. At the top of his
head is a protuberance that is associated with his transcendent wisdom. His hair is shown as a mass of
compact curls. His earlobes are elongated.

Who was Shakyamuni Buddha?

Shakyamuni Buddha is the founder of the Buddhist religion. He lived and taught in India in the
sixth century B.C.E., a time of burgeoning religious and philosophical thought from Greece to China.
Born as the crown prince of the great Shakya Kingdom, the young Siddhartha Gautama was groomed to
be a king in accordance with the wishes of his royal father. However, when he was about 29 years
old, he learned of the deep suffering experienced in life by people. He left his palace life, gave up his
fine garments and jewellery in order to find the causes of this suffering and the means to overcome it.
After about six years of study, self-deprivation, and deep meditation he finally realized his goal. He had
become an enlightened one (a Buddha). After this, he is said to have walked to a deer park in Sarnath
(Benares) on the outskirts of Varanasi in India. Here he gave his first sermon, an event which is called
the turning of the wheel of Buddhist law (Dharmacakra). The wheel as a metaphor for Buddha’s
teaching will become a prevalent symbol in Buddhist art.

What does this statute “say”?

Buddhist figures communicate with hand and body gestures. Shakyamuni’s right hand reaches down to
touch the earth. This gesture represents the moment when he called the earth to witness
his transcendence of the realm of Mara, the supreme God of the world (samsara), who had tried to
distract him from his meditation. In response, the earth trembled and shook to acknowledge
Shakyamuni’s attainment of Buddhahood. Shakyamuni’s left hand rests in his lap in the gesture of
meditation, and holds his alms bowl.

How was this sculpture used?

This style is very similar to what would be found in Tibet as it was taught to Mongolian artists by
Tibetan artists, and follows the strict and detailed standards of traditional Tibetan Buddhist iconography.
Tibetan sacred art always serves a religious function. This sculpture, like most Tibetan art, may be
used in meditation as an aid to visualize one’s own enlightenment, as well as that of all other beings.
The sacred sculpture gives the practitioner direct access to the Buddha once it is ritually empowered as
an embodiment of the Buddha. It may then receive the obeisance, offerings, confessions and prayers
of every variety from the practitioner. These sacred images are invited to take a place of honour on
a Buddhist altar, whether at home or in a monastery. There they become a focal point for
meditation and ritual.

Who was the artist, Zanabazar?

Zanabazar (1635–1723) was an important religious leader and a famous artist from Mongolia who was
a descendent of Chinggis (Gengis) Khan, the great Mongol conqueror. He was Central Asia’s version
of the “Renaissance Man.” He was a linguist (he invented a new Mongolian script), politician,
theologian, architect, sculptor, and painter. Histories about him abound with miraculous feats, but there
is no question of his artistic magic, which was recognized by Mongolians, Tibetans, and the
Manchurian court in China. Although it is difficult to know which works he created, this piece is similar
in style to other known works by Zanabazar. His students and their descendants followed his way of
modelling and producing this style of sacred art, which has become known as the Zanabazar School.
Images of Enlightenment: Aniconic vs.
Iconic Depictions of the Buddha
in India
by Cristin McKnight Sethi

Sculptural fragment depicting a stupa and devotees, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, India, Sunga period, c. 100-80 B.C.E.,
reddish brown sandstone (Smithsonian, Freer Gallery of Art)

Depicting the divine

Representing divine figures has long been a thorny issue. After all, depicting the divine in human form
would seem to define and limit the divine in a manner which seems to contradict the idea of God as
infinite and all-powerful. There’s also the fourth commandment, as offered in the Hebrew Bible, which
reads:
Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above,
or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. (Exodus 20:1-17)
While this commandment has been interpreted in various ways, Judaism and Islam both prohibit the
representation of God and other divine figures in human form. Christianity has long relied on images of
God, Christ, and the saints as a way of educating the public, but even so, at several points in history,
images of divine figures were destroyed—often violently (the destruction of images is called
“iconoclasm”). The earliest images of the Buddha also appear to avoid depicting him in human form,
though scholars are still debating why this is the case.
Buddha, enlightenment and the Bodhi tree
The man who became known as the Buddha was a Hindu prince, named Siddhartha Gautama, who
was born in the 5th or 6th century B.C.E. to a royal family —the leaders of the Shakya clan— living in
what is now Nepal. When he was about 29 years old, Prince Siddhartha (who was also known as
Shakyamuni) travelled outside of his sheltered palace and encountered an old man, a sick man, and a
corpse —figures that, for the prince, epitomized the pain and suffering of the world. He also
encountered an ascetic, someone who has chosen to abstain from the pleasures of life in order to
pursue spiritual knowledge. After this experience, Prince Siddhartha decided to renounce his luxurious,
royal life and to travel around the countryside as an ascetic, meditating and studying. Ultimately, Prince
Siddhartha was seeking an end to worldly pain and suffering, and a release from the cycle of rebirth and
death (samsara) that characterizes Hindu concepts of time.
One of the most important moments in the story of Prince Siddhartha is when he reached spiritual
enlightenment —a state of infinite knowledge— and became known as the Buddha or “the enlightened
one.” This occurred about six years after the prince renounced his royal life, while he was meditating
underneath a fig tree outside a small village in the present-day state of Bihar, India. The fig tree under
which the Buddha reached enlightenment became known as the Bodhi (“awakened” or “enlightened”)
tree, and the place where the Buddha sat became an important tirtha or sacred place known as Bodh
Gaya (“awakened” or “enlightened” place).

Detail, Enlightenment face of Prasenajit pillar, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, India, Sunga period, c. 100-80 B.C.E.
reddish brown sandstone (Indian Museum, Kolkata) (photo: Anandajoti Bhikkhu, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Some of the earliest depictions of the Buddha reaching enlightenment appear as sculptural friezes on
the exterior of sacred Buddhist monuments known as stupas, which Buddhist monks and nuns built as
part of their monastic complexes.
One such depiction is originally from the stupa at Bharhut in the present-day state of Madhya Pradesh,
India (left). Carved in reddish-brown sandstone sometime around 80-100 B.C.E. this depiction appears
on a railing (vedika) pillar that once surrounded the main stupa. The scene shows several figures
kneeling and standing on an architectural form that encircles a large tree.

The place of enlightenment or the moment of enlightenment?

An inscription that accompanies this scene, carved into the roof of the architectural form, identifies it as
“the Bodhi tree of holy Shakyamuni” which has led some scholars to interpret this depiction as the
location, or the tirtha, where the Buddha’s enlightenment took place—the tree under which Prince
Siddhartha reached enlightenment and the temple that devotees later constructed at this sacred site.
Some of the figures in the scene appear kneeling in prayer in front of an altar at the base of the tree.
Celestial beings fly near the top of the tree, and appear to toss flower garlands on the branches. Their
presence reinforces the sacrality of the site.
On the right side of the relief, we see a pillar topped with an elephant capital, which, scholars argue,
supports the interpretation of this scene as the site of enlightenment. This pillar recalls those constructed
by Emperor Ashoka—one of the first Buddhist rulers in India—who erected pillars with animal capitals
at important sites of the Buddha’s life (below, left).
In this interpretation, the Bharhut scene could be a depiction of pilgrimage—the kneeling devotees
could be Buddhist practitioners travelling to Bodh Gaya as part of religious devotion, to visit the site
where the Buddha reached enlightenment hundreds of years before.
However, some scholars argue that it is not simply the location (tirtha) of the Buddha’s enlightenment
depicted in this scene, but rather the actual moment of enlightenment itself—complete with an aniconic,
symbolic representation of the Buddha (aniconic here refers to the symbolic representation of a divine
or supernatural figure as opposed to representation in human form).
In this interpretation of the scene on the pillar from Bharhut, the Buddha appears not in human form—
but rather symbolically, represented by the altar. What we are seeing here is a representation of the
Buddha’s formless state upon reaching spiritual enlightenment. In fact, some believe the inscription
translates as “enlightenment of the Holy One Shakyamuni” rather than the “Bodhi tree of holy
Shakyamuni”—a reading that supports the interpretation of this scene as a depiction of the event of
enlightenment not simply the place where enlightenment happened.

Other aniconic images of the Buddha

Story of Serpent King Erapata, with Erapata worshipping empty throne, on Prasenajit pillar, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh,
India, Sunga period, c. 100-80 B.C.E., reddish brown sandstone (Indian Museum, Kolkata) (photo: Anandajoti Bhikkhu, CC
BY-SA 3.0).

Along the same lines, scholars argue that other sculptural friezes at important early Buddhist stupas like
Bharhut depict scenes from the life of the Buddha, with the Buddha represented in aniconic form—as
an empty throne (above), a wheel signifying the Buddha’s creation of the Wheel of Law or Dharma
(below, right), or footsteps (below, left), and sometimes even as a stupa (see the image at the top of this
page). A third way to interpret the enlightenment scene from the Bharhut stupa and other so-called
aniconic depictions of the Buddha is to read them as depictions of Buddhist doctrine or belief.

Left: Descent on Ajatachatru pillar, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, India. Sunga period, c. 100-80 B.C.E., reddish brown
sandstone and right: Wheel of Law on Prasenajit pillar, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, India, Sunga period, c. 100-80
B.C.E., reddish brown sandstone (both, Indian Museum, Kolkata) (photo: Anandajoti Bhikkhu, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Imagining the Buddha’s corporeal body

This trend of depicting the Buddha in aniconic form continues until after the turn of the 1st century C.E.
with the development of Mahayana Buddhism when we begin to see a large number of images of the
Buddha in human or anthropomorphic form (below). These new, iconic images of the Buddha were
particularly popular in the region of Gandhara (in present-day Pakistan) during the Kushana period and
include depictions of the Buddha’s enlightenment at Bodh Gaya (below). These anthropomorphic
images usher in a new phase of Buddhist art in which artists convey meaning through the depiction of
special bodily marks (lakshanas) and hand gestures (mudras) of the Buddha. In this anthropomorphic
image of the Buddha’s enlightenment, the artist depicts Prince Siddhartha seated on a throne,
surrounded by the demon Mara and his army, who attempted —unsuccessfully— to thwart Prince
Siddhartha’s attainment of enlightenment. At the moment of enlightenment, the prince reaches his right
hand towards the ground in a gesture (or mudra, and specifically the bhumisparshamudra) ) of calling
the earth to witness his spiritual awakening. In doing so he becomes the Buddha.
 Sculptural fragment depicting Buddha’s enlightenment, Gandhara, Kushana period, 2nd-3rd century C.E., schist,
(Smithsonian, Freer Gallery of Art).

Conception of the Buddha-to-be in

Queen Maya’s dream

The Conception of the Buddha-to-be in Queen Maya’s dream, approx. 100–300. Pakistan; ancient region of Gandhara.
Phyllite. The Avery Brundage Collection, B64S5

Who is depicted here?

This relief scene from around 100 to 300 depicts the dream of Maya, the mother of the historical
Buddha. Queen Maya is asleep in her palace under a full moon. An attendant stands guard outside. In
her dream, a white elephant enters her side. This is a miraculous conception that results in the birth of
the future Buddha. This scene, along with others from the life of the Buddha, would have been
recognizable to viewers at the time it was made, as the scenes from the life of Christ on the walls of a
cathedral would have been familiar to medieval European viewers.

Detail: The Conception of the Buddha-to-be in Queen Maya’s dream, approx. 100–300. Pakistan; ancient region of
Gandhara. Phyllite. The Avery Brundage Collection, B64S5

What other scenes from the life of the Buddha are important?
Several scenes from the life of the Buddha are shown together in the galleries at the Asian Art Museum.
There are scenes of the Buddha’s birth in the Lumbini gardens, his departure from the palace at night
(symbolizing the renouncement of his princely life), his defeat of Mara at the time of his enlightenment,
his sermon at the Deer Park in Sarnath, and his death surrounded by his disciples, and subsequent
attainment of Nirvana. In some works of art, you can see many of these scenes surrounding a central
image of the Buddha.

What was the function of these objects?

Fragments that are sculpted on one side like this are called friezes. They would have decorated the wall
of a Buddhist monument or monastic building, at the foot of a pedestal or along a stair riser. These
images told a story to worshipers, essentially reminding them of key moments in the life of the Buddha.
They reinforced concepts in visual form for a largely illiterate population.

What is the style of this piece and where did it come from?
It is likely that this piece came from the region of Gandhara, part of the Kushan empire. The Kushana
rulers had migrated from central Asia, and ruled parts of central Asia and northern India. This area was
a crossroads of trade and cultures. It was during this time that the first images of the Buddha and related
figures appear in large numbers. The figural style, attention to anatomy, and interest in drapery
revealing forms of the body recall Hellenistic sculpture. Centuries of trade and the exchange of artistic
ideas resulted in a unique aesthetic that fused influences from the Indian, Greek, and West Asian worlds.
 How to identify a Buddha

Seated Buddha, 338. Gilded bronze. China. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum, The Avery Brundage Collection, B60B1034.

Overview
The earliest surviving representations of the Buddha date from hundreds of years after his death, so they
are not portraits in the usual sense. Buddha images vary greatly from place to place and period to
period, but they almost always show these conventional features:
• Symbols of radiance. Among these may be a halo around the head or whole body, a flame at
the top of the head, or a gold-covered surface.
• Superhuman physical characteristics such as very large size, a lump on the top of the head
sometimes said to indicate extraordinary wisdom, fingers all the same length, or special markings on the
palms and on the soles of the feet.
• Long earlobes, stretched during the years when the Buddha-to-be, as a prince, wore heavy
earrings.
• Monk’s robes. Monks wore a sarong-like lower garment and one or two upper garments, each
made of a sheet of cloth wrapped around the upper body, sometimes leaving the right shoulder bare.

Special positions and gestures

The most common position is seated with the legs crossed or interlocked. Common hand positions are:
• right hand over right knee (symbolizing the Buddha’s calling the Earth as a witness during his
victory over negative forces)
• right hand held up with palm out (symbolizing giving reassurance)
• hands held at chest with fingers turning invisible wheel (symbolizing setting in motion the
“wheel of the doctrine”—that is, preaching)

Development of the Buddha image

Architectural element showing the Buddha’s first sermon, approx. 200–400. Pakistan, former kingdom of Gandhara. Phyllite.
Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum, The Avery Brundage Collection, B60S138+.

There is significant debate concerning the development of the Buddha image—where it first occurred,
why, and when. Broadly speaking, the image of the Buddha emerged during the first few centuries C.E.
in two major centres of Indian art during the Kushana period. One centre of artistic production was the
ancient region of Gandhara, an area that includes north-western India as well as parts of present-day
Pakistan and Afghanistan. Gandharan images have a style that is reminiscent of Hellenistic sculpture,
and artists in the region were certainly influenced by the presence of Hellenistic colonies, and the large-
scale trade and exchange that occurred in this cultural crossroads.
A second area of artistic production is associated with Mathura, a city that still stands to the south of
Delhi. Here, artists developed a style that can be characterized as more indigenous, less concerned
with naturalistic realism in the human form, and more with the symbolic qualities of the spiritual figure.
Mathura artists created other kinds of religious imagery as well. It is probable that Buddhist imagery was
influenced by the development of Hindu and Jain figures, and that various communities were
developing images of devotional figures simultaneously.
A very significant gap of several centuries exists between the lifetime of the historical Buddha, and the
creation of the first surviving images of the Buddha in stone or any other medium. The first surviving
Buddhist art in stone was actually created prior to images of the Buddha himself. During the Maurya
period, in the reign of emperor Ashoka (272–231 B.C.E.), significant monuments and other artworks in
stone were commissioned, apparently for the first time. Although stone sculpture, such as large columns
surmounted by images of lions and wheels, expressed Buddhist symbolism and motifs, there are no
Buddha images from this period. Many scholars have speculated that an aniconic (without idols) period
existed in Buddhist art, where there was a prohibition against depicting the actual Buddha, and various
symbols substituted for an explicit anthropomorphic representation. Some scholars have interpreted
narrative reliefs at early Buddhist monuments to illustrate early Buddhist processions or festivals, where
aniconic symbols, rather than anthropomorphic symbols, represented the Buddha.
Not all scholars accept these theories, however. It seems likely that various kinds of religious imagery,
in the Buddhist, Hindu, and other contexts, were created in ephemeral materials before being created in
stone. Indeed the great sophistication and high level of sculptural expertise expressed in Maurya stone
sculpture implies that the sculptural tradition was already highly developed by this time. The imperial
might and Buddhist inclinations of the emperor Ashoka may have been the first great instigators of a
transition to large-scale stone sculpture in India. More than three hundred years later, in the Kushana
era, a strong imperial ruler bringing various outside artistic and stylistic influences to the realm, seems
to have contributed to further artistic developments and a hitherto unseen profusion of sculpture created
in stone.
We are not entirely sure how all Buddhist figures were used in ritual and worship. Buddhist images and
sculptures originally adorned the complexes of stupas (sacred mounds containing relics) as well as
monastic structures. Early Buddhist sites also incorporated indigenous imagery such as loving couples
and fertility figures. Caves were hewn from rock in parts of India, creating spaces for worship rituals and
community meetings, as well as monastic dwelling quarters. These rock-cut cave complexes became
increasingly elaborate in terms of imagery and iconography, which was created in painting as well as
carved from stone in situ. Laypersons contributed to small- and large-scale constructions as a means of
acquiring merit. Votive images also developed for private use, and as souvenirs for pilgrims to sacred
sites.
The figure of the Buddha and attendant bodhisattvas, and other divine and semi-divine beings, became
the objects of devotion themselves. As these divine personages expanded in number and complexity,
they required larger stupa and temple structures to house them. Over time, the proliferation of great
numbers of Buddhist images, in some cases explicitly created through mass production techniques,
reflected beliefs in the meritorious repetition of various names and phrases.
In Buddhist art, the image of the historical Buddha is often labelled “Shakyamuni” (sage of the Shakya
clan). This distinguishes the image of the historical Buddha, the Buddha who lived on earth during this
present period, from past, future, or cosmic buddhas, bodhisattvas, or other divine beings.
The Buddha triumphing over Mara

The Buddha triumphing over Mara, 900–1000. India; probably Kurkihar, Bihar state. Stone. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum,
The Avery Brundage Collection, B60S598.

Who is depicted here?

This is an image of the historical Buddha. We can tell it is the Buddha because of the many
distinguishing marks (lakshana) visible in the sculpture. He has a cranial bump on his head (ushnisha), a
tuft of hair between his eyes (urna), and the sign of the wheel (chakra) on his hands and soles of his feet.
This wheel signifies the teaching of the Buddha, as well as his righteousness as a leader. He is dressed
in a monk’s robe, typically with one shoulder bare. He is seated on a lion throne. Above his head are
branches of the bodhi tree, a reference to Bodh Gaya where the Buddha sat under the bodhi tree and
achieved enlightenment.

What was the Buddha’s enlightenment?

The Buddha sought answers to the problems of suffering and the continual cycle of birth, death and
rebirth which he witnessed all around him. He rejected the path of complete self-denial (asceticism),
and also rejected the comforts and indulgences of his former life as a prince. He resolved to sit under
the bodhi tree and meditate on these issues until the answer to these problems became clear. His
revelation has been called the Four Noble Truths, a summation of the cause of human suffering, and the
possibility and pathway to enlightenment for all beings.

Who tempted the Buddha?

In the course of his meditations, the Buddha was tempted by the demon Mara. Mara sent his armies,
various temptations, and finally (as depicted here) a challenge that the Buddha must defend his claim of
enlightenment. The Buddha touched the earth, and called the earth to witness his achievement. This
“touching the earth” is seen as a significant gesture (mudra) in this sculpture. This iconography of the
Buddha became very popular throughout Asia.
Mara can also be understood not only as a figure in a story, but also as a representation of inner
temptations—mainly one’s ego—that obstruct the path to enlightenment. Therefore, overcoming Mara
is equivalent to overcoming the self.

When was this made and how was this used?

Based on an analysis of the style, medium and subject, this sculpture is dated to around the 800s C.E.
and comes from eastern India. At that time, Pala dynasty rulers were generous supporters of the
Buddhist religion, and many famous monasteries and universities existed in what is now the state of
Bihar.
Unfortunately, most of these buildings are now in ruins, as Buddhism succumbed to Muslim incursions
and seriously declined around the 1100s C.E. This sculpture was probably placed in a niche in a temple
made of brick. We believe from the inscription on the base that the tiny figure on the lower right
represents the donor. Typical of the Pala style is the tendency for the central figure to stand out against a
very decorative background. The dark schist gives the statue a dramatic, crisp appearance.

Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara

Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, 900-1000. Nalanda, Bihar state, India. Stone. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum, The Avery Brundage Collection, B63S44+.
Compassionate and merciful
This is an image of the compassionate and merciful bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. Bodhisattvas are
enlightened beings who are destined to become buddhas but postpone that final state in order to help
humanity. The name Avalokiteshvara means “Lord who looks down with compassion.” Avalokiteshvara
is shown here sitting on a lion throne and arrayed in jewels like a prince. Above his head is a parasol,
an ancient symbol of royal status. Beside his head are lotus-borne stupas, topped with sun and crescent
moons. Avalokiteshvara’s right hand is in the gesture of gift granting, and in his left hand he holds a
long-stemmed lotus. In his elaborate hair dress is an image of the Buddha Amitabha. (Amitabha presides
over the western Pure Land, a kind of Buddhist paradise. The worship of Amitabha became very
popular in East Asian Buddhism).

Detail, Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, c. 900-1000. Nalanda, Bihar state, India. Stone. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum,
The Avery Brundage Collection, B63S44+

Who are the smaller figures?

At Avalokiteshvara’s left knee crouches his protective attendant who holds a thunderbolt, or vajra. This
figure can also appear in Hindu art as a minor incarnation of Vishnu. He typically has a fat body,
dishevelled hair and bulging eyes. In this context, an angry appearance can be a form of protection,
rather than evil. The thunderbolt is often seen in tantric Buddhist art (sometimes called “Vajrayana”
Buddhism). It alludes to the indivisible, impenetrable nature of enlightenment.
At the base of the sculpture a needle-nosed starving ghost kneels drinking nectar dripping from
Avalokiteshvara’s gift-granting hand. A hungry ghost is one who suffers insatiable appetites, resulting
from accumulated greed in previous lives. His presence confirms the compassionate nature of the
bodhisattva.
 Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, c. 900-1000. Nalanda, Bihar state, India. Stone. Courtesy of the Asian Art Museum, The
Avery Brundage Collection, B63S44+

Near the middle of the base, a monk holds the stem of the lotus on which the deity rests his foot.
Behind this monk, another monk and a layperson (perhaps a woman) sit in worshipful postures. They
could be the donors of the sculpture.

The inscription
The base of this sculpture is inscribed with the “Buddhist creed,” a saying commonly inscribed on
Buddhist artworks. The creed can be translated as:

The Buddha has explained the cause of all things that arise from a cause. 
He, the great monk, has also explained their cessation.
 
Bodhisattva Maitreya

The Bodhisattva Maitreya, 100–300. Pakistan; ancient region of Gandhara. Schist.

The Avery Brundage Collection, B60S597

Who is depicted here?

This statue depicts the bodhisattva Maitreya. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who postpone their
own salvation in order to help all sentient beings. The bodhisattva is an ideal type, not a depiction of an
historical person like the Buddha. Bodhisattvas have some of the characteristics of Christian saints. They
are compassionate figures who help worshipers. Unlike saints, however, they are not associated with
historical persons, hagiographies, or martyrdom.
There are many bodhisattvas. Maitreya is the Buddha of the future, who will be born to teach
enlightenment in the next age. According to Mahayana teachings, a Buddha is first born as a
bodhisattva, and then after many lifetimes, progresses on to Buddhahood. The historical Buddha was
himself referred to as a bodhisattva before becoming the Buddha. Another common bodhisattva to
appear in Buddhist art is Avalokiteshvara, who is known by different names in different parts of the
Buddhist world (for example, Guanyin in China and Kannon in Japan).

How do we know where this figure came from?

Bodhisattvas tend, as a whole, to be more richly attired than figures of buddhas. Where many Buddha
figures (except crowned buddhas) have only a simple monk’s robe draped over one shoulder,
bodhisattvas are adorned with flowing robes, bracelets, necklaces and threads containing amulet boxes,
elaborate hairdos, and sometimes a moustache. Bodhisattvas are often represented as princely figures,
alluding to the historical Buddha’s life as a prince before he renounced his kingdom, and distinguishing
them from the Buddha who is attired as a mendicant monk. The bodhisattva Maitreya is identified here
by the small flask he holds in his left hand, filled with a liquid of immortality.
The sculpture comes from the region of Gandhara. The schist stone allows for detailed carving,
especially in the deeply carved lines of the drapery, the hairdo, and jewellery. Gandharan sculpture is
reminiscent of Hellenistic sculptures in the naturalistic attention to anatomical details. There are also
direct references to Greco-Roman imagery, for example, in the centaurs holding the central amulet on
the main necklace. A centaur is a classical mythological animal that is half-human, half horse. The
bodhisattva figure is carved realistically, with enough attention to detail to make one suspect that local
princes in the area probably were adorned this way. By combining local styles and characteristics with
messages having universal appeal, Buddhist art effectively helped spread the faith into central Asia and
beyond.

When did bodhisattvas emerge in Buddhist art?

We do not know for sure when the first Buddhist image was created, but historical evidence provides
examples of Buddha images within several centuries of his lifetime (approximately 560–480 B.C.E). The
earliest Buddhist imagery was probably created in ephemeral materials. By the first century C.E., we
find Buddhist images and stone in the North Indian centre of Mathura, and in the north-western region
of Gandhara.
This sculpture dates from about 100-300 C.E. Sculpted images of the Buddha and of bodhisattva figures
are prolific in this period. The concept of the bodhisattva is, in philosophical terms, associated with the
rise of Mahayana, a branch of Buddhism that offered the possibility of Buddhahood to everyone. Other
branches of Buddhism presented a more arduous path to Buddhahood through the monastic order, with
less hope of individual salvation. In the Mahayana path, having compassionate figures to work on
behalf of the worshipers’ spiritual goals served to make the faith more accessible to larger numbers of
people.