Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Speaking Correctly
Speaking Correctly
CORRECTLY
***
JOSEPH DEVLIN
Edited by
THEODORE WATERS
1
*
How to Speak and Write Correctly
From a 1910 edition
ISBN 978-1-62011-535-0
Duke Classics
© 2012 Duke Classics and its licensors. All rights reserved.
While every effort has been used to ensure the accuracy and reliability of
the information contained in this edition, Duke Classics does not assume
liability or responsibility for any errors or omissions in this book. Duke
Classics does not accept responsibility for loss suffered as a result of
reliance upon the accuracy or currency of information contained in this
book.
2
Contents
*
Introduction
Chapter I
Chapter II
Chapter III
Chapter IV
Chapter V
Chapter VI
Chapter VII
Chapter VIII
Chapter IX
Chapter X
Chapter XI
Chapter XII
Chapter XIII
Chapter XIV
Chapter XV
3
Introduction
*
In the preparation of this little work the writer has kept one end in
view, viz.: To make it serviceable for those for whom it is intended,
that is, for those who have neither the time nor the opportunity,
the learning nor the inclination, to peruse elaborate and abstruse
treatises on Rhetoric, Grammar, and Composition. To them such
works are as gold enclosed in chests of steel and locked beyond
power of opening. This book has no pretension about it
whatever,—it is neither a Manual of Rhetoric, expatiating on the
dogmas of style, nor a Grammar full of arbitrary rules and
exceptions. It is merely an effort to help ordinary, everyday people
to express themselves in ordinary, everyday language, in a proper
manner. Some broad rules are laid down, the observance of which
will enable the reader to keep within the pale of propriety in oral and
written language. Many idiomatic words and expressions, peculiar
to the language, have been given, besides which a number of the
common mistakes and pitfalls have been placed before the reader so
that he may know and avoid them.
4
Chapter I
*
REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH
Vocabulary—Parts of Speech—Requisites
It is very easy to learn how to speak and write correctly, as for all
purposes of ordinary conversation and communication, only about
2,000 different words are required. The mastery of just twenty
hundred words, the knowing where to place them, will make us not
masters of the English language, but masters of correct speaking and
writing. Small number, you will say, compared with what is in the
dictionary! But nobody ever uses all the words in the dictionary or
could use them did he live to be the age of Methuselah, and there is
no necessity for using them.
To use a big word or a foreign word when a small one and a familiar
one will answer the same purpose, is a sign of ignorance. Great
scholars and writers and polite speakers use simple words.
5
To go back to the number necessary for all purposes of conversation
correspondence and writing, 2,000, we find that a great many people
who pass in society as being polished, refined and educated use
less, for they know less. The greatest scholar alive hasn't more than
four thousand different words at his command, and he never has
occasion to use half the number.
Consider the contrast between the well-bred, polite man who knows
how to choose and use his words correctly and the underbred, vulgar
boor, whose language grates upon the ear and jars the sensitiveness
of the finer feelings. The blunders of the latter, his infringement
of all the canons of grammar, his absurdities and monstrosities of
language, make his very presence a pain, and one is glad to escape
from his company.
6
All the words in the English language are divided into nine great
classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They are
Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition,
Conjunction and Interjection. Of these, the Noun is the most
important, as all the others are more or less dependent upon it.
A Noun signifies the name of any person, place or thing, in fact,
anything of which we can have either thought or idea. There are
two kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. Common Nouns are
names which belong in common to a race or class, as man, city.
Proper Nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class
as John, Philadelphia. In the former case man is a name which
belongs in common to the whole race of mankind, and city is also
a name which is common to all large centres of population, but
John signifies a particular individual of the race, while Philadelphia
denotes a particular one from among the cities of the world.
Number is the distinction of one from more than one. There are two
numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural
two or more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the
addition of s or es.
Gender has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals,
but while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz.,
masculine, feminine, neuter and common. The masculine gender
denotes all those of the male kind, the feminine gender all those
of the female kind, the neuter gender denotes inanimate things or
whatever is without life, and common gender is applied to animate
beings, the sex of which for the time being is indeterminable, such
as fish, mouse, bird, etc. Sometimes things which are without life as
we conceive it and which, properly speaking, belong to the neuter
7
gender, are, by a figure of speech called Personification, changed
into either the masculine or feminine gender, as, for instance, we say
of the sun, He is rising; of the moon, She is setting.
DEFINITIONS
8
An interjection is a word which expresses surprise or some sudden
emotion of the mind.
THREE ESSENTIALS
9
Chapter II
*
ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Divisions of Grammar—Definitions—Etymology.
DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR
10
Syntax treats of the connection and arrangement of words in
sentences.
LETTERS
Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but
the best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the
organs of speech in properly pronouncing them.
ARTICLE
11
or thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, a man
means any man whatsoever of the species or race.
The is called the definite article because it points out some particular
person or thing; thus, the man means some particular individual.
NOUN
Case is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the
person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation
or question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the
object of an action or of a relation.
Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the
distinction between book which represents only one object and
leaves which represent two or more objects of the same kind is
called Number; the distinction of sex between John, a male, and
Sarah, a female, and book and leaves, things which are inanimate
and neither male nor female, is called Gender; and the distinction of
state between John, the person who tore the book, and the subject
of the affirmation, Mary, the owner of the book, leaves the objects
12
torn, and book the object related to leaves, as the whole of which
they were a part, is called Case.
ADJECTIVE
or
13
Adjectives are compared in two ways, either by adding er to the
positive to form the comparative and est to the positive to form the
superlative, or by prefixing more to the positive for the comparative
and most to the positive for the superlative; as, handsome,
handsomer, handsomest or handsome, more handsome, most
handsome.
PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John gave his pen
to James and he lent it to Jane to write her copy with it." Without the
pronouns we would have to write this sentence,—"John gave John's
pen to James and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy
with the pen."
Personal Pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the
names of persons, places and things. The Personal Pronouns are I,
Thou, He, She, and It, with their plurals, We, Ye or You and They.
He, She, It are the pronouns of the third person because they
represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking.
14
Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case.
The gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they
represent the person or persons speaking and those who are
addressed. The personal pronouns are thus declined:
First Person.
M. or F.
Sing. Plural.
N. I We
P. Mine Ours
O. Me Us
Second Person.
M. or F.
Sing. Plural.
N. Thou You
P. Thine Yours
O. Thee You
Third Person.
M.
Sing. Plural.
N. He They
P. His Theirs
O. Him Them
Third Person.
F.
Sing. Plural.
N. She They
P. Hers Theirs
O. Her Them
15
Third Person.
Neuter.
Sing. Plural.
N. It They
P. Its Theirs
O. It Them
Here who and which are not only used in place of other words, but
who refers immediately to boy, and which to the circumstance of his
having done well.
Who is applied to persons only; as, "The man who was here."
Which is applied to the lower animals and things without life; as,
"The horse which I sold." "The hat which I bought."
That is applied to both persons and things; as, "The friend that
helps." "The bird that sings." "The knife that cuts."
16
Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike.
N. Who N. Which
P. Whose P. Whose
O. Whom O. Which
Who, which and what when used to ask questions are called
Interrogative Pronouns.
17
THE VERB
Thus, the words John the table, contain no assertion, but when the
word strikes is introduced, something is affirmed, hence the word
strikes is a verb and gives completeness and meaning to the group.
The simple form of the verb without inflection is called the root of
the verb; e. g. love is the root of the verb,—"To Love."
TENSE
18
In their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time. They have present
tense, past tense and future tense with their variations to express the
exact time of action as to an event happening, having happened or
yet to happen.
MOOD
19
of a condition upon which, not my liberty to write, depends, but my
actual writing.
Sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting, and then the verb
is said to be defective.
20
I shall have finished it I shall read it to the class." has no meaning
without the principal verbs writing, finished read; but the meaning
is rendered more definite, especially with regard to time, by the
auxiliary verbs am, have, shall.
There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., Be, have, do, shall,
will, may, can, ought, and must. They are called helping verbs,
because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed.
TO BE
VOICE
The active voice is that form of the verb which shows the Subject
not being acted upon but acting; as, "The cat catches mice."
"Charity covers a multitude of sins."
CONJUGATION
21
PRINCIPAL PARTS
Infinitive Mood
To Love
Indicative Mood
PRESENT TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person I love We love
2nd person You love You love
3rd person He loves They love
PAST TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person I loved We loved
2nd person You loved You loved
3rd person He loved They loved
FUTURE TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person I shall love They will love
2nd person You will love You will love
3rd person He will love We shall love
Sing. Plural
1st person I have loved We have loved
2nd person You have loved You have loved
3rd person He has loved They have loved
22
PAST PERFECT TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person I had loved We had loved
2nd person You had loved You had loved
3rd person He had loved They had loved
Sing. Plural
1st person I shall have loved We shall have loved
2nd person You will have loved You will have loved
3rd person He will have loved They will have loved
Imperative Mood
(PRESENT TENSE ONLY)
Sing. Plural
2nd person Love (you) Love (you)
Subjunctive Mood
PRESENT TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person If I love If we love
2nd person If you love If you love
3rd person If he love If they love
PAST TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person If I loved If we loved
2nd person If you loved If you loved
3rd person If he loved If they loved
23
Sing. Plural
1st person If I have loved If we have loved
2nd person If you have loved If you have loved
3rd person If he has loved If they have loved
Sing. Plural
1st person If I had loved If we had loved
2nd person If you had loved If you had loved
3rd person If he had loved If they had loved
INFINITIVES
Present Perfect
To love To have loved
PARTICIPLES
PRESENT TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person I am loved We are loved
2nd person You are loved You are loved
3rd person He is loved They are loved
PAST TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person I was loved We were loved
24
2nd person You were loved You were loved
3rd person He was loved They were loved
FUTURE TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person I shall be loved We shall be loved
2nd person You will be loved You will be loved
3rd person He will be loved They will be loved
Sing. Plural
1st person I have been loved We have been loved
2nd person You have been loved You have been loved
3rd person He has been loved They have been loved
Sing. Plural
1st person I had been loved We had been loved
2nd person You had been loved You had been loved
3rd person He had been loved They had been loved
Sing. Plural
1st person I shall have been loved We shall have been loved
2nd person You will have been loved You will have been loved
3rd person He will have been loved They will have been loved
Imperative Mood
(PRESENT TENSE ONLY)
Sing. Plural
2nd person Be (you) loved Be (you) loved
25
Subjunctive Mood
PRESENT TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person If I be loved If we be loved
2nd person If you be loved If you be loved
3rd person If he be loved If they be loved
PAST TENSE
Sing. Plural
1st person If I were loved If they were loved
2nd person If you were loved If you were loved
3rd person If he were loved If we were loved
Sing. Plural
1st person If I have been loved If we have been loved
2nd person If you have been loved If you have been loved
3rd person If he has been loved If they have been loved
Sing. Plural
1st person If I had been loved If we had been loved
2nd person If you had been loved If you had been loved
3rd person If he had been loved If they had been loved
INFINITIVES
Present Perfect
To be loved To have been loved
PARTICIPLES
26
(N. B.—Note that the plural form of the personal pronoun, you, is
used in the second person singular throughout. The old form thou,
except in the conjugation of the verb "To Be," may be said to be
obsolete. In the third person singular he is representative of the three
personal pronouns of the third person, He, She and It.)
ADVERB
PREPOSITION
27
Prepositions are so called because they are generally placed before
the words whose connection or relation with other words they point
out.
CONJUNCTION
The conjunctions in most general use are and, also; either, or;
neither, nor; though, yet; but, however; for, that; because, since;
therefore, wherefore, then; if, unless, lest.
INTERJECTION
The signification of the noun is limited to one, but to any one of the
kind, by the indefinite article, and to some particular one, or some
particular number, by the definite article.
28
Nouns, in one form, represent one of a kind, and in another, any
number more than one; they are the names of males, or females, or
of objects which are neither male nor female; and they represent the
subject of an affirmation, a command or a question,—the owner or
possessor of a thing,—or the object of an action, or of a relation
expressed by a preposition.
29
Words are joined together by conjunctions; and the various relations
which one thing bears to another are expressed by 'prepositions.
Sudden emotions of the mind, and exclamations are expressed by
interjections.
"I now see the old man coming, but, alas, he has walked with much
difficulty."
but, a conjunction.
30
he, a personal pronoun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender,
nominative case, subject of verb has walked.
31
Chapter III
*
THE SENTENCE
In the sentences given, birds, fish and men are the subjects, while
fly, swim and walk are the predicates.
32
A complex sentence consists of two or more simple sentences so
combined that one depends on the other to complete its meaning;
as; "When he returns, I shall go on my vacation." Here the words,
"when he returns" are dependent on the rest of the sentence for their
meaning.
Infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the verb
cannot be predicates. "I looking up the street" is not a sentence,
for it is not a complete action expressed. When we hear such an
expression as "A dog running along the street," we wait for
something more to be added, something more affirmed about the
dog, whether he bit or barked or fell dead or was run over.
When the verb is transitive, that is, when the action cannot happen
without affecting something, the thing affected is called the object.
Thus in "Cain killed Abel" the action of the killing affected Abel. In
"The cat has caught a mouse," mouse is the object of the catching.
33
mouse, the cat has caught," we feel that while it is intelligible, it is a
poor way of expressing the fact and one which jars upon us more or
less.
In longer sentences, however, when there are more words than what
are barely necessary for subject, verb and object, we have greater
freedom of arrangement and can so place the words as to give the
best effect. The proper placing of words depends upon perspicuity
and precision. These two combined give style to the structure.
34
arrangement a very slight difference is effected in the idea. Some of
the variations make us think more of the ploughman, others more of
the plodding, and still others more of the weariness.
The parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with one
another in meaning should be closely connected in order also. By
ignoring this principle many sentences are made, if not nonsensical,
really ridiculous and ludicrous. For instance: "Ten dollars reward is
offered for information of any person injuring this property by order
of the owner." "This monument was erected to the memory of John
Jones, who was shot by his affectionate brother."
(1) The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. "I have,"
"Thou hast," (the pronoun thou is here used to illustrate the verb
form, though it is almost obsolete), "He has," show the variation
of the verb to agree with the subject. A singular subject calls for a
singular verb, a plural subject demands a verb in the plural; as, "The
boy writes," "The boys write."
35
(1) A collective noun is a number of individuals or things regarded
as a whole; as, class regiment. When the individuals or things are
prominently brought forward, use a plural verb; as The class were
distinguished for ability. When the idea of the whole as a unit is
under consideration employ a singular verb; as The regiment was
in camp. (2) It is sometimes hard for the ordinary individual to
distinguish the plural from the singular in foreign nouns, therefore,
he should be careful in the selection of the verb. He should look
up the word and be guided accordingly. "He was an alumnus of
Harvard." "They were alumni of Harvard." (3) When a sentence
with one verb has two or more subjects denoting different things,
connected by and, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain
are disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing and
are connected by or the verb should be singular; as, "The man or
the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more than
one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with the most
prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, is wrong." "Whether he
or I am to be blamed."
(2) Never use the past participle for the past tense nor vice versa.
This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear "He done
it" for "He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of broken. "He would
have went" for "He would have gone," etc.
(3) The use of the verbs shall and will is a rock upon which even
the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged recklessly.
Their significance changes according as they are used with the first,
second or third person. With the first person shall is used in direct
statement to express a simple future action; as, "I shall go to the
city to-morrow." With the second and third persons shall is used to
express a determination; as, "You shall go to the city to-morrow,"
"He shall go to the city to-morrow."
36
"You will go to the city to-morrow," "He will go to the city to-
morrow."
A very old rule regarding the uses of shall and will is thus expressed
in rhyme:
(5) Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns who, which and
that. Who refers only to persons; which only to things; as, "The boy
who was drowned," "The umbrella which I lost." The relative that
may refer to both persons and things; as, "The man that I saw." "The
hat that I bought."
(6) Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the
comparative; as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the richer
of the two." Other mistakes often made in this connection are (1)
Using the double comparative and superlative; as, "These apples are
much more preferable." "The most universal motive to business is
gain." (2) Comparing objects which belong to dissimilar classes; as
"There is no nicer life than a teacher." (3) Including objects in class
to which they do not belong; as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve."
37
(4) Excluding an object from a class to which it does belong; as,
"Caesar was braver than any ancient warrior."
"So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man to
put the saddle on him."
"No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and rode off."
"No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who
should I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to hold
him by the head."
38
"What! hold Hamblin by the head?"
"No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together."
"No, me and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him again and went
out of town."
"No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should be there but
Tom Flynn,—he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me; so
I told the hostler to tie him up."
SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION
In the loose sentence the main idea is put first, and then follow
several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author particularly
noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a leading
declaration to which he adds several attendant connections. For
39
instance in the opening of the story of Robinson Crusoe we read:
"I was born in the year 1632 in the city of York, of a good family,
though not of that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen,
who settled first at Hull; he got a good estate by merchandise,
and leaving off his trade lived afterward at York, from whence he
had married my mother, whose relations were named Robinson, a
very good family in the country and from I was called Robinson
Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in England, we are
now called, nay, we call ourselves, and write our name Crusoe, and
so my companions always called me."
In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is preceded
by a series of relative introductions. This kind of sentence is often
introduced by such words as that, if, since, because. The following
is an example:
On account of its name many are liable to think the loose sentence
an undesirable form in good composition, but this should not be
taken for granted. In many cases it is preferable to the periodic form.
40
However the general rule may be laid down that short sentences
are preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best writers of the
present day is towards short, snappy, pithy sentences which rivet the
attention of the reader. They adopt as their motto multum in parvo
(much in little) and endeavor to pack a great deal in small space.
Of course the extreme of brevity is to be avoided. Sentences can
be too short, too jerky, too brittle to withstand the test of criticism.
The long sentence has its place and a very important one. It is
indispensable in argument and often is very necessary to description
and also in introducing general principles which require elaboration.
In employing the long sentence the inexperienced writer should not
strain after the heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and Carlyle used
such a type, but remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the
sledge hammer of a giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual
giants and few can hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The
tyro in composition should never seek after the heavy style. The best
of all authors in the English language for style is Addison. Macaulay
says: "If you wish a style learned, but not pedantic, elegant but
not ostentatious, simple yet refined, you must give your days and
nights to the volumes of Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart
from the beauty of Addison's writings causes us to reiterate the
literary command—"Never use a big word when a little one will
convey the same or a similar meaning."
The beginner should study these writers, make their works his vade
mecum, they have stood the test of time and there has been no
improvement upon them yet, nor is there likely to be, for their
writing is as perfect as it is possible to be in the English language.
41
best authors and these masters of language will guide you safely
along the way.
THE PARAGRAPH
"The fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater part of
the large building in a short time." "The horse took fright and wildly
dashed down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions."
These two sentences have no connection and therefore should
occupy separate and distinct places. But when we say—"The fire
raged with fierce intensity consuming the greater part of the large
42
building in a short time and the horse taking fright at the flames
dashed wildly down the street scattering pedestrians in all
directions,"—there is a natural sequence, viz., the horse taking
fright as a consequence of the flames and hence the two expressions
are combined in one paragraph.
43
perceive their full significance, then we are justified in pronouncing
the paragraph construction faulty.
44
Chapter IV
*
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the
most important, really giving to language the construction and style
which make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of ideas.
45
The first four are founded on resemblance, the second six on
contiguity and the third five, on contrast.
A Simile (from the Latin similis, like), is the likening of one thing to
another, a statement of the resemblance of objects, acts, or relations;
as "In his awful anger he was like the storm-driven waves dashing
against the rock." A simile makes the principal object plainer and
impresses it more forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax
to receive impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings
out the leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful
manner. Contrast it with the simple statement—"His memory is
good." Sometimes Simile is prostituted to a low and degrading use;
as "His face was like a danger signal in a fog storm." "Her hair was
like a furze-bush in bloom." "He was to his lady love as a poodle
to its mistress." Such burlesque is never permissible. Mere likeness,
it should be remembered, does not constitute a simile. For instance
there is no simile when one city is compared to another. In order
that there may be a rhetorical simile, the objects compared must be
of different classes. Avoid the old trite similes such as comparing
a hero to a lion. Such were played out long ago. And don't hunt
for farfetched similes. Don't say—"Her head was glowing as the
glorious god of day when he sets in a flambeau of splendor behind
the purple-tinted hills of the West." It is much better to do without
such a simile and simply say—"She had fiery red hair."
46
the foot of a mountain, the hands of a clock, the key of a situation,
we are using metaphors.
"The mountains sing together, the hills rejoice and clap their
hands."
"Earth felt the wound; and Nature from her seat, Sighing, through all
her works, gave signs of woe."
47
could be useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her
subservient to his will. He commanded her, but she refused to obey,
then he resorted to very harsh measures with the little girl, but she
still remained obstinate and obdurate. He continued to oppress her
until finally she rebelled and became as a thorn in his side to prick
him for his evil attitude towards her;" this is an allegory in which
the giant plainly represents England and the little girl, Ireland; the
implication is manifest though no mention is made of either country.
Strange to say the most perfect allegory in the English language was
written by an almost illiterate and ignorant man, and written too,
in a dungeon cell. In the "Pilgrim's Progress," Bunyan, the itinerant
tinker, has given us by far the best allegory ever penned. Another
good one is "The Faerie Queen" by Edmund Spenser.
48
for the thing signified; as, "The pen is mightier than the sword,"
meaning literary power is superior to military force. (3) When the
container is put for the thing contained; as "The House was called
to order," meaning the members in the House.
Exclamation (from the Latin ex, out, and clamare, to cry), is a figure
by which the speaker instead of stating a fact, simply utters an
expression of surprise or emotion. For instance when he hears some
harrowing tale of woe or misfortune instead of saying,—"It is a sad
story" he exclaims "What a sad story!"
49
"My Country tis of thee—
Sweet land of liberty,
Of thee I sing."
"O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy sting!" This
figure is very closely allied to Personification.
Vision (from the Latin videre, to see) consists in treating the past,
the future, or the remote as if present in time or place. It is
appropriate to animated description, as it produces the effect of an
ideal presence. "The old warrior looks down from the canvas and
tells us to be men worthy of our sires."
50
fame, he risked all that men hold dear,—yea, he risked life itself,
and for what?—for a creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-
latchets when he was his better self."
51
Chapter V
*
PUNCTUATION
Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for
punctuation, but most of them have been broken long since and
thrown into the junk-heap of disuse. They were too rigid, too strict,
went so much into minutiae, that they were more or less impractical
to apply to ordinary composition. The manner of language, of style
and of expression has considerably changed since then, the old
abstruse complex sentence with its hidden meanings has been
relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or long-drawn-out
phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the aim is toward
terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore, punctuation has been
greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed, that it is now as much
a matter of good taste and judgment as adherence to any fixed set
of rules. Nevertheless there are laws governing it which cannot be
abrogated, their principles must be rigidly and inviolably observed.
52
2. The Semicolon (;)
Of the above, the first four may be styled the grammatical points,
and the remaining five, the rhetorical points.
(2) A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry
who said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'"
53
(3) When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a
comma is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the
God I love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black
coat and a sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian."
(8) When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a
great statesman; Grant, a great soldier."
54
(4) The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which
introduce particulars or specifications following after, such as,
namely, as, e.g., vid., i.e., etc.: "He had three defects; namely,
carelessness, lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas." "An
island is a portion of land entirely surrounded by water; as Cuba."
"The names of cities should always commence with a capital letter;
e.g., New York, Paris." "The boy was proficient in one branch; viz.,
Mathematics." "No man is perfect; i.e., free from all blemish."
(4) The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary
or subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the
conjunction or is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of Sound."
55
(1) After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds
fly." "Plants grow." "Man is mortal."
(3) A period is used on the title pages of books after the name
of the book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint:
American Trails. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner
Company.
(3) When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may
be used: "Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!"
56
The Dash is generally confined to cases where there is a sudden
break from the general run of the passage. Of all the punctuation
marks it is the most misused.
(6) When an ellipsis of the words, namely, that is, to wit, etc.,
takes place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in three
branches— arithmetic, algebra, and geometry."
57
(9) When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they
should be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes, Sir.—Do
you love study? I do."
(1) When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the
break should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar
(and Jones is one), even when he speaks the truth."
The Quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by
them are borrowed.
58
(2) When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained
quotation has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to
believe 'honesty is the best policy.'"
(5) Often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion
for it.
The Apostrophe should come under the comma rather than under
the quotation marks or double comma. The word is Greek and
signifies a turning away from. The letter elided or turned away is
generally an e. In poetry and familiar dialogue the apostrophe marks
the elision of a syllable, as "I've for I have"; "Thou'rt for thou art";
"you'll for you will," etc. Sometimes it is necessary to abbreviate
a word by leaving out several letters. In such case the apostrophe
takes the place of the omitted letters as "cont'd for continued." The
apostrophe is used to denote the elision of the century in dates,
where the century is understood or to save the repetition of a series
of figures, as "The Spirit of '76"; "I served in the army during the
years 1895, '96, '97, '98 and '99." The principal use of the apostrophe
is to denote the possessive case. All nouns in the singular number
whether proper names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with
any other letter than s, form the possessive by the addition of the
apostrophe and the letter s. The only exceptions to this rule are, that,
by poetical license the additional s may be elided in poetry for sake
of the metre, and in the scriptural phrases "For goodness' sake." "For
conscience' sake," "For Jesus' sake," etc. Custom has done away
with the s and these phrases are now idioms of the language. All
plural nouns ending in s form the possessive by the addition of
the apostrophe only as boys', horses'. The possessive case of the
personal pronouns never take the apostrophe, as ours, yours, hers,
theirs.
59
CAPITAL LETTERS
(1) The first word of every sentence, in fact the first word in writing
of any kind should begin with a capital; as, "Time flies." "My dear
friend."
(4) Every line of poetry begins with a capital; "Breathes there a man
with soul so dead?"
(5) Every numbered clause calls for a capital: "The witness asserts:
(1) That he saw the man attacked; (2) That he saw him fall; (3) That
he saw his assailant flee."
60
(9) Proper names begin with a capital; as, "Jones, Johnson, Caesar,
Mark Antony, England, Pacific, Christmas."
Such words as river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally are
common, not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such
are used with an adjective or adjunct to specify a particular object
they become proper names, and therefore require a capital; as,
"Mississippi River, North Sea, Alleghany Mountains," etc. In like
manner the cardinal points north, south, east and west, when they
are used to distinguish regions of a country are capitals; as, "The
North fought against the South."
(11) The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with a
capital; as, "President, Chairman, Governor, Alderman."
(12) The abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for
capitals; as, "LL.D., M.A., B.S.," etc. Also the seats of learning
conferring such degrees as, "Harvard University, Manhattan
College," etc.
61
the early Christian writer, is begun with a capital; "Augustine was
one of the learned Fathers of the Church."
(14) The names applied to the Supreme Being begin with capitals:
"God, Lord, Creator, Providence, Almighty, The Deity, Heavenly
Father, Holy One." In this respect the names applied to the Saviour
also require capitals: "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Man of Galilee, The
Crucified, The Anointed One." Also the designations of Biblical
characters as "Lily of Israel, Rose of Sharon, Comfortress of the
Afflicted, Help of Christians, Prince of the Apostles, Star of the
Sea," etc. Pronouns referring to God and Christ take capitals; as,
"His work, The work of Him, etc."
(19) Terms which refer to great events in the history of the race
require capitals; "The Flood, Magna Charta, Declaration of
Independence."
(20) The names of the days of the week and the months of the year
and the seasons are commenced with capitals: "Monday, March,
Autumn."
62
(21) The Pronoun I and the interjection O always require the use of
capitals. In fact all the interjections when uttered as exclamations
commence with capitals: "Alas! he is gone." "Ah! I pitied him."
63
Chapter VI
*
LETTER WRITING
Principles of Letter-Writing—Forms—Notes
64
Now, that education is abroad in the land, there is seldom any
occasion for any person to call upon the service of another to
compose and write a personal letter. Very few now-a-days are so
grossly illiterate as not to be able to read and write. No matter how
crude his effort may be it is better for any one to write his own
letters than trust to another. Even if he should commence,—"deer
fren, i lift up my pen to let ye no that i hove been sik for the
past 3 weeks, hopping this will findye the same," his spelling and
construction can be excused in view of the fact that his intention is
good, and that he is doing his best to serve his own turn without
depending upon others.
The nature, substance and tone of any letter depend upon the
occasion that calls it forth, upon the person writing it and upon the
person for whom it is intended. Whether it should be easy or formal
in style, plain or ornate, light or serious, gay or grave, sentimental
or matter-of-fact depend upon these three circumstances.
The letter which is written with the greatest facility is the best kind
of letter because it naturally expresses what is in the writer, he has
not to search for his words, they flow in a perfect unison with the
ideas he desires to communicate. When you write to your friend
John Browne to tell him how you spent Sunday you have not to look
around for the words, or study set phrases with a view to please or
impress Browne, you just tell him the same as if he were present
before you, how you spent the day, where you were, with whom
you associated and the chief incidents that occurred during the time.
Thus, you write natural and it is such writing that is adapted to
epistolary correspondence.
65
There are different kinds of letters, each calling for a different style
of address and composition, nevertheless the natural key should be
maintained in all, that is to say, the writer should never attempt
to convey an impression that he is other than what he is. It would
be silly as well as vain for the common street laborer of a limited
education to try to put on literary airs and emulate a college
professor; he may have as good a brain, but it is not as well
developed by education, and he lacks the polish which society
confers. When writing a letter the street laborer should bear in
mind that only the letter of a street-laborer is expected from him,
no matter to whom his communication may be addressed and that
neither the grammar nor the diction of a Chesterfield or Gladstone is
looked for in his language. Still the writer should keep in mind the
person to whom he is writing. If it is to an Archbishop or some other
great dignitary of Church or state it certainly should be couched
in terms different from those he uses to John Browne, his intimate
friend. Just as he cannot say "Dear John" to an Archbishop, no more
can he address him in the familiar words he uses to his friend of
everyday acquaintance and companionship. Yet there is no great
learning required to write to an Archbishop, no more than to an
ordinary individual. All the laborer needs to know is the form of
address and how to properly utilize his limited vocabulary to the
best advantage. Here is the form for such a letter:
17 Second Avenue,
New York City.
January 1st, 1910.
66
owner.
I beg you will acknowledge receipt and
should the owner be found I trust you will
notify me, so that I may claim some reward
for my honesty.
I am, Most Rev. and dear Sir,
Letters of friendship are the most common and their style and
form depend upon the degree of relationship and intimacy existing
between the writers and those addressed. Between relatives and
intimate friends the beginning and end may be in the most familiar
form of conversation, either affectionate or playful. They should,
however, never overstep the boundaries of decency and propriety,
for it is well to remember that, unlike conversation, which only
is heard by the ears for which it is intended, written words may
come under eyes other than those for whom they were designed.
67
Therefore, it is well never to write anything which the world may
not read without detriment to your character or your instincts. You
can be joyful, playful, jocose, give vent to your feelings, but never
stoop to low language and, above all, to language savoring in the
slightest degree of moral impropriety.
68
the envelope. For the body of a letter no forms or rules can be laid
down as it altogether depends on the nature of the letter and the
relationship between the writer and the person addressed.
There are certain rules which govern the other three features and
which custom has sanctioned. Every one should be acquainted with
these rules.
THE HEADING
The Heading has three parts, viz., the name of the place, the date of
writing and the designation of the person or persons addressed; thus:
73 New Street,
Newark, N. J.,
February 1st, 1910.
Messr. Ginn and Co.,
New York
Gentlemen:
The name of the place should never be omitted; in cities, street and
number should always be given, and except when the city is large
and very conspicuous, so that there can be no question as to its
identity with another of the same or similar name, the abbreviation
of the State should be appended, as in the above, Newark, N. J.
There is another Newark in the State of Ohio. Owing to failure to
comply with this rule many letters go astray. The date should be
on every letter, especially business letters. The date should never
be put at the bottom in a business letter, but in friendly letters this
may be done. The designation of the person or persons addressed
differs according to the relations of the correspondents. Letters of
friendship may begin in many ways according to the degrees of
friendship or intimacy. Thus:
69
To mark a lesser degree of intimacy such formal designations as the
following may be employed:
Dear Sir: My dear Sir: Dear Mr. Smith: Dear Madam: etc.
The Rt. Rev., the Bishop of Long Island. or The Rt. Rev. Frederick
Burgess, Bishop of Long Island. Rt. Rev. and dear Sir:
Sir:—
70
Sir:—
Sir:—
The general salutation for Officers of the Army and Navy is Sir. The
rank and station should be indicated in full at the head of the letter,
thus:
Sir:
Sir:
Sir:
Sir:
Sir:
71
Presidents and Professors of Colleges and Universities are generally
addressed as Sir or Dear Sir.
Ryerson Pitkin, M. D.
Sir:
Dear Sir:
My dear Dr:
Dear Madam:
72
SUBSCRIPTION
Yours lovingly,
Yours affectionately,
Devotedly yours,
Ever yours, etc.
Yours Sincerely,
Yours truly,
Respectfully yours,
and the like, and these may be varied to denote the exact bearing or
attitude the writer wishes to assume to the person addressed: as,
73
"With great expression of esteem, I am Sincerely yours,"
"Believe me, my dear Sir, Ever faithfully yours,"
Don't say you have the honor to be anything or ask him to believe
anything, all you want to tell him is that you have a house for sale
and that you are sincere, or hold him in respect as a prospective
customer.
Don't abbreviate the signature as: Y'rs Resp'fly and always make
your sex obvious. Write plainly
and not J. Field, so that the person to whom you send it may not
take you for Jane Field.
74
It is not customary to sign letters of degrees or titles after your name,
except you are a lord, earl or duke and only known by the title, but
as we have no such titles in America it is unnecessary to bring this
matter into consideration. Don't sign yourself,
Sincerely yours,
Obadiah Jackson, M.A. or L.L. D.
Married women whose husbands are alive may sign the husband's
name with the prefix Mrs: thus,
Yours sincerely,
Mrs. Sarah Southey.
ADDRESS
The address of a letter consists of the name, the title and the
residence.
75
Altoona,
Pa.
Intimate friends have often familiar names for each other, such
as pet names, nicknames, etc., which they use in the freedom of
conversation, but such names should never, under any
circumstances, appear on the envelope. The subscription on the
envelope should be always written with propriety and correctness
and as if penned by an entire stranger. The only difficulty in the
envelope inscription is the title. Every man is entitled to Mr. and
every lady to Mrs. and every unmarried lady to Miss. Even a boy
is entitled to Master. When more than one is addressed the title is
Messrs. Mesdames is sometimes written of women. If the person
addressed has a title it is courteous to use it, but titles never must be
duplicated. Thus, we can write
Robert Stitt, M. D., but never Dr. Robert Stitt, M. D, or Mr. Robert
Stitt, M. D.
In the case of clergymen the prefix Rev. is retained even when they
have other titles; as
76
In the case of Honorables such as Governors, Judges, Members of
Congress, and others of the Civil Government the prefix "Hon."
does away with Mr. and Esq. Thus we write Hon. Josiah Snifkins,
not Hon. Mr. Josiah Snifkins or Hon. Josiah Snifkins, Esq. Though
this prefix Hon. is also often applied to Governors they should be
addressed as Excellency. For instance:
His Excellency,
Charles E. Hughes,
Albany,
N. Y.
To the President,
Executive Mansion,
Washington, D. C.
Liberty,
Sullivan County,
New York.
77
215 Minna St.,
San Francisco,
California.
There should be left a space for the postage stamp in the upper right
hand corner. The name and title should occupy a line that is about
central between the top of the envelope and the bottom. The name
should neither be too much to right or left but located in the centre,
the beginning and end at equal distances from either end.
NOTES
78
daughters in the Thompson family Martha, the eldest, Susan and
Jemina, Martha is addressed as Miss Thompson and the other two as
Miss Susan Thompson and Miss Jemina Thompson respectively.
FORMAL INVITATIONS
79
fifteenth.
215 Beacon St.,
June 10th, 1910.
or
80
Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past seven.
Yours sincerely,
Emma Burnside.
57 Carlyle Strand
Dec. 13th, 1910.
Dear Mrs. Burnside:
Let me accept very appreciatively your
invitation to dine with Mr. Burnside and you
on next Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past
seven.
Yours sincerely,
Henry Saintsbury.
Mrs. Alexander Burnside.
NOTES OF INTRODUCTION
81
much appreciated by me.
Very sincerely yours,
Franklin Jewett.
82
Chapter VII
*
ERRORS
4. He went into the country last week and returned (back) yesterday.
6. You need not wonder that the (subject) matter of his discourse
was excellent; it was taken from the Bible.
8. The same sentiments may be found throughout (the whole of) the
book.
83
11. He took wine and water and mixed them (both) together.
16. The thief who stole my watch was compelled to restore it (back
again).
18. She said, (says she) the report is false; and he replied, (says he)
if it be not correct I have been misinformed.
84
28. Besides my uncle and aunt there was (also) my grandfather at
the church.
30. If it is true as you have heard (then) his situation is indeed pitiful.
31. Either this (here) man or that (there) woman has (got) it.
34. I never before (in my life) met (with) such a stupid man.
45. Two men went into the wood (in order) to cut (down) trees.
85
Further examples of redundancy might be multiplied. It is very
common in newspaper writing where not alone single words but
entire phrases are sometimes brought in, which are unnecessary to
the sense or explanation of what is written.
Even the best speakers and writers are sometimes caught napping.
Many of our standard authors to whom we have been accustomed
to look up as infallible have sinned more or less against the
fundamental principles of grammar by breaking the rules regarding
one or more of the nine parts of speech. In fact some of them
have recklessly trespassed against all nine, and still they sit on
their pedestals of fame for the admiration of the crowd. Macaulay
mistreated the article. He wrote,—"That a historian should not
record trifles is perfectly true." He should have used an.
86
"Sir Thomas Moore in general so writes it, although not many others
so late as him." Should be he.—Trench's English Past and Present.
"The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the
reception of a prophet, mightier than him, and whose shoes he was
not worthy to bear." Should be than he.—Atterbury's Sermons.
"King Charles, and more than him, the duke and the Popish faction
were at liberty to form new schemes." Should be than
he.—Bolingbroke's Dissertations on Parties.
"We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were obliged
to the same proportion more than us." Should be than we.—Swift's
Conduct of the Allies.
In all the above examples the objective cases of the pronouns have
been used while the construction calls for nominative cases.
Here let is the governing verb and requires an objective case after it;
therefore instead of thou and I, the words should be you (sing.) and
me.
"Forever in this humble cell, Let thee and I, my fair one, dwell"
—Prior.
87
The use of the relative pronoun trips the greatest number of authors.
Who should be written in both cases because the word is not in the
objective governed by say or think, but in the nominative dependent
on the verb am.
"Who should I meet at the coffee house t'other night, but my old
friend?"—Steele.
The plural nominative ye of the pronoun thou is very often used for
the objective you, as in the following:
"Tyrants dread ye, lest your just decree Transfer the power and set
the people free."—Prior.
88
Many of the great writers have played havoc with the adjective in
the indiscriminate use of the degrees of comparison.
The author here in trying to give good advice sets a bad example.
He should have used the comparative degree, "Fitter."
"The chiefest and largest are removed to certain magazines they call
libraries."—Swift's Battle of the Books.
The two chiefest properties of air, its gravity and elastic force, have
been discovered by mechanical experiments.—Arbuthno.
"The last are indeed more preferable because they are founded
on some new knowledge or improvement in the mind of
man."—Addison, Spectator.
89
"In every well formed mind this second desire seems to be the
strongest of the two."—Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments.
"As it was impossible they should know the words, thoughts and
secret actions of all men, so it was more impossible they should pass
judgment on them according to these things."—Whitby's Necessity
of the Christian Religion.
"His expectations run high and the fund to supply them is extreme
scanty."—Lancaster's Essay on Delicacy.
90
"The richness of her arms and apparel were
conspicuous."—Gibbon's Decline and Fall.
The past participle should not be used for the past tense, yet the
learned Byron overlooked this fact. He thus writes in the Lament of
Tasso:—
91
"Every book ought to be read with the same spirit and in the same
manner as it is writ"—Fielding's Tom Jones.
"The Court of Augustus had not wore off the manners of the
republic" —Hume's Essays.
"Moses tells us that the fountains of the earth were broke open or
clove asunder."—Burnet.
"A free constitution when it has been shook by the iniquity of former
administrations."—Bolingbroke.
The rules regarding shall and will are violated in the following:
"If we look within the rough and awkward outside, we will be richly
rewarded by its perusal."—Gilfillan's Literary Portraits.
"If I should declare them and speak of them, they should be more
than I am able to express."—Prayer Book Revision of Psalms XI.
"If I would declare them and speak of them, they are more than can
be numbered."—Ibid.
92
"We know to what cause our past reverses have been owing and we
will have ourselves to blame, if they are again incurred."—Alison's
History of Europe.
93
Several of the most celebrated writers infringe the canons of style
by placing prepositions at the end of sentences. For instance Carlyle,
in referring to the Study of Burns, writes:—"Our own contributions
to it, we are aware, can be but scanty and feeble; but we offer them
with good will, and trust they may meet with acceptance from those
they are intended for."
"Most writers have some one vein which they peculiarly and
obviously excel in."—William Minto.
Many authors use redundant words which repeat the same thought
and idea. This is called tautology.
94
"He had come up one morning, as was now (frequently) his wont,"
—Trollope.
The Peresviet lost both her fighting-tops and (in appearance) looked
the most damaged of all the ships—The Times.
95
"His life was brought to a close in 1910 at an age not far from the
one fixed by the sacred writer as the term of human existence."
This in brevity can be put, "His life was brought to a close at the age
of seventy;" or, better yet, "He died at the age of seventy."
"The day was intensely cold, so cold in fact that the thermometer
crept down to the zero mark," can be expressed: "The day was so
cold the thermometer registered zero."
96
In writing, however, it is different. Without a knowledge of the
fundamentals of grammar we may be able to speak correctly from
association with good speakers, but without such a knowledge we
cannot hope to write the language correctly. To write even a
common letter we must know the principles of construction, the
relationship of one word to another. Therefore, it is necessary for
everybody to understand at least the essentials of the grammar of his
own language.
97
Chapter VIII
*
PITFALLS TO AVOID
ATTRACTION
Very often the verb is separated from its real nominative or subject
by several intervening words and in such cases one is liable to make
the verb agree with the subject nearest to it. Here are a few examples
showing that the leading writers now and then take a tumble into
this pitfall:
(1) "The partition which the two ministers made of the powers of
government were singularly happy."—Macaulay.
(2) "One at least of the qualities which fit it for training ordinary
men unfit it for training an extraordinary man."—Bagehot.
(3) "The Tibetans have engaged to exclude from their country those
dangerous influences whose appearance were the chief cause of our
action."—The Times.
98
(4) "An immense amount of confusion and indifference prevail in
these days."—Telegraph.
ELLIPSIS
His objection and condoning of the boy's course, seemed to say the
least, paradoxical.
(Some maintain that the missing verb after genius is are, but such
is ungrammatical. In such cases the right verb should be always
expressed: as—their genius is forever lost to the world.)
Even the best speakers and writers are in the habit of placing a
modifying word or words between the to and the remaining part
of the infinitive. It is possible that such will come to be looked
upon in time as the proper form but at present the splitting of the
infinitive is decidedly wrong. "He was scarcely able to even talk"
"She commenced to rapidly walk around the room." "To have really
loved is better than not to have at all loved." In these constructions
it is much better not to split the infinitive. In every-day speech the
best speakers sin against this observance.
99
before the judge. "Where are you from?" asked the magistrate.
"From Boston," answered the accused. "Indeed," said the judge,
"indeed, yours is a sad case, and yet you don't seem to thoroughly
realise how low you have sunk." The man stared as if struck. "Your
honor does me an injustice," he said bitterly. "The disgrace of arrest
for drunkenness, the mortification of being thrust into a noisome
dungeon, the publicity and humiliation of trial in a crowded and
dingy courtroom I can bear, but to be sentenced by a Police
Magistrate who splits his infinitives—that is indeed the last blow."
ONE
ONLY
100
In speaking we can by emphasis impress our meaning on our
hearers, but in writing we have nothing to depend upon but the
position of the word in the sentence. The best rule in regard to only
is to place it immediately before the word or phrase it modifies or
limits.
ALONE
These are words which often give to expressions a meaning far from
that intended. Thus, "I have nothing to do with that other rascal
across the street," certainly means that I am a rascal myself. "I sent
the despatch to my friend, but another villain intercepted it," clearly
signifies that my friend is a villain.
A good plan is to omit these words when they can be readily done
without, as in the above examples, but when it is necessary to use
them make your meaning clear. You can do this by making each
sentence or phrase in which they occur independent of contextual
aid.
Never use and with the relative in this manner: "That is the dog I
meant and which I know is of pure breed." This is an error quite
101
common. The use of and is permissible when there is a parallel
relative in the preceding sentence or clause. Thus: "There is the dog
which I meant and which I know is of pure breed" is quite correct.
LOOSE PARTICIPLES
"Going into the store the roof fell" can be taken that it was the roof
which was going into the store when it fell. Of course the meaning
intended is that some person or persons were going into the store
just as the roof fell.
BROKEN CONSTRUCTION
102
of two, shows that the fact is forgotten that three qualities and
not two are under consideration. Any one of the three meanings
might be intended in the sentence, viz., absence of any one quality,
absence of any two of the qualities or absence of the whole three
qualities. Either denotes one or the other of two and should never
be applied to any one of more than two. When we fall into the
error of constructing such sentences as above, we should take them
apart and reconstruct them in a different grammatical form.
Thus,—"Honesty, integrity and square-dealing will bring a man
much better through life than a lack of these qualities which are
almost essential to success."
DOUBLE NEGATIVE
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Moreover, the big I's savor of egotism! Steer clear of them as far as
you can. The only place where the first person is permissible is in
passages where you are stating a view that is not generally held and
which is likely to meet with opposition.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
When two verbs depend on each other their tenses must have a
definite relation to each other. "I shall have much pleasure in
accepting your kind invitation" is wrong, unless you really mean
that just now you decline though by-and-by you intend to accept;
or unless you mean that you do accept now, though you have no
pleasure in doing so, but look forward to be more pleased by-and-
by. In fact the sequence of the compound tenses puzzle experienced
writers. The best plan is to go back in thought to the time in question
and use the tense you would then naturally use. Now in the sentence
"I should have liked to have gone to see the circus" the way to find
out the proper sequence is to ask yourself the question—what is it I
"should have liked" to do? and the plain answer is "to go to see the
circus." I cannot answer—"To have gone to see the circus" for that
would imply that at a certain moment I would have liked to be in the
position of having gone to the circus. But I do not mean this; I mean
that at the moment at which I am speaking I wish I had gone to see
the circus. The verbal phrase I should have liked carries me back to
the time when there was a chance of seeing the circus and once back
at the time, the going to the circus is a thing of the present. This
whole explanation resolves itself into the simple question,—what
should I have liked at that time, and the answer is "to go to see
the circus," therefore this is the proper sequence, and the expression
should be "I should have liked to go to see the circus."
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catch the bird," not "I thought I should have caught the bird." "I had
intended to go to the meeting," not "I had intended to have gone to
the meeting."
BETWEEN—AMONG
LESS—FEWER
Less refers is quantity, fewer to number. "No man has less virtues"
should be "No man has fewer virtues." "The farmer had some oats
and a fewer quantity of wheat" should be "the farmer had some oats
and a less quantity of wheat."
FURTHER—FARTHER
Each other refers to two, one another to more than two. "Jones and
Smith quarreled; they struck each other" is correct. "Jones, Smith
and Brown quarreled; they struck one another" is also correct. Don't
say, "The two boys teach one another" nor "The three girls love each
other."
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denotes all the persons or things taken separately. Either denotes
one or the other of two, and should not be used to include both.
Neither is the negative of either, denoting not the other, and not the
one, and relating to two persons or things considered separately.
NEITHER-NOR
NONE
Custom Has sanctioned the use of this word both with a singular and
plural; as—"None is so blind as he who will not see" and "None are
so blind as they who will not see." However, as it is a contraction of
no one it is better to use the singular verb.
RISE-RAISE
Raise is to lift up, to exalt, to enhance, as "I raise the table;" "He
raised his servant;" "The baker raised the price of bread."
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LAY-LIE
The transitive verb lay, and lay, the past tense of the neuter verb
lie, are often confounded, though quite different in meaning. The
neuter verb to lie, meaning to lie down or rest, cannot take the
objective after it except with a preposition. We can say "He lies on
the ground," but we cannot say "He lies the ground," since the verb
is neuter and intransitive and, as such, cannot have a direct object.
With lay it is different. Lay is a transitive verb, therefore it takes a
direct object after it; as "I lay a wager," "I laid the carpet," etc.
We can say "I lay myself down." "He laid himself down" and such
expressions.
"Says I" is a vulgarism; don't use it. "I said" is correct form.
IN—INTO
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EAT—ATE
Don't confound the two. Eat is present, ate is past. "I eat the bread"
means that I am continuing the eating; "I ate the bread" means that
the act of eating is past. Eaten is the perfect participle, but often eat
is used instead, and as it has the same pronunciation (et) of ate, care
should be taken to distinguish the past tense, I ate from the perfect I
have eaten (eat).
SEQUENCE OF PERSON
Remember that the first person takes precedence of the second and
the second takes precedence of the third. When Cardinal Wolsey
said Ego et Rex (I and the King), he showed he was a good
grammarian, but a bad courtier.
AM COME—HAVE COME
"I am come" points to my being here, while "I have come" intimates
that I have just arrived. When the subject is not a person, the verb to
be should be used in preference to the verb to have; as, "The box is
come" instead of "The box has come."
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have drank" for "I have drunk;" "I have began" for "I have begun;"
"I have rang" for "I have rung;" "I have rose" for "I have risen;" "I
have spoke" for "I have spoken;" "I have broke" for "I have broken."
"It has froze" for "It has frozen." "It has blowed" for "It has blown."
"It has flowed" (of a bird) for "It has flown."
Don't forget that prepositions always take the objective case. Don't
say "Between you and I"; say "Between you and me"
SUMMON—SUMMONS
Don't say "I shall summons him," but "I shall summon him."
Summon is a verb, summons, a noun.
It is correct to say "I shall get a summons for him," not a summon.
UNDENIABLE—UNEXCEPTIONABLE
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THE PRONOUNS
Very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns. "Let you and I
go" should be "Let you and me go." "Let them and we go" should be
"Let them and us go." The verb let is transitive and therefore takes
the objective case.
Don't say "It is me;" say "It is I" The verb To Be of which is is a part
takes the same case after it that it has before it. This holds good in
all situations as well as with pronouns.
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After transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the
pronouns. For "He and they we have seen," say "Him and them we
have seen."
THAT FOR SO
"The hurt it was that painful it made him cry," say "so painful."
THESE—THOSE
Don't say, These kind; those sort. Kind and sort are each singular
and require the singular pronouns this and that. In connection with
these demonstrative adjective pronouns remember that this and
these refer to what is near at hand, that and those to what is more
distant; as, this book (near me), that book (over there), these boys
(near), those boys (at a distance).
FLEE—FLY
These are two separate verbs and must not be interchanged. The
principal parts of flee are flee, fled, fled; those of fly are fly, flew,
flown. To flee is generally used in the meaning of getting out of
danger. To fly means to soar as a bird. To say of a man "He has
flown from the place" is wrong; it should be "He has fled from the
place." We can say with propriety that "A bird has flown from the
place."
THROUGH—THROUGHOUT
Don't say "He is well known through the land," but "He is well
known throughout the land."
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Don't mistake these two words so nearly alike. Vocation is the
employment, business or profession one follows for a living;
avocation is some pursuit or occupation which diverts the person
from such employment, business or profession. Thus
WAS—WERE
In the subjunctive mood the plural form were should be used with
a singular subject; as, "If I were," not was. Remember the plural
form of the personal pronoun you always takes were, though it may
denote but one. Thus, "You were," never "you was." "If I was him"
is a very common expression. Note the two mistakes in it,—that of
the verb implying a condition, and that of the objective case of the
pronoun. It should read If I were he. This is another illustration of
the rule regarding the verb To Be, taking the same case after it as
before it; were is part of the verb To Be, therefore as the nominative
(I) goes before it, the nominative (he) should come after it.
A OR AN
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Chapter IX
*
STYLE
Diction—Purity—Propriety—Precision.
Many a man has to pass through the world unheard of and of little
benefit to it or himself, simply because he cannot bring out what is
in him and make it subservient to his will. It is the duty of every
one to develop his best, not only for the benefit of himself but for
the good of his fellow men. It is not at all necessary to have great
learning or acquirements, the laborer is as useful in his own place
as the philosopher in his; nor is it necessary to have many talents.
One talent rightly used is much better than ten wrongly used. Often
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a man can do more with one than his contemporary can do with
ten, often a man can make one dollar go farther than twenty in the
hands of his neighbor, often the poor man lives more comfortably
than the millionaire. All depends upon the individual himself. If he
make right use of what the Creator has given him and live according
to the laws of God and nature he is fulfilling his allotted place in the
universal scheme of creation, in other words, when he does his best,
he is living up to the standard of a useful manhood.
Just as men differ in the accent and tones of their voices, so do they
differ in the construction of their language.
Two reporters sent out on the same mission, say to report a fire, will
verbally differ in their accounts though materially both descriptions
will be the same as far as the leading facts are concerned. One will
express himself in a style different from the other.
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souls of the multitude" or, you can simply say—"The red-haired
lady danced very well and pleased the audience."
DICTION
The first requisite of style is choice of words, and this comes under
the head of Diction, the property of style which has reference to
the words and phrases used in speaking and writing. The secret of
literary skill from any standpoint consists in putting the right word
in the right place. In order to do this it is imperative to know the
meaning of the words we use, their exact literal meaning. Many
synonymous words are seemingly interchangeable and appear as if
the same meaning were applicable to three or four of them at the
same time, but when all such words are reduced to a final analysis
it is clearly seen that there is a marked difference in their meaning.
For instance grief and sorrow seem to be identical, but they are not.
Grief is active, sorrow is more or less passive; grief is caused by
troubles and misfortunes which come to us from the outside, while
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sorrow is often the consequence of our own acts. Grief is frequently
loud and violent, sorrow is always quiet and retiring. Grief shouts,
Sorrow remains calm.
Get as many words as you possibly can—if you don't need them
now, pack them away in the garrets of your brain so that you can
call upon them if you require them.
Keep a note book, jot down the words you don't understand or
clearly understand and consult the dictionary when you get time.
PURITY
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best authorities, that they are used throughout the nation and not
confined to one particular part, and that they are words in constant
use at the present time.
(2) Do not use a long word when a short one will serve your
purpose. Fire is much better than conflagration.
(5) Do not use provincialisms, as "I guess" for "I think"; "I reckon"
for "I know," etc.
(7) Do not use trite and hackneyed words and expressions; as, "on
the job," "up and in"; "down and out."
(8) Do not use newspaper words which have not established a place
in the language as "to bugle"; "to suicide," etc.
(9) Do not use ungrammatical words and forms; as, "I ain't;" "he
don't."
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(10) Do not use ambiguous words or phrases; as—"He showed me
all about the house."
Some of the old similes which have outlived their usefulness and
should be pensioned off, are "Sweet as sugar," "Bold as a lion,"
"Strong as an ox," "Quick as a flash," "Cold as ice," "Stiff as a
poker," "White as snow," "Busy as a bee," "Pale as a ghost," "Rich
as Croesus," "Cross as a bear" and a great many more far too
numerous to mention.
Don't resurrect obsolete words such as whilom, yclept, wis, etc., and
be careful in regard to obsolescent words, that is, words that are at
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the present time gradually passing from use such as quoth, trow,
betwixt, amongst, froward, etc.
Quintilian said—"Prefer the oldest of the new and the newest of the
old." Pope put this in rhyme and it still holds good:
In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, Alike fantastic, if too
new or old: Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the
last to lay the old aside.
PROPRIETY
SIMPLICITY
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characterizes the Bible and many of the great English classics such
as the "Pilgrim's Progress," "Robinson Crusoe," and "Gulliver's
Travels."
CLEARNESS
UNITY
Keep long parentheses out of the middle of your sentences and when
you have apparently brought your sentences to a close don't try to
continue the thought or idea by adding supplementary clauses.
STRENGTH
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is, much expressed in little compass, you must hit the nail fairly on
the head and drive it in straight. Go critically over what you write
and strike out every word, phrase and clause the omission of which
impairs neither the clearness nor force of the sentence and so avoid
redundancy, tautology and circumlocution. Give the most important
words the most prominent places, which, as has been pointed out
elsewhere, are the beginning and end of the sentence.
HARMONY
Harsh, disagreeable verbs are liable to occur with the Quaker form
Thou of the personal pronoun. This form is now nearly obsolete, the
plural you being almost universally used. To obtain harmony in the
sentence long words that are hard to pronounce and combinations of
letters of one kind should be avoided.
EXPRESSIVE OF WRITER
KINDS OF STYLE
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the various authors in broad divisions as (1) dry, (2) plain, (3) neat,
(4) elegant, (5) florid, (6) bombastic.
The dry style excludes all ornament and makes no effort to appeal
to any sense of beauty. Its object is simply to express the thoughts
in a correct manner. This style is exemplified by Berkeley.
The plain style does not seek ornamentation either, but aims to
make clear and concise statements without any elaboration or
embellishment. Locke and Whately illustrate the plain style.
The neat style only aspires after ornament sparingly. Its object
is to have correct figures, pure diction and clear and harmonious
sentences. Goldsmith and Gray are the acknowledged leaders in this
kind of style.
The elegant style uses every ornament that can beautify and avoids
every excess which would degrade. Macaulay and Addison have
been enthroned as the kings of this style. To them all writers bend
the knee in homage.
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In fact style is as various as character and expresses the individuality
of the writer, or in other words, as the French writer Buffon very
aptly remarks, "the style is the man himself."
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Chapter X
*
SUGGESTIONS
Rules of grammar and rhetoric are good in their own place; their
laws must be observed in order to express thoughts and ideas in
the right way so that they shall convey a determinate sense and
meaning in a pleasing and acceptable manner. Hard and fast rules,
however, can never make a writer or author. That is the business
of old Mother Nature and nothing can take her place. If nature
has not endowed a man with faculties to put his ideas into proper
composition he cannot do so. He may have no ideas worthy the
recording. If a person has not a thought to express, it cannot be
expressed. Something cannot be manufactured out of nothing. The
author must have thoughts and ideas before he can express them
on paper. These come to him by nature and environment and are
developed and strengthened by study. There is an old Latin
quotation in regard to the poet which says "Poeta nascitur non fit"
the translation of which is—the poet is born, not made. To a great
degree the same applies to the author. Some men are great scholars
as far as book learning is concerned, yet they cannot express
themselves in passable composition. Their knowledge is like gold
locked up in a chest where it is of no value to themselves or the rest
of the world.
The best way to learn to write is to sit down and write, just as
the best way how to learn to ride a bicycle is to mount the wheel
and pedal away. Write first about common things, subjects that are
familiar to you. Try for instance an essay on a cat. Say something
original about her. Don't say "she is very playful when young but
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becomes grave as she grows old." That has been said more than
fifty thousand times before. Tell what you have seen the family cat
doing, how she caught a mouse in the garret and what she did after
catching it. Familiar themes are always the best for the beginner.
Don't attempt to describe a scene in Australia if you have never been
there and know nothing of the country. Never hunt for subjects,
there are thousands around you. Describe what you saw yesterday—
a fire, a runaway horse, a dog-fight on the street and be original in
your description. Imitate the best writers in their style, but not in
their exact words. Get out of the beaten path, make a pathway of
your own.
Know what you write about, write about what you know; this is a
golden rule to which you must adhere. To know you must study.
The world is an open book in which all who run may read. Nature
is one great volume the pages of which are open to the peasant as
well as to the peer. Study Nature's moods and tenses, for they are
vastly more important than those of the grammar. Book learning
is most desirable, but, after all, it is only theory and not practice.
The grandest allegory in the English, in fact, in any language,
was written by an ignorant, so-called ignorant, tinker named John
Bunyan. Shakespeare was not a scholar in the sense we regard the
term to-day, yet no man ever lived or probably ever will live that
equalled or will equal him in the expression of thought. He simply
read the book of nature and interpreted it from the standpoint of his
own magnificent genius.
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If you are poor that is not a detriment but an advantage. Poverty is
an incentive to endeavor, not a drawback. Better to be born with a
good, working brain in your head than with a gold spoon in your
mouth. If the world had been depending on the so-called pets of
fortune it would have deteriorated long ago.
From the pits of poverty, from the arenas of suffering, from the
hovels of neglect, from the backwood cabins of obscurity, from
the lanes and by-ways of oppression, from the dingy garrets and
basements of unending toil and drudgery have come men and
women who have made history, made the world brighter, better,
higher, holier for their existence in it, made of it a place good to
live in and worthy to die in,—men and women who have hallowed
it by their footsteps and sanctified it with their presence and in many
cases consecrated it with their blood. Poverty is a blessing, not an
evil, a benison from the Father's hand if accepted in the right spirit.
Instead of retarding, it has elevated literature in all ages. Homer
was a blind beggarman singing his snatches of song for the dole
of charity; grand old Socrates, oracle of wisdom, many a day went
without his dinner because he had not the wherewithal to get it,
while teaching the youth of Athens. The divine Dante was nothing
better than a beggar, houseless, homeless, friendless, wandering
through Italy while he composed his immortal cantos. Milton, who
in his blindness "looked where angels fear to tread," was steeped
in poverty while writing his sublime conception, "Paradise Lost."
Shakespeare was glad to hold and water the horses of patrons
outside the White Horse Theatre for a few pennies in order to buy
bread. Burns burst forth in never-dying song while guiding the
ploughshare. Poor Heinrich Heine, neglected and in poverty, from
his "mattress grave" of suffering in Paris added literary laurels to the
wreath of his German Fatherland. In America Elihu Burritt, while
attending the anvil, made himself a master of a score of languages
and became the literary lion of his age and country.
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boast and pride of America, the man who made this land too hot for
the feet of slaves, came from a log cabin in the Ohio backwoods.
So did James A. Garfield. Ulysses Grant came from a tanyard to
become the world's greatest general. Thomas A. Edison commenced
as a newsboy on a railway train.
Henry M. Stanley was a poorhouse waif whose real name was John
Rowlands. He was brought up in a Welsh workhouse, but he had
ambition, so he rose to be a great explorer, a great writer, became a
member of Parliament and was knighted by the British Sovereign.
127
Have ambition to succeed and you will succeed. Cut the word
"failure" out of your lexicon. Don't acknowledge it. Remember
Let every obstacle you encounter be but a stepping stone in the path
of onward progress to the goal of success.
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in the case of certain foods, and it is very hard to throw off its
effects. Therefore, be careful in your choice of reading matter. If
you cannot afford a full library, and as has been said, such is not
necessary, select a few of the great works of the master minds,
assimilate and digest them, so that they will be of advantage to your
literary system. Elsewhere in this volume is given a list of some of
the world's masterpieces from which you can make a selection.
129
and Catholic, Turk, Jew and Mohammedan rushed to hear him and
listened, entranced, to his language. Such another was Dwight L.
Moody, the greatest Evangelist the world has ever known. Moody
was not a man of learning; he commenced life as a shoe salesman
in Chicago, yet no man ever lived who drew such audiences and so
fascinated them with the spell of his speech. "Oh, that was personal
magnetism," you will say, but it was nothing of the kind. It was the
burning words that fell from the lips of these men, and the way, the
manner, the force with which they used those words that counted
and attracted the crowds to listen unto them. Personal magnetism
or personal appearance entered not as factors into their success.
Indeed as far as physique were concerned, some of them were
handicapped. Spurgeon was a short, podgy, fat little man, Moody
was like a country farmer, Talmage in his big cloak was one of the
most slovenly of men and only Beecher was passable in the way
of refinement and gentlemanly bearing. Physical appearance, as so
many think, is not the sesame to the interest of an audience. Daniel
O'Connell, the Irish tribune, was a homely, ugly, awkward, ungainly
man, yet his words attracted millions to his side and gained for him
the hostile ear of the British Parliament, he was a master of verbiage
and knew just what to say to captivate his audiences.
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and convince others by the force of their language. A man may be
able, educated, refined, of unblemished character, nevertheless if he
lack the power to express himself, put forth his views in good and
appropriate speech he has to take a back seat, while some one with
much less ability gets the opportunity to come to the front because
he can clothe his ideas in ready words and talk effectively.
You may again say that nature, not art, makes a man a fluent
speaker; to a great degree this is true, but it is art that makes him a
correct speaker, and correctness leads to fluency. It is possible for
everyone to become a correct speaker if he will but persevere and
take a little pains and care.
Be open to criticism, don't resent it but rather invite it and look upon
those as friends who point out your defects in order that you may
remedy them.
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Chapter XI
*
SLANG
Cant and slang are often confused in the popular mind, yet they
are not synonymous, though very closely allied, and proceeding
from a common Gypsy origin. Cant is the language of a certain
class—the peculiar phraseology or dialect of a certain craft, trade
or profession, and is not readily understood save by the initiated of
such craft, trade or profession. It may be correct, according to the
rules of grammar, but it is not universal; it is confined to certain
parts and localities and is only intelligible to those for whom it is
intended. In short, it is an esoteric language which only the initiated
can understand. The jargon, or patter, of thieves is cant and it is
only understood by thieves who have been let into its significance;
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the initiated language of professional gamblers is cant, and is only
intelligible to gamblers.
Slang simply consists of words and phrases which pass current but
are not refined, nor elegant enough, to be admitted into polite speech
or literature whenever they are recognized as such. But, as has been
said, a great many use slang without their knowing it as slang and
incorporate it into their everyday speech and conversation.
133
it, and so expressive is it that the one might readily understand the
other if brought in contact. Therefore, there are what may be styled
an ignorant slang and an educated slang—the one common to the
purlieus and the alleys, the other to the parlor and the drawing-room.
When a politician defeats his rival he will tell you "it was a cinch,"
he had a "walk-over," to impress you how easy it was to gain the
victory.
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found in Spenser's Faerie Queen, Massinger's play "A New Way
to Pay Old Debts," and in Shakespeare's "King Henry VIII." The
expression "to blow on," meaning to inform, is in Shakespeare's
"As You Like it." "It's all Greek to me" is traceable to the play of
"Julius Caesar." "All cry and no wool" is in Butler's "Hudibras."
"Pious frauds," meaning hypocrites, is from the same source. "Too
thin," referring to an excuse, is from Smollett's "Peregrine Pickle."
Shakespeare also used it.
135
"petered out," "it won't wash," "slug of whiskey," "it pans out well,"
and "I should smile." "Small potatoes, and few in the hill," "soft
snap," "all fired," "gol durn it," "an up-hill job," "slick," "short cut,"
"guess not," "correct thing" are Bostonisms. The terms "innocent,"
"acknowledge the corn," "bark up the wrong tree," "great snakes,"
"I reckon," "playing 'possum," "dead shot," had their origin in the
Southern States. "Doggone it," "that beats the Dutch," "you bet,"
"you bet your boots," sprang from New York. "Step down and out"
originated in the Beecher trial, just as "brain-storm" originated in
the Thaw trial.
'Tis the same with newspapers and authors, too, detracting the Irish
race. Men and women who have never seen the green hills of
Ireland, paint Irish characters as boors and blunderers and make
them say ludicrous things and use such language as is never heard
within the four walls of Ireland. 'Tis very well known that Ireland
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is the most learned country on the face of the earth—is, and has
been. The schoolmaster has been abroad there for hundreds, almost
thousands, of years, and nowhere else in the world to-day is the
king's English spoken so purely as in the cities and towns of the little
Western Isle.
Politics add to our slang words and phrases. From this source we
get "dark horse," "the gray mare is the better horse," "barrel of
money," "buncombe," "gerrymander," "scalawag," "henchman,"
"logrolling," "pulling the wires," "taking the stump," "machine,"
"slate," etc.
137
birth, pass it by if you can, for it is like a broken-down gentleman,
of little good to any one. Imitate the great masters as much as you
will in classical literature, but when it comes to their slang, draw the
line. Dean Swift, the great Irish satirist, coined the word "phiz" for
face. Don't imitate him. If you are speaking or writing of the beauty
of a lady's face don't call it her "phiz." The Dean, as an intellectual
giant, had a license to do so—you haven't. Shakespeare used the
word "flush" to indicate plenty of money. Well, just remember there
was only one Shakespeare, and he was the only one that had a right
to use that word in that sense. You'll never be a Shakespeare, there
will never be such another—Nature exhausted herself in producing
him. Bulwer used the word "stretch" for hang, as to stretch his
neck. Don't follow his example in such use of the word. Above
all, avoid the low, coarse, vulgar slang, which is made to pass for
wit among the riff-raff of the street. If you are speaking or writing
of a person having died last night don't say or write: "He hopped
the twig," or "he kicked the bucket." If you are compelled to listen
to a person discoursing on a subject of which he knows little or
nothing, don't say "He is talking through his hat." If you are telling
of having shaken hands with Mr. Roosevelt don't say "He tipped
me his flipper." If you are speaking of a wealthy man don't say
"He has plenty of spondulix," or "the long green." All such slang is
low, coarse and vulgar and is to be frowned upon on any and every
occasion.
If you use slang use the refined kind and use it like a gentleman, that
it will not hurt or give offense to any one. Cardinal Newman defined
a gentleman as he who never inflicts pain. Be a gentleman in your
slang— never inflict pain.
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Chapter XII
*
WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS
Qualification—Appropriate Subjects—Directions
The newspaper nowadays goes into every home in the land; what
was formerly regarded as a luxury is now looked upon as a
necessity. No matter how poor the individual, he is not too poor
to afford a penny to learn, not alone what is taking place around
him in his own immediate vicinity, but also what is happening in
every quarter of the globe. The laborer on the street can be as well
posted on the news of the day as the banker in his office. Through
the newspaper he can feel the pulse of the country and find whether
its vitality is increasing or diminishing; he can read the signs of
the times and scan the political horizon for what concerns his own
interests. The doings of foreign countries are spread before him and
he can see at a glance the occurrences in the remotest corners of
earth. If a fire occurred in London last night he can read about it at
his breakfast table in New York this morning, and probably get a
better account than the Londoners themselves. If a duel takes place
in Paris he can read all about it even before the contestants have left
the field.
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connected with them, both by way of circulation and
advertisements.
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book, some of the greatest masters of English literature were men
who had but little advantage in the way of book learning.
Shakespeare, Bunyan, Burns, and scores of others, who have left
their names indelibly inscribed on the tablets of fame, had little
to boast of in the way of book education, but they had what is
popularly known as "horse" sense and a good working knowledge
of the world; in other words, they understood human nature, and
were natural themselves. Shakespeare understood mankind because
he was himself a man; hence he has portrayed the feelings, the
emotions, the passions with a master's touch, delineating the king in
his palace as true to nature as he has done the peasant in his hut.
The monitor within his own breast gave him warning as to what was
right and what was wrong, just as the daemon ever by the side of
old Socrates whispered in his ear the course to pursue under any
and all circumstances. Burns guiding the plough conceived thoughts
and clothed them in a language which has never, nor probably never
will be, surpassed by all the learning which art can confer. These
men were natural, and it was the perfection of this naturality that
wreathed their brows with the never-fading laurels of undying fame.
If you would essay to write for the newspaper you must be natural
and express yourself in your accustomed way without putting on
airs or frills; you must not ape ornaments and indulge in bombast or
rhodomontade which stamp a writer as not only superficial but silly.
There is no room for such in the everyday newspaper. It wants facts
stated in plain, unvarnished, unadorned language. True, you should
read the best authors and, as far as possible, imitate their style, but
don't try to literally copy them. Be yourself on every occasion—no
one else.
Not like Homer would I write, Not like Dante if I might, Not like
Shakespeare at his best, Not like Goethe or the rest, Like myself,
however small, Like myself, or not at all.
Put yourself in place of the reader and write what will interest
yourself and in such a way that your language will appeal to your
own ideas of the fitness of things. You belong to the great
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commonplace majority, therefore don't forget that in writing for the
newspapers you are writing for that majority and not for the learned
and aesthetic minority.
Remember you are writing for the man on the street and in the street
car, you want to interest him, to compel him to read what you have
to say. He does not want a display of learning; he wants news about
something which concerns himself, and you must tell it to him in a
plain, simple manner just as you would do if you were face to face
with him.
What can you write about? Why about anything that will constitute
current news, some leading event of the day, anything that will
appeal to the readers of the paper to which you wish to submit it. No
matter in what locality you may live, however backward it may be,
you can always find something of genuine human interest to others.
If there is no news happening, write of something that appeals to
yourself. We are all constituted alike, and the chances are that what
will interest you will interest others. Descriptions of adventure are
generally acceptable. Tell of a fox hunt, or a badger hunt, or a bear
chase.
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to blow up an American battleship, say, in the harbor of Appia, in
Samoa, it affords a chance to write about Samoa and Robert Louis
Stephenson. When Manuel was hurled from the throne of Portugal
it was a ripe time to write of Portugal and Portuguese affairs. If any
great occurrence is taking place in a foreign country such as the
crowning of a king or the dethronement of a monarch, it is a good
time to write up the history of the country and describe the events
leading up to the main issue. When a particularly savage outbreak
occurs amongst wild tribes in the dependencies, such as a rising
of the Manobos in the Philippines, it is opportune to write of such
tribes and their surroundings, and the causes leading up to the revolt.
Be constantly on the lookout for something that will suit the passing
hour, read the daily papers and probably in some obscure corner you
may find something that will serve you as a foundation for a good
article— something, at least, that will give you a clue.
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Once you get into print the battle is won, for it will be an incentive
to you to persevere and improve yourself at every turn. Go over
everything you write, cut and slash and prune until you get it into as
perfect form as possible. Eliminate every superfluous word and be
careful to strike out all ambiguous expressions and references.
The monthlies offer another attractive field for the literary aspirant.
Here, again, don't think you must be an university professor to
write for a monthly magazine. Many, indeed most, of the foremost
magazine contributors are men and women who have never passed
through a college except by going in at the front door and emerging
from the back one. However, for the most part, they are individuals
of wide experience who know the practical side of life as
distinguished from the theoretical.
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popular mind for the time being, such as flying machines,
battleships, sky-scrapers, the opening of mines, the development
of new lands, the political issues, views of party leaders, character
sketches of distinguished personages, etc. However, before trying
your skill for a monthly magazine it would be well for you to have
a good apprenticeship in writing for the daily press.
Above all things, remember that perseverance is the key that opens
the door of success. Persevere! If you are turned down don't get
disheartened; on the contrary, let the rebuff act as a stimulant to
further effort. Many of the most successful writers of our time have
been turned down again and again. For days and months, and even
years, some of them have hawked their wares from one literary door
to another until they found a purchaser. You may be a great writer
in embryo, but you will never develop into a fetus, not to speak of
full maturity, unless you bring out what is in you. Give yourself
a chance to grow and seize upon everything that will enlarge the
scope of your horizon. Keep your eyes wide open and there is not a
moment of the day in which you will not see something to interest
you and in which you may be able to interest others. Learn, too, how
to read Nature's book. There's a lesson in everything—in the stones,
the grass, the trees, the babbling brooks and the singing birds.
Interpret the lesson for yourself, then teach it to others. Always
be in earnest in your writing; go about it in a determined kind of
way, don't be faint-hearted or backward, be brave, be brave, and
evermore be brave.
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If you are of the masculine gender be a man in all things in the
highest and best acceptation of the word. That is the noblest title you
can boast, higher far than that of earl or duke, emperor or king. In
the same way womanhood is the grandest crown the feminine head
can wear. When the world frowns on you and everything seems
to go wrong, possess your soul in patience and hope for the dawn
of a brighter day. It will come. The sun is always shining behind
the darkest clouds. When you get your manuscripts back again and
again, don't despair, nor think the editor cruel and unkind. He, too,
has troubles of his own. Keep up your spirits until you have made
the final test and put your talents to a last analysis, then if you
find you cannot get into print be sure that newspaper writing or
literary work is not your forte, and turn to something else. If nothing
better presents itself, try shoemaking or digging ditches. Remember
honest labor, no matter how humble, is ever dignified. If you are a
woman throw aside the pen, sit down and darn your brother's, your
father's, or your husband's socks, or put on a calico apron, take soap
and water and scrub the floor. No matter who you are do something
useful. That old sophistry about the world owing you a living has
been exploded long ago. The world does not owe you a living, but
you owe it servitude, and if you do not pay the debt you are not
serving the purpose of an all-wise Providence and filling the place
for which you were created. It is for you to serve the world, to make
it better, brighter, higher, holier, grander, nobler, richer, for your
having lived in it. This you can do in no matter what position fortune
has cast you, whether it be that of street laborer or president. Fight
the good fight and gain the victory.
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Chapter XIII
*
CHOICE OF WORDS
In another place in this book advice has been given to never use
a long word when a short one will serve the same purpose. This
advice is to be emphasized. Words of "learned length and
thundering sound" should be avoided on all possible occasions.
They proclaim shallowness of intellect and vanity of mind. The
great purists, the masters of diction, the exemplars of style, used
short, simple words that all could understand; words about which
there could be no ambiguity as to meaning. It must be remembered
that by our words we teach others; therefore, a very great
responsibility rests upon us in regard to the use of a right language.
We must take care that we think and speak in a way so clear that
there may be no misapprehension or danger of conveying wrong
impressions by vague and misty ideas enunciated in terms which are
liable to be misunderstood by those whom we address. Words give a
body or form to our ideas, without which they are apt to be so foggy
that we do not see where they are weak or false. We must make the
endeavor to employ such words as will put the idea we have in our
own mind into the mind of another. This is the greatest art in the
world—to clothe our ideas in words clear and comprehensive to the
intelligence of others. It is the art which the teacher, the minister,
the lawyer, the orator, the business man, must master if they would
command success in their various fields of endeavor. It is very hard
to convey an idea to, and impress it on, another when he has but
a faint conception of the language in which the idea is expressed;
but it is impossible to convey it at all when the words in which it is
clothed are unintelligible to the listener.
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If we address an audience of ordinary men and women in the
English language, but use such words as they cannot comprehend,
we might as well speak to them in Coptic or Chinese, for they will
derive no benefit from our address, inasmuch as the ideas we wish
to convey are expressed in words which communicate no intelligent
meaning to their minds.
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a long word when he could convey the same, or nearly the same,
meaning with a short one. When he made a speech he always told
those who put it in form for the press to strike out every long word.
Study his speeches, go over all he ever said or wrote, and you will
find that his language was always made up of short, clear, strong
terms, although at times, for the sake of sound and oratorical effect,
he was compelled to use a rather long word, but it was always
against his inclination to do so, and where was the man who could
paint, with words, as Webster painted! He could picture things in a
way so clear that those who heard him felt that they had seen that of
which he spoke.
Abraham Lincoln was another who stirred the souls of men, yet he
was not an orator, not a scholar; he did not write M.A. or Ph.D. after
his name, or any other college degree, for he had none. He graduated
from the University of Hard Knocks, and he never forgot this severe
Alma Mater when he became President of the United States. He was
just as plain, I just as humble, as in the days when he split rails or
plied a boat on the Sangamon. He did not use big words, but he
used the words of the people, and in such a way as to make them
beautiful. His Gettysburg address is an English classic, one of the
great masterpieces of the language.
From the mere fact that a word is short it does not follow that it
is always clear, but it is true that nearly all clear words are short,
and that most of the long words, especially those which we get from
other languages, are misunderstood to a great extent by the ordinary
rank and file of the people. Indeed, it is to be doubted if some of the
"scholars" using them, fully understand their import on occasions.
A great many such words admit of several interpretations. A word
has to be in use a great deal before people get thoroughly familiar
with its meaning. Long words, not alone obscure thought and make
the ideas hazy, but at times they tend to mix up things in such a way
that positively harmful results follow from their use.
For instance, crime can be so covered with the folds of long words
as to give it a different appearance. Even the hideousness of sin can
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be cloaked with such words until its outlines look like a thing of
beauty. When a bank cashier makes off with a hundred thousand
dollars we politely term his crime defalcation instead of plain theft,
and instead of calling himself a thief we grandiosely allude to him
as a defaulter. When we see a wealthy man staggering along a
fashionable thoroughfare under the influence of alcohol, waving his
arms in the air and shouting boisterously, we smile and say, poor
gentleman, he is somewhat exhilarated; or at worst we say, he is
slightly inebriated; but when we see a poor man who has fallen from
grace by putting an "enemy into his mouth to steal away his brain"
we express our indignation in the simple language of the words:
"Look at the wretch; he is dead drunk."
When you try to use short words and shun long ones in a little while
you will find that you can do so with ease. A farmer was showing a
horse to a city-bred gentleman. The animal was led into a paddock
in which an old sow-pig was rooting. "What a fine quadruped!"
exclaimed the city man.
"Which of the two do you mean, the pig or the horse?" queried the
farmer, "for, in my opinion, both of them are fine quadrupeds."
Of course the visitor meant the horse, so it would have been much
better had he called the animal by its simple; ordinary name—, there
would have been no room for ambiguity in his remark. He profited,
however, by the incident, and never called a horse a quadruped
again.
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Most of the small words, the simple words, the beautiful words
which express so much within small bounds belong to the pure
Anglo-Saxon element of our language. This element has given
names to the heavenly bodies, the sun, moon and stars; to three out
of the four elements, earth, fire and water; three out of the four
seasons, spring, summer and winter. Its simple words are applied to
all the natural divisions of time, except one, as day, night, morning,
evening, twilight, noon, mid-day, midnight, sunrise and sunset. The
names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail, sleet, thunder,
lightning, as well as almost all those objects which form the
component parts of the beautiful, as expressed in external scenery,
such as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and stream, etc., are Anglo-
Saxon. To this same language we are indebted for those words
which express the earliest and dearest connections, and the strongest
and most powerful feelings of Nature, and which, as a consequence,
are interwoven with the fondest and most hallowed associations. Of
such words are father, mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son,
daughter, child, home, kindred, friend, hearth, roof and fireside.
What are known as the Smart Set and so-called polite society, are
relegating a great many of our old Anglo-Saxon words into the
shade, faithful friends who served their ancestors well. These self-
appointed arbiters of diction regard some of the Anglo-Saxon words
as too coarse, too plebeian for their aesthetic tastes and refined ears,
so they are eliminating them from their vocabulary and replacing
them with mongrels of foreign birth and hybrids of unknown origin.
For the ordinary people, however, the man in the street or in the
field, the woman in the kitchen or in the factory, they are still tried
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and true and, like old friends, should be cherished and preferred to
all strangers, no matter from what source the latter may spring.
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Chapter XIV
*
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
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Saxon. Here is a quotation from the Merchant of Venice, and of
the fifty-five words fifty-two are Anglo-Saxon, the remaining three
French:
The lines put into the mouth of Hamlet's father in fierce intenseness,
second only to Dante's inscription on the gate of hell, have one
hundred and eight Anglo-Saxon and but fifteen Latin words.
The largest class of Latin words are those which came through the
Norman-French, or Romance. The Normans had adopted, with the
Christian religion, the language, laws and arts of the Romanized
Gauls and Romanized Franks, and after a residence of more than a
century in France they successfully invaded England in 1066 under
William the Conqueror and a new era began. The French Latinisms
can be distinguished by the spelling. Thus Saviour comes from
the Latin Salvator through the French Sauveur; judgment from the
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Latin judiclum through the French jugement; people, from the Latin
populus, through the French peuple, etc.
For a long time the Saxon and Norman tongues refused to coalesce
and were like two distinct currents flowing in different directions.
Norman was spoken by the lords and barons in their feudal castles,
in parliament and in the courts of justice. Saxon by the people
in their rural homes, fields and workshops. For more than three
hundred years the streams flowed apart, but finally they blended,
taking in the Celtic and Danish elements, and as a result came the
present English language with its simple system of grammatical
inflection and its rich vocabulary.
The Danish element dates from the piratical invasions of the ninth
and tenth centuries. It includes anger, awe, baffle, bang, bark, bawl,
blunder, boulder, box, club, crash, dairy, dazzle, fellow, gable, gain,
ill, jam, kidnap, kill, kidney, kneel, limber, litter, log, lull, lump,
mast, mistake, nag, nasty, niggard, horse, plough, rug, rump, sale,
scald, shriek, skin, skull, sledge, sleigh, tackle, tangle, tipple, trust,
viking, window, wing, etc.
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rabbi, hallelujah, cherub, seraph, hosanna, manna, satan, Sabbath,
etc.
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Turban, tulip, divan and firman are Turkish.
The Indians have helped us considerably and the words they have
given us are extremely euphonic as exemplified in the names of
many of our rivers and States, as Mississippi, Missouri, Minnehaha,
Susquehanna, Monongahela, Niagara, Ohio, Massachusetts,
Connecticut, Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota, etc. In addition to these
proper names we have from the Indians wigwam, squaw, hammock,
tomahawk, canoe, mocassin, hominy, etc.
There are many hybrid words in English, that is, words, springing
from two or more different languages. In fact, English has drawn
from all sources, and it is daily adding to its already large family,
and not alone is it adding to itself, but it is spreading all over the
world and promises to take in the entire human family beneath
its folds ere long. It is the opinion of many that English, in a
short time, will become the universal language. It is now being
taught as a branch of the higher education in the best colleges and
universities of Europe and in all commercial cities in every land
throughout the world. In Asia it follows the British sway and the
highways of commerce through the vast empire of East India with
its two hundred and fifty millions of heathen and Mohammedan
inhabitants. It is largely used in the seaports of Japan and China,
and the number of natives of these countries who are learning it
is increasing every day. It is firmly established in South Africa,
Liberia, Sierra Leone, and in many of the islands of the Indian and
South Seas. It is the language of Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania,
and Christian missionaries are introducing it into all the islands of
Polynesia. It may be said to be the living commercial language
of the North American continent, from Baffin's Bay to the Gulf
of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and it is spoken
largely in many of the republics of South America. It is not limited
by parallels of latitude, or meridians of longitude. The two great
English-speaking countries, England and the United States, are
disseminating it north, south, east and west over the entire world.
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Chapter XV
*
MASTERS AND MASTERPIECES OF LITERATURE
The Bible is the world's greatest book. Apart from its character as a
work of divine revelation, it is the most perfect literature extant.
Leaving out the Bible the three greatest works are those of Homer,
Dante and Shakespeare. These are closely followed by the works of
Virgil and Milton.
INDISPENSABLE BOOKS
A GOOD LIBRARY
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Adam Bede (George Eliot), Vanity Fair (Thackeray), Ivanhoe
(Scott), On the Heights (Auerbach), Eugenie Grandet (Balzac),
Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne), Emerson's Essays, Boswell's Life of
Johnson, History of the English People (Green), Outlines of
Universal History, Origin of Species, Montaigne's Essays,
Longfellow, Tennyson, Browning, Whittier, Ruskin, Herbert
Spencer.
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In order of merit are: Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, Antony and
Cleopatra, Macbeth, Merchant of Venice, Henry IV, As You Like
It, Winter's Tale, Romeo and Juliet, Midsummer Night's Dream,
Twelfth Night, Tempest.
If you are not able to procure a library of the great masterpieces, get
at least a few. Read them carefully, intelligently and with a view to
enlarging your own literary horizon. Remember a good book cannot
be read too often, one of a deteriorating influence should not be
read at all. In literature, as in all things else, the good alone should
prevail.
***
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