Introductory To Ethiopian History

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Table of Contents
Contents Pages
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………………... i
Lists of Maps and Figures ........................................................................................................................................iv
Abbrevations ............................................................................................................................................................ v
Preface.................................................................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Meaning and Essence of History.................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Sources ........................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Historiography ............................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Periodization .................................................................................................................................................. 9
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................................ 10
GENERAL BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................ 10
2.1 Geographical and Historical context ............................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Human Evolutions........................................................................................................................................ 11
2.3 Stone Age ..................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Peoples and languages.................................................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER THREE................................................................................................................................................ 16
ANCIENT STATES TO 1270 ............................................................................................................................... 16
3.1 The Pre -Aksumite States ............................................................................................................................. 16
3.2 The Aksumite Empire .................................................................................................................................. 16
3.3 The Zagwe Dynasty, 1150-1270 .................................................................................................................. 20
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................................... 22
MEDIEVAL STATES, 1270- 1529 ....................................................................................................................... 22
4.1 The Restoration of the “Solomonic” Dynasty .............................................................................................. 22
4.2 Muslim sultanates ........................................................................................................................................ 24
4.3 The Omotic States ........................................................................................................................................ 27
4.4 Christian Dominance over the Muslim Sultanates ....................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER FIVE................................................................................................................................................. 32
MAJOR EVENTS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY ........................................................................................ 32
An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

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5.1 The Portuguese and Ottoman Turkish Rivalries .......................................................................................... 32

5.2 Muslim and Christian Conflict ..................................................................................................................... 33
5.3 The Oromo Population Movement............................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................................................... 37
PERIOD OF CONSOLIDATION VERSUS INSTABILITY, 1543-1855 ............................................................ 37
6.1 The Shift of the Political Centre of the Christian States .............................................................................. 37
6.2 The Introduction of Catholicism .................................................................................................................. 37
6.3 The Gondaraine Period, 1636-1769 ............................................................................................................. 39
6.4 The Period of Zemen Mesafent, 1769-1855 ................................................................................................. 40
CHAPTER SEVEN............................................................................................................................................. 44
PEOPLES AND STATES IN SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ................ 44
7.1 The Omotic States ........................................................................................................................................ 44
7.2The Oromo Monarchies ................................................................................................................................ 45
7.3 The Emirates of Harar .................................................................................................................................. 47
7.4 The Sheikdoms of Ethio- Sudanese border lands......................................................................................... 47
7.5 The Shewan Kingdom .................................................................................................................................. 48
7.6 The Long Distance Trade Routes ................................................................................................................. 48
CHAPTER EIGHT ............................................................................................................................................. 51
THE MAKING OF MODERN ETHIOPIA, 1855-1900. ...................................................................................... 51
8.1The reign of Tewodros II (1855-1868) ......................................................................................................... 51
8.2The Reign of Yohannes (1872-1889) ............................................................................................................ 53
8.3 Imperial Expansion to the South, South West and South East..................................................................... 54
8.4 Resistance against Egyptian aggression ....................................................................................................... 55
8.5 Resistance against the Mehadist Sudan........................................................................................................ 57
8.6 Italian aggression against Ethiopia............................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER NINE ................................................................................................................................................ 62
THE ETHIOPIAN EMPIRE, 1900-1935 ............................................................................................................... 62
9.1 Socio Economic Conditions ......................................................................................................................... 62
9.2 Internal Power struggle and foreign Threats ................................................................................................ 66
9.3 The Diarchy, 1916-1930 .............................................................................................................................. 69
CHAPTER TEN.................................................................................................................................................. 71
THE ITALIAN OCCUPATIONS, 1935-1941 ...................................................................................................... 71

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10.1 Historical Background ............................................................................................................................... 71

10.2 The war ...................................................................................................................................................... 72
10.3 Italian Administrations ............................................................................................................................... 73
10.4 The Patriotic Resistance ............................................................................................................................. 74
10.5 The War of Liberation................................................................................................................................ 76
CHAPTER ELEVEN .......................................................................................................................................... 77
FROM LIBERATION TO REVOLUTION, 1941-1974 ..................................................................................... 77
11.1 The Consolidation of Autocratic Power ..................................................................................................... 77
11.2 The British decade ..................................................................................................................................... 79
11.3 The American Era ...................................................................................................................................... 80
11.4 Land Tenure System .................................................................................................................................. 81
11.5 Trade and Industry ..................................................................................................................................... 81
11.6 The Eritrean Politics................................................................................................................................... 82
11.7 Aristocratic Oppositions ............................................................................................................................ 83
11.8 The Ethio- Somalia Conflict ...................................................................................................................... 89
11.9 The 1974 Revolution .................................................................................................................................. 89
CHAPTER TWELVE ............................................................................................................................................ 91
THE MILITARY RULE, 1974-1991 ..................................................................................................................... 91
12.1The Derg and its Measures ......................................................................................................................... 91
12.2 The Derg and its Opponents ...................................................................................................................... 92
12.3 The Final Collapse ..................................................................................................................................... 94
CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................................... 94
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................................... 97

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Lists of Maps and Figures

Map-1: Reelief map of Ethiopia………………………………………………………………………...12
Map-2: Lingustic map of Ethiopia……………………………………………………………………...15
Map-3: Major trade routes of the medieval period……………………………………………………...29
Map-4: Ethiopia in the Nineteenth Century…………………………………………………………….46
Map-5: Long distance trade routes of the nineteenth century………………………………………….49
Figure-1: Emperor Tewodros’s Sebastopol…………………………………………………………….52
Map-6: Major battle fields in the nineteenth century…………………………………………………...59
Figure-2: Hakim Workneh Eshete (Dr.Charles Martin)………………………………………………..66
Map-7: Ethiopia in 1974………………………………………………………………………………..78
Figure-3: Brigader General Mengistu Neway (Left) and his brother, Mengistu Neway………………86

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Abbrevations
AAU Addis Ababa University
BC Before Christ
BMME British Military Mission to Ethiopia
BP Before the Present
CADU Chlilalo Agricultural Development Unit
COPWE Commission for Organizing the Workers party of Ethiopia
EAL Ethiopian Air Lines
EDORM Ethiopian Democratic Officers Revolutionary Movement
EDU Ethiopian Democratic Union
ELF Eritrean Liberation Force
ELM Eritrean Liberation Movement
EPDM Ethiopian Peoples Democratic Movement
EPLF Eritrean People Liberation Front
EPRA Ethiopian People Revolutionary Army
EPRP Ethiopian People Revolutionary Party
ESUE Ethiopian Students Union in Europe
ESUNA Ethiopian Students Union in North America
EDORM Ethiopian Democratic Officers Revoutionary Movement
HSIU Hayle- Sellase I University

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IBG Imperial Body Guard
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
IEA Institute of Ethiopian Archaeology
IES Institute of Ethiopian Studies
MA Masters of Arts
MAAG Military Assistance Advisory Group
MEISON Melaw Ityopya Socialst Niqnaqe
MLRA Ministry of Land Reform and Administration
MSc Masters of Science
OETA Occupied Enemy Territory Administrations
OLF Oromo Liberation Front
OPDO Oromo Peoples Democratic Organizations
PA Peasant Associations
PDRE Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
PhD Doctors of Phylosophy
PMAC Provisional Military Administrative Council
REWA Revolutionary Ethiopian Women Association
REYA Revolutionary Ethiopian Youth Association
TPLF Tigrean Peoples Liberation Front
TWA Transcontinental and Western Airlines
UN United Nation

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UNESCO United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USA United States of America
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republic
WADU Wolayta Agricultural Development Unit
WPE Workers Party of Ethiopia

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Preface
When I taught History for several years, I decided to produce Ethiopian History courses in a single
volume. The writing was started in 2014/15 academic year. However, there was continuous revision
and improvement of the material each year. When I exposed my self for reading, I was able to obtain
many reference materials from Belay Zeleke Preparatoy School Library to reconstruct the ancient and
medieval Ethiopian History. In 2019, I included the History of Modern Ethiopia in this booklet. Then,
its title has been changed into An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn.
This Booklet is written for social science students who are going to take History in the National
Examinations. Alike it is useful for those pupils who attended to take History as the freshman course at
higher education. Furthermore, it is also recommended for general readers who sought to know their
country’s past. It treats the history of the Ethiopian region and the horn until 1990s. It thoroughly states
historical themes starting from the evolution of human beings upto the last decade of the twentieth
century. Indeed, I hope this booklet would develop readers understanding of their country’s past.
In preparing the material, both thematic and chronological approaches are used. Critical questions are
prepared to motivate students’reading. Sets of maps and figures are provided within the text to easily
understand those historical themes under study. The full names of acronyms used in the text are also
fully stated. Students who failed to know the full name of abbervations may go to acronyms and they
are obliged to see what it refers to. Furthermore, a number of source materials are provided to
substantiate the subject matter with authentic sources. Lists of reference materials are available at the
end of this booklet.Readers are advised to go to the reference part and consolidate their knowledge.
However, I strongly remind readers that this material is by no means complete and accurate. Further
endeavour is required to refine it. I am, therefore, without a doubt, ready to accept constructive
comments and suggestions for improvement.
ALEMU DEJENIE
SEPTEMBER, 2019

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Meaning and Essence of History
What is History? What makes History unique from other desciplines?
History is the body of knowledge that mainly deals with the interaction of man and his natural
environment through the passage of time (Bahru, 1998:1). Human past can be divided into prehistoric
and historic periods. The former is the time before man started the art of writing. Pre historic events can
be reconstructed by using the science of archaeology by examining material remains. On the other hand,
historic events can be studies on the basis of written records. The writing of historical studies went back
to the fifth century BC. It was written by Herodotus who often regarded as the father of history. Shortly
after him, Thucydides reconstructed the Pelepollensian war fought between Athens and Sparta. Homer who
often regarded as the father of oral history wrote the history of ancient Greece based on oral tradition. The
Chinese too, had attempted similar fashion of writing history during the Hun dynasty. However, history as
an academic discipline was started in the nineteenth century in Germany. Leopold Von Ranke was the
father of Modern Historiography. In its approach, history is both an art and a science. It is an art because
it has its own writing techniques. At the same time, it is also a science because it is written based on
genuine and authentic sources by using empirical evidences.
1.2 Sources
What are sources of History? What was the major criterion to divide sources into primary and
secondary? What is the difference between history and story?
Sources are the key elements for writing and studying history. They are the basis of statements and
judgments that historians make about the past. They form the reliable bridge between the historian and
the past. Based on their immediacy to the event both in time and space, sources can be divided into
primary and secondary sources.
Primary sources are original materials. They have immediacy to the event both in time and space. They
are more reliable and authentic sources of history. Their proximity to the event makes them original.
They are obtained in two ways: for ancient events through archaeological excavations and for recent
events from archives and libraries.
Examples of primary sources include inscriptions, coins, monuments, ruins of buildings, temples,
private houses and different types of arte facts and fossils.

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Letters and decrees are archival documents found in government and private organizations which are
systematically arranged in their archival centre. Through the passage of time and change of the
government, however, they became dead files and might not have been available in office. The major
problem associated with archives is that lack of archival centres and destruction by war, fire, rat and
rain.
Archives are found both in Ethiopia and abroad. In Ethiopia, they are available in governmental and
nongovernmental organizations, in the churches and monasteries, in the hands of individuals and in the
museums and libraries. Archives abroad are available in France, Britain, India, Germany, Italy and USA
and other European countries (Rubenson, 1976).
Chronicles are the most important sources of Ethiopian history. Their writing went back to the
fourteenth century. It was Emperor Amade- Seyon (r.1314-44) who organized his servants to deal the
broad-spectrum history of his reign. The writers were majestic scribes who wrote the chronicle of the
Emperor with the command of his principals. The writers were in a position to note down what was
dictated by the Emperor or by his agents. They exaggerated the good deeds of the Emperor and ignored
his weak sides. They described the army of the Emperor by saying “it was as large as the sand of the
sea” or “as the stars of the sky”. Since they were the servants of the Emperor, they respectd his
principles and they were under his strict control.
Despite their valuable importance to reconstruct Ethiopian Historiography, chronicles face a serious of
problems. They failed to quantify figures: giving exact figures of the historical happening and problem
of dating. They used evangelists John, Mark, Mathew and Luke to reconstruct the past. Moreover, they
faced strong Biblical environment and gave super natural explanation for everything to happen.
Since the fourteenth century, there was more or less continuous tradition of writing chronicles. The
medieval chronicles were written in classical language, Ge’ez. Since the second half of the nineteenth
century, however, chroniclers began to write by using Amharic language. In this regard, Zeneb was the
court chronicler of Emperor Tewodros II. Finally, during the reign of Emperor Minilek the tradition of
Chronicle came to an end with Chronicler, Gebre -Sellase.
Secondary sources are sources which are far away from the event both in time and space. They are
detached from the event or far away sources. Hence, they are said to be historical reconstructions based
on primary sources. The best examples are history books, novels, plays, oral traditions and published
and unpublished papers.
Different sources have different types of source ducumentations both in foot note and bibliography citations.
Foot Note citations

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Articles
The name of the author followed by comma comes first. The title of the book in which the article is
written within quotation marks. The title of the article is written in Italics. Place of publication,
publishers and dates of publications are written within brackets. Finally page reference is written. This
can be illustrated bythe following example.
Bahru Zewde, “The Military and Militarism in Africa: The case of Ethiopia”, in the State, Society
and History: selected Essays (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University press, 2008) p.48.
Journals
The author of the name followed by comma appeared first.The title of the journal should be put under
quotation.The name of the journal should be written in Italics. Volume and number of the journal may
appear either in Roman or Arabic number. The date of publication is written with in brackets. Finally,
there is page reference. This can be shown as bellow.
Temesgen Gebeyehu, “Peasants, Land Reform and Property Right in Ethiopia: The experience of
Gojjam Province, 1974-1997”, Journal of African studies and development, Volume 5, Number 6(2013)
pp.45-57.
Theses
The name of the writer is written first.Then, the title of the thesis is written within quotation marks. The
type of the thesis, the institute where the thesis is written and the time when the thesis is written should
be put within brackets. Finally, the page reference is writeen. Example:
Seltene Seyoum, “The History of Patriotic resistance Movement in Gojjam (Ethiopia), 1936-1941”,
(PhD Thesis in History, Addis Ababa University, 1999), p.36.
Books
The name of the author followed by comma appeared first. Then the title of the book should be written
in Italics. Place of publication, publishers and date of publication shold be written within brackets.
Finally, page reference is written at the end. Example:
Fantahun Ayele, The Ethiopian Army: from Victory to Collapse, 1977-1991(Evanston: North
Western University press, 2014), pp.245-48.
Magazens
Addis Zemen, 12/10/96E.C,16/11/96 E.C,19/12/96 E.C.
Aemero, 04/05/86, 05/06/86 E.C,19/08/86 E.C.
Bekur, 24/09/90 E.C,10/10/90 E.C,11/11/90 E.C.
Letters

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The name of the archive centre should be written first. Then, the folder and the file of the archives
appeared. The issue of the letter is written in its local language and should be transliterated. Finally, the
reference number of the letter and the date should be appeared.
NALA,1 Folder No.ከተ2, File No., 27:15 Kä Ityopya Yäşehefät Menestèr Lä Ras Haylu Bälläw
YätäŞafä Däbdabè, ref., 1669/11 dated on 01/08/1949 E.C.
Bibliography citations
Articles
Bahru Zewde. “The military and militarism in Africa: The case of Ethiopia”, in the state, Society
And History: selected Essays .Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University press, 2008.
Journals
Temesgen Gebeyehu. “Peasants, Land Reform and Property right in Ethiopia: The experience of
Gojjam Province, 1974-1997”, Journal of African studies and development, Volum, 5 Number, 6
(2013).
Theses
Seltene Seyoum. “The History of Patriotic resistance Movement in Gojjam (Ethiopia),1936-1941.”PhD
Thesis in History, Addis Ababa University, 1999.
Books
Fantahun Ayele .The Ethiopian Army: From Victory to Collapse, 1977-91 .Evanston: North
Western University press, 2014.
2.5 Magazines
Addis Zemen,12/10/96E.C,16/11/96 E.C,19/12/96 E.C
Aemero, 04/05/86, 05/06/86 E.C,19/08/86 E. C
Bekur, 24/09/90 E.C,10/10/90 E.C,11/11/90 E.C
Letters
Folder No.ከተ, File No., 27:15
Please note that in foot note there is a comma and the first line is indented 5 letters from the
left.Whereas in bibliography citation, the second line is indented 5 letters and there is a period. Foot note
citation is made as it appeared in the text. However, in bibliography materials are arranged
alphabeticaly. Brackets are not needed and no page references are required. In case of foreign authors
1
NALA refers to National Archive and Library Agency.
2
ከበዯ ተሠማ፡፡

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First names are inverted and followed by comma. Example, John, Markakis. Ethiopia: Anatomy of
traditional polity. Should be rewritten as Markakis, John. Ethiopia: Anatomy of traditional polity.
1.3 Historiography
What is Historiography? When did European, African and Ethiopian Historiographies introduce?
What were the role of IES and the openinging of history department in the professionalization of
History in Ethiopia in 1960s?
The term historiography refers to the writing of historical studies. In other words, it is the way how
historians have attempted to understand the past. The systematic study of historical reconstruction began
in ancient Greece by Herodotus. He wrote his classical studies of the Persian war fought between Persia
and Greece. Shortly after wards, Thucydides critically examined the Peloponnesians war fought between
the two Greek city states, Athens and Sparta. In the mean time, Homer wrote the history of ancient
Greece based on oral information. Indeed, he became the father of oral history.
European historiography passed various evolutionary developments. The ancient Historical writing
lasted until the fifth century. Writers recorded contemporary or near contemporary events based on
eyewitness accounts and other reliable testimonies for evidence. They focused on war, constitutional
history and the character of political figures. No systematic training was required for their writings,
instead, the writers need to read the materials, have general reading of the existing literature and be
equipped with rhetoric use of language. Writers did not receive any specialized training. The theme
focused on political, military and legal history.
The Medieval Historiography which lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century moved Europe back
ward. It was dominated by religious explanation of events. Historical themes were seen as parts of God’s
plan to happen. Every historical statement was given Devine explanation. People find difficulties to
differentiate history from fiction. Chronicles and universal histories were the best examples. They
lacked critical methodologies and focused on recent events with narrative way of writing (Tosh, 2010).
During the period of the Renaissance, there was a slight break from the medieval historical writing. The
writers criticized medieval historiography for being religious. Writers of the Renaissance period were
very much attracted by the writing of Ancient Greek and Roman cultures. They applied scientific
methods of observation and experimentation. The content was relied upon near contemporary events.
In the nineteenth century, history became an academic discipline in European universities. Leopold V.
Ranke, a German historian, played a great role for professionalization of history. Indeed, he has come to
be the father of modern historiography. He applied the uses of archival materials for historical writing.

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In addition, he also laid down for the foundation of source documentation in history, the introduction of
foot notes in historical writing. Historical events covered a very far distance and they are political in
character. At the same time, historical journals and articles also became the silent features of the
nineteenth century historical writing. It was Leopold V Ranke who was known for historical approach.
He recommended understanding of the context in which the document is produced. He emphasized that
historians should take care to write history without bias.
The African historical studies are the recent phenomenon. It was begun with the decolonization of the
continent in 1960s. However, Africa has its own history went back to the ancient periods. True, that the
African historical studies was relied upon oral tradition. European writers believed that, history has to be
written based on written documents. However, absence of written culture does not mean that absence of
history. Rather, the Africans have kept their culture and history orally.
Before, 1950s and 1960s, the history of Africa was written in line with the Eurocentric approach. Africa
was seen as the history of white people in the continent. The literature was an extension of European
history. Africa was considered as the continent without history, because it was dark and uncivilized.
Certainly, European missionaries came to Africa to reconstruct the history of the continent. According to
Europeans the African Historiography is written by whites.
In 1960s with the decolonization of the continent, however, the African historiography was rewritten in
a new approach. Historians used oral tradition as the principal sources of history. They argued that
absence of written culture does not mean that absence of history. Furthermore, they stated that the
African societies preserved their culture and history orally. Besides to this, there were also written
cultures in different parts of the continent. These among others include the ancient Egyptian
hieroglyphics, the Christian Ethiopian chronicles and Islamic Africa. These were the Kilwa and the
Kano Chronicles of northern Nigeria. The Arabs and Muslim world also contributed for the
reconstruction of African historiography.
Many writers involved in the reconstruction of the African historical studies. Janvansina wrote oral
tradition as history. The medieval writers of Almansudi and the North African diplomat, Ibn Kaldun also
attempted to write African history. Apart from this, there was also the tradition of chronicles in Ethiopia.
Ethiopia has its own script in Sabaean, Greek and Ge’ez language.
The Ethiopian historical writing went back to the fourteenth century. Its writing started with the
production of the chronicles of Emperor Amde-Seyon (r.1314-1344) entitled “the Glorious Victories of
Amde-Seyon.” Writers were Tsehaf́ Tézazes (imperial scribes) who considered themselves as historians.

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In the seventeenth century, an attempt was made to write Ethiopian history by a German Monk, Job
Ludolf. He got sources from the then Ethiopian Monk, Abba Gregory. Then, Different Europeans came
to Ethiopia as missionaries, travellers, commercial agents and ambassadors in the early nineteenth
century. The end of “the close door” policy which had isolated Ethiopia for at least two centuries
became a good opportunity for the development Ethiopian historiography.
In the late nineteenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century, Ethiopian intellectuals were
engaged to write the various aspects of their country’s past. These writers were the products of church
education in Ethiopia and abroad as well.
Aleqa Taye Gebre- Mariam was one of the leading Ethiopian historians from Gondar. He went to
Germany and taught Ge’ez at the University of Berlin. He wrote the book entitled “The History of the
Ethiopian people” supported by oral tradition.
Aleqa Asme- Giworgis was another historian from Shewa known for writing the history of the Oromos.
Afework Gebre- Eyesus was a leading figure of the early twentieth century from Gojjam (Zege). He
wrote the first Amharic Novel, “Tobya”. In addition, he also wrote the History of Emperor Minilek.
Balttengeta Heruy Wolde- Sellasse was the product of Ethiopian Orthodox church Education. He had
been the royal servant of Teferi Mekonnen until his death. He wrote many books to reconstruct the
Ethiopian historiography. These among others include Ye Ityopya Tarik (A History of Ethiopia), Ityopya
Ena Metemma (Ethiopia and Metemma), Wazema (The Vigil) and Yehiwot Tarik (Biography) just to
mention few.
Gebre -Hiwot Baykedagn was a critical writer in the twentieth century from Adwa. He went to Austria
and trained as a medical doctor. Upon his return to Ethiopia, however, he was appointed as Negadras of
Harar. He wrote two books in Amharic. The first one was Mengist Ena Ye Hizb Astedader (Government
and Public Administration) and the second one was Atse Minilek Ena Ityopya (Emperor Minilek and
Ethiopia).
Taddesse Zewolde and Gerima Tafere were the dominant figures who reconstructed the Ethiopian
historical studies during the Italian occupation (1935-1941). The former was from Shewa who wrote a
book entitled “Qerin Geremew”, the History of the patriots.Whereas; the later was from Gondar who
was the father of a famous Film actor, Professor Haile Gerima. He was popular for his notable book,
what came to be known as Gondere Be Gashaw (Gondar in his shield).
Tekletsadiq Mekuria, a noted historian was the departure between the former traditional historian and
academic historian of 1960’s and 1970’s. He wrote the history of Ethiopia from ancient time upto the
present. His earliest work was the History of Ethiopia from Emperor Tewodros II to Emperor Hayle –

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Sellase I (1855-1941). The second book is the History of Ethiopia from Emperor Libne-Dengel to
Emperor Tewodros II (1508-1855). The third one was the History of Ethiopia from remote past to the
end of the Zagwe period and the last one covers the brief period of the Solomonic dynasty (1270-1508).
Apart from this, he also produced works about the History of three Emperors i.e. Emperor Tewodros
and Ethiopia, Emperor Yohannes and Ethiopia and Emperor Minelik and Ethiopia.
1960s became the landmark in the development of Ethiopian historiography with the opening of HSIU
which later became AAU. The University established a research institute what came to be known as the
IES and history became an academic discipline. These institutions became an academic home for
historical training and research as well (Bahru, 2000; 1998).
The thematic area of Ethiopian Historiography was north dominated until1960. Its temporal scope was
the medieval Ethiopian History. Before, 1960’s and 1970’s, political, urban and religious histories were
dominantly written.
A number of factors attributed for the inclination of the Ethiopian historical studies in favor of the north.
First, the north had been in contact with the external world since ancient time. Certainly, the Greek, the
Arab and the Roman writers contributed a lot for the reconstruction of its history. Second, the north had
written language and culture to record its history. In addition, there were also many chronicles of
Christian kings in northern Ethiopia. Third, there was strong friendly relationship between the Ethiopian
Orthodox church and the Coptic Alexandrian church of Egypt. Therefore, there are many documents
about the history of the north available in the Egyptian archives. Finally, the archaeology of the north
has been well studied and provided supplementary information to reconstruct its history.
Archaeology in Ethiopia is the recent development. In 1906, A German Kaisar Wilhelm II sent an
archaeological mission to Ethiopia led by Enno Littman. One year later, the Italians tried to excavate
monuments in the old city of Adulis .Despite this little attempt, there was no single institute dealing with
archaeology in Ethiopia. It was, therefore, in the second half of the twentieth century that the Ethiopian
government established the IEA (Sergew, 1972). Since then, the institute began to excavate different
monumental testimonies to unearth both historic and pre historic sites.
An imbalance of sources between north and south has been one of the serious problems of the Ethiopian
historical studies. Since 1960, however, attempts have been made to write the history of the south by
using oral tradition as the principal sources of history.

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1.4 Periodization
Historical events have to be arranged chronologically in accordance with their sequence in time.
Historians used different approaches of periodizations. Some of them employed human behavior and
classified human past into Savagery, Barbarous and civilization. While, others considered the types of
materials from which man made tools for his day today life and they divided human past experience into
Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. Still others intended to utilize human economic life. Thus, they
categorized past events as the period of hunting and gathering, the beginning of Agriculture and the age
of industry. However, there is no uniform system of periodization of historical events throughout the
world. Every nation has its own special happening or history of state formation.
In the western civilization, the history of the ancient period lasted from the formation of ancient Greece
on the Island of Crete and it continued until the collapse of the west Roman Empire. The medieval
period covered from the fifth century to the fifteenth century. The modern period was in the period
between the fifteenth century and the present.
The system of per iodization into ancient, medieval and modern is not appropriate in Africa history. The
continent was under the yoke of European colonialism. Therefore, its periodization was made by saying
pre colonial, colonial and post colonial. The period of pre-colonial Africa was the time before the
colonization of the continent by Europeans. The colonial period lasted in the period between the Berlin
conference in (1884-85) and 1960 when most African countries achieved their independence. The post
colonial period covers since 1960.
Ethiopia is an independent state which successfully resisted European colonialism. It was also an
ancient country which has had a history of three thousand years. Its ancient history began in the second
century BC with the emergence of ancient Aksumite civilization and continued until the fall of the
Zagwe dynasty in 1270. The medieval Ethiopian history started in 1270 with the restoration of “the
Solomonic” dynasty and continued until 1855. With the coming of Kassa Haylu to power with the
throne name of Tewodros II Since 1855, modern period was inaugurated.

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CHAPTER TWO
GENERAL BACKGROUND
2.1 Geographical and Historical context
What do Ethiopia and the Horn refer to? How the name Ethiopia and Habesha introduced in the
region? How the region became the home for human evolution and diversified Enviromental zones?
Ethiopia and the Horn denote the areas of north-east Africa. Now adays, this region forms the modern
states of Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea. To the outside world, it was identified by the name of
Abyssinia.This designation in fact was resulted from “Habashat”, one of the tribes that settled in the
Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa in the Pre-Christian era.3 The term Ethiopia is of Greek origin
that in classical times was used as a universal description for the African landmass to the south of Egypt.
The first known detailed relevance of the term to the Ethiopian region is found in the Greek translation
of trilingual inscription of the time of king Ezana. This agreement of the term continued with the
succeeding translation of the Bible into Ge'ez, the old literary language. The Kibre Negest (“Glory of
Kings”), written in the early fourteenth century, which gave the conventional description of the story of
the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon, not only associated the Ethiopian kings to the House of Israel,
but also preserved the identification of the term Ethiopia with the the state of Israel.
Present-day Ethiopia is to be found between longitudes 330 and 48°E, and latitudes 30 and l5°N.
Although thus, lying very near the Equator, the nation on the complete is outlying from tropical in the
agreed sense of the term. On the opposite, the landscape of its highlands, increasing to over 1,500
metres, gives it undeniably cooler climate than its geographical setting seems to suggest.
Based on economic activities and settlement patterns, the region of Ethiopia and the Horn can be
grouped into three environmental zones. There is the hot lowland region in the coastal parts of north
eastern Eritrea. This area gradually became wider as it moves south wards. It included the Sahel region
of low land Eritrea, the Denakel depression of the Afar region, the lower Awash Valley and the
Republic of Djibouti. Further south, it extends to the the low lands of Harar, Bale, Sidamo and Ogaden
region and the Republic of Somalia. This region is dry and hot throughout the year. It is covered by
shrub and bush vegitations. Pastorialism and transhumans became the dominant economic activity since
time immemorial.
3
Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1991 second edition (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press,
2002), p.1; Bahru Zewde, A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Addis Ababa: Addis ababa University Press, 1998), p.7.

11
To the west of the low land region described above, there is the high land massif. It starts from Eritrea
in the north and continuous to southern Ethiopia. It is divided into two unequal parts by the Great east
African Rift Valley. This region is dotted with high mountains often called Ambas. Plow agriculture was
practiced with the ox- drown activity. It was in this region that state formation was evolved and the
majority population lived.
In the western border lands adjacent to the highlands of Ethiopia, the hot low land prevailed along the
banks of the Nile basin and its tributaries. The economic activities of the people in this region ranged
from hunting and gathering through pastorialism and shifting cultivation.
2.2 Human Evolutions
What were the three major categories of Genus Homos? What were the unique features of each
Genus Homo? Why the Great East African Rift Valley became the home for Human Evolution?
There are two theories about human origin. These were Creationist theory and scientific theory.
According to the former human beings were created by super natural God. Adam and Eve were created
first and then all human beings were descended from them. On the other hand, the later stated that
human beings were created from lower beings through natural and gradual process of change. This
theory was first explained by A British Naturalist; Charles Darwin who published the book entitled the
theory of evolution by natural selection in 1859. This theory was widely accepted by scientific
communities.
Human beings and apes were believed to be developed from common ancestors. Through the passage of
time, however, the human branch passed various stages of evolutions until the emergence of modern
human being. Hominids were the ancestors of human beings. The oldest hominids species came to be
called Australopithecus afarensis, Lucy or Dinqnesh. It was named from its place of origin at Hadar, in
the Afar region, Ethiopia in 1974 by Donald Jonson. It was dated 3.2 Million years old and it was the
most complete Hominid remains. Recently, another human species, Australopthecus ramides dated 4.5
Million years was also discovered in 1994.
There are three types of Genus Homos. These include (1) Homo habilies, (2) Homo erectus and (3)
Homo sapiens. Homo hablies was the oldest and handy human being that used crude stone tools called
Old wans. Homo erectus was the upright walking human being that used his leg to move in its upright
position. It used fire to cock food and defend itself from enemies. Simultaneously, it employed more

12
refined stone tools than homo hablies, called achueleans. Homo sapiens were the modern and wise
human being that could excute complicated ideas.
When we talk about human evolution; Ethiopia just has come to be the cradle of human beings. The
Great East African Rift Valley that divided the Ethiopian region into two unequal parts became the
home for archaeological excavations. This is mainly because the area has suitable environment for fossil
preservation and attracted archaeologists and anthropologists to undertake excavations.
Map-1: Relief Map of Ethiopia from the book of Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, p.3.
2.3 Stone Age

Why did most of the time, human beings make tools from stone than other materials? What were
the major historical achievements of the Neolithic Revolution?
Stone Age refers to the time when human beings made tools of stone. Human beings were making tools
not only from stones but also from bones and woods. However, bones and wood rarely survived the
natural environment for a long period of time. Based on the types of tools and tool manufacturing
techniques, Stone Age can be grouped in to three major periods. These are Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),

13
Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) and New Stone Age (Neolithic). Old Stone Age covered the longest
period in human history. It is further divided into three major categories. Early old Stone Age( Upper
Paleolithic), Middle Old Stone Age( Middle Paleolithic) and Latter Old Stone Age(Upper Paleolithic).
The earliest tool made by hominids was known as the Oldwan tools dated in the period between 3 and 2
Million years old. These tools were first identified at Olduvai George in Tanzania. These tools were
made by Homo hablies by a tool making techniques called direct percussion methods. It involves the
uses of hammer stone to strike a core stone knocking of smaller flakes to get the desired shape.Around
1.5 Million years ago Homo erectus made more standardized and complex tools called Acheuleans.
These tools are bifacial that flaked on both sides in a regular pattern. Hand axe could be taken as the best
examples of Acheulean tools that have Sharpe edges, pointed ends and round at the top.
Middle Old Stone Age period involves the prevalence of technological prerequisites for the regional
diversification and specialization of tools and tool manufacturing techniques. Furthermore, there was
also refinement and standardization of tool making techniques. An increase in tool tradition and
exploitation of the environment became its silent features. Later Old Stone Age period brought the shift
of tool manufacturing techniques from flaked based technology to fully fledged Microlithic technology.
In that period, bone was also used to make tools of various types. Human biological and cultural
revolution was evolved. Change was involved in complexity and efficiency of stone tools. There was an
increase in diversity and specialization of stone tools. These tools were manufactured by using a tool
manufacturing techniques called pressure flaking. Generally, late Stone Age technology arte facts
showed further reduction of tools in size and the uses of composite tools in arrows and bows.
The Neolithic revolution became the turning point in human history. It was in that period that human
beings shifted from hunting wild animals and gathering fruits to agriculture. Domestication of plants and
animals began 12, 000 years ago. Domestication of plants is believed to be in the foot hills of Anatolian
plateau.The Tigres and Euphrates river valleys, in the Nile Valley, in China, India and the horn of
Africa.The beginning of agriculture changed the patterns of human settlement. Human beings
abandoned living in caves and hunting and gathering. It started living in near his plots of land by making
stone houses. In such a way they began sedentary way of life. In the Ethiopian region and the Horn of
Africa, domestication of plants and animals would not be the exception. It appeared in the period
between 4000 and 6000 years ago. Enset, Teff, Nug and Dagussa were the indigenous plants.Remains
associated with domesticated cattle skeleton was uncovered at Lalibela caves, south of Lake Tana.

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2.4 Peoples and languages
What were the two language super families of Ethiopia and the Horn? Why Conti Rosini, Italian scholar
What were theHistory
of Ethiopian two language super as
called Ethiopia families that the
the Museum languages of Ethiopia and the horn
of People?
Like many African states, Ethiopia is the mosaic of people. There are more than 85 languages spoken in
its territory. These languages belong to the Afro - Asiatic and Nilo - Saharan language super family. The
former further divided into Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic language families. Semitic became a recent
development introduced as a result of Semitic migrants from Middle East. On the other hand, Cushitic
and Omotic were the most ancient to Ethiopia. Among the Cushitic the most dominant in ancient time
were the Agaw (central Cushitic) and the Bejja (north Cushitic). In the eastern Cushitic, there are the
Oromos who constitute the largest ethnic groups of the country, the Somalia linguistically similar with
the Oromos in the eastern peripheral areas and engaged in pastoralist. The Afar living in the hostile
environment of north east Ethiopia also grouped in the Eastern Cushitic .In addition, there are also the
Kambata, Hadya, Gedeo and Konso which belonged to the high land east Cushitic. By and large, the
majority of the Ethiopian population is the speakers of the Cushitic stock.
The Omotic language is spoken only within the Ethiopian territories, notably in the Omo basin.
However, there are few languages spoken out of the Omo Valley. For an instance, the Shinasha in
Benishagul Gumuz and the South Mao in Wollega are the exceptions.
The Semitic languge is commonly referred as Ethio-Semetic to distinguish it from other Semitic
languages spoken outside of Ethiopia. It played a significant role in the country’s political evolution.
The oldest of the Semitic language is Ge’ez confined in the clerical areas of the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church. Tigre is spoken in Eritrea and Tigrigna is spoken in Eretria and Tigrai. Amharic which became
the official language of the Country is spoken in north central and central high lands. The two Semitic
languages enclosed by the principal Cushitic environment are the Gurage in the south central and the
Harari in the east.
The Nilo-Saharan language super family is spoken along the Ethio-Sudanese border lands. The
Kunamas settled in the south western Eritrea and Tigrai. Further south, there are the Gumuz, Mao,
Komo and Berta in Metekel (Bender, 1976). Alike, the Majangar, the Annuak and the Nuer were settled
in the Baro plains in Gambella. Two third of the Nuer are living on the side of the Sudan (Bahru, 2002).
Genearlly, the Ethiopian region and the Horn consisted of peoples who are ethnically and linguistically
diversified. For this reason, one of the Italian scholar of Ethiopian history, Conti Rossini described
Ethiopia as “Museums of Peoples.”

15
Map-2: Lingustic Map of Ethiopia from the book of Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-
1991, p.6

16
CHAPTER THREE
ANCIENT STATES TO 1270
3.1 The Pre -Aksumite States
What were the major states and urban centres established in the Ethiopian Region and the Horn
before the Aksumite Empire?
Aksum was not the first earliest state in the Ethiopian region and the horn. Several pre Aksumite states
were flourished long before it. The scarcity of sources, however, became a serious handy cape for
writing its history. According to the information obtained from the Egyptian hieroglyphics, the earliest
pre Aksumite state was the state of Punt. The Egyptian sources did not provide any information where
the origin of the state of Punt was. However, there was a general suggestion that the state of punt lies
south of Egypt. The inhabitants of the area were the Hamatic stocks whose original home land were Asia
and immigrated to Africa and settled in the coastal areas of the Red Sea at a certain period of time.
The ancient state of Punt under took trading relation with the ancient state of Egypt. The major
commodities that Punt exported were categorized as minerals, animals and products of animal origin and
wood and related products. These goods were exported for different purposes. Queen Hatshepsut had a
great ambition for these products.
…the pharaohs used to send expedition to the land of Punt regularly. Scholars believed that the
beginning of the expedition is as old as the Egyptian history itself….bringing great quantities of
myrrh, ebony and electrum… the treasure of God be awarded reached Punt and brought back a
dancing dwarf who caused such sensation that he was remembered centuries later(Sergew,1972).
To the south of the town of Aksum, there was another pre Aksumite of Damat. It was believed to be
emerged in the fifth century BC. It used the political and religious tittle of south Arabia called Mukarib.
This indicated that, there was strong cordial relationship between the two countries.
Furthermore, there were also sites of state formation in the Ethiopian region and the horn of Africa
before the Aksumite Empire. These include Kaskasse, Hawlte, Malazo, Adisaglama, Yeha, Matara and
Coloe just to mention few.
3.2 The Aksumite Empire
What was the unique feature of the Aksumite civilization? What were its contributions for world
Civilizations? What factors atrributted for its final collapse?
The state of Aksum was one of the Maritime Civilizations emerged in Northeast Africa. Adulis was its
ancient principal port that served as centres of international trade. The exact time when the civilization

17
of ancient Aksum emerged is not specifically known .However, according to the available evidences; it
was flourished in the second century BC. Since then, it became one of the permanent political scenes of
Ethiopia. The first reference which we used to reconstruct the history of Aksum is the Perilous of the
Erythrean Sea. It was a manual or hand book written by unknown Greek merchant in the first century
AD. It gave a detail description about the state of ancient Aksum, its ancient port of Adulis and about
the then ruler, Zoscales. In addition, it also left a detail explanation about the internal and external trade
that Aksum conducted during its time of emergence.
There was also another document entitled the Christian Topography written by a Greek traveller,
Cosmas who visited the Ethiopian region and the horn in the six century. According to this document,
the territory of the Aksumite Empire extends Eritrea in the north, Blue Nile in the west, north Shewa in
the south and in the east it extends as far as the coast. Beyond this, Yemen in the Middle East became
part and parcel of the Aksumite Empire during the reign of Kaleb. In addition, Cosmas also tried to
describe the Silent trade conducted between the Aksumite merchants and the people of south west
without verbal communication. The area of south west was the sources of gold for the Aksumite
merchants.Thus; the two parties spoke different language. They were not in a position to communicate
each other verbally. This was the reason for the introduction of silent trade. Barter system was also
introduced to the people of south west by the Aksumite merchants. They exchanged goods by other
goods.
Christianity was introduced in the fourth century during the reign of Ezana. He was the first Aksumite
king who officially accepted Christianity as the state religion.The introduction of this monotheistic
religion was not a well planned phenomenon. It was rather, the result of the political and diplomatic
relation of the Aksumite Empire with the Mediterranean world. Freminatos (Abba Selama), the first
bishop of Aksum converted Ezana into Christianity. The conversion of people into Christianity in
Ethiopia began from the royal families, unlike the case in the Roman Empire. Sergew stated:
In connection with the introduction of Christianity in Ethiopia, we have to take two things into
account: the way Christianity was introduced in Ethiopia and the relationship between the state
and church in Ethiopia. In the first place, there was a fundamental difference between the way in
which Christianity was introduced in Ethiopia and the way in which it was first introduced in the
Greco-Roman world. There, Christianity began among the lower classes and gradually after
three centuries that succeeded in gaining converts among some members of the royal family. In
Ethiopia it was the other way round: Christianity began among the upper classes and gradually
spread down to the lower levels of the society .In other words, Christianity in Ethiopia started as
the official religion of the country and as such it secured the help of the government from the very
beginning. Therefore, the Christian church in Ethiopia did not experience the persecution which
occurred in other countries. In fact, the support of the state implied the rapid expansion of
Christianity in Ethiopia (Sergew, 1972).

18
Eventhough Christianity got official support from the royal families in Ethiopia; the spread of the
religion into the broad masses was very limited. It was actuality more than a century that Christianity
was expanded at its rapid pace. It became more possible with the arrival of nine saints from Syria and
other parts of the Mediterranean world that it reached into the broad masses. According to the Ethiopian
sources, the Nine Monks Alternatively Known as Saints came to Ethiopia in the fifth century.The period
is generally referred as the second Evangelization.
The name of these Saints who came to Ethiopia one after another were (1) Ze-Mikael or Aregawi, (2)
Penteleon, (3) Issac or Gerima, (4) Afse, (5) Guba, (6) Alef, (7) Yemaata, (8) Liqanos and (9) Sehma
(Sergew,1972:115). These saints played a major role in the religious life of Ethiopia. In the first place,
they translated the Bible and other religious books from other language into Ethiopic Ge’ez. Secondly,
they were engaged in the construction of churches and monasteries. Similarly, they introduced church
education and monastic life. Finally, they preached the religion to the people at large.
The introduction of Christianity in Ethiopia brought about far reaching consequences .Ethiopia became
dependent upon the Alexandrian church of Egypt for bishops. Ethiopia tied up its relation with Egypt
until the second half of the twentieth century (1959). Since then, however, Ethiopia began to appoint its
own bishop.
In terms of its political history, the introduction of Christianity brought strong church and state
relationships that existed for a long period of time. The state developed strong ideology that
legitimatized its rule. The church also became an ideological arm of the state. To consolidate their inter
dependence, the state granted land to the church and the church preached the subjects to be loyal to the
state (Temesgen, 2016).
Ancient Aksum contributed many things for world civilization. These include Coins, Inscriptions,
Churches and monasteries and monumental Obelisks.
Coins; the Empire had experienced minting coins. Coins were minted from different materials from the
third to the seventh century. They were minted from gold, silver, iron and bronze. These coins were
issued for the purpose of international trade. Before the introduction of Christianity in the Aksumite
Empire, the coins bore pagan symbols. After the introduction of Christianity in Aksum, however, they
bore the symbol of cross. During the era of Greeco Romans, the Aksumite Empire became the leading
state who minted coins in the continent of Africa. The shape and the size of the Aksumite coins were
very similar to the Romans. In that period the legend of the coins was written by Greek language.
There were inscriptions in written in Sabaean, Greek, Ge’ez and Arabic languages. All these inscriptions
were unearthed by a German scholar’s Littman especially after the establishment of the EIA in the

19
second half of the twentieth century. In the Ge’ez inscriptions, Ethiopian numerals were appeared. In the
earlier period, numerals were written in words only. Through the passage of time, however, they were
written in figures. They were inherited from Greek without any change. Simply Ethiopian numerals
added letters upon Greeks bellow and above each figure.
The kings of Aksum were living in beautiful palaces. At the same time, they were also known for the
constructions of different temples and churches. The tradition of the construction of Rock Hewn
churches went back to the Aksumite era. The period of Ezana reported to be the zenith of the Aksumite
Empire. He subdued the kingdom of Meroe to control the trade routes. In that period, Aksume was a
great Empire who tied cordial commercial relation with the Byzantine Empire. In 525, the Aksumite
soldiers crossed the Red Sea and occupied Yemen. The passing of soldiers became possible by ship
transport, because, the Aksumites were pioneers in ship building technology. The most significant
contribution of ancient Aksumite Empire was in its obelisks. Historians are not certain why these
obelisks were erected. However, the construction of huge oblisks revealed the great technological
achievements of ancient Aksumite Empire.
No Oblisks Heights in Meter Appearance
1 One 33 It is brocken into pices.
2 Two 25 It was taken by the Fascist Italian forces
in the period between 1936 and 1941 and
recently returned to Ethiopia.
3 Three 24 Still standing at the town Aksum.
The Aksumite Empire began to decline since the middle of the seventh century.There was internal and
external factors attributed for its down fall. Externally, the principal port, Adulis was occupied by the
Arabs. This was initiated by Kaleb’s military intervention in South Arabia. The patriarch of Alexandria
and Emperor Justinian of Byzantine asked the alliance of Kaleb to prevent the advance of Persia in the
area.This became reason for the Arabs and the Persians to strike the Aksumite maritime trade. Thus, the
Arabs followed the fashion of the Persians and completely withdrew the Aksumite Empire from the
coastal areas of the Red Sea. The decline of the maritime trade reduced the wealth of Aksum which in
turn brought about internal rebellion.
Internally there was the rebellion of the Bejja pastoralists. The relationship between the people of Bejja
and the Aksumite Empire was not cordial. The formers invaded the laters territory to safeguard their

20
living. Since the Aksumite Empire was weak due to the loss of the Red Sea trade, the rulers of Aksum
did not defend the invasion of Bejjans pastoralists.
Moreover, the rise of the Jewish queen, Gudit also attributed for the down fall of Aksume. She became
Gudit in Tigre and Esatua (Fire) in Amharic. She burnt the Churches of the Cathedrals of Aksum.
Hence, she was named as Gudit as a result of her evil behavior. This can be summed up as
…she promulgated a decree saying churches should be closed; because I am a Jews sand my
husband Aksumalso a Jew. She ruled for forty years after this decree the persecution of Levite
priests and the people was intensified. But, Sion, the tabernacle of law was taken and came into
the region towards the east which is called Zuway and was deposited there with all due respect
and in a clean and net house and watched vigilantly for forty years. After forty years Gudit dead
.And Anbesa Wudem came to the throne and peace and order was restored. Levite priests
returned to their country, Aksum with Zion, the tabernacle of law with a great honor and much
joy, in the year of mercy 910… the end of Gudit’s history (Sergew, 1972).
Thus, in the second half of the twelfth century, the political landscape of the Christian high land
kingdom shifted further south from Aksum to Lalibela.
3.3 The Zagwe Dynasty, 1150-1270
What were the best achievements of the Zagwe dynasty? What were the changes and contunities
developed between the Aksumite Empire and the Zagwe dynasty in the field of politics, economy,
culture and religion? Why did king Lalibela build 11 rock hewn churches in one place?
The dynasty was founded by Merra, alternatively known as Merra Tekle-Haymanot. The meaning of
Zagwe is still controversial among historians. In the first place, it is claimed that it is an abbreviation
Zewge-Mikael, Baptist name of Merra Tekle –Haymanot. Others believed that it was originated from a
Ge’ez verb Aguyeye, meaning to persecute. However, the most convincing meaning of it was that it was
originated from the Agaw where the tribe originated in the north central Ethiopia. Mera Tekle -
Haymanot established his political centre at Roha or Adafa which later named Lalibel from the name of
one of its famous king.
Its geographical extent includes the Aksumite territory in the north, North Shewa in the South Blue Nile
in the west and Red sea in the coast. The Zagwe rulers were devoted Christians. They continued the
religious and cultural tradition of the Aksumite Empire. Ge’ez literature revived and became the
language of church and writing. At the same time, they maintained strong cordial relation with the
Coptic Church of Alexandria.
One of the best achievements of the Zagwe dynasty was that construction of the Monolithic rock hewn
churches of Lalibela. The rock hewn churches were constructed by king Lalibela. There are three major
types of Monolithic Churches. These are Cave churches, Semi hewn churches and Monolithic churches.

21
In the first place, the Cave was changed into a church having the same decoration inside it. On the other
hand, Semi-hewn churches include some decorations to seem a complete church without being totally
separated from the single rock.Whereas; Monolithic churches were totally separated from the living
rock.
King Lalibela planned to create Jerusalem in Ethiopia. This became the main reason why he built 11
Monolithic churches in one place. There was the tradition of visiting Jerusalem, the holy land at
least once a year. Lalibela himself visited it and he was inspired to build churches similar with
Jerusalem. The Rock hewn churches of Lalibela have been the sources of income and tourist
attraction sites. Tourists are coming to the area and generated revenue to Ethiopia. In addition, these
churches are also served as cultural heritages. Thus, they are registered by UNESCO as cultural
heritages of the world.
It is apparent that one of the best achievements of the Zagwe dynast was that construction of rock
hewn churches of Lalibela.This tradition went back to the Aksumite period at its rudimentary level.
During the Zagwe period, however, the technology reached at its peak of refinement. The Aksumites
built the rock hewn churches of Debre Damo. Whereas, the Zagwes were engaged in the Rock hewn
churches of Laibela. The economy of the Zagwe dynasty was depended on trade and agriculture.
Zeila became the principal out let for international trade.
There were internal and external factor for the down fall of the Zagwe dynasty. Internally, there was
problem of succession to power. There was no smooth transfer of political power among the Zagwe
rulers. Serious dispute was prevailed. Externally, there was opposition against the Zagwe rulers from
the region of Tigrai and Amhara. The Zagwe rulers were considered as illegitimate rulers of
Ethiopia. They did not descende from the Solomonic line. According to tradition, the Ethiopian
rulers were believed to be descended from the line of king Solomon of Israel. Queen Shaba, one of
the leading Ethiopian queens visited king Solomon of Israel, the son of David. There, she met with
him and she gave birth to a child, Minilek I. It was believed that Minilek the first and his
descendants were considered as the legitimate rulers of Ethiopia .Thus, the Zagwes were considered
as illegal insurgents who took power without the consent of the people.

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CHAPTER FOUR
MEDIEVAL STATES, 1270- 1529
4.1 The Restoration of the “Solomonic” Dynasty
What were the major silent features of the Ethiopian Christian high land kingdom in the
medieval period?
The founder of the newly restored dynasty was Yekunu –Amlak (1270-85). He named the new dynasty
Solomonic to justify his legitimacy to the throne. According to tradition, the legend of queen Sheba and
king Solomon stated that queen Sheba or in Ethiopian church tradition, Nigist Saba, the supposed Queen
of Ethiopia at a certain time, visited king Solomon of Israel.When she came back to Ethiopia she gave
birth to a child, Minilek I.
According to this legend, the king by the name Minelik I became the offspring of queen Sheba from
Ethiopia and King Solomon from Israel. In addition, the legend also described that Minilek I and his
descendants need to rule Ethiopia for a long period of time. From the coming of Yekunno- Amlak
in1270 until the fall of the despotic rule of Emperor Hayle-Sellase I in 1974, all rulers who came to
power were the direct descendants of the Solomonic line. Thus, the so called Solomonic dynasty which
lasted for more than 700 years was legitimatized.
In actual fact, however, the success of Emperor Yekunnu- Amlak to power was not attributed on his
legendary claims to the Solomonic line. It was rather due to the monopoly of the most lucrative Zeila
trade route. He was able to establish cordial relation with the then Christian traders and Muslim
Sultanates of Shewa. He initially monopolized the Zeila trade routes which in turn brought about
strength to him militarily, economically and politically. Then, he dethroned the last ruler of the Zagwe
dynasty, Yetbarek from political landscape and took power in 1270.
Right after Yekunu-Amlak took power, he established his political centre in Tegulet, Shewa. One of the
silent features of the medieval period was that absence of permanent political centre. Kings ruled from
roving courts. Rulers of the medieval Christian highland kingdom were not settled in a specific place.
They rather selected one area during the rainy season. In the rest of the year, they spent travelling
throughout their Empires. No palaces and castles were constructed. Monarchs and their dignitaries
travelled from one place to another by living within their large tents to check the advance of their
enemies in different parts of their Empire. They were in a position to control the rebellion posed against
them in different regions. In addition, it was believed that there was lack of provision for the Empire’s
soldiers and camp followers. In the mean time, there was also shortage of wood in the area. Thus,
throughout the medieval period, rulers of the Christian highland kingdom were traveling on the foot hills
23
of the Shewan plateau. Some rulers, however, stayed at one place for a long period of time .Emperor
Zara-Ya’eqob (r.1434-68) for instance established the town of Debre Birhan in 1454.
Apart from establishing permanent political centres, Emperor Zara-Ya’eqob who was often referred as
the scholar4 king, resolved the religious controversies developed between the house of Ewostatewos and
the rest of the Ethiopian churches backed by the Egyptian Metropolitans on the question of the Sabbath.
He called both parties at the council of Debre Mitmak in Shewa in 1450. Accordingly, the Bishops
formally authorized the observance of the Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatewosian on
their part, agreed to receive holly orders from the Egyptian prelates.5
When Yekunu-Amlak seized power, his territorial occupation confined only in the former possessions of
the Zagwe rulers. Through the passage of time, however, large scale territorial expansion was made
during the medieval period. The rise of the most expansionist king, Amde-Seyon (r.1314-1344) changed
the balance of state power in favor of the Christian states. One of his earliest military campaigns was
directed against the state of Damot and Hadya in 1316/17. According to the Ethiopian Manuscripts
available at the library of Island Monastery of Hayq Stephen stated that:
…[in AD1316/17] I went to the war trusting the prayers of [St] Stephen and my father
Kirstos- Tesfane….[and] gad gave me all the people of Damot in my hand; its king, its
prince, its rulers and its people men and women without number whom I exiled into
another area. And after that Gad gave me the people of Hadya men and women without
number whom I exiled into another area… (Taddesse, 1972).
Therefore, the early victories of Amde-Seyon were made into Damot and Hadya enabled him to get great
sources of wealth and man power into the rich interior of south and south eastern of river Awash.In order to
administer these vast territories, the Christian states established a feudal system of administration, the gult
system. It was the rights of individuals to levy collect tribute from peasants based on his ability and loyalty
to the state .A person who possed the gult right over a certain area had come to be known as the Balegult or
gult owner. He was obliged to maintain law and order, provide administrative justice and to raise territorial
army and to command it in time of regional and national crises. Generally, the Bale gult was responsible to
recruit soldiers from his region and it had also profoundly simplified the task of administering the vast
Empire.
In other words, the term rest rights refers to the hereditary ownership of land.It is the form of land tenure
system prevailed in large parts of northern Ethiopia during the medieval periods.It was divided among
family members in accordance with the local customary laws (Bahru, 1998). Families and clans whose
4
Whereas, Amdesyon was the warrior king, ZaraYae’qob coind the name scholar king. He was known for his two
religious books, Mäşehafä Berhan and Mäşehafä Melad that revealed his religious policy in Ethiopia.
5
Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270-1527(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p.230.

24
ancestors were the land holders had the right to get land hereditarily. It is the communal birth right to land
which is inherited from one generation to the next in accordance with the customery laws. This tradition
became the dominant features of Ethiopian feudalism until the twentieth century.
4.2 Muslim sultanates

What were the major factors for the emergence of various Muslim Sultanates in the Ethiopian region
and the Horn in the medieval period?
The historical genesis of Ethio Mecca relation went back to the seventh century. Prophet Muhammad
advised some of his followers to come to Aksum when he faced serious difficulties from the Quarish tribes.
They crossed the Red Sea and reached in Aksum in 615 (Sergew, 1972). These people comprise of twelve
men and five women. Among them, Rukya, the daughter of the prophet and her husband Outhman were the
first figures to be converted into Islam.
According to the Arab sources, the Emperor of Aksum in that period was Ell Sehma. According to the
Ethiopian manuscripts, however, the name of the then Aksumite king was Adriaz who ruled Ethiopia for
twenty years (603-23). Dates coincide with the rise of prophet Mohammed. It could be inferred that the
infidel Muhammad arose in the east, occupied all countries, and killed the Magicians Egypt, burnt their
books and came as far as the Habab, the land of the Sudan. Prophet Muhammad, however, did not subdue
the Ethiopian Empire for which God kept it. Thus, there was pleasant relationship developed between the
follower of prophet Mohammed who came to Ethiopia and the Ethiopian Empire.
The main factor, therefore, for the emergence of Islam and the establishment of various Muslim Sultanates
into the Ethiopian region and the horn was that trade. There were two major gate ways through which Islam
entered to Ethiopian. These were the Dahlak Islands in the Red sea coast and Zeila in the areas of the Gulf
of Aden coast. The former was occupied by Muslim Arabs since 702. The Muslim Arabs attempted to
convert the nearby people into Islam. The prevalence of strong Christian communities, however, did not
allow them to go through deep into the interior of Ethiopia, rather, it was confined in the coastal low lands
of the Red Sea plains.
The second and perhaps the dominant gate ways for the introduction of Islam was Zeila. Here the Muslim
Arab merchants were the major agents for the expansion of Islam (Hussien, 2001). They established market
centres to exchange items that they brought from South Arabia. There was considerable interaction took
place between the South Arabian merchants and the Ethiopian Pastoralists in the peripheral low lands.
Gradually, Islamic religion was introduced and many people in Ethiopia were converted into Islam. It was
as a result of this peaceful interaction of people that the sultanates of Shewa, Ifat, Adal, Bali, and Arsi came

25
into being. Other Muslim states were also emerged in the low lands of South Eastern Ethiopia. In the same
manner, Islam was also introduced into the areas of Harar, Shewa, Arssi, Bali and Wollo. Although Muslim
Sultanates were emerged in different parts of the Ethiopian region, they shared many things in common.
These among other things include, their population made up of Muslim communities, their rulers exercised
both political and religious power, Islam and trade were the main factors for their emergence, most of the
Muslim Sultanates were confined in the south eastern low lands of the Ethiopian region and finally, despite
the fact that there were some Muslim communities engaged in mixed farming, the majorities were relied
upon trade.
The sultanate of Shewa occupied the north eastern province of the Shewan plateau. Its historical
background went back to the end of the ninth century (896). It was the earliest Muslim state to be emerged
in Ethiopian. Its ruling dynasty was descended from the Mahkzumite clan of South Arabia. It under took
continuous internal strife among the different classes of the ruling houses. Finally, the neighboring Muslim
Sultanate of Ifat waged war against the Sultanate of Shewa under the leadership of its leader, Oumer
Walasma. The Sultanates of Shewa were the principal core of Islamic activities during the medieval period
in Ethiopia particularly in Northeast Shewa in the period between nineth and thirteenth century (Kassaye,
2009:14). It was from the sultanate of Ifat in Shewa that Islam gradually spread into the near by areas and
Wollo particularly to Dawway and Qallu as well as into the rest of Wollo and neighboring provinces. Thus,
it was as a result of these continuous wars that the Makhzumite dynasty culminated in the last quarter of the
thirteenth century and annexed into Ifat.
The sultanate of Ifat was emerged in the thirteenth century (1285). It was ruled by the Walasma dynasty
originated from the name of its founder, Oumer Walasma. He was the first historically known ruler of the
Sultanate who came to power in the last quarter of the thirteenth century. He was the contemporary of
Emperor Yekunnu- Amlak. It was during his reign that the Muslim Sultanate of Shewa was subdued into
Ifat.
A serious of trade routes which connected the interior parts of the Ethiopian region with the external world
had passed through the territories of Ifat. Indeed, its strategic position monopolized the most profitable Zeila
trade route and became the strongest Muslim state in the north eastern corners of the Shewan plateau.
According to Ibn Kaldun’s description, the rulers of Ifat as autonomous vassal
chiefs, tributary to the state of Damot provided another stages of development in
the political status of Islam in the area. By the second half of the thirteenth
century, chains of Muslim commercial settlement and principalities had already
been established along the major routes of Zeila to the interior of the Shewan
plateau. Among these, the most important were the principalities of Ifat and
Shewa (Taddesse, 1972).

26
The political hegemony of the Sultanate of Ifat, however, culminated after the most expansionist Christian
king, Amde-Seyon (r.1314-44) seized power. The ruler of Ifat in that time was Sabredin. He seems to have
been the most challenging successors of Oumer Walasma. The forces of Amde-Seyon and Sabredin fought
many Battles until the former defeated the later in 1332 and fled him to Dawaro (Taddesse, 1972).
The Sultanate of Harar also called Adal was emerged in the last quarter of the fourteenth century. It shared a
common history with the sultanate of Ifat. Both of them were ruled by the Walasma dynasty of Ifat. The
Walasma dynasty of Ifat exiled to the south eastern low lands of Harar where they established the sultanate
of Adal. At the initial stage its political centre was at Dakker which later changed into Harar. Haqadin II and
Saadadin rebelled against Sayfared (r.1344-71) and they continued their resistance against the Christian
high land kingdom from their political centre. The Christian states were unable to cross the inhospitable low
lands of the south eastern Ethiopia to subdue the state of Adal. Furthermore, the offensive of Adal grew
particularly during the time of Sultan Ahmed Badlay. He led a serious of military campaigns against
Emperor Zara-Ya’eqob (r.1434-1468). After his initial success, however, the former was defeated by the
later in 1445. Since then, the Christian states became internally weak. The Muslim sultanates became
dominant in the area and took the upper hand over the Christian high land kingdom since the last quarter of
the sixteenth century
The Sultanate of Dahlak became important centre of Islam after the Arabs had destroyed the port of Adulis
since the eighth century. Its economic activity relied upon trade. The Dahlak Island became important
centres of trade for Muslim communities connecting the interior of the Ethiopian region with the external
world. Throughout its existence, it Attracted the Mamluk Egypt, Yemen and the Christian kingdom of
Ethiopia. Therefore, it became the water back of Muslim expansion into the Red Sea area and served as an
valuable out let for Ethiopians from the interior with the external Arab merchants. Finally, it was annexed
by the Ottomans in the second half of the sixteenth century.
The state of Hadya was one of the Muslim Sultanates in the medieval period. Its time of emergence is not
clearly known. However, it was first mentioned in the Christian historical documents during the time of
Emperor Amde-Seyon. Geographically, it occupied the most western territory of the Ethiopia region. It is
situated between Gibe river in the west, Lake Hawassa in the south and Lake Ziway in the north. It became
the major sources of salve to the region. Its economy was relied upon mixed farming and trade. Apart from
this, it was also known for its rich natural resources and accumulation of man power. It was as a result of
this reason that the Christian states reduced it into a tributary state in the fourteenth century.
Its rulers a used the title of garad. Those garads were in a position to rebel now and then against the

27
Christian kingdom. The later made a punitive expedition against the former. Apart from this, many
Christian kings had also attempted to secure the loyalty of Hadya garads by means of Political marriage.
Emperor ZareYaeqob married one of the most influential women in the political history of the Medieval
period, Queen Eleni.
The sultanate of Bali was one of the medieval Muslim sultanates in Ethiopia. Its rulers used the political
title of garad. The exact date when the sultanate of Bali emerged is not sufficiently known. According to
the Christian chronicle, however, it became under the hegemony of the Christian states since the fourteenth
century. Then, the Bali garads were paying tributes to the Christian states. The sultanates of Sharka,
Dawaro, Dera and Arbabani were also other Muslim sultanates in Ethiopia.
4.3 The Omotic States

What were the common features of the Omotic states in the medieval period? What was their relation
with the then Christian and Muslim States?
The state of Damot was the oldest and strongest state Omotic in the Ethiopian region and the horn. The
exact date when it came to power is not clearly known. According to some available evidences, however,
the kingdom was as old as the Aksumite period. As Taddesse stated, both Christian and Muslim traditions
explained that the whole region of Shewa was dominated by the pagan kingdom of Damot in the last quarter
of the thirteenth century. According to the Christian tradition, king Motelemi was the legendary monarch
who invaded the Shewan region as far as Jama River and completely dominated the small Christian
communities there. There was the fierce struggle between Emepror Yekunu- Amlak and Motelemi. The
Christian military success reduced the centre of Damot into south. According to Ibn Kaldun’s description,
To the west of the countries of Habash is situated the city of Damout [sic]. A great king
ruled there in former times and he had a large Empire to the north of the same [countries]
was found another king belonging to the same race of [Habasha] and called Hack-ed-Din-
ibn MuhmmedIbn Ali Ibn walasma(Taddesse,1972).
Finally, Emperor Amde-Seyon annexed the kingdom of Damot in1316 and king Motelemi was converted
into Christianity by Abune Tekle- Haymanot.
The state of Kaffa was another Omotic state. Its historical background traced back to the fourteenth century.
Its economic activity relied upon the production of Enset or false banana. Its people were referred as the
kafficho who were believed to be the descendants of Minjo. The administrative system of the kingdom was
divided into many provinces which were ruled by provincial governors. Its rulers used the title called the
Tato who were advised by the Mikerchos. They were known for its defense system and military strategy.
They naturally defended their northern kingdom by Gojjeb River. The kingdom had the old tradition of
creating a high towers to watch the approach of their enemies. In addition, the state also experienced the

28
tradition of digging trenches along their frontiers for the purpose of defense.
The kingdom of Kaffa was very rich economically. It depended upon both trade and agriculture. It was
apparent that land was absolute private properties of the king. Peasants were obliged to pay tribute in kind
and sent it as the kings’ treasury. While at the same time, trade was also attributed as another source of
income to the state. Therefore, it was as a result of its strong defense system and consolidated economy that
the state became an autonomous and independent state from the influence of the Christian states until it was
subdued by Emperor Minelik II in the last decades of the nineteenth century.
The kingdom of Enarya was situated immediately north of Gojjeb River and west of the upper course of the
Genale River. Historians are not certain when the state of Enarya came into being. However, it was first
mentioned in the Christian historical literature at the end of the Aksumite period. The Christian states
threatened the state of Enarya since the thirteenth century. Thus, through the passage of time, it became the
tributary state during the time of Amde-Seyon.
It was known for its sources of trade. Pure gold was exported to Egypt, Greece and Rome. Hence, It had
served as an important source of gold until the sixteenth century. Finally, the state of Enarya resisted the
expansion of the Mecha Oromos for more than a century. Unfortunately, however, it was conquered by one
of the clans of the Mecha Oromos, Limu. Since then, the Limu clan took the name of Limu Enarya which
indicated that the medieval state of Enarya assimilated with the Mecha Oromos.
The kingdom of Bizamo existed on the southern Bend of the Abbay River opposite to the present day
Womberma in Gojjam. The exact time when the state existed is not sufficiently known. According to the
contemporary Christian documents, however, it became the tributary to the Christian states until the end of
the sixteenth century. The medieval population of Bizamo made up of the speakers of the Omotic language
family of the Shinashas. They were constantly challenged by the Christian states who under took salve raids
into the area. Finally, it became assimilated with the Mecha oromos at the end of the sixteenth century.
The Medieval kingdom of Wolayta situated south of the sultanate of Hadya. Historians are not sure when
the state of Walayta came to power. However, it was first mentioned in the Christian historical documents
during the time of the Zagwe dynasty. During the reign of Emperor Amde-Seyon, it became a tributary state
to Christians. Tributes were paid in horse during the time of king Yishaq (r.1413-30). The province of
Wolayta was very fertile and rich in different products. Such as Enset, maize, wheat, barley, coffee, tobacco
and cotton. Its kings used the title of Kawo and it maintained a wide network with the other neighboring
states.
The kingdom of Wolayta was ruled by three successive dynasties that came to power at the end of the
Zagwe period. Its founder was Motelemi who was said to be the founder of the kingdom of Damot,

29
established the Wolayta Malla dynasty. It was apparent that the Wolayta Malla dynasty came to an end in
the fifteenth century and succeeded by the Tigrean dynasty that came to the area as settlers. The third
dynasty extended the territorial hegemony of the state of Wolayta into the neighboring states and ruled the
area until the forces of Emperor Minilek II annexed it into the Ethiopian Empire in the last decade of the
nineteenth century.
The kingdom of Yama was situated between Gibe River and upper course of Omo River. They were
agricultural people ruled by indigenous dynasty called Dida or Gamma which was succeeded by the Mawa
dynasty of northern origin. This kingdom was first mentioned in the Christian historical documents during
the reign of king Yishaq to whom they paid tribute. Their lively hood relied upon agriculture and trade.
Barely and Sorghum were highly produced cereal crops. In addition, Enset was also cultivated in the
kingdom and became staple food. Trade played a dominant role in the kingdom. The area had been
important sources of salve for northern Ethiopia. Finally, the kingdom of Yama faced a serious conflict with
the Oromo kingdom of Jimma in the nineteenth century under the leadership of Abba Jifar. The conflict,
however, culminated with the incorporation of both states in the Ethiopian Empire with the force of
Emperor Minelik.
Map-3: Long Distance Trade Routes and Muslim sultanates During the medieval period from the book of

30
Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270-1527,p 81.
4.4 Christian Dominance over the Muslim Sultanates

Why did the power of the Christian highland kingdom deteriorated in the last quarter of the
fifteenth century?
The Christian states were in constant wars against the Muslim sultanates in the period between1270 and
1529. The cause of their conflict was rivalries over the Zeila trade routes through which both parties
conducted lucrative trade. The trade route was monopolized by Muslim merchants who were sometimes
acted as agents of Christian kings. The Christian states were unable to suppress the lowland Muslim
sultanate, nor they able to collect tribute. Thus, the Christian states planned to ensure the safe passage of
their traders and subjects to the coast. Accordingly, they extended their hegemony into the lucrative
lowlands of the south east.
The territorial expansion of the Christian states was ushered by Emperor Amde -Seyon (r.1314-1344). He
annexed both Muslim Sultanates and Omotic states into the Christian highland kingdom. For this reason, he
was often referred as the warrior king. One of his earliest campaigns was directed against Damot, Hadya
and Gojjam in 1316/17. As a result, he acquired important sources of man power and trade items that
consolidated his power for further expansion.
Consequently, he prepared the ground for another attack against the sultanate of Ifat. It was most powerful
state that extended its hegemony between the Christian highland kingdom and the coast. It threatened the
economic interest of the Christian states and challenged other travellers to pass by. Emperor Amde -Seyon
decided to culminate that threats and he awaited the war until he got a pre text from the ruler of Ifat. In 1332
a united fronts of Muslim states under the leadership of Sabreddin directed against Amde-Seyon. In the final
Battle, however, Muslims were completely defeated and Sabreddin was barely escaped to the neighboring
sultanate of Dawaro. Since then, Ifat had no longer become the leading state. It was rather, reduced into the
tributary status of the Christian states. Several successive Christian rulers were appointed over it and a large
Christian garrisons centres were established. However, Christian domination over the low land Muslim
sultanates did not have last long. The Walasma family began to fight against the Christian domination and
wanted to regain its lost independence. They left Ifat and moved further to south east where they established
the sultanate of Adal.
The shift of the political centre of the Walasma dynasty of Ifat further to the south east brought a new
danger for the Christian states. The state of Adal was situated far away from the Christian province. The
forces of the Christian highland kingdom were unable to cross the inhospitable lowlands of South East low

31
lands. At the same time, the state of Adal also controlled the most strategic position of Zeila trade routes.
Thus, the Walasma sultanate of Adal directed its offensive war against the Christian rule during the reign of
king Dawit (r.1382-1413). Haqadin was its ruler who scored a resounding victory over the Christian states.
However, in the final war, the Christian states took the upper hand over the Muslim sultanates. Then, the
sultanates of Adal became weak and exiled to Arabia. Through the passage of time, however, it came back
to Harar and launched a serious of wars against the Christian states under the leadership of Ahmed Badlay.
He fought against king Yishaq (r.1413-1430) and Zare Yaeqob (r.1434-68). However, the forces of Ahmed
Badlay were defeated in 1445. This event marked the predominance of the Christian states. During the last
quarters of the fifteenth century the popularity of the Christian states began to decline. Eventually, the
hegemony of the Christina states was taken over by the low land Muslim sultanates in the period between
1529 and 1543.

32
CHAPTER FIVE
MAJOR EVENTS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
5.1 The Portuguese and Ottoman Turkish Rivalries
Why did Portugal and Ottoman Turkish Empire intervene in the war of the Christian high land
kingdom and the lowland Muslim Sultanates in the medieval period?
The revival of Ethiopia’s foreign relation was often associated with the legend of the Prester John of the
Indies. The historical background of this legend was developed in the first half of the twelveth century.
The legend confirmed the existence of strong and wealthy Christian state ruled by the Prester John
(Priest John) somewhere in the east. It reinforced the moral of the Christian Europe against their defeat
in the crusade. European states were in a position to form an alliance with this kingdom. However, it
was not certain where the kingdom was found. It was only after the fourteenth century that Major
European states began to identify the country of the Prester John with the Christian kingdom of
Ethiopia. They [European states] got information about the prevalence of the prosperous states of the
Prester John not only from the Christian communities who lived in different parts of the world but also
form Muslim Arab Merchants.
This information long-established that there was strong and powerful kingdom who under took the upper
hand over Muslim sultanates in the Ethiopian region and the horn. Christian European states sought to
establish a cordial relationship with the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia. Some European Monarchs began
to communicate with the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia through letters. The first letter was brought from
king Hennery IV of England at 1400. According to this letter, Hennery requested the then Christian
ruler, Dawit to provide military assistance to liberate the Holy land against the Muslim occupations.
Furthermore, the Christian states attempted to form alliance with European Christians before the later
came to know the former. However, the Egyptian sultans blocked the relationship between the kingdom
of Ethiopia and Christian Europe. This was mainly because; the Egyptians did not want to see the rise of
strong kingdom in the horn of Africa.
The Portuguese expansion into the areas of the Indian Ocean was the outcomes of the voyages of
exploration in the fifth century. In the middle age, there was the overland route which connected Europe
with the Far East. Through the passage of time, however, the old Mediterranean trade route was closed
by the Ottoman Turkish Empire. The Portuguese government was unable to conduct trade directly with
the peoples of the Far East. Finally, their sailors, Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498.

33
On the other hand, Turkey defeated the Mamluks in Egypt and used it as a naval base to threaten the
Portuguese maritime base in the areas of the Indian Ocean. Generally, the reason of rivalries between
Portugal and Ottoman Turkey to intervene in the conflict of the Christian high land kingdom and the low
land Muslim sultanates in the sixteenth century was to control the most strategic place of the horn Africa
for economic purposes. It was apparent that the late fifteenth century marked the decline of the Christian
kingdom. The sultanate of Adal began to threaten the Christian states from their political landscape of
Harar. Queen Eleni, the wife of Emperor Zara-Yae’qob and the most influential woman of the medieval
period sent a mission to Portugal in 1512. This mission was led by the Armenian merchant, Mathew. In
her letter, she requested the Portuguese military assistance against the sultanate of Adal. The mission
came back to Ethiopia in 1520. However, Emperor Libne -Dingle resent the mission after six years in
1526. He under estimated the forces of Adal because of his victory over Imam Mahfuz in 1517.
5.2 Muslim and Christian Conflict

What were the basic causes of the conflicts between the Christian Solomonic and the walasma
dynasties Ifat throughout the medieval period?
The basic cause of the conflict between the Christian high land kingdom and the low land Muslim
sultanates in the sixteenth century were that commercial rivalries to monopolize the most profitable
Zeila Trade route. In the course of the war, Christians were backed by the Portuguese. On the other
hand, Muslims were supported by the Ottoman Turkish Empire. The Muslim states were subdued into
the Christian states after Emperor Zara-Yae’qob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay in 1445. However,
those Christian rulers who came to power after him were weak and unpopular.
As a result, various Emirs, Imams and Shakhs challenged sultan Muhammed, son of Ahmed Badlay to
rise against the Christian domination. However, the sultan continued to pay tributes to the Christian
states until his death in 1470. His death marked the rise of various Emirs and Imams who fought for
political ascendancy. After the civil war, Imam Mahfuz became the leader of Adal and launched a
serious of attacks against the Christian states throughout the reign of Eskindir (r.1478-98) and Naod
(r.1498-1508). Finally, he was killed by the army of Emperor Libne-Dengel (r.1508-1540) in 1517.
Right after the death of Mahfuz, various Emirs were in a position to fight against each other to seize
political power. Final leadership to the sultan of Adal was taken by Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim Al-Ghazi
or according to the Christian tradition, Ahmed Gragn, left handed. The family background and the early
life of Imam Ahmed are not sufficiently known. According to his chronicle, however, he was born to a
clan called Ballew in the Hubat, situated between Harar and Jijiga near present day Babile. He was a

34
cavalry officer of Imam Mahfuz and married his daughter, Batidil -Wonbera. He was very energetic and
tactful man who won victory over various rivals and became Imam of Adal. Before his rise to power,
there was internal conflict in the lowlands. He was able to organize the people of the Afar, the Somalia
and Harar and recruited them as his soldiers against the Christian kingdom.
Therefore, the main cause of the conflict between the Christian high land kingdom and the low land
Muslim sultanates was not religious issues. It was rather the extension of the previous conflict between
the Solomonic and Walasma dynasty over the basic economic questions aimed at controlling the most
worthwhile Zeila trade routes. Ahmed Gragn began his military expeditions against the Christian
kingdom in 1527 in a traditional manner. He scored his first resounding victory under the leadership of
Degleham. The then Christian ruler, Libne-Dengel under estimated the initial victories of Gragn Ahmed.
He believed that the conflict was not different from the war of Imam Mahfuz and refused to accept the
Portuguese military assistance.
Ahmed Gragn made a large military expedition against the Christian high land kingdom. Finally, he
launched a serious of wars against Libne-Dengel at the Battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529 which marked
the end of the domination of the Christian high land kingdom over the low land Muslim sultanates. The
major target of Ahmed Gragn was to build a large Empire in the Ethiopian region and the horn. He
campaigned into the areas of Bale and Dawaro and subdued them into the Sultanate of Adal.
After two years, he prepared himself to take control of the states and peoples of southern, south western
and western Ethiopia under his command centre of Debre Birhan, Waj and Dawaro. In 1535, almost all
parts of northern Ethiopia became under his direct hegemony. It was in that campaign that Debre Birhan
became his command centre.The sultanate of Adal established its preeminence over the Christian high
land kingdom which lasted for a little more than a decade until 1543.
Emperor Libne-Dengel sent the Portuguese missionary, John Bermudez in 1535. Accordingly, the
Portuguese government sent 400 soldiers to the Christian kingdom under the leadership of Chirstophor
da Gama, the son of the sailor Vasco da Gama. In the mean time, the forces of Adal were backed by the
Turkish soldiers. There were 900 infantry soldiers with Muskets and canons. Right after the Portuguese
soldiers arrived, they faced a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Wafla where their commander
Christopher da Gama was killed. However, the victory of Adal did not have last long. The Christian
army under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1541-59) scored a brilliant victory over Adal at
the Battle of Woyna Dagain 1543 which culminated the political hegemony of Adal. Ultimately, the war
had exhausted the power of both parties.

35
The conflict brought about many far reaching political consequences. First of all, several Churches,
Monasteries and Mosques were burnt. In line with this, many useful documents and treasuries were
looted and destructed. There was the loss of many cultural and historical heritages. Second, the war
undermined the power of the Christian stats. They lost their professional soldiers built over the
preceding centuries. This situation in turn resulted in the rivalry between the monarchy and the
nobilities. Third, the geographical territory of the Christian states was confined only north of Abay
River. Fourth, the low lands Muslim Sultanates were reduced into the walled city of Harar. Finally, this
destructive war opened the way for the large scale Oromo population movement of the sixteenth
century.
5.3 The Oromo Population Movement
What were the basic causes of the Oromo population Movement of the sixteenth century? What
were the major far reaching political consequences of the large scale Oromo population
Movements of the sixteenth century?
The Oromo population movement was the large scale population movement of the sixteenth century.
There was the population movement of the Afar and the Somalia before the Oromos. The war of Ahmed
Gragn greatly weakened the power of both Muslims and Christians. Therefore, there was little or no
resistance of the Oromos.
It is not certain to fix the exact place of the Oromo’s due to lack of authentic historical sources.
However, now there is increasing evidence revealing the original home lands of the Oromos in the
Ethiopian region and the horn. According to the Oromo oral traditions collected from various clans, their
original home land lies in present day Bale and Sidamo, Meda Wollabu.
Before they started their movement, the Oromos were organized into Borena and Barentu
confederacies. The former further divided into Mecha, Tulema, Guji and Southern Borena clans. On the
other hand, the later comprises of karayu, Ittu, Marrawa, Akachu and Humbana.
The Oromos worshipped in a traditional religion what came to be known as the Sky god or in their local
language Waqa before they were converted into either Christianity or Islam. They believed that the
Waqa is the ultimate power in the universe and could serve as the sources of life and nature. It was
manifested into a sprite called Ayana. The spiritual leaders of the Oromo traditional religion were known
as Qallus. They were the intermediaries between the Waqa and the common people.

36
The gada system was the social and political organizations of the Oromos that each male Oromos had to
succeed each gada cycle to reach at the level of Abba gada every eight years. It was a system of an
arrangement of social categories called grades. Men were arranged into groups called grades. This
arrangement was made to perform various tasks, ideas, principles and rules with in each arrangement.
The main cause for the Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century was that demographic
pressure. They faced serious pastural land for their cattles. Therefore, they were in a position to get
grazing land and breathing space for their growing population. Unlike the Christian high land kingdoms
and the low land Muslim Sultanates, the Oromos were not attracted to monopolize the most lucrative
Zeila trade routes.
Directions of the Oromo of the movement were directed to northwestern and northeastern direction from
their original place of Medda Wollabu. There were two major factors that facilitated the rapid
expansion of the Oromo population movement into the central highlans. First, there was mutual
exhaustion of both the Christian kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates in the war of Ahmed Gragn in the
period between 1529 and 1543. Second, the Oromos had the adoption of the subdued people.This could
be in the form of both collective and individuals. The adoption of an individual by a clan is known as
Moggassa. On the other hand, adoption of a child by a foster parent is refererd to as the Gudifacha
(Bahru, 1998:83).
The Oromo population movement had many far reaching out come in the Ethiopian region and the horn. In the
first place, there was ethnic and cultural intermixing between Oromos and non Oromos communities. There are
still Oromo names in non Oromo speaking areas. This is mainly because of the interaction of the Oromo people
with the non Oromo people during their expansion in the sixteenth century. Second, the political centre of the
Christian high land kingdom was shifted from Shewa to Gojjam and finally to Gondar. Its political integrity was
also confined in northern part of Ethiopia. Similarly, the political authority of the sultanates of Adal was also
reduced to the walled city of Harar. Third, the medieval kingdoms of Gafat, Bizamo Enarya and Damot were
totally destroyed and assimilated with the Oromos. At the same time, the Oromos adopted a new religion. Those
who moved to the areas of the Christian high land kingdom became Christians. Others who retreated to Harar
became Muslims. In addition, the Oromos also practiced mixed farming. Finally, the Oromo population
movement reached as far as Raya. Thus, almost all parts of the Ethiopian region were affected by the large scale
Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century. More importantly, the Oromos involved in the imperial
court of Gondar.

37
CHAPTER SIX
PERIOD OF CONSOLIDATION VERSUS INSTABILITY, 1543-1855
6.1 The Shift of the Political Centre of the Christian States
What was the major factor that shifted the political center of the Christian high land kingdom
from Shewa to Gojjam and finally to Lake Tana area in Gondar? What was the reason that reduced
the politica hegemony of the Muslim sultanates to the walled city of Harar? Why one of the leaders
of the Sultanates of Adal did built the wall of Harar?
The Geopolitics of the Christian high land kingdom was changed in the sixteenth century. The large
scale Oromo population movement had a profound negative impact upon the political landscape of the
Christian states. They were forced to move from Shewa to Gojjam and finally to Gondar. There was a
dramatic shift of the political centre of the Christian states from Shewa to Gojjam and through the
passage of time; they travelled to extreme north to Gondar. The Oromos threatened the Christian state
since the beginning of the sixteenth century. Actually, there was no the tradition of having permanent
political centre until the establishment of Gondar in the seventeenth century. Instead, rulers were in a
position to rule from their roving capitals. In connection with this, the high lands of the Shewan plateau
could serve as a mobile court of the states for a long period of time.
Since, the sixteenth century, however, the political importance of the Shewan plateau began to decline.
The shift of the Christian states from Shewa to Gojjam confined their territories only in the northern
principalities. On the other hand, some Oomo confederacies moved the Muslim states to Harar and the
Sultanate of Adal was confined there. One of the leaders, Emir Nuer Ebin Mujahid built the wall of
Harar, commonly known as Jegol against the Oromos.
Thus, the political centre of the Christian states was transferred to Dembia area and finally led to the
establishment of Gondar in the seventeenth century. In line with this, different rulers attempted to
establish political centres in and around Lake Tana. Sertse-Dingil established political centre at Enfranz
Guzara and Susenyos establishedpolitical centre at Gorgora and Denqez. Thus, Gondar served as the
third permanent political centre in Ethiopia next to Aksum and Lalibela. It was established in 1636 by
Emperor Fasiladas.
6.2 The Introduction of Catholicism
Why didEmperor Susenyos accept Christianity as an official state religion? Why Emperor Fasiladas
did introduced “the close door policy” against Europe and Europeans?

38
The Portuguese soldiers did not totally derive out from the Ethiopian territories after the Battle of
Woyna Dega in 1543. They began to be intermarried with the Ethiopian people. The Jesuits who were
the outcomes of the Counter Reformation in Europe came to the court of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-
1559) and they tried to persuade him. However, the Emperor was not in a position to accept the new
religion.
The arrival of catholic missionaries in Ethiopia was different from the experience of the rest of African
countries. In Ethiopia, soldiers came first followed by missionaries. They had a good opportunity to
investigate the overall situations in the country. However, in case of Africa it was the other way round.
Missionaries came first followed by soldiers. In this case they passed serious of difficulties to gather
information about the overall situations of the continent and prepared it for colonization.
Andreo de Ovideo came to the court of Emperor Gelawdewos and attempted to persuade him to accept
Catholicism. Emperor Gelawdewos, however, was an ardent follower of orthodox Christianity and
refused to accept his idea. In a document that came to be known as the “Confessions of Gelawdewos” he
made serious defense against Catholisicism (Bahru, 1998:86). Accordingly, the Portuguese soldiers
totally disserted him, while he was fighting against the sultanate of Adal at Awsa in Afar. Despite the
death of the Emperor in 1559, Ovideo was not successful in realizing his mission. He continued to
persuade those rulers who came to power after the death of Gelawdewos. Both Minas (r.1559-1563) and
Setse-Dingil (r, 1563-1597) successfully challenged Catholicism and Ovideo dead without success in
1597.
The most successful Catholic missionary, Pedro Paez came to the court of the Christian states via the
port of Massawa in 1597. He was the most effective man who had extra ordinary talent to persuade the
Christian rulers. He studied Ge’ez and Amharic language with no problem of communication with the
Ethiopian people. He, indeed, attempted to convince Emperor Susenyos to accept Catholicism. It was
apparent that Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1608-1632) faced a serious problem at his rise to power.The
power of the central government was very weak. The clergies and the nobilities were not in a position to
support the monarchy. The relationship between church and state was not strong. The power of the
monarchy was eroded since the time of the war of Ahmed Gragn. Mean while, the power and the
nobilities were growing at its alarming rate. Emperor Susenyos was unable to bring powerful nobles
under his control. As a result, he demanded the Portuguese military assistance. Thus, he officially
declared Catholicism as the state religion in 1622. Accordingly, circumcision, fasting on Wednesdays
and Fridays and the observance of the Sabbath were officially prohibited.

39
The introduction of Catholicism brought about strong opposition from the Ethiopian Orthodox church.
The country experienced one of the most serious peasants uprising. Clergies, peasants and nobilities
were in a position to defend their old faith of Orthodox Christianity and they stood against Catholicism.
The Emperor tried to crash the rebellion one after another. He became in a dilemma whether to continue
the war or to give concession to the followers of Orthodox Church. Sometimes, he restored the Orthodox
liturgy and allowed fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays.
Emperor Susenyos’s problem was more exacerbated after the death of Paez. Mendez who came to
Ethiopia after Paez was not talent enough. His incompetence attributed the failure of Catholicism in
Ethiopia. In some of the Churches and Monasteries leaders were taken away and created strong
opposition against the Catholic Church. In 1632 alone, 8000 peasants were killed. Susenyos decided to
regret and abdicate his throne in favor of his son, Fasiladas who restored the Orthodox faith as the
official state religion. In addition, he expelled all Catholic Missionaries from the Ethiopian territories
and issued the “Close Door Policy “against Europe and Europeans and he established closer relationship
with the neighboring Muslim states of Middle East.
The Close Door Policy had isolated Ethiopia from European contacts for more than two centuries. No
contact was made between Europe and Ethiopia until the nineteenth century. The only two European
figures that succeeded to come to the courts of the Christian high land kingdom were Janqus Poncet, a
French Physician who came to Gondar to cure Iyasu the great from his skin disease and James Bruce, a
Scottish traveller who discovered the sources of Blue Nile.
6.3 The Gondaraine Period, 1636-1769

What were the architectural achievements of the Gondarine Period?
The Gondraine period refers to the time when Gondar served as the permanent political centre of the
Christian high land kingdom. It was the third permanent capital in Ethiopian history next to Aksum and
Lalibela. It was established in 1636 by Emperor Fasiladas (r.1632-1667). It was obvious that rulers of
the Christian highland kingdom had no permanent political centre until the establishment of Gondar in
the seventeenth centur. Rather, they were ruling from their roving capitals where rulers travelled from
one place to another to check the advance of their enemies. The establishment of Gondar has come to be
the watershed in the country’s urban history.
Geographically, Gondar situated along the routes of the South west. It branched at Gondar into Mettema
into the Sudanese border and Massawa into the Red sea coast. Its strategic location along the trade
routes of the south west became a good opportunity for its growth and prosperity. It attracted many

40
merchants to come to the area. It was peopled by diversified groups.These were Muslims, Jewishs
(Falashas), Persians, Indians and Armenians. There were more than 70,000 inhabitants at the time of its
establishment with different religious and cultural groups.
The prosperity of Gondar was not equally distributed among all peoples of the society. It benefited only
the ruling classes who lead luxurious life. Churches, Palaces, Bridges and swimming pools were
constructed. Each ruler built his/her own palaces of which the palace of Emperor Fasilada was the most
famous. Gondar was known for its churches and palaces. The UNESCO registered it as one of the
historical and cultural heritages of the world in1979. Its growth and Prosperity, however, lasted only
during the time of three successive kings who ruled one after the other. These were Fasiladas (r.1632-
1667), Yohannes (r.1667-1682) and Iyasu I or Iyasu the great (r.1682-1706). Iyasu became the last
strongest ruler of the Gondarain period. After his death murder and assassination of kings became
common. Those rulers who came to the throne after him were weak and unpopular. They were unable to
defend themselves from enemies.
The reign of Bakafa (r.1721-30) was relatively peaceful. The independent and autonomous status of
Shewa, however, became out of the Control of Gondar. He was suceeded by his son Iyasu II also called
Iyasu the little (r.1730-1755). He was too young when he came to the throne. He ruled Gondar under the
regency of his mother Itege Mentwab, a prominent woman of the Gondarain period. She was politically
backed by her brother, Ras Wolde -Leul. Iyasu married a woman from wollo, Wubit and gave birth to a
child, Iyoas who succeeded his father. Power struggle was intensified between Wollo and Gondar
represented by Wubit and Itege Mentwab respectively. The later invited the most powerful regional lord
of Tigrai, Ras Mikael Sehul in 1769 to assassinate Iyoas. This event marked the advent of Zemene
Mesafent.
6.4 The Period of Zemen Mesafent, 1769-1855

What was the perid of Zemene Mesafint? What were its major silent features?
In Ethiopian history, the period between 1769 and1855 commonly referred as the period of Zemene
Mesafent or the era of judges. It was the period when regional lords exercised real power at the expense
of the central government in Gondar. Ethiopia became divided into many provinces with the absence of
strong central government. The country was disintegrated into many regions with their respective local
judges. The Woresheh dynasty dominated the political history of the period of the Zemene Mesafent.Its

41
rulers, however, were Puppets. They did not settle the violence and kept law and order. They simply
existed in name as ceremonial figures.
The major principalities of northern Ethiopia during the period of the Zemene Mesafent were Tigrai,
Lasta, Wollo, Dembia, Quara, Siemen Bege Medir Gojjam and Shewa. Shewa became an independent
and autonomous state from the wars of the period of Zemene Mesafint. It had already established its own
ruling dynasty since the last decade of the seventeenth century. The rest states of northern Ethiopia,
however, were engaged in major wars. Their major interest of the conflict was to get the then highest
title, Ras Bitwoded and to expand their political territories and to be the guardian of the Puppet kings at
Gondar.
The period of Zemene Mesafent began with the death of Iyoas in 1769. The bloody intervention of Ras
Mikael Sehul in the imperial politics of Gondar became the depths of the power of the central
government. He became king maker in Gondar in the period between1769 and 1771. However, his
cordial relationship with Itege Mentewab did not have last long. The lords of Amhara and Oromo
formed an alliance against him and scored a resounding victory at the Battle of Sarbakussa in1771. This
Battle marked the end of his power and forced him to go back to his power base of Tigrai.
Until the establishment of the Yejju dynasty in 1786, there was no as such strong central government in
Gondar. Many regions of northern Ethiopia were independent and semi independent with powerful
lords. Each regional lord constantly fought against each other. The demise of the power of Ras Mikael
Sehul witnessed some period of peace. The tradition of making and unmaking of kings, however,
deteriorated the development of peace and led to bloody conflict among regional lords. The Waresheh
also called the Yejju dynasty was set up in 1786 by Ali the great. It had a predominant hegemony over
other lords of northern Ethiopia until the middle of the nineteenth century. They were puppet kings who
ruled Gondar from their political base of Debre Tabor. They experienced peaceful period during the
reign of Ras Gugsa (r.1803-1825), their strongest ruler known for establishing Debre Tabor. His period,
however, was not free from challenge. The state of Shewa continued to be autonomous state and there
was also a serious challenge came from Tigrai.
The serious of wars were more exacerbated after the death of Ras Gugsa. Rulers who came to power
after him were not as such strong. They could not settle conflicts in different parts of their provinces. In
October 1827, Ras Yemam and Dejjazmach Wube of Siemen fought against Dejjazmach Marru of
Dembia and Dejjazmach Goshu of Gojjam at the Battle of Kosso Ber. Upon the death of Yemam in
1828, his brother, Marye came to power and the rebellion continued throughout his reign. In 1830 there
was the problem in Ethiopia. A coalition force was formed between Haile-Mariam’s successors, Wube

42
and Dejjazmach Sabagadis Woldu of Agame against Ras Marye of Bege Meder. The northern chiefs
failed to coordinate their actions properly. Dejjazmach Sabagadis after the campaign in 1829 began to
negotiate an agreement with Ras Marye and remained inactive and his ally, Wube was defeated in battle
in1830.
In 1831, Dejjazmach Sabagadis Woldu of Tigrai became a strong rival to Ras Marye. On 14 February,
1831, the forces of the two parties fought at the Battle of Debre Abbay in western Tigrai. In the
engagement both leaders fought in the war and died in Battle. The final victory, however, went to the
Yejju lords under the leadership of Ras Ali Junior or Ali Alula (r.1831-1853).
In1841 Dejjazmach Wube and Biru Goshu established an alliance and moved further south to Bege
Meder and occupied Gondar. Their armies met the forces of Ali Junior on 6 February 1842 at the Battle
of Debre Tabor (Abir, 1968). This Battle became warfare between Christian Amhara and Tigreans
against the Oromos. Initially, Birru and Wube won the Battle in favor of the Oromos. Through the
passage of time, however, the victories run out of their hand. They under estimate the power of the Yejju
lords and began to cellebrate their victory. As a result, Ras Ali Junior became the winner of the war.
Wube and his son became prisoner of wars. Biru Goshu barely escaped and moved to his power base of
Gojjam. Birru Aligazi, as a result of his support to Ras Ali was given Dawunt in Wollo. At the same
time, Dejjzmach Merzu acquired those territories formerly held by his brother, Wube.
The period of Zemene Mesafent was characterized by some typical silent features. There were frequent
civil wars fought among different regional lords. Local judges regularly fought among themselves to
extend their territories as much as possible to collect tributes. There was no constant antagonism and
friendship among regional lords lasted for a long period of time. There was rather, coalition and alliance
formed and dissolved frequently (Shiferaw, 1990).
The period of Zemene Mesafent was also characterized by the prevalence of economic decline. Peasants
suffered a lot from the wars of the period of the era of lords. At the same time, productivity was also
decreased due to its frequent civil wars. Soldiers were recruited from the peasantry that resulted in
population decrease.
Power struggle among different regional lords was exacerbated by the religious controversies happened
within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The main cause of the conflict was the nature of the birth of
Christ. The church did not play its unifying power. There were the controversies divided into several
sects. For the believers of the two births, (Hulet Lidet) Christ had two births, eternal birth and from
Virgin Mary. To the third births, (Sost Lidet), there were three births. Furthermore, the religious division

43
had regional characters. The Hulet Lidet was common in Tigrai and Lasta. The unction (Qibat) became
typically Gojjame doctrine. On the other hand, Yetsega Lej was common to Gondar and Shewa.
Finally, Ethiopia faced foreign threats. Egypt invaded through the western border lands. The policy of
Muhammed Ali was put into practice to control Sudan and Ethiopia so as to realize the dream of
establishing Greater Egypt. The internal situation in Ethiopia became a good opportunity for the
Egyptians. However, the Egyptian expansionist policy faced a humiliating defeat at the Battle of
Wadkaltabu in 1837. Despite their defeat, the Egyptian interest did not completely die out. They
continued their plan and fought at the Battle of Dearqi in 1848 against Kasa Haylu the future, Emperor
Tewodros II.
Europeans also came to Ethiopia at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Some of them came as the
commercial agents. C. Harris who signed treaties with King Sahle- Selasse of Shewa. H. Salt came to
northern Ethiopia and established relation with Ras Wolde- Sellasse of Tigrai. Some other European
explorers, Antoli, Di Abbadi and Arnold arrived Ethiopia for Scientific exploration and the Italian
Geographical societies reached to Shewa in the name scientific expedition. All Europeans came to
Ethiopia in the name of pre texts. Their main motives were to gather information to their home
governments for colonialism.

44
CHAPTER SEVEN
PEOPLES AND STATES IN SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA DURING THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY
7.1 The Omotic States
What were the major characterstic features of the Omotic States?
The historical background of the kingdom of Kafa went back to the fourteenth century. Its prominence,
however, came into being since the seventeenth century. It was known by the Matto and Minjo dynasties
that ruled the province for a long period of time. The former established relation with the medieval
kingdom of Enarya from whom it adopted both the religion of Christianity and the royal title of Tato.
The First ruler of the Minjo dynasty was Minjilo from whom the name Minjo was descended.
The kingdom extended its geographical area into different directions and developed a monarchial system
of administration. Its kings (Tatos) were advised by state councilors often called the Micherchos. They
were known for their effective frontier defense against their neighbors. Watch towers were erected to
observe the advance of their enemies.
The economy of the kingdom of Kaffa was relied upon agriculture. Both crop production and animal
raring were practiced. Peasants were obliged to pay tribute to the state through the agency of the state
called Tato Kisho. It was the head of the state and was responsible to collect tribute. Civet was used for
musk production. Major export items include coffee, ivory, musk, slave and gold. Finally, the kingdom
was incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire in 1897 by Menilek II.
The kingdom of Yama was emerged since the fourteenth century and occupied the western bank of Gibe
River. It was ruled by the Mawa dynasty of northern origin in the nineteenth century. Their kings’ title
was ano and rulers were both political and religious leaders. Its administrative system was hierarchically
organized with the king at the top. Bellow kings, there were council of elders called astestors with the
title of Wasso.
The state of Yema was divided into provinces ruled erasho and sub provinces lined by gena. Its
economy was depended on agriculture. Peasants paid tribute directly to the state. Finally, the kingdom of
Yem was annexed into the Ethiopian Empire by Emperor Menilek II.

45
The kingdom of Wolayta was the most fertile and prosperous region with Enset as a dominant food
crop. Its historical development was associated with the medieval state of Damot. One of the best known
kings of Damot, Motelemi founded the Wolayta Malla dynasty in the fourteenth century. In the fifteenth
century, the Tigrean dynasty replaced the Wolayta Malla dynasty and continued to rule Wolayta until
the nineteenth century. Its rulers used the royal title of Kawo.
Its economy was predominantly agriculture. Finally, the state of Wolayta was incorporated into the
Ethiopian Empire by Emperor Menilek II in 1894.
The kingdom of Sheka was situated east of Baro and west of Gojjeb River. It had two dynasties. These
were Batto and Bushasho. Its first king came from Anfilo in the sixteenth century. The dynasty of
Bushasho ruled between sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. Its rulers like the kingdom of Kaffa used the
title of Tato. It had closes contacts with the neighboring states of Kaffa, Anfilo and Enarya.
7.2The Oromo Monarchies

Why did the Oromos of the Gibe Valley and Wollega under go from Gada system into Monarchial
system of administrations in the nineteenth century?
It was apparent that at the beginning of the nineteenth century the Oromos of the Gibe Valley changed
their administrative system from gada system into monarchial system of administration. This was
attributed to the following factors.First, the Oromos contact with the neighboring Omotic states that
adopted monarchial administrations.Second, the expansion of the Oromos into large areas and made the
gada system inefficient.Third, the long distance trade routes and the spread of Islam made the gada
system unworkable.Finally, the frequent wars gave rise to powerful individual to be monarchial leaders.
As a result, the Oromo Monarchies were emerged in the Gibe region and Wollega in the nineteenth
century. There were five Gibe Oromo states. Limu Enary, the earliest Gibe Oromo states was emerged
from the medieval state of Enarya and the Oromo state of Limu. It reached at its peak during the reign of
Abba Bagibo or Ibsa (r.1825-1861) who controlled the long distance trade routes. Finally, it was
subdued by the state of Jimma. Other Gibe Oromo states were Jimma, Gumma, Gomma and Gera.
Two powerful Leqqa states were found in Wollega in the early nineteenth century. These were, Leqqa
Neqemit and Leqqa Qellem. The former was founded by BakareGodana. It reached at its peak during the
reign of Moroda and his son Kumsa who later baptized as Gebre – Egiziabher. Finally, it was
incorporated into the Christian states peacefully and ruled the state of Leqqa Nekemet in the second half

46
of the nineteenth century.The later was founded by Tullu. It reached at its peak during the reign of his
son Jote Tullu. The main sources of wealth were transe frontier agold trade and trade with the
neighboring kingdom of Aqoladi and Benishagul.
Map-4: Ethiopia in the nineteenth Century from the book of Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern
Ethiopia, 1855-1991, p.17.

47
7.3 The Emirates of Harar
What was the historical significance of Harar as the center of Islamic culture and learning?
Harar was the centre of the Muslim sultanate of Adal in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It was
surrounded by the wall of Harar also called Jegol. The wall was built by Emir Nuer Ibin Mujahid to
defend the city from the occupation of the Oromos.
In the period between 1557 and the middle of the seventeenth century, the Emirates of Harar were
paying tribute to the Imams of Awsa. However, this tributary relation came to an end with the rise of
Emir Ali Ibin Dawud (r.1647-1662). He declared the independence of Harar from the influence of Awsa
and continued its autonomous status until the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The wall of Harar
was opened for trading purposes only. Guns and other fire arms were not allowed to enter into the wall.
Harar was one of the earliest centres of Islam and Islamic learning. It became the centre of Islamic
religious studies and training.
The city of Harar became an important trade centre for two centuries. It was connected with the external
world through the ports of Zeila and Berbera. It established strong relations with Yemen and the Arabian
Peninsula through these ports. Foreigners who lived in Harar include Arabs, Persians, Turks, Armenians
and Greeks. However, it did not permit Europeans to have direct relation with them. Richard Burton, the
British traveler was the exception. He came to Harar in 1855 and had stayed for 10 years. He disclosed
the importance and wealth of the Harar for the external world.
Thus, the Egyptian army under the leadership of Muhammed Rouf Pasha occupied Harar in 1975 and
they stayed for a decade. Finally, in 1887 the forces of Menilek of Shewa defeated the last Emirate of
Harar, Emir Abdulahi at the Battle of Chelenqo which culminated its independent status.
7.4 The Sheikdoms of Ethio- Sudanese border lands

What was the economic basis of the Sheikdoms in the Sudanese borderlands in the nineteenth
century?
These sheikdoms were Muslim states emerged along the border lands of Ethiopia and the Sudan. They
were the result of Arabic speaking merchants of the Sudanese origin. By virtues of its reach gold

48
deposits and the Sudanese origin of the ruling classes, the region attracted the Mehadists and the
Egyptians to come to the area. These states include Asosa (Aqoldi), Benishangul, Khomosha and Gubba.
These Sheikdoms were incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire by the forces of Emperor Menilek in
1897.
7.5 The Shewan Kingdom

How the Shewan kingdom extended its political hegemonies and that enabled the region to control
resourceful areas to reach at its heyday of development?
It was emerged in 1695 by Negasi Kirstos in the territory of Menz. Through the passage of time,
however, it extended its geographical territories into the neighboring Oromo and Gurage lands. During
the reign of King Sahle- Sellase it reached at its peak of development and began to use the political title
of Nigus. He was able to organize effective administrative units for his kingdom.Its territories were
divided into nine administrative units. These were Minjar, Bulga, Yefat,Gedim, Tegulet,Moret,
Menz,Gishe and Shewa Meda.
Its economy was relied upon trade and agriculture. Ivory, gold, coffee, civates and slaves were the major
export items of the kingdom. They were obtained due to the expansion of King Sahle- Sellase into
different directions. Fire arms were also imported from abroad to defend rivals.6
Shewa’s economic prosperity and strategic importance attracted Europeans to establish strong contact
with foreign powers. Britain was a leading nation to set up pleasant relation with the kingdom.
Accordingly, W.C Harris arrived in the court of Shewa in1841 and signed the treaty of Commerce and
friendship.
7.6 The Long Distance Trade Routes
How the long distance trade routes of the nineteenth century connected the peoples of southern
Ethiopia with their northern counter parts? Where was the origin of the trade? Who were its
Merchants? What were the major mediums of exchanges?
The long distance trade routes of the nineteenth century connected the peoples of southern Ethiopia with
their northern counter parts. It was originated from Bonga, the capital of Kaffa. It was categorized into
Vertical trade (South – north extension) and Horizontal trade (west- east extension).The former began in
6
Harris, The Highlands of Ethiopia,p. 342.

49
Bonga and ran north wards by passing a number of trade routes. This can be best illustrated as follows.
Bonga (in Kaffa) Jiren (in Jimma) Seka (in Limmu Enary) Assendabo (in Hurugudru Wollega) Basso (in
Gojjam) Derta (in Bege Medir) from Derta it branched into Metemma and then to Sudan. There was also
another branch into Adwa and finally reached at Massawa to the Red Sea coast.
The second major trade route that connected the trade routes of the Ethiopian region was the horizontal
trade that linked south western Ethiopia with the ports of Zeila and Berbera. It became very important
after the expansion of the kingdom of Shewa into different direction under King Sahle- Sellase. The
trade routes passed through important trade centres. These include Bonga (in Kafa) Jirren (in Jimma)
Seka (in Limu Enarya). From Seka it changed its direction into south eastern direction and moved to
Soddo and Roge (in Yerer) Alyu Amba (in Shewa). From Alyu Amba, it branched into Bati and Harar.
Finally it reached to Zeila and Berbera.
The major trade items were categorized into export and import commodities.The major export produce
include coffee, gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, slave and civets. However, coffee was not exported
in large quantities until the twentieth century. On the other hand, slavery was a wide spread institutions.
It was practiced for agricultural laborers and domestic servants and concubines. Abdul Rasul near Alyu
Amba in Shewa and Yejjube in Basso, Gojjam were the two slave markets.
The long distance trade route of the nineteenth century was conducted mostly by Muslim merchants.
Northern Ethiopia Merchants called the Jabertis were the dominant agents. There were also Muslim
Merchants of Southern Ethiopia, called the Afkalas. Formerly, they were the agents of the Jabertis.
Through the passage of time, however, they began to dominate the trades of southern Ethiopia.
The Major Medium of exchanges includes Barter system. This was exchanging of goods by goods.
Amole or Bar of Salt and Maria Theresa Thalers were the major medium of exchanges of the period.The
long distance trade was conducted in groups. This trade is commonly known as caravan trades. The

50
ravan traders elected their own leader called the Negadras, the head of the Merchant.
Map-5: Long Distance Trade routes of the nineteenth century f from the book of Bahru Zewde, A
History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1991, p.17.

51
CHAPTER EIGHT
THE MAKING OF MODERN ETHIOPIA, 1855-1900.
8.1The reign of Tewodros II (1855-1868)
What were the two major reforms of Emperor Tewodros? What was the major factor for the fall of
the reign of Emperor Tewodros?
Kasa Haylu, the future Emperor Tewodros was born from his father Dejjazmach Haylu Wolde-Giworgis
and his mother woizero Atitegeb in Quara. During his early child hood, he grew up with the care of his
half brother Dejjazmach Kinfu of Dembia. He got church education and military training. When he
became older and older in age, he denied the governorship of his family fief and became bandit. To team
him, Ali II, the last ruler of the Yejju dynasty gave his daughter, Tewabech Ali to him. However, Kasa
was not in a position to give up his ambition to become an Emperor of Ethiopia. To that end, he resisted
the Egyptian expansion at the Battle of Debarki in 1884 and he faced a serious defeat which became a
good lesson for his future military career.
Then, he turned his attention to fight against different regional lords one after another. In April 1852 he
defeated Ras Goshu of Gojjam at the Battle of Gur Amba. In June, 1853, Ras Ali and his vassals were
defeated at the Battle of Gorgora Bichen. In 1853 he defeated Ras Ali II at the Battle of Ayshal. This
event marked the end of Yejju political domination. Finally, Ras Wube of Siemen was defeated at the
Battle of Derasge in 1855. Then, Kasa was crowned as Tewodros II king of kings of Ethiopia at Derasge
Mariam church by Abba Selama that Wube brought from Egypt. The name Tewodros was chosen as
crown name because in the medieval book of Fikare Iyesus it was said that a king by the name
Tewodros would come to rule Ethiopia and he would bring peace and justice to its people from chaos of
Zemene Mesafent. Thus, he planned to implement his two policies of reunification and modernization.
In the process, he made fierce resistance against Wollo with a ruthless policy. His seizure of the
stronghold at Maqdala on 12 September 1865 ended his Wallo campaign. To that end, he established a
palace which had great significance in his career of reunification. It became the centre of his model
government. It was the landscape to which he retreated in his final hours of suffering. It was the site
where, in 1868, in a dramatic act of disobedience that was to captivate the minds of future generations of
Ethiopians, he committed suicide as British troops rushed in to capture him.

52
As in Wallo, the overlapping campaign in Shawa lasted for some five months. There, Tewodros met
three mixed reaction. Some of the regions, such as Menz, Gedem and Efrata were submitted without
resistance led by Sayfu Sahla-Sellase, younger brother of Nigus Hayla-Malakot.Others resisted
Tewodros's stride into Shawa. The nigus died in the middle of the campaign. Tewodros then, directed all
his attention to capturing Hayle-Melekot's son, Menilek, who became the strong figures of Shawan
resistance. This objective achieved at the Battle of Berehet in November 1855 and Menilek became
political prisoner at Meqdela until 1865.
Emperor Tewodros introduced many reforms. First, he recruited the nationally salaried army and
introduced hierarchies of military titles. These include Yasir Aleqa (Commander of Ten), Yehamsa
Aleqa (Commander of Fifty) and Yeshi Aleqa (Commander of Thousands). Second, he reduced the land
holding system of the church and the number of priests and deacons required for one church. Third, he
attempted to abolish the practice of slavery and slave trade. Fourth, he introduced modern Amharic
literatue and language.
Moreover, he gathered all the British missionaries and ordered them to manufacture his Sebastopole at
Gafat near Debre Tabor. When they failed to make, he imprisoned them. The British government
advised him to release prisoners but he refused to do so. As a result, a large British army under the
leadership of General Robert Napier supported by Kasa Mircha of Tigray came to the interior part of
Ethiopia without difficulty.
Fig-1: Emperor Tewodros’s Sebastopol from the book of Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-
1991 p.29.

53
On 10 April 1868 Tewodros faced a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Eroge where he lost his right
hand Gebirye in the Battle field. Finally, on 13 April 1868 he committed suicide at the Battle of
Meqdela. The war cost the life of Tewodros. Mekdela lost its huge treasuries and Kasa Mircha, the
future Yohannes IV was able to get huge fire arms from the British government.
8.2The Reign of Yohannes (1872-1889)

What Methods were used by Emperor Yohannes to realize the goal of establishing the Ethiopian
Empire?
It was apparent that the process of Modern Ethiopian Empire formatin began during the reign of
Emperor Tewodros II continued during the time of Emperor Yohannes II and completed by Emperor
Menilek II. However, Emperor Yohannes IVfollowed more flexible approach by which he gave power
for regional lords so long as they paid tribute and accepted his over lordship. He made Adal Tesemmma
king of Gojjam and Kaffa with the crown name of King Tekle- Haymanot in 1881. Menilek was also
recognized to be the ruler of Shewa. However, Menilek soon began his territorial expansion towards the
most resourceful areas of south western Ethiopia. Simultaneously, he made independent contacts with
foreigners and refused to pay tribute to Emperor Yohannes IV.
Indeed, Menilek and Tekle- Haymanot became serious rivals. However, Emperor Yohannes IV resolved
his problem with Menilek of Shewa by the Liche agreement on 20 March 1878. Accordingly, Menilek
agreed to pay tribute to Emperor Yohannes IV, drop the title king of Kings of Ethiopia and use only the
title king of Shewa, give up independent contacts with foreigners, agreed to be hereditary rulers of
Shewa. Emeperor Yohannes IV on his part, allowed Menilek to expand his territorial expansion to
Wollo. Finally, both Emperor Yohannes IV and Menilek of Shewa agreed to help each other against
their common enemies.
However, Emperor Yohannes’s flexibility was not seen in his religious policy. Thus, he ended religious
division that became prevailed within the Ethiopian Orthodox church at the Council of Boru Medda in
May 1878. Open discussion was held among religious fathers to keep the unity of the church. The
Muslims of Wollo were forced to accept Christianity. When they failed to admit they were persecuted
and their properties were also confiscated.
The Liche agreement did not bring Menelik’s loyalty to Emperor Yohannes. The former made alliance
with King Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam and plotted against the Emperor. In that occasion, Emperor

54
entered into the triangular tension, ie Italy (from the north), Sudan (from the west) and Menilek of
Shewa and Tekle- Haymanot of Gojjam (from the South).
8.3 Imperial Expansion to the South, South West and South East
How Emperor Menilek completed his Empire formation and resisted foreign agressin in the nineteenth
century?
The process of Menilek’s territorial expansion to the south, south west and southeast was conducted in
three fundamental phases.First stages, 1875-1889, second stage, 1889-1896 and the third stage, 1896-
1900
In 1870s Menilek began his territorial expansion when he was king of Shewa. First he subdued the
Oromos of Shewa. Then, he moved to submit the northern Christian Gurage (Kistane) under his control.
The Christian Gurages were submitted peacefully to the forces of Menilek. A number of factors were
attributed for this. First, they had religious similarity. Second, they had geographical proximity with the
kingdom of Shewa. Finally, they had protracted wars against the neighboring Oromos. However,
Menilek faced fierce resistance from Muslim Gurages (Silte) under the leadership of Hassen Enjamo.
The war continued until Gobena subdued it until 1888.
In the South western Ethiopia the areas beyond the Gibe River became the bone of contention between
Menilek of Shewa and Tekle- Haymanot of Gojjam. These two figures fought at the Battle of Embabo in
Wollega on 6 June 1882(Bahru, 1998:152). The forces of Menilek under the leadership of Ras Gobena
Dache defeated the forces of Tekle- Haymanot under the leadership of Ras Derso. In order that, Menilek
controled the most resourceful areas of South Western Ethiopia. Local rulers such as Abba Jifar II of
Jimma, Jote Tulu of Leqa Qellem and Kumsa Moroda of Leqa Nekemt were submitted peacefully.
The region of Arsi was subdued after four years military expeditions in the period between 1882 and
1886. The Battle of Azul ended the war of Menilek under the leadership of Ras Darge and the people of
Arsi in 1886. Another bloody war was fought between Menilek and Emir Abdulahi of Harar at the
Battle of Chelenqo in on 6 June 1887(Bahru, 1998:153).
The Second stage of territorial expansion took place from his coronation in 1889 to the Battle of Adwa
in 1896. The Kifu Qan, Great Famine (1888-1892) became the major factor that drove large number of
people from northern Ethiopia to the south in search of resourceful areas. In this phase, the most
resourceful areas of Bale, Sidamo (peacefully) and Wolayta (forcefully) were incorporated into Emperor

55
Menilek’s Empire. The case of wolayta was the most protracted wars. Kawo Tona, the last king of
Wolayta was subjugated after a bloody war in 1894.
The third stage was conducted in the period between 1896 and 1900. After the historic Battle of Adwa,
Emperor Menilek was in a position to create a buffer zone between the Ethiopian interior and the
adjacent colonial powers. The kingdom of Kaffa, Asosa, Benishangul, Ogaden and Borena were
integrated in this stage. The campaign of Kaffa under the leadership of Tato Gaki Serecho became
bloody until it was subdued in 1897.
The administration of those regions was determined by the way of their incorporations. Those regions
that fiercely resisted the army of Menilek were treated harshly. Their local rulers were uprooted and
replaced by the appointees of Emperor Menilek. The local peoples were also alienated from their land
and they were subjected for serious economic exploitations. On the other hand, those regions that
submitted to the force of Emperor Menilek faced little difficulties. Local rulers retained their power and
became vassals of Emperor Menilek
8.4 Resistance against Egyptian aggression

What was the goal of Egyptian expansionist policy in the Horn of Africa?
The Egyptian expiation into the Ethiopian region and the horn of Africa was under taken into two stages.
The first phase was conducted in the period between 1821 and 1850 and the second was in the period
between 1871 and 1876. The leader of the Egyptian expansionist policy in the first phase was
Muhammed Ali. He was the founder of modern Egypt. He occupied the Funji Sultanate of Senar in the
Sudan in 1821. He had the great ambition to build greater Egypt in the horn of Africa. His expansion
was aimed at controlling the sources of the Blue Nile and the most lucrative trade routes of the Horn
(Bahru, 1998:125; Bahru, 2002:26).
Thus, he used the Sudan as a stepping stone for his territorial expansion to Ethiopia. His army came to
Ethiopia through the Ethio- sudanes border lands rather than from the Red sea coast. The Egyptian
armies occupied Siemen, Northern parts of Dembia, the Sheikdoms of Asosa and Benishangul. The
responsibility of resisting the Egyptian army was given to individuals since there was no strong central
government in Ethiopia during the period of Zemene Mesafent. To that end, Dejjazmach kinfu of
Dembia defeated the Egyptian forces at the Battle of Wad kaltabu in 1837.A decade after the Egyptians
defeated the ill trained soldiers of Kasa Haylu at the Battle of Debarki in 1848.

56
In 1865 the Egyptians took the port of Massawa from the Ottoman Turkey and they began their
expansion to Ethiopia from the direction of the Red Sea coast. Khedive Ismail Pasha (r.1863-1879)
intensified the Egyptian expansionist policy ushered by Muhammed Ali. To that end, he used the pre
text of eradication of slavery and expansion of western civilizations to Africa to justify his territorial
expansion to Ethiopia. European countries gave him substantial support because Egypt had more
strategic importance than Ethiopia due to the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.On the other hand,
Egypt considered Ethiopia weak and disunited in 1870s. Therefore, it ushered large scale expansion to
the Ethiopian region and the horn in 1875 by using the Gulf of Aden and Massawa as a war launching
pad.
The Egyptian forces came to Ethiopia through three directions. Colonel Muhammed Rouf Pasha entered
through the port of Zeila and occupied Harar in the period between 1875 and 1885. Werner Munzinger,
the architect of the Egyptian expansionist policy in the horn of Africa arrived through the port of Tejura
and attempted to occupy Afar. Another Egyptian army under the leadership of a Danish colonel,
Arendrup invaded Ethiopia from the direction of Massawa and crossed the areas of Mereb Melash.
Emperor Yohannes wrote letters to European powers defining his boundaries and announcing the
unlawful aggression of the Egyptians. He demanded Christian solidarity to defend Ethiopia against
Muslim Egypt. However, Europeans inclined to Egypt for its strategic importance and gave their deaf
ears to Emperor Yohannes’s request. Then, Emoeror Yohannes IV made defensive war against the
Egyptians. On 16 Nov. 1875 the Ethiopian forces defeated and scored brilliant victory against the
Egyptian forces at the Battle of Gundet. Khedive Ismail Pasha, however, was not in a position to accept
his defeat. Rather, he began to prepare himself for another war.
Therefore, in the days between 7 and 9 March 1876 the Egyptian forces under the leadership of
Muhammed Ratib Pasha and an American General, Loring fought against Ethiopia at the Battle of Gura.
In the same manner, Ethiopia scored another victory and the Egyptians were defeated for the second
time. However, Ethiopia did not get long lasting resolution. In general, the period between 1876 and
1884 became the period of “No Peace No War”. Its decicive military victories both at the Battle of
Gundet and Gura did not bring the desired out comes to Emperor Yohannes. After the end of the war, he
was not in a position to exhaust his army and he wanted to resolve the problems through peace
negotiations.The Egyptians, however, were acted as victorious. As a result, the period of “No Peace No
War” continued for the next eight years. In 1881 a religious movement in Sudan what came to be known

57
as Mehadist Movement sieges the Egyptian soldiers in Eastern Sudan which forced the Egyptian
government for diplomatic resolution with Ethiopia.
Britain which was the Egyptian protectorates was unable to evacuate the trapped Egyptian soldiers from
Eastern Sudan. Consequently, Britain and Egypt sought to sign a peace settlement that would end the
Ethio Egyptian conflict. To that end, the Hewett Adwa treaty was signed between Emperor Yohannes IV
and the British envoy Rear Admiral William Hewett on 3 June 1884 at Adwa. Accordingly, Egypt
agreed to restore major occupied territories such as Bogos and Keren to Ethiopia. Massawa was
promised to Ethiopia and free transit of fire arms to and from Ethiopia. Ethiopia promised to facilitate
the free evacuation of the Egyptian soldiers from eastern Sudan through Massawa and then to Egypt.
At the end, the Ethiopian territories occupied by the Egyptian soldiers were restored to Ethiopia. At the
same time, Emperor Yohannes ordered Ras Alula to evacuate the Egyptian soldiers and fought against
the Mehadist forces at the Battle of Kufit in 1885. Ethiopia, however, did not regain Massawa. Rather, it
was given to Italy on 5 February 1885 to be the watch dog of Britain against the colonial expansion of
France in the Horn of Africa. In short, according to Sven Robinson, who wrote the book entitled the
Survival of Ethiopian Independence, by the Hewett Adwa treaty Ethiopia traded two strong enemies
[Italy and Sudan] with one weak enemy [Egypt] (Rubenson, 1976).
8.5 Resistance against the Mehadist Sudan

What was the cause of Ethio- Mehadist conflicts?
The cause of the Ethio- Mehadist conflict was the Hewett Adwa treaty signed on 3 June 1884. When
Emperor Yohannes attempted to evacuate the trapped Egyptian soldiers, Ethiopia was seen as the enemy
Mehadists. Indeed, they fought against Ras alula at the Battle of Kufit in 1885. Three years later in 1888
the general of Menilek, Ras Gobena Dache defeated the Mehadists at the Battle of Gotidili near Nejo in
Wollega.
However, the major theater of the Ethio- mehadist war was the Metemma region in Gondar. Nigus
Tekle- Haymanot of Gojjam defeated the Mehadists at metemma. But, later he was seriously defeated
near Lake Tana in Gojjam.
Finally, the Mehadist soldiers also called Ansars fought against Emperor Yohannes on 9 March 1889 at
the Battle of Metemma. The Emperor was initially wounded. Later, he was killed and beheaded and his
head was taken to Khartoum as a war trophy.

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8.6 Italian aggression against Ethiopia
How The Italians attempted to colonize Ethiopia? What were the historical developments that the
Italians made with Ethiopia until 1889? How Article XVII of the Wuchale treaty brought conflict
between Ethiopia and the Italians? What was the basic cause of the battle of Adwa? What were the far
reaching political consequences of Adwa? What were its short comings?
In 1869 the Italian private shipping company bought the Port of Assab from local chiefs. In 1882 the
port was transferred to the Italian government. In 1885 the British government invited Italy to control
the port of Massawa to be watch dog of Britain against the French colonial interest in the horn of Africa.
Thus, the Italian government used Massawa as a spring board to extend its hegemony deep into the
Ethiopian territories.
The relation between Menilek and the Italians went back to 1876 when the Italian geographical society
came to Shewa and got the scientific research centre at Let Marefia in Shewa. This site was used to
expand the Italian colonial dominion in Ethiopia. According to this agreement, the Italians demanded
research areas and Menilek of Shewa needed fire arms from the Italians.

59
Map-6: Major Battle fields of the nineteenth century from the book of Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern
Ethiopia, 1855-1991, p. 78.
In 1883 the treaty of commerce and friendship was signed between Menilek and the Italians. The major
provisions of this treaty were consular exchange, agreement of free trade, free movement of people and
freedom of religion. However, Ras Alula Abba Nega warned the Italians to wipe out from the Ethiopian
territories. On 26 January 1887 he ambushed 500 Italians at the Battle of Dogali,
At the end of the war, however, the Italians wanted to get war indemnity for the attacks of Ras Alula.
Britain intervened as the war broker on the behalf of the aggressor Italy. She sent General Portal to
negotiate Italy and Ethiopia. He forced Emperor Yohannes to pay war compensation to Italy. However,
Emperor Yohannes IV refused Portal’s proposal and prepared himself for war. Consequently, he
marched to Saati to fight against the Italians. In that movement, he faced triangular tension. First he tried

60
to solve his internal problems against Nigus Tekle- Haymanot of Gojjam. Then, he went to Menilek of
Shewa. Yohannes negotiated with Menilek and decided to defend the Mehadists in the west and finally
to defend the Italians.
In October 1887 Menilek signed the treaty of neutrality with the Italians against Emperor Yohannes.
The Italians attempted to get the consent of Menilek in the war against Emperor Yohannes. When
Menilek refused to help them the Italians persuaded him to be at least neutral.
Finally, the treaty of Wuchale signed on 2 May 1889 between Emperor Menilek and the Italian envoy
Antonoli culminated the cordial relationship developed between Ethiopia and the Italians. Basically, the
treaty contains twenty articles. Article three deals with boundary delimitation between the Italian
controlled territories of Mereb Melash and the rest of Ethiopia. According to the Italian effective
occupations, territories beyond the Mereb River were considered as the Italian legitimate territories.
Indeed, on 1 Jan 1890 they declared their Italian colony of Eritrea.
On the other hand, article seventeen of the Wuchale treaty declared Ethiopia’s foreign relation. It was
written in two contradictory versions, Amharic versions and the Italian Version. The former described
that Ethiopia could use the help of Italy for her diplomatic relation with other European countries
(optional). Paradoxically, the later stated that Ethiopia had to make her diplomatic relation through the
agency of Italy (obligatory). A section of the treaty reads:
የኢጣሉያ መንግስት ዑምበርቶ ስም መዠመሪያ የኢትዮጵያ ንጉሰ ነገስት ዳግማዊ ምኒሌክ ሇኢትየጵያ መንግስት እና ሇአጣሉያ
ምንግስት የሚጠቅም ሇሌጅ ሌጅ የሚኖር ሰሊም እና ዕርቅ ሇማድረግ የፍቅር እና የንግድ ውሌ ተዋዋለ ፡፡፡ የኢጣሉያ
መንግስት ኮነት አንቶኔሉን በኢጣሉያ መንግስት ዘውድ ንሻን ኮማንዳቶሪ ተብል የተሾመ በአሌዓዛር እና በሞሬስ ንሻን
ከባብሉዮሪ ተብል የተሾምን እንዯራሴ ሆኖ ወዯ ንጉሥ ምኒሌክ ሙለ ሥሌጣን ተቀብል የተቀበሇውንም ሙለ ሥሌጣን
በንጉሠ ነገሥት ምኒሌክ ፊት በርግጥ የተቀበሇ ስሇሆነ ንጉሰ ነገሥት ምኒሌክ የኢትዮጵያን አሌጋ የወረሱ እርስዎ ስሇሆኑ ይህንን
ከዚህ ቀጥል የተጻፈውን ውሌ ከኢትዮጵያ ንጉሠ ነገሥት ምኒሌክ ጋር ተዋዋሌን፡፡
ሦስተኛው አንቀጽ፤ በነዚህ በሁሇቱ ነገሥታት ወሰን ጠብ እና ክርክር እንዳይነሳ በውቅ የተመረጡ ከሁሇቱ ወገኖች ሁሇት
ሁሇት ሽማግላዎች ሌከው በማየጠፉ ምሌክት የግዛቱን ድንበር ይወስናለ፡፡ ከድንበሩ ወዲህ የሚጨመሩት ሀገሮች
የሚከተለት ኛቸው፡፡ የዯጋው አፋፍ ከኢትዮጰያ እና ኢጣሉያ ማኅሌ ይሆናሌ ፡፡
አስራ ሰባተኛው እንቀጽ የኢትዮጵያ ንጉሠ ነገሥት ከአውሮፓ ነገሥታት ሇሚፈሌጉት ጉዳይ ሁለ በኢጣሉያ መንግሥት
አጋዥነት መሊሊክ ይቻሊቸዋሌ(Rubenson,1964:65-67)፡፡
The Italian government Umberto and Emperor Menilek signed an agreement that could serve for
generation to conduct trade. On the Italian side, the Treaty was signed Conti Antoloni. On the
Ethiopian side Emperor Menilek who took the throne signed the Wuchale treaty.
Article three deals with boundary delimitation between the Etalian controlled territories of Mereb
Melash and the rest of Ethiopian territories.

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Article seventeen stated that Ethiopian Emperors may use Italy for their international relations.
Despite the Italians attempts to make Ethiopia their protectorates, Emperor Menilek refused to accept
the Italian version of article seventeen. He dispatched letters to European powers stating the Italian
diplomatic dishonesty and Ethiopia’s complete independence. The Italians, however, began to
implement their policies of persuasion and subversive to realize their goal of colonizing Ethiopia. They
were persuading Emperor Menilek to accept the Italian Version of article seventeen of the Wuchale
treaty. Unfortunately, it became unsuccessful due to the Emperor’s strong stand for being independent.
Then, the Italians used to get some disatisfied groups in Ethiopia against Emperor Menilek. To that end,
they got the collaboration of Ras Mengesha Yohannes and signed the Mereb convention in
December.1891.
However, the Italian policy of subversive activities was failed when the Italian racist government settled
their population in Eritrea. In December, 1894 Dejjazmach Bahta Hagos, the former Italian collaboratr
fought against them at Akale Guzay. In 1895 Ras Megesha and Ras Alula crossed the Mereb River and
fought against the Italians at Quatet and Senafe. When the Italian forces marched deep into the interior
of Ethiopia, Emperor Menilek II made mobilization order that stated the unlawful invasion of the Italian
government. He got soldiers recruited from all parts of Ethiopia including from the newly conquered
regions of south, south west and south east. Finally, Emperor Menilek and his wife, Itege Taytu led a
united army against the Italians.
The engagement between the Ethiopian army and the Italians under took in three stages. The first phase
was the Battle of Amba Alage fought between Fitawurari Gebeyehu and the Italian leaders, Major
Tosili on 7 December. 1895. The second was the siege of Mekele architected by Itege Taytu to blockade
the Italians from their access to water in the period between7 and 21 January1896. The final meeting
was the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896. The Italian army was led by four generals. These were
Barteri, Albertoni, Armondi and Dabormeda.
Despite the military superiority of the Italians, the united Ethiopian army scored a remarkable victory. It
became an exception Battle where Blacks for the first time scored a resounding victory over the White
race. A number of factors were attributed for the failures of the Italian army. In the first place, the
Ethiopian soldiers were fight with great moral for independence in a united manner. Second, there was
the role of double agents who gave false information for the Italians. The role of Basha Awolom was a
case in point.

62
The Battle Adwa had many far reaching consequences. First, Ethiopia became an independent and
sovereign state. Those European powers who had colonies adjacent to Ethiopia gave their recognition to
Ethiopia’s sovereignty. This was done by opening their legations in Addis Ababa and by delimiting their
boundaries with Ethiopia. Second, the then Italian Prime Minster Francesco Crispi was deposed from
political power. The defeat of the Italians created anxiety upon the Italians. Third the Addis Ababa peace
treaty was signed on 26 October1896. Accordingly, Italy agreed to abrogate article seventeen of the
Wuchale treaty and recognized Ethiopia’s complete independence. Fourth, the Battle of Adwa inspired
anti colonial resistance movement in Africa, America and the Caribbean Islands. It became the
background for the rise of the idea of Pan Africanism. Finally, the Victory enabled Ethiopia to acquire
its current shape. Most of the boundaries were delimited after the Battle of Adwa in the period between
1897 and 1908.
However, the Battle of Adwa hastened the colonization of Sudan by Britain. When the Italian forces
faced a humiliating defeat by the Ethiopian army, Britain and France began to compete for colonizing
Sudan. They fought at the Battle of Fashoda in 1898 and Britain defeated France which marked the
colonization of Sudan. In addition, the Battle of Adwa had its own short coming to Ethiopia. It did not
resolve Ethiopia’s access to the sea out let. Eritrea became still under Italian colonial rule until 1941.
CHAPTER NINE
THE ETHIOPIAN EMPIRE, 1900-1935
9.1 Socio Economic Conditions
How slavery and gebbar system contributed for Ethiopia’s backwardness? How and why European
colonial powers that had colonies adjacent to Ethiopia opposed slave trade in Ethiopia? Why the early
twentieth century Ethiopian intellectuals opposed the practice of slavery and gebbar system in
Ethiopia?
63
In the first decade of the twenty century, the gebbar system and the slave trade were the two dominant
features in Ethiopia. The former was a land holding peasant who paid gebbir (tribute) to the state. In
most cases tribute was paid in kind and in the form of unpaid labor service. Based on its purpose, tribute
in kind had different names. E.g it was paid for land use, church and congratulations. On the other hand,
labor service was provided for grain production, road construction, fetching waters and guarding
prisoners.
The formation of the modern Ethiopian empire in the second half of the nineteenth century made the life
of peasants in the newly conquered regions very miserable. The government introduced land
measurement what came to be known as Qelad and alienated peasants from their land. Then, land
became the property of the state and privatization of land became common.
Classification of land based on its fertility increased government’s revenue. Peasants who could not
afford to buy land became land less and moved to towns and cities to be beggars. Thus, this surplus
appropriation of land had negative impact upon the economic development of the country. It
undermined the agricultural productivity of the people.
ድሃ ቢሞት ዯግ ነው በጌቶቹ ፈንታ

ከመከራ በቀር ሊያገኝ ዯስታ
ሳይወር ፈረሰኛ ሳይተኩስ ነፍጠኛ
ካጥር ስር ቀናቸው የኛ መሌዕክተኛ
ይህ ድሀ ድሀው ገባር የሚለቱ
ከየት ሀገር ይሆን የፈሇቀበቱ
ሳሊስታምም ባላን ሞተሌሽ ብሇውኝ
ሳሊሳድግ ሌጄን ምስሇኔው አባሮኝ
ወድያው ሌጄ ሞቶ ከፈኑ ቸግሮኝ
የምሄድበቱ መሊ ቅጡ ጠፍቶኝ
ገባር ሰውም አይዯሌ ነው አለ መሰሇኝ (Bahru, 1998).
The poor had to die instead of the reach.

Nothing he would get, but sadness
He was named cavlrywithout conquer
He remained infant our messenger.
Where was the origin of the tenant?
Who was expected to paid tribute?
My husband diedwithout care

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And my son dies when the land lord ordered

I did not have refuge to tell my dismay
Generally they said tenants did not have scene to lie.
Slavery and slave trade was common in Ethiopia at the beginning of the twentieth century. It was used
for different domestic services, males for agricultural work and females for grinding crops. The frequent
wars under took during the process of empire formation encouraged the practice of slave trade. Slave
trade depopulated the most productive man power of the slave hunting areas. It also killed the moral of
productivity since there was no security of life and property in the area.
European powers that had colonies adjacent to Ethiopia imposed an arms embargo by accusing Ethiopia
for using fire arms for slave hunting expeditions. This was mainly because; slavery was seen as an
obstacle for their capitalist investment in the Ethiopian region and the horn. In addition, the early
twentieth century educated intellectuals also criticized both the gebbar system and slave trade. They
insisted that these two social systems were the major factors for Ethiopia’s backwardness.
Trade was revived in the twentieth century. There were factors that facilitated the revival of trade. First,
the general peace and stability after the completion of Empire formation facilitated trade. Second, the
colonial powers that had colonies adjacent to Ethiopia encouraged trade for their capitalist interest.
Third, the Ethiopian victory at the Battle of Adwa established diplomatic relation between Ethiopia and
other countries.
The direction of the trade routes was changed from South- North to West-East. This was due to
Menilek’s victory at the Battle of Embabo against Nigus Tekle- Haymanot and the Mehadist invasion of
Gondar. Therefore with the opening of the Addis Ababa Djibouti rail way lines, Djibouti became the
major out let for Ethiopia’s external trade. Besides to this, Ethiopia also established external trade with
the British colonies of Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. In 1902 the British trading station was set up in
Gambella. It became the largest external trade in the twentieth century for exporting coffee from western
Ethiopia.
Urbanization was also accelerated in Ethiopia in the twentieth century. The garrison centres established
during Menilek’s territorial expansion became towns. The major towns of Gore and Gobba were a case
in point in this regard. The establishment of Addis Ababa -Djibouti raily way lines also attributed for the
establishment of the towns of Dire Dawa, Nazreth and Modjjo.

65
In the twentieth century, many things were introduced. Hotel (1907) Itege Taytu Hotel, Bank (1905)
Bank of Abysinis, Motor Car (1904), Printing Machine(912), Telegram and postal service(?), Hospital
(1910) Dagmawi Menilek Hospital, School (1908) Menilek II school. It was staffed by Egyptian Coptic
Christian teachers. Alliance Francis School was also opened in Dire Dawa and Addis Ababa (1912).
Teferi Mekonnen School (1925) was also established with French directors. In the curriculum greater
emphasis was given for language than other subjects. French became the medium of instruction.
In the early twentieth century, Ethiopia needed modern education for the expanding bureaucracy. Early
educated intellectuals were called for change from abroad. Hakim Workneh Eshete (Doctor Charles
Martin) was the first medical doctor in Ethiopia. Professor Tamrat Amanuel (Gondar), Aleqa Taye
Gebre- Mariam (Gondar), Afework Gebre- Iyesus (Gojjam) was the author of the first Amharic novel,
Tobya. Tekle- Hewariat Tekle- Mariam (Shewa) who drafted the first written constitution. Heruy
Wolde- Sellase (Shewa). He was the product of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Deressa Amente
(Wollega). Gebere- Hiwot Baykedagn (Adwa). He wrote two books, Atse Menilek Ena Ityopya
(Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengist Ena Ye Hezib astedader (Government and public
administration). These intellectuals intended to improve the life of peasants by using Berhan Ena Selam
News paper. However, the Ethiopian modern technology was imported from advanced nations abroad. It
did not base indigenous technical knowhow and traditional crafts man ship

66
Addis Ababa was established in 1886 by Empress Taytu. The prevalence of Fil Wuha (Hot spring)
attracted her to shift her political seat from Entoto to further south in Addis Ababa. However, Addis
Ababa could not serve as the political centre until 1892.
There were factors that consolidated Addis Ababa to be permanent political centre. First, the issuance of
the land characters by the state encouraged land owners to invest in the city in the construction of
buildings. Second, the introduction of Eucalyptus tree from Australian by Menilek solved shortage of
fire wood. Third, the Addis Ababa Djibouti rail way lines (1917) made Addis Ababa centre of
commerce and other ideas. Finally, the opening of foreign legations in Addis Ababa after the victory of
Adwa enabled the city to be diplomatic centre.
9.2 Internal Power struggle and foreign Threats
What were the major events that brought power struggle in Ethiopia at the beginning of the
twentieth century? How Britain, France and Italy threatened Ethiopian’s sovereignty in 1906?
What Measures were ttaken by Emperor Menilek to resolve his internal and external problrms?
What were the reforms of Lij Iyasu (r.1913-1916)? What were the major factors that collapse the
power of Lij Iyasu?
67
In 1906 two events happened. First, Emperor Menilek II faced his first illness and he was unable to
exercise political power. Second, the expected heir, Ras Mekonnen Wolde- Mikael died. These two
events opened the way for internal power struggle among power contenders.
European colonial powers that had colonies adjacent to Ethiopia (Britain, France and Italy) signed the
tripartite agreement in December 1906. They feared the opening of the German legations in Addis
Ababa in 1905 against their colonial interest. Accordingly, Britain wanted to control the sources of the
Blue Nile in western Ethiopia as her economic zone. France sought to occupy the Addis Ababa rail way
lines. Italy was in a position to connect her two colonies Eritrea and Italian Somalia land through the
hinter lands of Ethiopia.
Despite his illness, Emperor Menilek II made important measures to resolve his internal and external
problems. First, he established the council of ministers in 1907 that were responsible for the smooth
running of political power. These ministers were recruited from high ranking civil and military officials.
Second, he designated Lij Iyasu to his successor in 1909 and appointed Ras Bitwoded Tesemma Nadew
to his regent. Third, he wrote letter to those signatories of the tripartite powers announcing the
sovereignty of Ethiopia.
In due course, power struggle was intensified between Empress Taytu and the old Shewan nobilities.
Taytu had no offsprings from Menilek. The choice Lij Iyasu to succeed Menilek brought anxiety to her.
His father, Ras Mikael of Wollo had hostile relation with her brother, Ras Wolle Betul of Yejju. Indeed,
she made Shumshir, promotion and demotion in 1909. She promoted her relatives into political positions
and demoted her enemies from political power. Fitawurari Habte- Giworgis Dinegde Minister of War
Negadras Haile- Giworgis, Minister of Commerce was resigned from power.
The old Shewan nobilities saw Taytu as a threat for their political power. Ras Mikael of Wollo
supported them to consolidate the power of his son, Lij Iyasu. Those nobilities disappointed by Taytu’s
demotion were stood against her. They removed her from political affairs in 1910 and restricted to take
care of her dying husband. Then, she exiled to Entoto where she stayed until her death in 1918.
The defacto rule of Lij Iyasu started in 1911 when his regent Ras Bitwoded Tesemma Nadew died. After
his death, Lij Iyasu refused to accept another regent. However Abta Bwuyalew wanted to make marriage
with Zewditu and to take the title of RasBitwoded and to be the regent of Lij Iyasu. When Iyasu refused

68
him, he tried to break the palace by force. However, he was captured and imprisoned at Mekdela until
1916.
Lij Iyasu made many reforms. First, he gave equal status for Ethiopian Muslims by integrating into his
administrative hierarchy. Second, he introduced the Municipal police what came to be called Terenbule
from the capital of Libya, Tripoli. Third, he established the separate department of education, separation
of secular education from church. Forth, he improved the tradition of Lebashay, thief detection
mechanism by which a young boy took a drug let loose in the house of the neighborhood where the
thing was stolen. Fifth, he outlawed the Quragna system by which the accuser and accused were chained
together until justice was delivered. Finally, he gave up the abuse of asrat collection. Before his reign, it
was determined before harvest by the estimation of government officials. After he came to power,
however, asrat was collected after harvest based on the report of the tax payers.
Lij Iyasu’s power came to an end due to internal and external factors. Internally, the old Shewan
nobilities opposed him due his polygamous characteristics and his frequent absence from government
offices. He had no respect for the old Shewan nobilities and insulted them by saying my “father’s
fattened sheep.” Indeed, they saw him as a threat to their political power. Their hate was more
exacerbated when he crowned his father as Nigus of Wollo and Tigray in 1914 and Gojjam and
Begemeder in 1915. Furthermore, he promoted his friends and relatives into higher political positions
and demoted the old Shewan nobilities from power.
Externally, the tripartite powers supported the old Shewan nobilities against Lij Iyasu. They feared his
close friendship with the central powers during the course of the First World War. Moreover, they
angered against him due to his moral and material support to the Somalia nationalist leader, Muhamed
Abdel Hassen.
Indeed, the coup against him was made on 27 September 1916 when he was in Jijiga. He tried to
reverse it. However, he was defeated by the armies of the old Shewan nobilities at Meiso. His father,
Ras Mikael fought against the old Shewan nobilities and scored initial victories at the Battle of Tora
Mesk on 17 October.1916. Later on, however, he was defeated at the Battle of Segele on 27
October1916. Finally, Lij Iyasu began to lead a fugitive life for some time until he was captured in
Tigray and imprisoned at Fitche in 1932. He attempted to escape from prison and transferred to
Garamuleta where he died in 1936.

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9.3 The Diarchy, 1916-1930

What was the Dual Rule? How Nigus Teferi eliminated his opponents in the course of the Diarchy?
The Diarchy refers to the time when both Empress Zewditu and her heir Ras Teferi Mekonnen exercised
political power in the period between 1916 and 1930. During the Diarchy, two parties were emerged, the
conservative party and the progressive party. The former were represented by Empress Zewditu and the
old Shewan nobilities. They opposed the introduction of modern technology. The later were represented
by Ras Teferi and the early twentieth century educated intellectuals. They appreciated the introduction
of modern technology from abroad.
European legations supported the progressive groups for their capitalist investment. Therefore, the
struggle between the conservative and the progressive groups dominated the politics of the Diarchy until
the balance of power was shifted in favor of the later through the passagage of time. Ras Teferi’s
political experience and his foreign education enabled him to eliminate his enemies one after another.
Thus, he removed the twelve members of councils of ministers by the order of the Empress in a response
to a demonstration represented by the Mehal safari. In 1921 Lij Iyasu was captured. In 1923 Ethiopia
became the members of the League of Nation. This occasion facilitated Ras Teferi’s diplomatic relation
with foreign powers. At the same time, it exposed Ethiopia for western civilizations.
In 1926 two dominant political figures, Fitawurari Habte- Giworgis Dinegde, the then war Minister and
Abune Mathewos, Bishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church were eliminated from power by natural
death. In 1927 Ras Teferi succeeded the unconditional surrender of Dejjazmach Balcha Safo, the
governor of Sidamo.
In 1928 Ras Teferi defeated the commander of the Palace guard, Dejjazmach Abba Wuqaw. Then, he
was crowned as Nigus Teferi. Finally, on 31 March 1930 he defeated the ex-husband of Empress
Zewditu and the governor of Bege meder, Ras Gugsa Wolle at the Battle of Anchem. An aero plane was
in the war against Ras Gugsa. Finally, on 2 November 1930 Nigus Teferi was crowned as Emperor
Hayle- Sellase I king of kings of Ethiopia and the Diarchy was replaced by the Monarchy.
Soon after his coronation, Emperor Hayle- sellase established highly centralized unitary state. Regional
dynasties were submitted their autonomous status to the Emperor to get their economic privileges and
Centralized administration was established. Wollo (in 1916), Gojjam (in 1932) and Jimma (in 1933).

70
Besides, the Emperor also centralized fiscal policies. Regional posts (Kellas) were replaced by central
posts. Modern national army was organized in 1920s. In 1930 the Belgian officers began to train the
Imperial Body Guard. In 1934 the Holeta military academy was opened. Instructors were recruited from
Sweden. However, the Imperial Body Guard was interrupted by the Italian invasion in 1935.

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CHAPTER TEN
THE ITALIAN OCCUPATIONS, 1935-1941
10.1 Historical Background
What were the historical developments that lead to 1935-36 Itailan aggeression? What were the
fundamental and immediate causes of the war?
Italy recognized the complete independence of Ethiopia after the Battle of Adwa. European colonial
interest towards Ethiopia, however, revived in the first decade of the twentieth century. In 1906 Britain,
France and Italy signed the tripartite agreement following the opening of the German legation in Addis
Ababa one year earlier. The major intentions of these signatory powers were that to divide Ethiopia in
accordance with their colonial interest. Accordingly, Britain wanted to control the areas of the sources of
the Blue Nile. France was in a position to occupy the Addis Ababa- Djibouti rail way lines. Italy decided
to connect her two colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somalia land. However, the tripartite treaty remained
on a white paper.
The Italian colonial interest in the Ethiopian region and the horn reached at its zenith in 1922, when
Benito Mussolini seized political power. The major cause that ignited the Fascist Italian aggression was
that the Adwa complex that the Italians faced at the Battle of Adwa (Bahru, 1998). Mussolini had a great
ambition to restore the power and glory of ancient Rome. At the same time, Italy faced a serious
economic difficulty at home due to the great world economic crisis what has come to be known as the
Great depression, 1929-1932. Mussolini used this pre text to establish his Empire in the horn of Africa.
The Italian government, however, did not reveal its intention of invading Ethiopia. Rather, it became a
good ally of Ethiopia. In connection with this, Italy fully supported Ethiopia’s member ship to the
League of Nation in 1923. By the same token, she also warmly received the diplomatic tour of Ras
Mekonnen in 1924. Moreover, Italy signed the treaty of commerce and friendship with Ethiopia in 1928
to connect road between Assab and Dessie.
However, the Fascist Italian government prepared itself to invade Ethiopia. These wars of preparations
were conducted into ways. First, Italy conducted subversive activities which aimed at creating internal
division among Ethiopians. Second, she made military preparations in her colonies of Eritrea and
Somalia land. Then, having prepared in such a way, Italy was in a position to wait a pre text to declare
war against Ethiopia. On 5 December 1934, the Italian soldiers crossed the Ethiopian territory of Walwal
which could be taken as the immediate cause for outbreak of the 1935-1941 Italo- Ethiopian war.

72
10.2 The war
From which directions the Italians invaded Etthiopia? Who were the commanders of the war?
What was the reaction of Ethiopia? What were the conditions of the Ethiopian patriots? What were
their major problems?
The Italian invasion against Ethiopia came from two directions. From the Italian colony of Eritrea in the
northern and from the Italian colony of Somalia land in the south. The commander in chiefs of the
Italian forces in the north was Emilio De Bonno who was later replaced by Badoglio due to his under
capacity to lead the northern front in its effective manner. On 3 October 1935 the Italian troops crossed
the Ethiopian boundaries of Mereb (Delboca, 1969). As the Italian soldiers advanced deep into the
interior of Ethiopia, they did not face any serious resistance from the Ethiopian side. This was done for
two basic reasons. On the one hand, the Ethiopian government wanted to expose the Italian aggression
for international communities and second the Ethiopian government decided to cut the Italian line of
supplies from its source.
The Ethiopian forces in the northern front were led by Commanders divided into three categories.-Ras
Imru Hayle -Selasse led the Ethiopian troops in the Shire front. His army faced poor fighting moral
among the nobilities of Gojjam and Siemen due to their grievance against the Emperor. The commander
of the army of Gojjam, Dejjazmach Gessesse Bellew deserted the army of Ras Imru from Dabat and
composed the following poem (Seltene, 1999:48).
ኢጣሉያ መጣ በድንገት
ህዝቡን አለት ዝመት
ውረድ አለት ሰቲት
እኔ አሌወርድም ሰቲት
ሽዋ እንዯበሊ ይሙት፡፡
The Italians came suddenly
The people were told to mobilize
They were told to descend to Setit
But I never descend to Setit
Let the Shewans die as they have eaten (Seltene, 1999).
Ras Seyoum Mengesha and Kassa Haylu accompanied the Ethiopian troops at the first Battle of Temben
between 20 and 24 January 1936. In February, 1936 the Second Battle of Temben was fought and it
became the complete defeat for the Ethiopian forces1936. The then War Minister, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu
led the Ethiopian army at the Battle of Amba Aradom between 10 and 15 February, 1936 and Ras
Mulugeta himself was also killed in Battle.

73
Generally, these forces were not strong to defend the Italian forces. There was no unity and coordination
among war leaders. As a result, the Italian forces defeated the Ethiopian forces that retreated further
south. The final Battle in the northern front fought at the Battle of Maychew on 31 March 1936. The
Emperor himself and the forces of the Imperial body guard fought in the war against the Italians.
Emperor with his relatives left Ethiopia via Djibouti to Geneva to appeal the Matter to international
communities. The Fascist Italian forces entered Dessie without much difficulties and then to Addis
Ababa.
The Italian forces in the southern front were led by General Rudolfo Grazianni from the Italian colony
of Somalia land. On the Ethiopian side, the army was made up of two major divisions, the southern front
and the south eastern front led by Ras Desta Damtew, the Governor General of Sidamo province and
Dejjazmach Nesibu Zamanuel, Governor General of the Härärgè province respectively. Unlike the
northern front, armies in the southern front were stronger. They were accompanied by better army and
supplies. Its commanders were also young men with better fighting moral. Graziani made his first
military campaign at Qorahe situated between the town of Jijiga and Harar. Grazmach Afework and
Dejjazmach Mekonnen Endalkachew backed Dejjazmach Nesibu Zamanuel against the Italians. Ras
Desta Damtew resisted the army of the Italians at the Battle of Dolo Odo. However, he made fatal
military mistake. The long march that he under took deep into the Italian controlled areas became a
serious problem for Ethiopian troops. It resulted in difficulties to cross the desert and faced shortage of
provisions. Finally, the Italian forces defeated his force at the Battle of Genale Dorya on 26 January
1936.
10.3 Italian Administrations
How the Italians established their Italian East Africa? How the Italian administration enabled to
facilitate theiroccupation of Ethiopia? Why The Itlians established the Italian East Africa along
Ethnic lines? How such administration weakended the unity of patriots?
The Fascist Italian rule in Ethiopia lasted for five years. In those years Ethiopia became part of the
Italian East African Empire. The whole entire territories were divided into six administrative regions
with their respective capitals. Addis Ababa was the centre of its Empire.

74
SN Region Capital
1 Eritrea including Tigrai Asmera
2 Amhara ( Bege Meder, Wollo ,Gojjam and North Shewa Gondar
3 Oromo and Sidama Jimma
4 Addis Ababa later Shewa Addis Ababa
5 Harar Harar
6 Italian Somalia land and Ogden Mogadisho
These six administrative regions were ruled by its own governor generals who lived in Addis Ababa.
The highest authority was held by Viceroy appointed by Mussolini. The first leader of the Italian East
Africa was Badoglio who later replaced by Rudolfo Graziani after the 1937 Addis Ababa Massacre. The
last who was considered as more liberal minded was Amado Umberto, Duke of Aosta.
The Italian colonial administration in Ethiopia was corrupt and racial. According to some sources the
Italian administration, unlike the British colonial policy of “indirect rule” or that of France, which
applied the colonial policy of “assimilation and association”, the Italian colonial administration was
extremely racial and profoundly discriminatory (Seltene, 1999). It alienated the identity and cultures of
the Ethiopian people. The British and the French colonial administrations considered their peoples of
Africa as their subjects. The Italian administration considered the Ethiopian people as their objects.
10.4 The Patriotic Resistance

What was the turning point that divided the patriotic resistance into two phases? What were the silent
features of each stage? What is the difference between Italian colonization and occupation? Why the
Italian period in Ethiopia was referred as occupation rather than colonization?
There was nationwide patriotic resistance movement throughout the period of the five year Italian
occupation. The Italian colonial administration was confined in the urban areas only. The patriotic
resistance had passed through two phases of development. The first stage was the continuation of the
1935-36 war and it was conventional in character. It was led by higher nobilities. The most prominent
figures in this category include, Ras Desta Damtew, Ras Imru Hail-Sellasse and Ras Kasa Haylu.
Emperor Hayle Sellasse appointed Ras Imru as the head of the provisional government established at
Gore in Illubabur. He was invited to be the head of the Black Lion Organization under the leadership of
Dr Alemework Beyene as the political leader and Belay Haile-Ab as a military commander. These two
events motivated Ras Imru to fight once again after the break up his heart following the Battle of
Maychew. He gathered land lords and soldiers in Wollega and Illubabur in western Ethiopia and

75
advanced to Addis Ababa to strike the Italian administration. There was also another Fascist resistance
movement at Dollo Odo under the leadership of Ras Desta Damtew. He obtained military support from
Dejjazmach Beyene Merid and Dejjazmach Gebre -Mariam Gari. In addition, he also got military
support from the Eritrean askaris. Unfortunately, however, he was defeated by the Fascist Italian forces
at Gogeti where he was publically executed.
The rural based attack was launched from different direction against the Fascist aggression in Addis
Ababa. The two brothers, Aberea and Asfaw Wossen Kasa attacked the Italians from the north of Addis
Ababa. Dejjazmach Balcha invaded the Italians from the south. Ras Abebe Aregay advanced his forces
from the direction of North West to Addis Ababa and Dejjazmach Fikre-Mariam Yinadu from the east.
The moving sprite behind this movement was Abune Petros. However, the Ethiopian patriotic resistance
was not effective enough to undertake action against the Italians. It was poorly planned and lacked
coordination and timing as well.
The advent of the 1937 Graziani Massacre could be taken as the turning point in the history of patriotic
resistance movement. The nature of the patriotic resistance before the outbreak of the Massacre was
conventional. After the 1937, however, the tactics and Strategies of the patriotic resistance were
completely changed. The indiscriminate killing of Grazziani urged patriots to use a guerilla war fare
against the Italians.
Then, a country wide resistance was launched against the Fascist Italians. Unlike, the first stage of the
resistance, the second phase of the patriotic resistance was engaged in a new form of war strategy. It was
also led by lower nobilities and it had strong base in Bege Meder, Gojjam and Shewa.
Furthermore the second stages of the patriotic resistance were backed by inner patriots (Yewust
Arbegnoch). They were Ethiopians who were working with the Italians and provided genuine
information for the Ethiopian patriots. They played a pivotal role for their country’s independence. The
most notable were Shewareged Gedle, Shewanesh Aberha, Likyelesh Beyan, Abebech Cherkos and
Kebedech Seyoum to mention few.
Though the Italians faced natin wide resitance, they had also collaborators. The arch collaborator was
Ras Haylu Tekle- Haymanot of Gojjam. In addition, there were also other figures that collaborated with
the Italians at various stages of development. These were Ras Seyoum Mengesha of Tigre, Ras

76
Getachew Abate of Shewa, and Dejjazmach Ayalew Biru of Siemen and Dejjazmach Hayle- Sellase
Gugsa of Tigre.
የጥቁር አንበሳ ሕግ
ሰኔ 29 ቀን1928 ዓ.ም ሇቀምት
አንዯኛ ፡ይህ ዓርማ ጥቁር ዘንበሳ ተብል ተሰይሟሌ፡፤ ዓሊማውም ጋሻ እና ጦር የያዘ ጥቁር አንበሳ ነው፡፡ በዙሪያውም ተጽፈው
የሚገኙት ሕዝብ ኢትዮጵያ ንሣእ ወሇታ ወኩናት ወተንሥዕ ውስተ ረዳአትየ የሚለ ናቸው፡፡
ሁሇተኛ አርማው የሚተዳዯረው በኮሚቴ ነው ፡፡ በኮሚቴው የሚገኙ ሰዎች ቁጥር እንዯየ ጊዜው እየታየ ያድጋሌ ወይንም
ያንሳሌ፡፡ ሇኮሚቴው በሙለ ስብሰባ የተመረጠ አንድ ፕሬዝዳንት አሇው፡፡ የጦር ሰዓት ስሇሆነ ይህ ፕሬዝዳንት ሇአርማው
በሙለ አዛዥ ነው፡፡ እንኳንስ ላሊ በጦር አዛዡ ሊይ ያዛሌ፡፡ ይሁን እነጂ ከኮሚቴው ሳያስፈቅድ ወይንም ጠቅሊሊ ስብሰባ
ሳይፈቅድ የዲክታተር መብት የሇውም፡፡
ሦስተኛ አርማው ከቀዳማዊ ሀይሇ ሥሊሴ እና ከእርሳቸው ወራሾች ላሊ ሇሚገዛ ሁለ ተቃዋሚ ነው፡፡ እንኳንስ ላሊ ያገሩ ሰው
ቡሆንም ሇመቃወም አይመሇስም፡፡ ይህ መሓሊ ሆኗሌ፡፡
አራተኛ በአርማው ውስጥ የሚተዳዯሩ ሁለ ሰሊማዊውን ሕዝብ ማስቸገር ወይንም የሇባቸውም፡፡
አምስተኛ በጦር ሜዳ የተማረኩትን የጠሊት ወገኖች ነጭም ቡሆን ጥቁር ማጉሊሊት የሇበትም፡፡
ስድስተኛ አርማው በሚኖርበት እና በሚሄድበት አገር ሁለ በተቻሇ መጠን ያገሩን ባህሌ ማክበር አሇበት፡፡
ሰባተኛ ይህ አርማ ማንም ኢትዮጵያዊ ከግርማዊነታቸው ወይንም እርሳቸው ከሾሙት ባሇሥሌጣን ፈቃድ ሳይጠይቅ ጠረፍ
ሇመሄድ አይችሌም፡፡ ሲሞክር ቢገኝ ዕንኳን ነገሩ ተመርምሮ እስከ ሞት ፍርድ ይፈረድበታሌ፡፡
ስምንተኛ ሰዓቱ የችግር የመከራ ስሇሆነ በጦር ሜዳ የቆሰለትን ሇመዳን የሚችለትን ማስታመም ግቡ ነው፡፡ ሇመዳን
የማይችለትን ሇማጓዝ የሚያስቸግሩትን ከጠሊት እጅ እንዳይወድቁበት በሦስተኛው አንቀፅ የተባሇውን እንዳያፈርሱ
ህይወታቸውን ያሳሌፉ ዘንድ መሣሪያ ይሰጣቸዋሌ፡፡ ህይወታቸውን ሇማሳሇፍ ቢፈሩ ግን የጦር አዛዡ ራሱ ወይንም ላሊ ሰው
አዝዞ የዯስታ ሞት ይሰጣቸዋሌ፡፡
ዘጠነኛ አርማው የግሌ ገንዘብ ያሇው አርበኛ የሇውም፡፡ ሇአርማው ጥቅም የማያስቡ እና አርማው የሚጎዳበትን መንገድ
የሚፈሌጉ ሁለ ከአርማው አይወጡም ይገዯሊለ እንጂ፡፡
አሥረኛ ከጠሊት ጋር ሲሊሊክ ወይንም የአርማውን ምስጥር ሲያወጣ የተገኘ ሁለ ይገዯሊሌ፡፡ (Bahru, 1998).
10.5 The War of Liberation

How the patriotic struggle and the support of the British government achieved Ethiopia’s
independence?
Ethiopia achieved its independence by the combined endeavors of Patriots and the British military
support. In 1940, Italy entered into the Second World War (1939-1945) on the side of Germany. This

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situation urged Britain to do its best to secure her colonial interest in the Horn of Africa and began to
provide military assistance against the Fascist Italian aggression.
The British troops from her colonies of Kenya and Sudan accompanied the Ethiopian patriots. The first
British military backing came from Sudan and prepared the ground to send Emperor Hayle- Sellase to
Ethiopia through Gojjam. Following that, the British army, under the leadership of General Platt made
an offensive war against the Italian government in Eritrea.
Another, the British military wing from Sudan accompanied the Emperor from Sudan to Gojjam in
western Ethiopia. This army was commonly known as the Gideon force led by Colonel Daniel Sanford
and Major Orde Charles Wingate .They crossed the Ethiopian border lands into Gondar and Gojjam and
they were united with the Ethiopian patriots. Hence, they continued their fighting against the forces of
fascist Italy until they entered in Addis Ababa.
The last but not the least British force that backed the Ethiopian forces was organized in Kenya under
the leadership of General Ali Cunning Ham. He made a quick advance into the Somalia land and finally
he was able to enter into the Ethiopian province of Harar. Finally, the combined forces of the Ethiopian
patriots and the British government drove out the Fascist Italian forces on 5 May 1941.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
FROM LIBERATION TO REVOLUTION, 1941-1974
11.1 The Consolidation of Autocratic Power
What were the measures taken by the Emperor to consolidate his autocratic power?

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The post liberation period witnessed the existence of absolute state. Emperor Haile- Sellase who
dominated the Ethiopian politics for at least half of a century had outstanding skills to manipulate the
politics. In 1942 the pre-war principalities were merged into 13 Gevernorate Generals. Gevernor
Generals were nominated by him.They were persons with traditional education with no modern
qualifications. They were expected to be loyal to him and maintain peace and Security. They had
superime power over all civil servants according to the imperial directives.
Map-7: Ethiopia in 1974, Taken from Bahru Zewde’s book A History of Modern Eth,1855-1991,p.190.
To get the loyalty of state fuctionaries, the Emperor made marriage ties with high ranking officials.
First of all, marriage into the royal family promoted young educated men to the royal palace. Second,
sons of loyal retainers were preferred to the nobility of birth. Finally, peoples who exiled to abroad by
accopmpayining him were also considered as patriots who gallantrly fought to their country.

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Most high ranking officials spent their time by keeping the royal palace. They frequently visited the
emperor to report on all matters that required his directives and decisions. The order of the Emperor was
made effective by the ministry of pen. It had the traditional title of Tsehafe Tezaz. The most prominent
figure who held this position in the period between 1941 and 1955 was Tsehafe Tezaz Wolde- Giworgis
Wolde- Yohannes. He exiled to Britain with the Emperor acting as his personal secretary. In 1941 he
came back to Ethiopia and eventually took the political position of Tsehafe Tezaz. When Emeror Haile-
Sellase made his business on oral basis, Wolde- Giworgis Wolde- Yohannes was in a position to take
notes and dispatched royal directives to concerned ministers. Finally, his power was threatened by
Mekonnen Habte- Wold in 1955.
11.2 The British decade

How the British decade threatened Ethiopia’s sovereignty during the post Italian liberation
period?
After the Italian occupation in the period between 1936 and 1941, Emperor Hayle- Sellase I, reentered
Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941. He restored his imperial power. Patriots, church leaders and noble men
gave their loyalty to him. However, the power of the Emperor was very nominal. The British
government began to establish strong control over Ethiopia’s foreign relation, finance, military and
administrations. In addition to this, she also claimed the Italian East Africa under her political
jurisdiction of OETA.
The presence of strong British domination in Ethiopian politics was seen in two agreements that the two
countries [Ethiopia and Britain] signed. The first agreement was signed on 31 January 1942.
Accordingly, Britain recognized strong political domination over Ethiopia’s sovereignty. Ethiopia’s
military, administration, finance and foreign relation became under its firm control. BMME was
responsible to train the Ethiopian military force. However, the Emperor challenged the British political
dominance. He requested the British government to make some concession about their strict control in
Ethiopia. In December 1944 the second Anglo Ethiopia agreement was signed that reduced the British
political ascendancy in Ethiopia. They allowed Emperor Hayle- Sellase to recruit non British officers to
train the Ethiopian military force.
Despite their concession to the imperial power in Ethiopia, the British government did not abandon their
strong control in the areas of Eritrea and the Ogden. They had different plans for both regions. As far as
the Eritrean issue was concerned, Britain wanted to detach the western and northern lowlands and united
it with her colony of Sudan. At the same time, she also sought to separate the Tigregna speaking

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highland Eritrea with Tigray to form a separate state. By the same token, Britain also wanted to make
the Ogaden part of what they called “Greater Somalia” by merging it with the former Italian Somialia
land and British Somalia land. These territorial issues were not resolved until a decade after the
culmination of the Fascist rule in the region. In 1948 Ogden was given back to Ethiopiaand the British
troops totally withdrew from the whole region in 1954. However, the Eritrean question became more
complicated with the establishment of political parties along religious and ethnic lines.
11.3 The American Era
What were the major advantages Ethiopia benefited from the USA’s foreign relation
It was apparent that one of the consequences of the Second World War (1939-1945) was that the
collapse of the old colonial powers and the emergence of the cold war between USA and USSR. In
1940s there was strong British dominance in Ethiopian politics. Since 1950s, however, Emperor Hayle-
Sellase began to look more powerful ally than Britain, the United States. American interest in the region
began to grow after they acquired a military communication base in Asmera, Radio Marina to the
Italians. It was later renamed as Qagnew after the Ethiopian contingent that fought on the side of
Americans in the Korean War (c.1950-53).
There were two agreements that embodied the Ethio- American relations. The first was that the point
four agreements signed in 1952. This agreement laid the foundation for the American assistance in the
field of Education, public health, agriculture and award of scholarship for Ethiopian students. The
second agreement was signed in 1953 for the US military assistance. A unit known as MAAG was set
up to provide military training and equipment to Ethiopian troops.
The American presence in Ethiopia was also seen in the field of civil aviation and road transport. The
EAL was established in 1945. It was the result of an agreement between the Ethiopian government and
an American company, TWA. In 1951, the Imperial highway Authority was recognized with the help of
the American government. Loans for repair and road constructions were obtained from the IBRD funded
by USA.
The last but not the least Ethio- American relation was also seen in the agreements of Peace Corps
between the two countries. Many volunteer American teachers came to Ethiopia to teach not only in
university but also at high schools. Many Ethiopians also went to United States for their MA/MSc and
PhD Degrees.

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Later on, however, the Ethio- American relation began to deteriorate. Anti Americanism was developed
by the Ethiopian university students in the late 1960s and 1970s. America was seen as an imperialist
state that was against Ethiopia’s progress by supporting the autocratic rule of Emperor Hayle- Sellase.
Furthermore, Ethiopia’s cordial relation was diminished in late 1970s when Anwar Sadat, the then
president of Egypt signed the Camp David agreement and changed its ally from USSR to USA.
11.4 Land Tenure System

How Mechanized agriculture contributed for the formation of two polarized social classes, land
lords and tenants? How feudalism contributed for Ethiopia’s backwardness?
In the late 1960s and 1970s the condition of tenants was more serious than before. Land lords introduced
large scale mechanized agriculture. This often resulted in large scale eviction of peasants from their land
and accelerated the formation of two polarized social classes in the country’s history, the land lords and
tenants. The former became richer and richer as almost three fourth fruits of the land were given to
them. On the other hand, the later became poorer and poorer as they got only one forth of their produce.
CADU was established to benefit land lords and accelerating tenant eviction. At the same time, the
WADU initiated by the World Bank became more successful in promoting re- settlement program by
the imperial regime.
As a result of opposition against the land reform problems, the 1960 failed coupdètat urged the need for
land reform in Ethiopia. The government by taking into account oppositions at home and external
pressures began to alleviate the conditions of the peasantry. To this end, a serious of laws was
introduced in parliament between 1961 and 1971. In 1965 university students went into the street with
the slogan “Land to the Tiller.” The government also introduced an organ responsible for land
redistribution called MLRA (Markakis, 1974). However, no practical laws were enacted to improve the
life of the peasantry until the eruption of the 1974 popular Ethiopian Revolution.
11.5 Trade and Industry

The manufacturing sector contributed less than 5% of the national income. Industrialization was
confined to light consumer goods and unevenly distributed throughout the country. They were
concentrated in two towns of Asmera and Dire Dawa.
Industrial investments were also foreign origin. For example, Wonji and Metehara sugar factories were
Dutch owned. Ethiopia’s share was less than 20%.

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11.6 The Eritrean Politics
Why the British government established political parties along Ethnic basis? How the Federation
of Eritrea with in Ethiopia came into being? How the autocaratic rule emperor Hayle- Sellase
created insurgent groups in Eritrea for independence?
Eritrea became the Italian colony in the period between 1890 and 1941. With the expulsion of the
Fascist Italian army, it became under British administration as OETA. On 5 May 1941 when Emperor
Hayle- Sellase hoisted the Ethiopian flag at Addis Ababa, people in Asmera were holding demonstration
calling for the reunification of Eritrea with Ethiopia. At the same time, leaders of the demonstration also
announced the formation of the unionist party to play a paramount role in the future of Eritrea with
Ethiopia.
Unlike, the situations in Ethiopia, the British government made some political developments in Eritrea.
Freedom of speech and press were enacted. Political parties were also introduced. However, those
parties were established along ethnic and religious basis. It is apparent that the British governments
applied divide and rule form of administration to weaken the bond of its African colonies. The situation
in Eritrea was not the exception. Accordingly, the Muslim League was established in the Muslim
inhabited areas of western low lands. It was intended to separate the western low lands and united it with
Sudan. The British government also supported the highland elites to separate the Tigregna speaking
areas of high land Eritrea to untie with Tigray and established Liberal Progressive party under the
leadership of Ras Tesemma Asemerom.
In 1947 the Muslim League, the Liberal Progressive Party and the Unionist Party were dually registered
in Eritrean politics. Sometime later, the pro Italian party that wanted to return the Italian colonial rule
under the cover of UN trusts ship was also established.
Unable to resolve the Eritrean issue, the four power commission of enquiry represented by USA, USSR,
Britain and France came to Eritrea to determine its future fate. The arrival of these power commissions
marked the peak of political agitation in which the Unionist party and the Muslim League became the
major rival political parties. In 1948 an assessment of public opinions were held. Some Eritreans stood
for independence. Others voted unity with Ethiopia. Few preferred union with Sudan. Hence, the
commission was unable to solve the Eritrean question and referred the matter to the UN General
Assembly.

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In 1950 the UN commission appointed five men from Burma, Guatemala, Norway, Pakistan and South
Africa to determine the Eritrean Issue. The commission, however, did not come to unanimity.
Guatemala and Pakistan opted for independence. Burma and South Africa preferred federation with
Ethiopia. Norway favored union with Ethiopia. Consequently, having heard the report of the
commission the UN General Assembly voted the federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia in 1950 which came
to effect two years later in 1952.
After the federation act, political parties were emerged and competed for legislature. The unionist party
under the leadership of Tedla Bahru became the largest party that won 32 votes out of 68 seats. Emperor
Hayle- Sellase, however, was against the federal status against Eritrea. He feared the relatively higher
degree of democracy and civil liberties. In 1960 he began to realize his own interest and introduced his
autocratic rule. The chief Eritrean assembly Tedla Bahru was resigned from power and replaced by
Asrate Kasa. Amharic became the official language and the Ethiopian flag was hoisted. Finally, Eritrea
was united with Ethiopia in 1962 and became one of the provinces.
The termination of the federal arrangement in Eritrean politics brought internal and external opposition
against the autocratic rule of the Emperor. Four years earlier in 1958, the Eritreans exild the ELM in
Cairo. In 1961 the Eritreans in Middle East backed by Iraq and Syria established another organization
called the ELF in western low lands under the leadership of Idris Awate. However, power struggle was
started within the Eritrean secessionist movement and three groups were emerged. These were ELF,
PPLF and EPLF.
Finally, in the last years of Hayle- Selasse’s reign, the ELF (Jabaha, front) and the EPLF (Shabiya,
Popular) were fighting against each other for political supremacy in the Eritrean separatist movement. It
was later the TPLF under the leadership of Isayas Afeworki that declared Eritrea as an independent state
in 1991.
11.7 Aristocratic Oppositions

How various aristocratic oppositions eroded the absolute rule of the Emperor?
Opposition against the autocratic rule of Emperor Hayle- Sellasse passed through two fundamental
stages. The abortive coupdetat of 1960 could be taken as the turning point in the struggle against the
Emperor. Before the year, oppositions were under taken in the form of plots and conspiracies. After
1960, however, it assumed more open and mass character.

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In 1936, some notable patriots opposed the Emperor’s exile to abroad. With the restoration of the
Monarchy with the British support, the Emperor gave power for collaborators (Bandas) and
marginalized genuine patriots.Thus; three gallant patriots posed critical opposition against the Emperor.
These were Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke, Bitwoded Negash Bezabih and Blatta Takel Wolde-
Hiwariat.Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke was one of the gallant patriots against the fascist Italians. His base
was Bichena in eastern Gojjam. He opposed the decision of the Emperor when the later gave high titles
and positions for another patriot, Haylu Bellew who had less patriotic feeling than Belay. He refused the
decision of the Emperor. After he was defeated on the Battle field at the plateau of Somma in 1943, he
was taken to Addis Ababa where he was imprisoned and later publically hanged.
Bitwoded Negash Bezabih was one of the four patriots against the Italians in Gojjam. He made a plot
against the Emperor in 1951. The plot against the Emperor was uncovered and he was sentenced to life
imprisonment along with his colleagues.
Blatta Takele Wolde Hiwariat: He was one of the gallant patriots during the occupation period against
the Italians. He seriously opposed the coming into the power of the Emperor after liberation. After a
serious of plots and imprisonment, he tried to assassinate the Emperor. Finally he lost his life in shoot
out with the police in 1968.
The Weyane rebellion
In 1943, the first Weyane rebellion began in eastern Tigray, under the leadership of Blatta Hayle –
Mariam Redda. It was a protest against administrative inefficiency and corruption. The Emperor
assigned Ras Abebe Aregay to command the forces against the rebellion. Besides, the Emperor also
requested the British government to provide air attacks against the rebels. Finally the rebellion
terminated at the end of 1943.
The 1960 Coup dètat

What was the major cause of the 1960 coup? What type of government was required by the
coup makers? What was the reason for its failure?
The failed 1960 coup became a turning point in the opposition against the Monarchy. It was organized
by the two Neway brothers, Mengistu Neway, commander of the IBG and his younger brother, Girmame
Neway who acquired both his BA and MA degrees from the United States.

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The basic cause of the coup was that Ethiopia’s backwardness in comparison with the newly
independent African states that were under the yoke of European imperialism. It was under taken when
the Emperor went to Brazil for a state visit.
የኢትዮጵያ ሕዝብ ከሦስት ሺ ዓመት በሊይ የሆነ የሚታወቅ ታሪክ አሇው፡፡ በዚህ በረጅሙ ጊዜ ውስጥ ነገር ግን ገበሬው
ከሞፈር እና ከድግር ከቀንበሩ የእርሻ መሣሪያው ነጋዴው ከችርቻሮው ላሊው በሌዩሌዩ ዋጋ የሚተዳዯሩ አባቶች ካቆዩት
ያሰራር ዘዴ ያሌወጣ በጠቅሊሊው የኢትዮጵያ ሕዝብ ከድህነት እና ከድንቁር እና የኑሮ ዯረጃ እስከዛሬ ሉወጣ የአስተዳዯር
አመራር ዓሊማም ሕግ እና ሥርዓትን መሰረት አድርጎ የሕዝብ መብት መጠበቂያ መሆን ሲገባው የጥቂቶች ጥቅም ማዳበሪያ
የወገን መበዯያ እና የሕዝብ መቀሚያ መጨቆኛ ዓይነተኛ መሣሪያ ሆኖ ቀረ(Tekeste,1990;47-48).
Ethiopia is an ancient state with a history of three thousand years. With in this long history,
however, farmers with their ploughshares and yokes, Merchants did not develop any mechanism
rather than what our fore fathers utilized since time immemorial. Generally, the Ethiopian people
were expected to liberate itself from poverty and illetracy to ensure law and order to keep human
rights. However, they kept it to fulfil the needs of few and oppressed the majority.
The coup makers wanted to replace the absolute monarchy with the constitutional monarchy whose
power was limited by the constitution. Meridazmach Asfaw wasen Haile- Selasse became the
constitutional Monarch with the fixed salary. Ras Imiru Hayle- sellasse became the prime minister and
Major General Mulugeta Buli became the commander of the IBG.
However, the coup failed before realizing its goal. The coup makers failed to neutralize the army and the
air force against the Emperor. The loyalists won victory that lasted for two days. The Neway brothers
fled to the out skirts of Addis Ababa. The Emperor reached in the capital. The rebel leaders were unable
to escape. Germame was killed. Mengistu was wounded and later publically hanged. Though it failed,
the coup played a crucial role in accelerating opposition against the absolute rule of Emperor Hayle-
Sellase.

86
Figures-2: Birgader General Mengistu Neway (Left) and his brother Girmame Neway.
The Bale Peasant Rebellion
What was the 1965-70 Bale peasant rebellion?
The Bale peasant uprising was erupted in the highland of South Eastern Ethiopia. The root cause of the
rebellion was land alienation of the northern settlers exacerbated by the introduction of land
measurement what has come to be called Qelad in 1951. There was also religious and cultural
domination of the indigenous Muslim populations by the northern Christian settlers.
The rebellion was first started in the Somalia inhabited district of El-kere under the leadership of Kahin
Abdi. It was backed by the Somalia state which claimed all Somalia inhabited territories of Ethiopia as
integral parts of Somalia. Islam became the common ideology that brought the Somalia and the Oromo
province together. On the eve of the rebellion, the governor of Bale Fitawurari Worku Enqu- Sellase
antagonized the local Muslim population against the Christian settlers.
The rebellion reached at its peak in the period between 1965 and 1970. The leadership was given to a
predominant Oromo leader Waqu Gutu who got military training from Somalia. In the course of the

87
rebellion Christian churches were burnt. Government documents were also destroyed by the rebel
fighters. Christian settlers were fled to the town of Mena and Negele- Borena. The governor of Bale
asked the Emperor extra military force to maintain law and order in the province.
At the end of 1966, the government declared martial law in Negele –Borena and other districts of Bale.
The army of two brigades with 4500 men under the leadership of Fitawurari Worku made campaigns
against the rebels to cut their line of supplies from Somalia and to control their military base. However,
the rebellion continued until 1970. It was later with the arrival of the Fourth army division under the
leadership of Wolde- Sellase Baraka and Jagama Kello that the rebellion was totally crushed.
The Gojjam Peasant Rebellion
What was the 1968/69 Gojjam Peasant uprising?
The 1968/69 Gojjam peasant rebellion was started in north western Ethiopia. The root cause of the
rebellion was political discontent against the Emperor. With the Emperor’s centralization policy, the
nobles of Gojjam were uprooted from their political power. Rulers were appointed from the centre to
administer the province. The condition moved from bad to worse when the government issued decrees
that obliged all citizens to register their guns upon payment. The immediate cause of the rebellion,
however, was the introduction of the new Agricultural Income Tax in 1967. According to proclamation
number 255/1967, peasants were obliged to pay one birr and fifty cent.
The rebellion was not equally strong throughout the province. It was too serious in the eastern high lands
where there were predominantly Amharic speakers and Christian dominated population. It was first
begun in the region of Degga Damot and Motta. On 7 February 1968 peasants from these districts met
at Azwari River and made political oath to fight against the government officials. Then, it spread to the
neighboring areas of Bichena, Debre Markos and Bahir Dar.
The rebellion reached at its peak on Sunday, on 9 March 1968 when the government officials began to
measure the plots of land in the district of Debere Markos at the village of Awabel. Peasants forced the
land assessors to stop their land measurement and leave the area. The government militia force under the
leadership of Demis Alamirew went to Awabel. The militia force looted the property of peasants and 56
peasants were sentenced to prison. Then, rebels from Bichena, Debre Markos, Damot and Motta
marched to Mengisto to free prisoners and punish Demis. The rebellion was led by one of one eyed
Shifta, Bamlaku (Markakis, 1974).

88
The rebel force fought against the Territorial Army and the police and the former scored a brilliant
victory over the latter. After the incident, the central government sent commission to investigate the
situation. Finally, Tsehayu was transferred to Kaffa. Peasants were also exempted from taxation.
The Ethiopian Student Movement
How the Ethiopian Student Movement deposed Emperor from political

scene?
The Historical genesis of Education in Ethiopia went back to the early twentieth century. Menilek II
School (1908) and Teferi Mekonnen School (1925) were the two elementary schools in Ethiopia.
However, the establishments of secondary schools were historical phenomena of the post liberation
period. Hayle- Sellase I secondary schools (1943) and General Wingate secondary schools (1946) were
the two high schools. In 1950s Hayle-Sellase I University hereafter Addis Ababa University was
established. Then, Agricultural college was opened in Alemaya now Haromaya. The third was Health
Science College in Gondar.
The consolidation of various colleges under the central administration of Hayle- Sellase I university
consolidated students political radicalism in favor of land reform. Through the passage of time,
university students’ idea of radicalism spread to high schools. University students were expected to give
one year teaching service before their graduation. The program created closer communication between
university and high school students in political awareness.
In 1965 students staged demonstration in front of the parliament by holding the slogan “Land to the
Tiller.” They criticized the parliament as the representative of the people not the guard of the Emperor.
In 1967 the students’ news paper called “News and Views” was replaced by “Taggel” or “Struggle”. At
the same time, students activities were also managed various colleges into one organization called
USUAA to create one mouth piece for university students. To this end, the students’ news paper,
“Struggle” became the major organ to spread political ideas not only for students but also for the
community at large. In 1969 an article was published about cultural and linguistic independence of
nations and nationalities by Waleligne Mekonnen.
Abroad too, students were also organized into two unions. These were ESUNA and ESUE. Students
inspired the Marxist theory and expressed their revolutionary idea through their journal of “Tateq” (Grid
yourself) and “challenge.”Therefore, the Ethiopian student movement played a crucial role in
challenging the autocratic rule of Emperor Hayle- Sellase and accelerated its final collapse in 1974.

89
11.8 The Ethio- Somalia Conflict

What was the basic cause of the Ethio- Somalia war?
The basic cause of Ethio- Somalia conflict was that the Somalia irredentism that Somalia wanted to
establish Greater Somalia. In 1960 the British Somalia land and the Italian Somalia land were united
together and formed the independent Republic of Somalia. The new republic was ambitious to build
Greater Somalia. They adopted a five pointed star flag to symbolize their claimed territories. These
territories were the Northern Frontier District of Kenya, the territories of Ogaden in Ethiopia, the Italian
Somalia Land, the British Somalia Land and the French Somalia Land (Djibouti).
In realizing the goal of establishing the idea of Greater Somalia, the British government attempted to
unite the northern frontier district of Kenya with Somalia. However, this idea was rejected by the
African leaders. The Somalia republic cut off its diplomatic relation with both the British government
and Kenya. This increased cooperation between Ethiopia and Kenya for mutual defense agreement
against Somalia. In 1964 the Somalia leaders waged clash against the Ethiopian government to
internationalize the boundary issue and raise idea of Greater Somalia.
President Siyad Barre, who came to power in 1969 by military coup, revived the policy of all Somalia
claimed territories. He supported the rights of self determination of the Somalis where ever they lived.
The policy of “Greater Somalia” was changed in to “Western Somalia” by expanding into eastern
Ethiopia.
11.9 The 1974 Revolution

What were the basic causes of the Revolution? What were its far reaching consequences?
The 1974 popular Ethiopian revolution became a turning point in the country’s history. It overthrew the
autocratic power of Emperor Hayle- Sellase and culminated the power of the Solomonic dynasty that

90
had exercised political power for more than 700 years. The Revolution had many basic causes for its
eruption. However, its immediate cause was the famine of Wollo that claimed the lives of thousands of
peasants.
The Revolution ushered in January when soldiers stationed in Negele Borena mutinied against the
government. Soldiers detained the commander of the ground force and forced him to eat their food and
drink their water to know their living conditions.
The Revolution came to the capital on 18 February 1974 when teachers throughout the country came out
on a general strike protesting against the implementation of an educational reform call Education Sector
Review. It was apparent that before the outbreak of the Revolution, the Ethiopian Teachers Association
opposed the new education program on the ground that it was biased against the poor.
The uprising was exacerbated by Taxi- Drivers with the rise of petroleum prices resulted from the 1973
Arab –Israel war. Students and unemployed youths joined the protest. They attacked city buses and
extensive cars that belonged to the royal families.
The situations became more serious to the old regime when the soldiers of the second division in
Asmera, the fourth division in Addis Ababa and the Air Force in Debre Zeit mutinied against the
government demanding political and economic reforms. Soldiers publicized the slogan “Tenesa
Teramed” meaning “Wake up and go ahead” to call for a united action for national progress. This song
contributed a lot to incite revolutionary sentiment among the broad masses of the Ethiopian people.
Aklilu Habte- Wold who became Prime Minister in the period between 1961 and 1971 was failed to
resolve the situation. Then, he was resigned from power on 28 February 1974 and replaced by Lij
Endalkachew Mekonnen.
The new Prime minister, Lij Endalkachew Mekonnen attempted to make some reforms. These among
other things include, the prohibition of education Sector review from being implemented, reduced the
price of petroleum by half and salary increase for soldiers. However, the unrest continued and the
demonstration spread to the province.
In June the committee made a call to the military units to send their representatives. The key figures in
the Derg were Major Mengistu Haile-Mariam from the third Division (Hararge) became the first chair
man, and the vice chair man Major Atinafu Abate from the fourth division became the second chair
man. The introduction of the Derg meaning committee marked the beginning of Dual power with the

91
Endalkachew’s cabinet. However, the dual power did not have last long. It came to an end in August
with the imprisonment of Endalkachew and he was replaced by Lij Mikael Imiru.
CHAPTER TWELVE
THE MILITARY RULE, 1974-1991
12.1The Derg and its Measures
How the military government came to power? What were the major measures taken by the
Derg?deposed the Emperor from power, the Derg, Ge’ez word for committee which was the
Having
representatives of the Air Force, the Territorial Army and the Police, proclaimed itself PMAC. Then, it

92
began to take fundamental measures. In December, 1974 it launched a program called the Development
through Cooperation Campaign (Zemecha). It was resulted in sending all high school and university
students and their teachers in the country side. Its major goal was to change the life of the peasantry
through literacy campaign and implement the land reform program.
In 1975 a serious of proclamations were issued. These include the nationalization of Banks, Insurance
Companies and private industries. In March 1975 the radical land reform proclamation was issued which
answered a century old quest of the peasantry that distributed land for all peasants on equal basis and
culminated all private land ownerships and changed the rural land escape. The land reform proclamation
resulted in the formation of PA to undertake the land distribution program in coordination with the
Zemecha. Five months later the Derg nationalized urban lands and extra houses in towns.
12.2 The Derg and its Opponents

Who were the major opponents of the Derg? What weasures were taken to eliminate
these opponents?
The EPRP and MEISON, Amharic acronym for All Ethiopian Socialist Movement were the two bitter
enemies of the Derg. The struggle between the EPRP and the Derg became an absolute civil war in
September 1976 with the execution of the EPRP militants by the Derg officials called the Red Terror.
The counter attack under taken by the EPRP squads against the Derg was referred as the White Terror.
MEISON, however, abandoned its opposition against the Derg and began to follow a policy what came
to be known as critical support following the implementation of the land proclamation.
Before the total elimination of the EPRP forces from the town, Somalia invaded Ethiopia. The latter had
a great ambition to establish “Greater Somalia” and claimed the Ogaden as part and parcel of the
Somalia state. The then, leader, Siyyad Barre took the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution as a good opportunity
and prepared his army to invade Ethiopia. Three years later in 1977, its army was able to control large
territories in eastern Ethiopia. The Derg organized the training of 300,000 militia force at Tateq camp to
reinforce the regular army. Externally, the Soviet Union, South Yemen and Cuba sent their soldiers to
fight on the side of Ethiopia against Somalia. As a result, in March 1978 the Somalia forces totally
expelled from the Ethiopian territories.
Having defeated Somalia, the military government took three fundamental measures First, total
elimination of the EPRP from towns through the action of the Red Terror. In due course of time, many

93
innocent people became victims. However, the EPRP forces continued their struggle in northern
Ethiopia to undertake the guerrilla resistance. Second, Derg established political parties. It introduced
the communist party. In line with this, the government recruited individuals who were loyal to the
military junta. In 1979 COPWE was set up. To rally the women and the youth behind the military state
REWA and REYA were established in 1980. In 1984 with the tenth year anniversaries of the Derg to
powe, the WPE became the single political party in Ethiopia with Mengistu Hayle- Mariam as its
secretary generals. In 1987 the PDRE was proclaimed followed by the promulugation of the communist
constitution in the same year. Mengistu Haile- Mariam became the president of PDRE, secretary general
of the WPE and commander in chief of the armed force.
Finally, The Derg intended to suppress opposition groups and insurgents in northern Ethiopia.The EDU
was fighting against the Derg to restore the old regime in Metemma and Hummera (Andargachew,
1993:128). In 1982 Derg under took the Red Star campaign to expel the EPLF insurgents from their
base of Nakfa in northern Eritrea. The TPLF struggles started by some university students at
Dedebit.They fought against the Derg to establish an independent Republic of Tigrai. They enjoyed the
suport of EPLF, which wanted the buffer zone against the Derg. Besides, the TPLF also engaged in the
war against EPRA, the military wing of EPRP and EDU. The Derg underestimated the potential danger
of the TPLF insurgents. He considered them as the mere creation of EPLF forces.
1989 became the turning point in the struggle between the TPLF insurgents and the Derg where the
former scored victories over the later at the Battle of Enda Sellase. The victory resulted in the total
withdrawal of the government forces from Tigray and killed the fighting moral of the Ethiopan army.
Furthermore, on 16 May high ranking Military officers,general Merid Nigus and general Fenta Belay in
Addis Ababa and general Demissie Bulto in Asmera made a coupdètat against Mengistu when he was in
the Peoples Republic of Germany (East Germany) for state visits. When he came back to Addis Ababa,
all the suspected officers were either killed or sentenced to life imprisonment. The Ethiopian army lost
its best officers and killed the fighting of the army at large.
The TPLF insurgents who initiatially had the intention of establishing the independent Republic of
Tigrai now abandon it infavor of liberatining the whole of Ethiopia from the military rule. A broad front
what came to be known as EPRDF was formed. Its member organization include TPLF, EPDM the
splinters from EPRP,OPDO,which composed of captured Oromo soldiers and Oromo elites who
disagreed with OLF and EDORM made up of captured military officers of Ethiopia.

94
12.3 The Final Collapse

The Battle of Enda Sellase and Afabet marked the beginning of the end of Mengistu’s rule.The former
enabled the EPRDF forces to lounch their expansion into Gondar and Wollo. In Gondar the EPRDF
forces and the government fought at the Battle of Mount Guna. Despite their considerable cost, the
Battle of Guna enabled them to controle the strategic town of Debre Tabor. Then, they started to control
Gojjam and Wolega under their jurisdiction. Another victory that the EPRDF forces scored over the
government forces took place at the Battle of Meragna in Wollo which opened the way for EPRDF
forces to north Shewa.7 At the same time, Afabet paved the way for the EPLF forces to control Massawa
on 17 February 1990. The government lost its control of the coast line and the navy was collapsed.
Consequently, the president of America took responsibility to negotiate the EPLF insurgents and the
government first at Atlanta Gorgia in September and then tonayrobi in Kenya in November. The peace
deal, however, was failed due to the disagreement between the two parties over procedural issues. At the
same time, negotiation between TPLF and the government was held in March 1990 in Rome under the
good office of the former Italian Ambasador to Ethiopia.The former, however, failed to accept the
negotiation. They insisted that other constituent members of EPRDF should also attend it. Finally,
Herman Cohen, the US Assistance Secreteray of state for African Affairs led the London peace
conference in May 1991. EPLF, EPRDF and OLF attended the peace deal. Tesfaye Dinqa, the new
primeminister represented the Ethiopian government.
However, the London negotiation bore no fruits for the military government. The EPLF controlled
Asmera and declared their defacto independent state of Eritrea. The EPRDF forces also took control of
the capital, Addis Ababa. Finally, Mengistu fled to Zimbabwe on 21 May 1991.
CONCLUSION
Ethiopia is an ancient state emerged in north east Africa. More than 85 languges are spoken in its
territories. These languge belongs to Afro _Asiatic and Nilo _saharan language super families.The
former, further divided into Semetic, Cushitic and Omotic languge families. The later was the languge
spoken along the Ethio- Sudanes border lands.
The history of state formation in Ethiopia went back to the pre- Aksumite period. Punt and Damat were
the two historically known states forged before the Aksumite Empire. Aksum was one of the maritime
7
Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1991… p.266.

95
civilizations that emerged in the Second century B.C. Adulis was its ancient port that could serve as the
centre of international trade and ship building technology. However, the prosperity of the Aksumite
Empire began to decline in the seventh century. In 702 the Arabs destroyed the ancient port of Aksum,
Adulis. Then, the centre of the Christian states was shifted further south to Lalibela. The Agaw people
established the Zagwa dynasty that lasted from 1150 to 1270. These rulers were best known for the
construction of the rockhewn churches of Lalibela.
The period between 1270 and 1529 was often refered as the medieval period. The rulers of the Christian
high land kingdom of Solomonic dynasty and the Muslim Sultanates of the walasma dynasty were in a
serious conflict to control Zeila trade routes. In addition, the period also witnessed large scale territorial
expansion than before. The most expansionist king, Amde- Seyon (r.1314-1344) conqured many
Muslim and Omotic states into his Empire. To administer these vast territories, feudal system of
administration was introduced. However, rulers of the medieval period did not have permanenet capitals.
They ruled from roving capitals to check the advance of their enemies.
In the sixteenth century two dominanat events were occurred, intra state conflict between the Christian
highland kingdom and the low land Muslims and the large scale Oromo population Movement of the
sixteenth century. In the conflict between the Christian states and the Muslim sulatanates, Portugal and
Ottoman Turkey involved in the war to control the most strategic place of the horn of Africa for their
own economic advantage. The conflict came to an end in 1543 at the battle of Woyna Dega. However,
the war weakened the power of both parties and opened the way for the Oromo population Movement
that changed the demographic land scape of northern Ethiopia.
The period of consolidation versus instability occurred in the period between 1543 and 1855. The
Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century forced the Christian states to shift from their
political scene Shewa to Gojjam and finally to Gondar. The Ethio- Portugues relation brought about the
introduction of Catholicism. Many Catholic missionaries came to Ethiopia and they tried to persuade the
Ethiopian rulers to accept the new religion. Finally, Pedro paez convinced Emperor Susenyos to
declared Catholiccism as the official state religion. Gondar was established in 1636 and solved
Ethiopia’s absence of permanent capital throughout the medieval period. In the period between 1769 and
1855 Zemene Mesafent was prevailed. It was the time when regional lords exercised real power at the
expense of the central government in northern Ethiopia. However, southern Ethiopia was in the process
of state formation. In the second half of the nineteenth century, two events dominated the history of the

96
Ethiopian region and the horn. The first one was the process of Empire formation. It was ushered by
Emperor Tewodros. Emperor Yohannes also continued the making of modern Ethiopia started by
Tewodros. However, it was Emperor Menilek who completed the birth of Modern Ethiopian Empire.
The second historical theme was resistance against foreign aggression. Britain, Egypt, the Sudan and
Italy threatened the Ethiopian sovereignity in different times. The Italian ambition to colonize Ethiopia
culminated at the Battle of Adwa in 1896 which resolved the question of colonialism versus
independence in favor of the later.
The the beginning of the twentieth century witnessed politica instability. The death of Ras Mekonen
Wolde- Mikael and the illness of Menilek II in 1906 brought about foreign threats and internal power
struggle. Those colonial powers that had colonies adjacent to Ethiopia wanted to partition Ethiopia in
accordance with their spherece of influence. At the same time, power struggle also intensified among
power contenders in Ethiopia.
In the period between 1936 and 1941 the Italian government attempted to occupy Ethiopia. However,
the Italian administrations were confined to urban centres only. The country side was under the control
of gallant patriots. At the end, with the support of the British government and the fighting of patriots
Ethiopia achieved its independence in 1941.
In the post liberation period, the British government established its strong control over the Ethiopian
administration, finance and military until the coming of the Americans in 1950s. During the post war
period, Emperor Hayle- Sellase established strong centralized administrations. Land became the
properties of the state and commercialization of agriculture became common. Peasants who failed to buy
land were reduced into the status of tenancy. The inequality between the land lords and peasants brought
strong opposition against the Emperor. These oppositions finally culminated with the 1974 popular
Revolution which deposed the Solomonic dynasty from political landscape.
Then, the military government established the Provisional Military Administrative council. These
government distributed land for peasants on eqaual basis. However, the goal of establishing democratic
government became unrealized. The EPRP opposed the Derg and they waged the White terror against
the Derg officials. Derg on its part, declared an offensive war against the EPRP squads what came to be
known as the Red Terror.

97
The EPLF and TPLF insurgents threatened the political power of the military rule. The disintegration of
Russia and the fall of the socialist block, the Derg lost its international support. Finally, the EPRDF
foces controlled Addis Ababa and Mengistu flee to Zimbabwe on 21 May 1991.
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Introductory To Ethiopian History

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An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

5.1 The Portuguese and Ottoman Turkish Rivalries .......................................................................................... 32

An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

10.1 Historical Background ............................................................................................................................... 71

An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

Lists of Maps and Figures

Map-2: Lingustic map of Ethiopia……………………………………………………………………...15

Map-3: Major trade routes of the medieval period……………………………………………………...29

Map-4: Ethiopia in the Nineteenth Century…………………………………………………………….46

Map-5: Long distance trade routes of the nineteenth century………………………………………….49

Figure-1: Emperor Tewodros’s Sebastopol…………………………………………………………….52

Map-6: Major battle fields in the nineteenth century…………………………………………………...59

Figure-2: Hakim Workneh Eshete (Dr.Charles Martin)………………………………………………..66

Map-7: Ethiopia in 1974………………………………………………………………………………..78

An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

BMME British Military Mission to Ethiopia

BP Before the Present

CADU Chlilalo Agricultural Development Unit

COPWE Commission for Organizing the Workers party of Ethiopia

EAL Ethiopian Air Lines

EDORM Ethiopian Democratic Officers Revolutionary Movement

EDU Ethiopian Democratic Union

ELF Eritrean Liberation Force

ELM Eritrean Liberation Movement

EPDM Ethiopian Peoples Democratic Movement

EPLF Eritrean People Liberation Front

EPRA Ethiopian People Revolutionary Army

EPRP Ethiopian People Revolutionary Party

ESUE Ethiopian Students Union in Europe

ESUNA Ethiopian Students Union in North America

EDORM Ethiopian Democratic Officers Revoutionary Movement

HSIU Hayle- Sellase I University

An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

IBG Imperial Body Guard

IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

IEA Institute of Ethiopian Archaeology

IES Institute of Ethiopian Studies

MAAG Military Assistance Advisory Group

MEISON Melaw Ityopya Socialst Niqnaqe

MLRA Ministry of Land Reform and Administration

MSc Masters of Science

OETA Occupied Enemy Territory Administrations

OLF Oromo Liberation Front

OPDO Oromo Peoples Democratic Organizations

PDRE Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

PhD Doctors of Phylosophy

PMAC Provisional Military Administrative Council

REWA Revolutionary Ethiopian Women Association

REYA Revolutionary Ethiopian Youth Association

TPLF Tigrean Peoples Liberation Front

TWA Transcontinental and Western Airlines

An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

UNESCO United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

USA United States of America

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republic

WADU Wolayta Agricultural Development Unit

WPE Workers Party of Ethiopia

An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie

An Introductory History of Ethiopia and the Horn Alemu Dejenie