Professional Documents
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Free Grammar Ebook Level 2
Free Grammar Ebook Level 2
Grammar
E-Book
Level 2
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Table of Contents
Present Continuous For Future Use…………………………………… 5
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Welcome!
Thanks for downloading the Free English Grammar E-Book Level 2 – I hope
it helps you with your English studies! If you have any questions about the
lessons, please e-mail me at [email protected]
Espresso English has over 300 fun, fast online English lessons
(www.espressoenglish.net). You can also sign up to get new English lessons
every week by e-mail, as well as the Free English Grammar E-Book Level 1.
Please post a link to the book on Facebook and Twitter to share it with your
friends and classmates. Thanks – I really appreciate it!
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You can use the present continuous for future plans with these words:
tonight, tomorrow, this weekend
next week/month/year
this summer/fall/winter/spring
on Monday/Tuesday/Wednesday/etc.
next Monday/Tuesday/Wednesday/etc.
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You can use either “will/won’t” or “going to” for predictions or general
statements about the future:
My company‘s going to move its headquarters overseas next year.
My company will move its headquarters overseas next year.
Your wife will love those flowers – they’re beautiful!
Your wife’s going to love those flowers – they’re beautiful!
The economy isn’t going to improve much this year.
The economy won’t improve much this year.
He won’t pass the test. He hasn’t studied at all.
He’s not going to pass the test. He hasn’t studied at all.
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Because / Because of
The difference between these two words is that because is followed by
a subject + verb, and because of is followed by a noun:
Due to / Owing to
Due to and owing to are also followed by a noun. These words are a little
more formal.
Many people are still unemployed due to the fact that the economic
recovery has been slower than anticipated.
The publisher rejected the author’s latest work owing to the fact that
the manuscript was full of errors.
Since / As
Since and as are more informal, and they are followed by a subject +
verb.
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There have been heavy rains throughout the interior of the state. As a
result, several areas have experienced flooding.
So
“So” is more informal, and more commonly used in spoken English.
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Linking Words:
Adding, Organizing, Summarizing
Adding Information and Examples
She has a lot of good ideas for our business – opening an online
store, for instance.
namely / such as
There is a difference between namely and such as.
Namely is followed by ALL of the examples you referred to, but such
as gives only one or some of the examples, not all of them.
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A few of the students – namely Brian, Thomas, and Jack – failed the course.
also / too
Also can go in the middle of a sentence, whereas too is typically used at the
end.
as well / as well as
As well goes at the end of the sentence (similarly to too).
As well as must be followed by another word.
People who exercise regularly have more energy during the day and
sleep better at night. In addition, they tend to live longer.
Construction on the new subway has been delayed for months due to
budget shortfalls. Moreover, the workers are threatening to go on
strike.
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Firstly / Secondly
When you are going to make a series of points, you can
use firstly and secondly for the first and second points. After that, you can
use “The third point,” ”The fourth point,” etc. or “in addition.”
Lastly / Finally
For your final point, you can begin the sentence with lastly or finally. These
words show your audience that you are almost finished.
Our company has two factories: one in Detroit and one in Atlanta. The
former is operating at 95% capacity and the latter at 65%.
In this case, “the former” = the factory in Detroit, and “the latter” = the
factory in Atlanta.
Summarizing Information
Here are some English phrases you can use to give a summary of the
information you have already said or written. In general, these phrases go at
the beginning of the sentence and are followed by a comma.
• In short,
• In summary,
• To summarize,
• In conclusion,
• In a nutshell,
(more informal)
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But / However
But is more informal than however. You can
use however at the beginning of a sentence, but you can’t
use but at the beginning of a sentence (in written English).
I tried to lift the box, but it was too heavy for me.
I tried to lift the box. However, it was too heavy for me.
Despite / In spite of
These linking words are the same, and they are followed by a noun or
a gerund (-ing form of the verb, which can function as a noun).
They arrived on time in spite of the fact that they left an hour late.
We won the game despite the fact that we had two fewer players.
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This cell phone plan costs $0.05 per minute, whereas that one gives
you up to 800 minutes per month for a fixed price.
His boss allows him to work from home, unlike mine.
She’s very friendly, unlike her sister.
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These verbs are the same in the present and the past participle. Only the
simple past form is different:
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do did done
go went gone
Examples:
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Examples:
Examples:
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Note: You can put a question word at the beginning:
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Use the present perfect + never to talk about things you have NOT done
at any time in your life.
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Lately
• “I’ve gotten a lot of spam e-mails lately.”
• “Adam and Jessica haven’t been to church lately.”
• “Have you seen any good movies lately?”
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American English
Spoken American English often uses the simple past with already,
yet, and just:
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Since is used with a point in time, and means “from that point in time until
the present.” Use since with dates (2011, January, Tuesday, etc.), times
(6:15, noon, this morning, etc.), and past events (I was a child, he
graduated from college, etc).
Since is always used with the present perfect, and not the simple past:
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Questions:
In some cases, either the present perfect simple or the present perfect
continuous can be used, with the same meaning. We often do this with the
verbs “work” and “live”:
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Comparative Adjectives:
Not as ______ as
not as (adjective) as
Running is not as fast as biking.
= Biking is faster than running.
Canada is not as hot as Ecuador.
= Ecuador is hotter than Canada.
Helen is not as friendly as her husband.
= Helen’s husband is friendlier than she is.
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These quantifiers can be used both to show a “more” difference and a “less”
difference:
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Comparative or Superlative?
Comparative: To compare 2 things.
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So / Neither / Too
Me Too / Me Neither
The easiest way to agree in English is to say ”Me too” (to agree with a
positive statement) or “Me neither” (to agree with a negative statement):
You can say “Me too” or “Me neither” in response to statements in any tense
(present, past, future, present continuous, present perfect, past perfect,
etc.)
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Examples:
The phrase “me either” is not technically correct, but many people
say it in spoken English!
So do I / Neither do I
You can say “So do I” and “Neither do I” to respond to simple present
sentences.
So am I / Neither am I
You can say “So am I” and “Neither am I” to
respond to simple present sentences with
the verb “BE” or present continuous
sentences.
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As you can see from the examples, the general rule for “So… I” and
“Neither… I” is that the verb matches the verb tense used in the
original sentence. Try the quiz below to test your understanding!
help
Can you help me to carry these boxes?
It’s very common to remove the word “to”:
Can you help me carry these boxes?
hope
We hope to hear from you soon.
I hope it doesn’t rain this weekend.
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learn
She’s learning to swim.
It’s very common to add the word “how” if you are learning a new skill:
I’m learning how to cook.
need
I need to go to the supermarket. We don’t have any eggs.
offer
My friend offered to take me to the airport.
plan
We’re planning to have a big party when our son graduates from college.
pretend
He pretended to be sick so that he didn’t have to take the test.
promise
He promised to call me back as soon as possible.
try
I’m trying to read this book, but it’s too difficult.
want
I want to learn English so that I can study in the U.S.
would like
I’d like to travel to France someday.
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Verbs + -ING
Here are some common verbs in English that are followed by -ing.
avoid
You should avoid eating after 10 PM.
enjoy
I enjoy skiing, surfing, and playing tennis.
finish
Have you finished reading the newspaper yet?
can’t stand
I can’t stand going to parties where I don’t know anyone.
don’t mind
I don’t mind working overtime.
look forward to
I look forward to seeing you next week.
practice
I need to practice speaking English more often.
spend (time)
My roommate spends hours watching TV.
stop
He stopped smoking ten years ago.
suggest
I suggest taking some time off.
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We use remember + -ing and forget + -ing to talk about the past,
to talk about a memory:
Start, like, love, and hate can be used with the infinitive or -ing.
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The word “to” is used after allowed and permitted, but not
after can or may.
Can is more informal, may and permitted are more formal, and allowed is
both formal and informal.
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For the past and future of “can,” you can use could / was allowed to
(in the past) and will be allowed to (in the future):
Must and required are more formal than have to and need to.
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You can use these words for “light” requirements and prohibitions – for
example, rules that are often not followed.
Can’t is more informal, mustn’t and not permitted are more formal,
and not allowed is both formal and informal.
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Don’t have to and don’t need to are more informal. Not necessary, not
required, and optional are more formal.
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Prepositions of Time
Image source: FreeDigitalPhotos.net
after / later
Use after + phrase, and use later alone (at the end of a
sentence or phrase).
ago / before
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Use ago to talk about past times in reference to the current moment.
Use before to talk about past times in reference to another moment in the
past.
by / until
Use by for one specific event that will happen before a certain time in the
future. Use until for a continuous event that will continue and then stop at a
certain time in the future.
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during / while
Both during and while mean that something happens at the same time as
something else.
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on / in / at
Use in for centuries, decades, years, seasons, and months:
• In the 18th century
• In the 1960s
• In 2001
• In the summer
• In October
• In the morning
• In the afternoon
• In the evening
• At night
past / to
We can use these prepositions with minutes in relation to the hour:
for / since
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For is used for a period of time, and since is used to reference a specific
point in time.
as soon as / as long as
As soon as means “immediately after another event.”
As long as means “for the period of time” or “on the condition that”:
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Prepositions of Place
above / on top of / on
Use above when the two objects are not touching.
The pictures are above the couch. The pillows are on the couch.
And we use “on top of” when it is an unusual place to put something:
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Use below when one object is in a lower position than the other.
Underneath and beneath are more formal words for “under” and “below.”
behind / in front of
Use behind when object A is farther away from you than object B, and in
front of when object A is closer to you than object B.
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Some people say “in back of” for “behind.” Note that it’s always “in
back of” and never “back of:”
We can also say “in the back of” to describe the back part of a space:
near / close to / by
These words all mean the same thing – that the distance between the two
objects is small. Be careful not to confuse them. “Close to” is the only one
that uses the word “to.”
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Out and out of usually suggest movement, not just location. “Out of” must
always be followed by a noun.
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Prepositions of Movement
across / through
Across is going from one side of an area, surface, or line to the other side.
Through is movement from one side of an enclosed space to the other side.
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along / around
Along is to follow a line.
into / out of
Into is to go from outside a space to inside a space.
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onto / off
Onto and off refer to surfaces, differently from into / out of (which refer
to enclosed spaces):
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up / down
over / under
To go over is to pass above something.
To go under is to pass below something.
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If you go away from something, you get farther away from it.
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back to
“Back to” is movement of return to a place you have been before:
He went to Italy.
(maybe for the first time)
Relative Clauses
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Relative Pronouns
Relative Adverbs
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These sentences are correct, but they are very short and simple. You can
use relative clauses to make your sentences in English sound more fluent
and natural:
If you remove “who lives in California,” the sentence still has the same
meaning:
My brother is an engineer.
The relative clause “who lives in California” is extra information.
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If you remove “who failed English class three times,” the sentence is
incomplete:
Therefore, the relative clause “who failed English class three times”
is essential information, because it defines which student, specifically, we
are talking about.
Which or That?
Use which for non-defining relative clauses, and use a comma before it.
Use that for defining relative clauses, and don’t use a comma before it.
• The bananas that I bought on Monday are rotten.
• The bananas, which I bought on Monday, are rotten.
In the first case, it’s possible that we have two types of bananas in the
house:
• Older bananas that I bought on Monday
• Newer bananas that I bought on Wednesday
…and that only the first bananas are rotten, but the second bananas are not.
In the second case, all the bananas in the house were bought on Monday,
and they are ALL rotten.
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The new Stephen King book, which I borrowed from the library, is very
good.
Without clause: The new Stephen King book is very good.
(sentence is complete. The “library” part was only an extra detail)
Don’t worry – I’m going to teach you a simple formula that works for asking
questions in almost ALL the verb tenses!
QU estion word
A uxiliary verb
S ubject
M ain verb
Look how QUASM works for forming questions in these verb tenses:
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Future Questions:
QUESTION AUXILIARY SUBJECT MAIN
WORD VERB VERB
Modal Questions:
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Exceptions:
…but they still follow ASM (Auxiliary verb – Subject – Main verb)
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Questions with the main verb “be” also don’t follow the pattern:
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In indirect questions with is/are, the verb (is) comes after the subject
(Market Street).
Again, there is no auxiliary verb did in the indirect question. In fact, this
indirect question isn’t even a question – it’s more of a statement that invites
the other person to give more information.
Indirect: Do you have any idea how he’s managed to get in shape so
quickly?
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The auxiliary verbs have and has can be used in both the direct and indirect
questions – but in the direct question, “has” comes before the subject (he),
and in the indirect question, “has” comes after the subject.
To form the indirect question, remove does and change “cost” to “costs.”
For direct questions with can, we can use the phrase “would it be possible…”
to make it indirect.
“Is there any chance…” is another option for forming indirect questions
with can.
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Many English learners confuse the two forms of used to. Read this lesson
and take the quiz to test your understanding!
used to = accustomed to
The first meaning of used to is “accustomed to” – when something was
strange or different for you in the past, but now you think it’s normal:
When I first moved to Korea, I didn’t like the food – but now I’m used
to it.
We‘re used to waking up early – we do it every day.
My 4-year-old son cried on the first day of school; he wasn’t used
to being away from his mother the whole day.
It took me a long time to get used to driving on the right side of the
road after I moved from New York to London.
So, you’ve lived in Finland for 5 years – are you used to the cold
weather yet?
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Before this form of used to, we use the verbs BE and GET – “be” to
describe the state of being accustomed to something, and “get” to describe
the process of becoming accustomed to something.
After this form of used to, we use a noun or the -ing form.
After this form of used to, we use the infinitive of the verb.
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too many + countable noun She put too many eggs into the cake. The
recipe said 3 and she used 5.
verb + too much He complains too much. He has such a
negative attitude.
ENOUGH
enough + noun (countable or uncountable) We don’t have enough people for a soccer
team. We have 8 people and a team needs at
least 11.
adjective + enough Sorry kid, you’re not old enough to buy
alcohol. You’re 19 and the minimum age is 21.
verb + enough I don’t exercise enough. I need to go to the
gym more than once a month.
Some / Any / No
Some or Any?
Use SOME in positive statements.
I’ve read some good books lately.
Use “some” with uncountable nouns and with plural countable nouns.
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Exception:
Any or No?
In sentences that begin with ”There,” you can say them two different ways:
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Double Negatives
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The waiting room was so crowded that there was nowhere to sit.
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Subject-Verb Agreement
Subject-verb agreement is one of the first things you learn:
In this English lesson, you’re going to learn a few more advanced cases of
subject-verb agreement that confuse many learners.
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police
Usually, “police” is plural:
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First Conditional
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CONDITION RESULT
If John goes on a trip next month, he won’t have time to finish the project.
If we don’t save money this year, we won’t be able to buy Christmas presents.
When When the “condition” will When I die, I’ll leave all my money to
definitely happen. charity.
As soon as To emphasize immediacy This situation is very urgent. I’ll call you as
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Unless In place of “if not” You’ll fail the test unless you study.
= You’ll fail the test if you don’t study.
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Second Conditional
Use the Second Conditional to talk about impossible, imaginary, or
unlikely situations:
CONDITION RESULT
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If Peter asked Karen to marry him, she might say yes… but she
might say no.
(In this case, we aren’t sure if Karen loves Peter or not)
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Last year, he couldn’t speak English very well, but now he can.
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Past Perfect
The past perfect is “the past before the past.” You can use it to talk about
an event that happened before another event in the past. The past perfect is
formed with:
I had studied English for several years before I traveled to the U.S.
I hadn’t studied English before I traveled to the U.S.
Had you studied English before you traveled to the U.S.?
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“Had had”?
With the past perfect, it’s possible to have the structure “had
had” and “hadn’t had” in a sentence, when “had” is both the auxiliary verb
and the main verb. In these cases, it’s very common to use the short
form: ‘d had.
I had had five different jobs by the time I was 30 years old.
I‘d had five different jobs by the time I was 30 years old.
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When I saw him, I could tell that he had had too much to drink.
When I saw him, I could tell that he‘d had too much to drink.
I told my boss that I hadn’t had enough time to finish the project.
We had never had an argument until last week.
By the time
I‘d finished all the work by the time you called.
When
When we arrived at the airport, our flight had already left.
Before
Before we sold our car, we had owned it for 12 years.
Until
He‘d never met a native English speaker until he visited London.
Said
She said that she‘d lost her wallet.
Note: The simple past and the past perfect are often in the same
sentence, but not necessarily. It’s possible for the first sentence to
establish the “context” of the past, and for following sentences to be in
the past perfect:
I first met John in 2001. He had been looking for work for the
past two years. Although he had gone for interviews in several
big companies, nobody had hired him.
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Present perfect
An action that started in the past and continues to the present.
I have lived in this city for six months.
An action that happened before now (unspecified time)
I have been to Japan twice.
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It’s very common to use the contractions ‘ve and ‘s in the present
perfect:
Past perfect
An action that happened before a time in the past:
“When I arrived at the office this morning, I discovered that I had
left my computer on the night before.”
I’d traveled to five different countries by the time I was 20 years old.
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In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence RECEIVES the action.
The house was painted last week.
Subject / verb
Notice that the object of the active sentence (house) became
the subject of the passive sentence.
1. Make the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive
sentence.
2. Use the verb “to be” in the same tense as the main verb of the active
sentence.
3. Use the past participle of the main verb of the active sentence.
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Processes
First the apples are picked, then they are cleaned, and finally
they’re packed and shipped to the market.
General thoughts, opinions, and beliefs
New York is considered the most diverse city in the U.S.
It is believed that Amelia Earhart’s plane crashed in the Pacific
Ocean.
Hungarian is seen as one of the world’s most difficult languages to
learn.
Skin cancers are thought to be caused by excessive exposure to the
sun.
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Events in history
• George Washington was elected president in 1788.
Crimes / Accidents
• Two people were killed in a drive-by shooting on Friday night.
• Ten children were injured when part of the school roof collapsed.
…as well as in many other situations when the person who did the action is
unknown or unimportant.
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Simple past Past perfect “I ate pasta for dinner last night.”
She said she’d eaten pasta for dinner last
night.
Can / can’t Could / couldn’t “I can meet with you next Monday.”
She said she could meet with me next
Monday.
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Reported Speech:
Requests, Orders, Questions
How to form reported requests, orders, and questions:
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH EXAMPLE
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1. Requests/orders
“Asked me to” is used for requests.
“Told me to” is stronger; it is used for orders/commands.
The main verb stays in the infinitive:
She asked me to make copies.
He told me to go to the bank.
2. Yes/no questions
“Asked if” and “wanted to know if” are equal.
The main verb changes according to the rules for reported statements:
“Did you turn off the TV?” (past simple)
She asked if I had turned off the TV (past perfect)
We don’t use the auxiliary verbs “do/does/did” in the reported question.
3. Other questions
“Asked” and “wanted to know” are equal.
We don’t use the auxiliary verb “do” or “does” in the reported question:
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Thank You!
I hope this Free English Grammar E-Book has helped you!
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