Radiography Testing

Radiography
• Radiography is used in a very wide range of
applications including medicine, engineering,
forensics, security, etc.
• In NDT, radiography is one of the
most important and widely used
methods.
• Radiographic testing (RT) offers a number of
advantages over other NDT methods,
however, one of its major disadvantages is
the health risk associated with the radiation.
• RT is one of the most widely used NDT
methods for the detection of internal
defects such as porosity and voids.
• With proper orientation of the X-ray
beam, planar defects can also be detected
with radiography.
• It is also suitable for detecting changes in
material composition, thickness
measurements and locating unwanted or
defective components hidden from view in
an assembled part.
•In general, RT is method of inspecting materials for hidden
flaws by using the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various materials.
•The intensity of the radiation that penetrates and passes
through the material is either captured by a radiation sensitive
film (Film Radiography) or by a planer array of radiation
sensitive sensors (Real-time Radiography).
•Film radiography is the oldest approach, yet it is still the
most widely used in NDT.
 Basic Principles
• In radiographic testing, the part to be inspected is
placed between the radiation source and a piece of
radiation sensitive film.
• The radiation source can either be an X-ray machine or
a radioactive source.
• The part will stop some of the radiation where thicker
and more dense areas will stop more of the radiation.
• The radiation that passes through the part will expose
the film and forms a shadowgraph of the part.
• The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount
of radiation reaching the film through the test object,
• where darker areas indicate more exposure (higher
radiation intensity) and lighter areas indicate less
exposure (higher radiation
 The variation in the image darkness can be used to determine thickness or
composition of material and would also reveal the presence of any flaws
or discontinuities inside the material.
 Advantages of RT

• Both surface and internal discontinuities can

be detected.
• Significant variations in composition can be detected.
• It can be used on a variety of materials.
• Can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct
access to surface is not required)
• Very minimal or no part preparation is required.
• Permanent test record is obtained.
• Good portability especially for gamma-ray sources.
 Disadvantages
• Hazardous to operators and other
nearby personnel.
• High degree of skill and experience is required
for exposure and interpretation.
• The equipment is relatively expensive
(especially for x-ray sources).
• The process is generally slow.
• Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).
• Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
• It requires a two-sided access to the component.
 PHYSICS OF RADIATION
• Nature of Penetrating Radiation
• Both X-rays and gamma rays are electromagnetic waves
and on the electromagnetic spectrum they occupy
frequency ranges that are higher than ultraviolet radiation.
• In terms of frequency, gamma rays generally have higher
frequencies than X-rays.
• The major distinction between X-rays and gamma rays is
the origin where X-rays are usually artificially produced
using an X-ray generator and gamma radiation is the
product of radioactive materials.
• Both X-rays and gamma rays are waveforms, as are light
rays, microwaves, and radio waves.
• X-rays and gamma rays cannot be seen, felt, or heard. They
possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not
influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will
generally travel in straight lines.
• However, they can be diffracted (bent) in a manner similar
to light.
• Electromagentic radiation act somewhat like a particle
at times in that they occur as small “packets” of energy
and are referred to as “photons”.
• Each photon contains a certain amount (or bundle)
of energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists
of these photons.
• The only difference between the various types of
electromagnetic radiation is the amount of energy
found in the photons.
• Due to the short wavelength of X-rays and gamma
rays, they have more energy to pass through matter
than do the other forms of energy in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
• As they pass through matter, they are scattered and
absorbed and the degree of penetration depends on
the kind of matter and the energy of the rays.
 Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
• They are not detected by human senses
(cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
• They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
• Their paths cannot be changed by electrical
or magnetic fields.
• They can be diffracted, refracted to a
small degree at interfaces between two
different materials, and in some cases be
reflected.
• Their degree of penetration depends on their
energy and the matter they are traveling
through.
• They have enough energy to ionize matter
and can damage or destroy living cells.
Electromagnetic Radiation sources
• X ray source
• In the widely used conventional X radiography,
the source of radiation is an X-ray tube.
• It consists of a glass tube under vacuum, enclosing a
positive electrode or ‘anode’ and a negative
electrode or ‘cathode’.
• The cathode comprises a filament, which
when brought to incandescence by a current
of a few amperes, emits electrons.
• Under the effect of electrical tension set up
between the anode and the cathode, these
electrons are attracted to the anode.
• The stream of electrons is concentrated in
a beam by a cylinder or a focusing cup.
• The anti-cathode is a slip of metal with high
melting point recessed in to the anode,
where it is struck by the beam of electrons.
• It is by impinging on the anti-cathode that
fast moving electrons give rise to X-rays.
• The development of electronics has led to the availability
of constant potential units which give stable operating
conditions.
• The replacement of glass tubes by metal ceramic ones
has led to an extended tube life.
• X-ray machines are characterized by the operating
voltage and current which determine the penetrability
and intensity of radiation produced.
• Modern X-ray generators are available up to 450 kV and
50 mA.
• Highly automated self propelled X-ray mini-crawlers
which travel within pipelines are used to take radiographs
of pipelines and welds from inside.
• The area of the anti-cathode which is struck by
the electron flux is called the ‘focal spot’ or
TARGET.
• It is essential that this area should be sufficiently
large, in order to avoid local heating which may
damage the anti-cathode and to allow rapid
dissipation of heat.
• The projection of the focal spot on a surface
perpendicular to the axis of the beam of X-rays
is termed as the ‘optical focus’ or ‘focus’.
• This focus has to be as small as possible in order to
achieve maximum sharpness in the radiographic
image.
 Production of X-rays
• X-rays are produced when fast moving
electrons are suddenly brought to rest
by colliding with matter.
• Electrons may also lose energy by
ionization and excitation of the target
atoms.
• The accelerated electrons lose their kinetic
energy (KE) very rapidly at the surface of
the metal plate, and energy conversion
occurs.
• Conversion in 3 different ways:
• 1. A very small fraction (< 1 %) is converted into X radiation.
• The conversion factor f can be estimated using an
empirical relation f = 1.1 x 10-9 ZV
• Z = atomic number of the target, V = energy of electron
in volts.
• 2. Approximately 99% of energy of electrons is converted
into heat by increasing the thermal vibration of the atoms of
the target, the temperature of which may rise considerably.
• 3. Some of the electrons have sufficient energy to eject
orbital electrons from the atoms of the target material that
are ionized.
• The secondary electrons produced in this way may
escape from the surface of the target and subsequently
be recaptured by it producing further heat or secondary
radiation.
• The two important distinguishing features of
a beam of X rays are its intensity and quality.
• The first term refers to how much
radiation (quantity).
• The second term refers to the kind of
radiation (how penetrating it is).
 High energy X-ray source
• Inspection of thicker sections is carried out using
high energy X-rays ( energy value 1 MeV or more).
• Using high energy X-rays, possibilities of large
distance to thickness ratios with correspondingly low
geometrical distortion, short exposure times and high
production rate can be achieved.
• Also, small focal spot size and reduced amount of
high angle scattered X-rays reaching the film result in
radiographs with good contrast, excellent sensitivity
and good resolution.
• A number of machines are available: synchrotron,
betatron, Van De Graff type electrostatic generators
etc
 Gamma Radiation
• Radioactivity, is the process by which a nucleus of
an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing
radiation.
• Gamma radiation is one of the three types of
natural radioactivity.
• The other two types of natural radioactivity are
alpha and beta radiation, which are in the form of
particles.
• Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation just like
X- rays.
• Gamma rays are the most energetic form
of electromagnetic radiation.
• Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms.
• Depending upon the ratio of neutrons to protons
within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular
element may be stable or unstable.
• When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold
the nucleus of an atom together, the atom is said to
be unstable.
• Atoms with unstable nuclei are constantly changing as
a result of the imbalance of energy within the
nucleus.
• Over time, the nuclei of unstable isotopes
spontaneously disintegrate, or transform, in a
process known as “radioactive decay” and such
material is called “radioactive material”.
• Gamma-rays
• A nucleus which is in an excited state (unstable
nucleus) may emit one or more photons of
discrete energies.
• The emission of gamma rays does not alter the
number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but
instead has the effect of moving the nucleus from a
higher to a lower energy state (unstable to stable).
• Gamma ray emission frequently follows beta
decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear decay
processes.
 Basic terms
• Isotopes
• The number of nucleons (both protons and
neutrons) in the nucleus is the atoms mass number,
and each isotope of a given element has a different
mass number.
• For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14
are three isotopes of the element carbon with mass
numbers 12, 13 and 14 respectively.
• Half life
• Half-life is the amount of time required for a quantity
to fall to half its value as measured at the beginning
of the time period.
• It is the time required, for half of the unstable,
radioactive atoms in a sample to undergo
radioactive decay.
 Gamma ray sources
• Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted from
an unstable nucleus.
• X-ray machines emit a broad band of wavelengths, but
Gamma ray sources emit one or a few discrete
wavelengths.
• Radiography with gamma rays has the advantages of
simplicity of the apparatus, compactness of radiation
source and independence from outside power.
• This facilitates examination of pipes, pressure vessels and
other assemblies in which the access to interior is
difficult.
• Each isotope with unstable nucleus will have
characteristic nuclear energy levels and intensities for the
emitted radiation.
• The gamma ray energy levels remain constant for a
particular isotope but the intensity decays with time as
indicated by the half life.
• A variety of radioisotopes are produced
in a nuclear reactor but a few have been
utilized for the purposes of radiography.
• Other isotopes are unsuitable for a variety
of reasons such as shorter half life, low
intensity and high cost of production.
• The 4 most popular radiographic sources
are Cobalt 60 (Co-60), Iridium 192 (Ir-
192), Caesium 137 (Cs-137) and Thulium
170 (Th-170).
Isotope Decay Rate (Half-Life)
Each radioactive material decays at its own
unique rate which cannot be altered by any
chemical or physical process. A useful
measure of this rate isthe “half-life” of the
radioactivity.
Half-life is defined as the time requiredfor the
activity of any particular radionuclide to
decrease to one-half of its initial value. In other
words one-half of the atoms have reverted to a
more stable state material. Half-lives of
radioactive materials range from microseconds
to billions of years. Half-life of two widely used
industrial isotopes are; 74 days for Iridium-192,
and 5.3 years for Cobalt-60.
• Manmade radioactive sources are produced
by introducing an extra neutron to atoms of
the source material.
• As the material gets rid of the neutron, energy
is released in the form of gamma rays.
• Two of the most common industrial gamma-ray
sources for industrial radiography are Iridium-
192 and Cobalt-60.
• In comparison to an X-ray generator, Cobalt-
60 produces energies comparable to a 1.25
MV X- ray system and Iridium-192 to a 460 kV
X-ray system.
• These high energies make it possible to
penetrate thick materials with a relatively short
exposure time.
 Intensity and Exposure
Radiation intensity is the amount of energy passing through a given area
that is perpendicular to the direction of radiation travel in a given unit of
time. One way to measure the intensity of X-rays or gamma rays is to
measure the amount of ionization they cause in air. The amount of
ionization in air produced by the radiation is called the exposure. Exposure
is expressed in terms of a scientific unit called a Roentgen (R). The unit
roentgen is equal to the amount of radiation that ionizes 1 cm3 of dry air
(at 0°C and standard atmospheric pressure) to one electrostatic unit of
charge, of either sign. Most portable radiation detection safety devices
used by radiographers measure exposure and present the reading in terms
of Roentgens or Roentgens/hour, which is known as the “dose rate”.
 Newton's Inverse Square Law
Any point source which spreads its influence
equally in all directions without a limit to its range
will obey the inverse square law. This comes from
strictly geometrical considerations. The intensity
of the influence at any given distance (d) is the
source strength divided by the area of a sphere
having a radius equal to the distance (d). Being
strictly geometric in its origin, the inverse square
law applies to diverse phenomena. Point sources
of gravitational force, electric field, light, sound,
and radiation obey the inverse square law.
As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, the
intensity of the radiation received from a point radiation source can
be characterized by the diagram above. The relation between
intensity and distance according to the inverse square law can be
expresses as:
2 2
𝐼1𝑑1 = 𝐼2𝑑2

Where 𝐼1 & 𝐼2 are the intensities at distances 𝑑1 & 𝑑2 form the source,
respectively.

All measures of exposure or dose rate will drop off by the inverse
square law. For example, if the received dose of radiation is 100
mR/hr at 2 cm from a source, it will be
0.01 mR/hr at 2 m.
 Half-Value Layer
The thickness of any given material where 50% of the incident
energy has been attenuated is known as the half-value layer
(HVL). The HVL is expressed in units of distance (mm or cm).

Approximate HVL for various materials when radiation is from

a gamma-ray source:
Half-Value Layer (mm)

Concrete Steel Lead Tungsten Uranium

Source
Iridium-192 44.5 12.7 4.8 3.3 2.8
Cobalt-60 60.5 21.6 12.5 7.9 6.9
Approximate HVL for some materials when radiation is from
an X-ray source:
Half-Value Layer (mm)
X-ray Tube Voltage
Lead Concrete
(kV)
50 0.06 4.32
100 0.27 15.10
150 0.30 22.32
200 0.52 25.0
250 0.88 28.0
300 1.47 31.21
400 2.5 33.0
1000 7.9 44.45
 Inspection techniques
• With the various techniques available, the
choice of appropriate one is made on the basis
of geometry, size, sensitivity requirements, in-
situ space availability etc.
• The techniques used for various engg
components for radiographic inspection
are:
1. Single wall single image technique
2. Double wall penetration technique
a. Double wall single image
b. Double wall double image
c. Double wall superimposing image
 Single wall single image technique
(SWSI)
• Used when both the sides of the specimen are
accessible.
• The source is kept outside and the film inside
or vice versa and the weld is exposed part by
part (a smaller length of weld).
• This is used for plates, cylinders, shells
and large diameter pipes.
 Panoramic technique
• The radiation source is kept in the centre of
the pipe and the film is fixed around the
weld on the outer surface of the pipe.
• The total circumferential weld length
is exposed at a time.
• Reduces the examination time considerably.
• It can be effectively employed only when the
source to film distance is sufficient enough
to ensure the proper sensitivity.
Double wall penetration technique
• Used where the inside surface of the pipe is
not accessible.
• The source of radiation and the film are
kept outside.
• The radiation penetrates both the walls of
the pipe.
• This can be effectively adopted in 3
different methods.
1. Double wall single image (DWSI)
2. Double wall double image (DWDI)
3. Double wall superimposing image
Double wall single image (DWSI)
• The radiation source is kept on the pipe or
very near to the OD and just near the weld.
• Used for pipes with diameter more than 90
mm OD.
• The image quality indicator (IQI) is placed on
the film side.
• Here film side weld only can be interpreted.
• As the interpretable weld length is small, it
requires a number of exposures to cover the
entire weld length, depending upon the pipe
diameter.
Double wall double image (DWDI)
• Specially suited for small diameter pipes up to
90 mm OD.
• The radiation source is kept at a distance SFD
(Source-to-Film Distance) with an offset from
the axis of the weld,
• to avoid the super imposing of the source
side weld over the film side weld and to
obtain an elliptical image on the film.
• Here both the source and film side welds can
be interpreted from the image.
• Requires min. of two exposures, perpendicular
to each other, to cover the entire circumference.
 Superimposing technique
• Used when the required offset to obtain
double image could not be possible due to
site restrictions for the pipes with dia :
90mmOD.
• The source is kept at a distance without
offset, thereby the source side weld is
superimposed on the film side weld on the
film.
• Requires minimum of 3 exposures each at
120° apart, to cover the entire length of
the weld.
 Real time radiography
• Uses X or gamma radiation to produce a
visible volumetric image of an object.
• In Film radiography, the image is viewed in a
static mode; in Real time radiography, the
image is interpreted at the same time as the
radiation passes through the object (Dynamic
mode).
• A positive image is normally presented in Real
time radiography, whereas the X-ray film gives
a negative image.
• Basic equipment consists of a source of
radiation, a fluorescent screen, mirrors and
a viewing port.
• Object is placed between the source and
the screen.
• The fluorescent screen converts the
transmitted radiation to visible light.
• A specially coated mirror then reflects
the visible image to a viewing port.
• As low light levels are produced during
conventional fluoroscopy, an intensifier is
used to provide brightness.
• Real time radiography has the advantages of
high speed and low cost of inspection.
• Real-time radiographic concept can be applied in
the case of microfocal radiography. (focal spot = 100
µm)
• In Real-time microfocal radiography the zooming is
done by dynamically positioning the object with
the manipulators between X-ray tube and image
receptor.
• Real-time radiography can be applied to the
inspection of laser welds or electron beam welds in
thin pipes having thickness 1mm and porosities in
the range of 0.025mm – 0.1mm can be detected in
1 second.
 Films used in industrial radiography
• They are similar to photographic film in that there is a
central carrier called film base that is made of thin sheet
of polyester type material.
• This is normally transparent and serves only as the
carrier for the chemically reactive material that forms
the emulsion.
• Emulsion consisting of a silver halide recording medium
with a binder (gelatin) is applied to both sides of the
base.
• The emulsion is usually coated on both sides of a
flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base in layers about
0.012 mm thick.
• The typical total thickness of the X-ray film is approximately
0.23 mm.
• Though films are made to be sensitive for X-ray
or gamma-ray, yet they are also sensitive to
visible light.
• When X-rays, gamma-rays, or light strike the
film, some of the halogen atoms are liberated
from the silver halide crystal and thus leaving the
silver atoms alone.
• This change is of such a small nature that it
cannot be detected by ordinary physical
methods and is called a “latent (hidden) image”.
• When the film is exposed to a chemical solution
(developer) the reaction results in the
formation of black, metallic silver.
• The film speed is another important
film parameter.
• A film whose grains would begin reacting to the
exposure considerably sooner than other films
– High speed film.
• For a constant intensity, the grains of a high
speed film would produce the required
density before the grains of slow speed film.
• Grain size in a film affects quality and time
of exposure.
• Faster speed films have larger grains and slow
films have extra-fine or fine grains, and give
better quality even though the exposure time
is longer.
 Speed of film
• Speed is defined as the density recorded on
the film resulting from a given radiation
input.
• It is measured in terms of inverse of
exposure required to produce a radiograph
of a particular density, under specified
conditions.
• A film requiring less exposure is called faster.
 Film Selection
• Selecting the proper film and developing the
optimal radiographic technique for a particular
component depends on a number of different
factors;
1. Composition, shape, and size of the part being
examined and, in some cases, its weight and
location.
2. Type of radiation used, whether X-rays from an X-
ray generator or gamma rays from a radioactive
source.
3. Kilovoltage available with the X-ray equipment or
the intensity of the gamma radiation.
4. Relative importance of high radiographic detail
or quick and economical results.
 Film Packaging
• Radiographic film can be purchased in a
number of different packaging options
and they are available in a variety of sizes.
• The most basic form is as individual sheets in
a box. In preparation for use, each sheet must
be loaded into a cassette or film holder in a
darkroom to protect it from exposure to light.
• Industrial X-ray films are also available in a
form in which each sheet is enclosed in a
light- tight envelope.
• The film can be exposed from either
side without removing it from the
protective packaging.
• A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film
in the darkroom for processing.
• Packaged film is also available in the form of
rolls where that allows the radiographer to
cut the film to any length.
• The ends of the packaging are sealed
with electrical tape in the darkroom.
• In applications such as the radiography of
circumferential welds and the examination of
long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long
lengths of film offer great economic
advantage.
 Film Handling
• X-ray film should always be handled carefully to
avoid physical strains, such as pressure, creasing,
buckling, friction, etc.
• Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible holders
and external clamping devices are used, care should
be taken to make sure pressure is uniform.
• Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are
moist or contaminated with processing chemicals, as
well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are
always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang
free.
• Use of envelope-packed films avoids many of these
problems until the envelope is opened for
processing.
 Intensifying screens
• The radiographic image is formed by only approximately 1
% of the amount of radiation energy exposed at the film.
• The rest passes through the film and is consequently
not used.
• To utilize more of the available radiation energy, the film
is sandwiched between two intensifying screens.
• The screens help to cut down the exposure time by
utilizing more effectively the radiations reaching the film.
• The intensification effect is primarily due to the
liberation of photoelectrons from the screen.

• Different types of materials are being used for this purpose.

– Lead screens
– Steel and copper screens
– Fluorescent screens
– Salt screens
– Fluorometallic screens
• Lead screens
• Under the impact of X-rays and gamma-rays, lead
screens emit electrons to which the film is
sensitive.
• In industrial radiography this effect is made use of: the
film is placed between two layers of lead to achieve
the intensifying effect and intensity improvement of
approximately factor 4 can be realized.
• This method of intensification is used within the
energy range of 80 keV to 420 keV, and applies equally
to X-ray or gamma-radiation, such as produced by
Iridium192.
• Intensifying screens are made up of two
homogeneous sheets of lead foil (stuck on to a thin
base such as a sheet of paper or cardboard) between
which the film is placed: the so called front and back
screens.
• The thickness of the front screen (source side) must
match the hardness of the radiation being used, so
that it will pass the primary radiation while stopping as
much as possible of the secondary radiation (which
has a longer wavelength and is consequently less
penetrating).
• The surface of lead screens is polished to allow as
close a contact as possible with the surface of the film.
• Flaws such as scratches or cracks on the surface of
the metal will be visible in the radiograph and must,
therefore, be avoided.
• Steel and copper screens
• For high-energy radiation, lead is not the
best material for intensifying screens.
• With Cobalt60 gamma-rays, copper or steel
have been shown to produce better quality
radiographs than lead screens.
• With megavoltage X-rays in the energy range 5-
8 MeV (linac) thick copper screens produce
better radiographs than lead screens of any
thickness.
• Fluorescent screens
• The term fluorescence (often mistaken for
phosphorescence) is used to indicate the characteristic of
a substance to instantly emit light under the influence of
electromagnetic radiation.
• The moment radiation stops, so does the lighting effect.
• This phenomenon is made good use of in film
based radiography.
• Certain substances emit so much light when subjected to
ionising radiation, that they have considerably more
effect on the light sensitive film than the direct ionising
radiation itself..
• Salt screens
• These are fluorescent screens consisting of a thin, flexible
base coated with a fluorescent layer made up from micro-
crystals of a suitable metallic salt (rare earth; usually
calcium tungstate) which fluoresce when subjected to
radiation.
• The radiation makes the screen light up.
• The light intensity is in direct proportion to the
radiation intensity.
• With these screens a very high intensification factor of 50
can be achieved, which means a significant reduction in
exposure time.
• The image quality, however, is poor because of
increased image unsharpness.
• Fluorescent screens are only used in industrial
radiography when a drastic reduction of exposure time, in
combination with the detection ofAlssat.rPgrofe.
VidshneufSeanckatr,sDM, Ei,sRSErTequired.
• Fluorometallic screens
• Apart from fluorescent and lead intensifying
screens, there are fluorometallic screens which
to a certain extent combine the advantages of
both.
• These screens are provided with a lead foil
between the film base and the fluorescent
layer.
• This type of screen is intended to be used in
combination with so-called RCF-film (Rapid
Cycle Film).
• The degree of intensification achieved largely
depends on the spectral sensitivity of the X-
ray film for the light emitted by the screens.
-
 Types of Films
• (a) On the basis of photosensitive emulsion layer
• i) Single coated
• ii) Double coated

• (b) On the basis of intensifying screens

• i) Screen films
• ii) Non-screen films

• (c) On the basis of type of emulsion coating

• i) Blue light sensitive films
• ii) Green light sensitive films (Orthochromatic)
• iii) Red light sensitive films (Panchromatic)

• (d) On the basis of film speed

• i) Standard speed films
• ii) Fast speed films
• -
 Types of films
• Can be divided into 3 groups on the basis
of radiography considerations.
i. Films for use with salt screens, also known
as salt screen films.
ii. Films for use with metal screens or without
screens also called direct films. This group
covers a large range of film speeds.
iii. Films used for special purposes, such as
single emulsion films.
• i) Salt screen films
• These are used with salt screens.
• Salt screens are fluorescent screens consisting of a
thin, flexible base coated with a fluorescent layer
made up from micro-crystals of a suitable metallic salt
(usually calcium tungstate) which fluoresce when
subjected to radiation.
• The use of salt screens causes loss of definition and
hence these films should be used where their
disadvantages are clearly understood and
tolerable.
• For about 90% of the medical work, salt screen
films are used.
• ii) Direct films
• Generally used with metal screens.
• This group covers industrial films and some of
the medical films.
• The contrast of industrial film increases as
density increase, whereas that of a medical film
readily react as a maximum with increasing
density.
• Industrial films have coating weights, which
are usually between 2-2.5 times those of
normal screen type medical films.
• iii) Special purpose films
• These find less frequent use in radiography and
are discussed below.
• a) Fluorographic films
• These films are used for photographing a
fluorescent screen on which X-ray image has been
projected.
• These films are usually sensitive to blue or blue-
green glow emitted by the screen in use.
• They differ from normal X-ray films in that they
are coated on one side only.
• b) X-ray paper
• Instant cycle X-ray papers are the latest
addition to the family of X-ray films.
• When used in instant cycle processor units,
these papers develop to completion within
seconds by the developing agents contained in
the emulsion.
• Good for fast radiographic examinations.
• This paper is cheap compared to X-ray films
and processing cost is very low.
 Film Processing
• As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of
a transparent, blue-tinted base coated on both sides
with an emulsion.
• The emulsion consists of gelatin containing
microscopic, radiation sensitive silver halide
crystals, such as silver bromide and silver chloride.
• When X-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the
crystals or grains, some of the Br- ions are
liberated leaving the Ag+ ions.
• In this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a
latent (hidden) image because the change in the
grains is virtually undetectable, but the exposed grains
are now more sensitive to reaction with the
developer.
• When the film is processed, it is exposed to
several different chemical solutions for
controlled periods of time.
• Film processing basically involves the
following five steps:
• 1.Development: The developing agent gives
up electrons to convert the silver halide grains
to metallic silver.
• Grains that have been exposed to the radiation
develop more rapidly, but given enough time the
developer will convert all the silver ions into
silver metal.
• Proper temperature control is needed to
convert exposed grains to pure silver while
keeping unexposed grains as silver halide
crystals.
• 2. Stopping the development: The stop bath simply
stops the development process by diluting and washing
the developer away with water.
• 3. Fixing: Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by
the fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only silver halide
crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.
• 4. Washing: The film is washed with water to remove all
the processing chemicals.
• 5. Drying: The film is dried for viewing.

• Film processing is a strict science governed by rigid rules

of chemical concentration, temperature, time, and
physical movement.
• Whether processing is done by hand or automatically
by machine, excellent radiographs require a high
degree of consistency and quality control.
 Viewing Radiographs
• After the film processing, radiographs are
viewed using a light-box (or they can be digitized
and viewed on a high resolution monitor) in
order to be interpreted.
• In addition to providing diffused, adjustable
white illumination of uniform intensity,
specialized industrial radiography light-boxes
include magnifying and masking aids.
• When handing the radiographs, thin cotton
gloves should be worn to prevent fingerprints
on the radiographs.
 Interpretation and Evaluation
of Test results
• The common term for film interpretation is film viewing.
• Film viewing in fact means the evaluation of the image quality of
a radiograph for compliance with the code requirements and the
interpretation of details of any possible defect visible on the film.
• For this purpose, the film is placed in front of an illuminated
screen of appropriate brightness/luminance.
• The edges of the film and areas of low density need to be masked
to avoid glare.
• The following conditions are important for good film interpretation:
– brightness of the illuminated screen (luminance)
– density of the radiograph
– diffusion and evenness of the illuminated screen
– ambient light in the viewing room
– film viewer’s eye-sight
• Poor viewing conditions may cause important defect information
on a radiograph to go unseen.
• The light of the viewing box must be
diffusive and preferably white.
• Radiographs should be viewed in a
darkened room, although total darkness is
not necessary.
• Care must be taken that as little light
as possible is reflected off the film
surface towards the film viewer.
• If the film viewer enters a viewing room
from full daylight, some time must be
allowed for the eyes to adapt to the dark.
• An yearly eye-test for general visual acuity is
required while especially sight at close
range needs to be checked.
• The film viewer must be able to read a
Jaeger number 1 letter at 300 mm distance
with one eye, with or without corrective
aids.
• The trained eye is capable of discerning
an abrupt density change/step of 1 %.
• While interpreting, a magnifying glass of
power 3 to 4 can be advantageous.
• The film-interpreter
• Apart from the requirements regarding “viewing
conditions” and “viewing equipment” the film-
interpreter (film viewer) shall have thorough
knowledge of the manufacturing process of the
object being examined and of any defects it may
contain.
• The type of defects that may occur in castings,
obviously, differs from those in welded
constructions.
• Different welding processes have their own
characteristic defects which the film interpreter
must know to be able to interpret the radiograph.
• To become a qualified NDT operator, various
training courses, course materials and leaflets
specifying the requirements they need to comply
with, exist.
• The European NDT industry conforms to the
qualification standards of the American
ASNT organization.
• So far, a training program for film-interpreter has
not been established in similar fashion.
• Textbooks for example are not uniform.
• Sometimes, the IIW-weld defect reference collection
is used, beside which the instructor usually has his
own collection of typical examples, supplemented
with process-specific radiographs.
• ASTM has a reference set of defects in
castings available.
Radiograph Interpretation - Welds
• In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the
radiographer must also be skilled in radiographic
interpretation.
• Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps: (1)
detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation.
• All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity.
• Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an
image.
• The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in
radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in the
place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing
various features in the image.
• The following material will help to develop an understanding of
the types of defects found in weldments and how they appear
in a radiograph. -
• Discontinuities
• Discontinuities are interruptions in the
typical structure of a material.
• These interruptions may occur in the base
metal, weld material or "heat affected"
zones.
• Discontinuities, which do not meet the
requirements of the codes or specifications
used to invoke and control an inspection,
are referred to as defects.
-
General Welding Discontinuities
The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not
properly fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass
material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base
metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow
into the base material without bonding.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal.
Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but often
appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing
singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is
elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas
attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and
is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material
and it will have a higher radiographic density than the
surrounding area.
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are
contaminated with moisture. The moisture turns into a gas
when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the
welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular
porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped
close together.
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld
metal or between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark,
jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld
joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are
propagating in a direction that produces a change in thickness
that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged
and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear
as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
 Radiograph Interpretation - Castings
• The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure
of defects that adversely affect the strength of the product.
• Castings are a product form that often receive radiographic inspection
since many of the defects produced by the casting process are
volumetric in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with this
method.
• These discontinuities of course, are related to casting process
deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-
reject decisions as well as to suitable corrective measures.
• Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of the
performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able
to identify the type and size of the defects.
• ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been produced to
help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found
in components.
• The castings used to produce the standard radiographs have been
destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of
discontinuities present.
• The following is a brief description of the most common
discontinuity types included in existing reference radiograph
documents (in graded types or as single illustrations).
Radiographic indications for castings
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by accumulated gas or air
which is trapped by the metal. These discontinuities are usually
smooth- walled rounded cavities of a spherical, elongated or flattened
shape. If the sprue is not high enough to provide the necessary heat
transfer needed to force the gas or air out of the mold, the gas or air
will be trapped as the molten metal begins to solidify. Blows can also
be caused by sand that is too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a low
permeability so that gas cannot escape.

Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Asst.
Sand inclusions and dross: are nonmetallic oxides, which appear
on the radiograph as irregular, dark blotches. These come from
disintegrated portions of mold or core walls and/or from oxides
(formed in the melt) which have not been skimmed off prior to
the introduction of the metal into the mold gates. Careful
control of the melt, proper holding time in the ladle and
skimming of the melt during pouring will minimize or obviate this
source of trouble.

-
Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly disposed
discontinuities that occur after the melt has solidified. They
generally appear singly and originate at casting surfaces.
Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast metal as
a result of two streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite.
They may appear on a radiograph as cracks or seams with smooth
or rounded edges.

-
Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in an otherwise solid
metallic matrix. They may be less or more dense than the matrix
alloy and will appear on the radiograph, respectively, as darker
or lighter indications. The latter type is more common in light
metal castings.
Safety aspects required in Radiography
• Radiation Health Risks
• The health risks associated with the radiation is considered to be
one of the major disadvantages of radiography.
• The amount of risk depends on the amount of radiation dose
received, the time over which the dose is received, and the body
parts exposed.
• The fact that X-ray and gamma-ray radiation are not detectable
by the human senses complicates matters further.
• However, the risks can be minimized and controlled when the
radiation is handled and managed properly in accordance to
the radiation safety rules.
• The active laws all over the world require that individuals
working in the field of radiography receive training on the
safe handling and use of radioactive materials and radiation
producing devices.
• The occurrence of particular health effects
from exposure to ionizing radiation is a
complicated function of numerous factors.
• Type of radiation involved.
• All kinds of ionizing radiation can produce
health effects.
• The main difference in the ability of alpha and
beta particles and gamma and X-rays to cause
health effects is the amount of energy they have.
• Their energy determines how far they can
penetrate into tissue and how much energy they
are able to transmit directly or indirectly to
tissues.
• Size of dose received
• The higher the dose of radiation received,
the higher the likelihood of health effects.

• Rate at which the dose is received

• Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period of
time. If the dosage occurs over a number of days
or weeks, the results are often not as serious if a
similar dose was received in a matter of minutes.

• Part of the body exposed

• Extremities such as the hands or feet are able
to receive a greater amount of radiation with
less resulting damage than blood forming
organs housed in the upper body.
• The age of the individual
• As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is
less sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. Once
cell division has slowed, the effects of radiation are
somewhat less damaging than when cells were
rapidly dividing.

• Biological differences
• Some individuals are more sensitive to radiation
than others. Studies have not been able to
conclusively determine the cause of such
differences.
 Controlling Radiation Exposure
• When working with radiation, there is a
concern for two types of exposure: acute and
chronic.
• An acute exposure is a single accidental
exposure to a high dose of radiation during a
short period of time.
• Chronic exposure, which is also sometimes
called “continuous exposure”, is long-term, low
level overexposure.
• Chronic exposure may result in health effects
and is likely to be the result of improper or
inadequate protective measures.
• The three basic ways of controlling
exposure to harmful radiation are:
• 1) limiting the time spent near a source of
radiation,
• 2) increasing the distance away from
the source,
• 3) and using shielding to stop or reduce
the level of radiation.
 Exposure Limits
In general, most international radiation safety codes specify that the
dose rate must not exceed 2mR/hour in any unrestricted area. The
specifications for the accumulated dose per year differ between
radiation workers and non-workers. The limits are as follows:
Regulatory Limits for Occupational Exposure
Most international codes set the annual limit of exposure for industrial
radiographers who generally are not concerned with an intake of
radioactive material as follows:
1) the more limiting of:
 A total effective dose equivalent of 5 rem
(0.05 Sv)
or
 The sum of the deep-dose equivalent to any
individual organ or tissue other than the lens of the
eye being equal to 50 rem (0.5 Sv).

2) The annual limits to the lens of the eye, to the skin,

 and to the extremities, which are:
 A lens dose equivalent of 15 rem (0.15 Sv)
 A shallow-dose equivalent of 50 rem (0.50 Sv) to
the skin or to any extremity.

The shallow-dose equivalent is the external dose to the skin of the whole-body or
extremities from an external source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose
equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.007 cm averaged over an area of 10 cm2.
The lens dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the lens of the eye from an
external source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue
depth of 0.3 cm.
The deep-dose equivalent is the whole-body dose from an external source of
ionizing radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 1 cm.
The total effective dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the whole-body.
 Declared Pregnant Workers and Minors
Because of the increased health risks to the rapidly developing embryo and fetus,
pregnant women can receive no more than 0.5 rem during the entire gestation period
(this is 10% of the dose limit that normally applies to radiation workers). The same
limit also applies to persons under the age of 18 years.

Non-radiation Workers and the General Public

The dose limit to non-radiation workers and members of the public is only 2% of
the annual occupational dose limit. Therefore, a non-radiation worker can receive a
whole body dose of no more that 0.1 rem/year from industrial ionizing radiation.
This exposure would be in addition to the 0.3 rem/year from natural background
radiation and the 0.05 rem/year from man-made sources such as medical X-rays.
 Over-Dose Health Symptoms
Listed below are some of the probable prompt and delayed effects of certain doses
of radiation when the doses are received by an individual within a twenty-four hour
period.
 0-25 rem No injury evident. First detectable blood change at 5 rem.
 25-50 rem Definite blood change at 25 rem. No serious injury.
 50-100 rem Some injury possible.
 100-200 rem Injury and possible disability.
 200-400 rem Injury and disability likely, death possible.
 400-500 rem Median Lethal Dose (MLD) 50% of exposures are fatal.
 500-1,000 remUp to 100% of exposures are fatal.
 Over 1,000 rem 100% likely fatal.
The delayed effects of radiation may be due either to a single large overexposure or
continuing low-level overexposure.
Example dosages and resulting symptoms when an individual receives an exposure
to the whole body within a twenty-four hour period.
100 - 200 rem
First Day No definite symptoms

First Week No definite symptoms

Second Week No definite

symptoms
Third WeekLoss of appetite, malaise, sore throat and
diarrhea
Fourth Week Recovery is likely in a few months unless
complications develop because of poor health
400 - 500 rem
First Day Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, usually in the
first few hours
First Week Symptoms may continue
Second Week Epilation, loss of appetite
Third WeekHemorrhage, nosebleeds, inflammation
of mouth and throat, diarrhea, emaciation
Fourth Week Rapid emaciation and mortality rate around
50%
 Radiation Detectors
Instruments used for radiation measurement fall
into two broad categories:
 Rate measuring instruments.

 Personal dose measuring instruments.

Rate measuring instruments measure the rate at

which exposure is received (more commonly called
the radiation intensity). Survey meters, audible
alarms and area monitors fall into this category.
These instruments present a radiation
intensity reading relative to time, such as R/hr or mR/hr. An
analogy can be made between these instruments and the
speedometer of a car because both are measuring units relative to
time.
Dose measuring instruments are those that measure the total
amount of exposure received during a measuring period. The dose
measuring instruments, or dosimeters, that are commonly used in
industrial radiography are small devices which are designed to be
worn by an individual to measure the exposure received by the
individual. An analogy can be made between these instruments
and the odometer of a car because both are measuring
accumulated units.
 Survey Meters
The survey meter is the most important resource a
radiographer has to determine the presence and intensity of
radiation. There are many different models of survey meters
available to measure radiation in the field. They all basically
consist of a detector and a readout display. Analog and digital
displays are available. Most of the survey meters used for
industrial radiography use a gas filled detector.
Gas filled detectors consists of a gas filled cylinder with two electrodes
having a voltage applied to them. Whenever the device is brought near
radioactive substances, the gas becomes ionized. The electric field
created by the potential difference between the anode and cathode
causes the electrons of each ion pair to move to the anode while the
positively charged gas atom is drawn to the cathode. This results in an
electrical signal that is amplified, correlated to exposure and displayed as
a value.
 Audible Alarm Rate Meters
Audible alarms are devices that emit a short "beep" or
"chirp" when a predetermined exposure has been
received. It is required that these electronic devices be
worn by an individual working with gamma emitters.
These devices reduce the likelihood of accidental
exposures in industrial radiography by alerting the
radiographer to exposure levels or dosages of radiation
above a preset amount. It is important to note that
audible alarms are not intended to be and should not be
used as replacements for survey meters. Modern survey
meters have this alarm feature already built in.
 Pocket Dosimeter
Pocket dosimeters are used to provide the wearer with an
immediate reading of his or her exposure to X-rays or gamma rays.
As the name implies, they are commonly worn in the pocket. The
principal advantage of a pocket dosimeter is its ability to provide
the wearer an immediate reading of his or her radiation exposure.
It also has the advantage of being reusable. The limited range,
inability to provide a permanent record, and the potential for
discharging and reading loss due to dropping or bumping are a few
of the main disadvantages of a pocket dosimeter.
The two types commonly used in industrial radiography are the
Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter and the Digital Electronic Dosimeter.
 Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter
A direct reading pocket ionization dosimeter is generally of the size
and shape of a fountain pen. The accumulated dose value can be
read by pointing the instrument at a light source and observing
the internal fiber
through a system of built-in lenses. The fiber is
viewed on a translucent scale
which is graduated in units of
exposure. Typical industrial radiography pocket
dosimeters have a full scale reading of 200 mR
but there are designs that will record higher
amounts. During the shift, the dosimeter reading
should be checked frequently. The measured
exposure should be recorded at the end of each
shift.
 Digital Electronic Dosimeter
These dosimeters measure both dose information and
dose rate and display them in digital form. Also, some
Digital Electronic Dosimeters include an audible alarm
feature which emits an audible signal or chirp with each
recorded increment of exposure. Consequently, the
frequency or chirp rate of the alarm is proportional to
the radiation intensity. Some models can also be set to
provide a continuous audible signal when a preset
exposure has been reached.
 Film Badges
Personnel dosimetry film badges are commonly used to
measure and record radiation exposure due to gamma rays, X-
rays and beta particles. The detector is, as the name implies, a
piece of radiation sensitive film. The film is packaged in a light
proof, vapor proof envelope preventing light, moisture or
chemical vapors from affecting the film. Film badges need to be
worn correctly so that the dose they receive accurately represents the dose the
wearer receives. Whole body badges are worn on the body between the neck
and the waist, often on the belt or a shirt pocket.
The film is contained inside a film holder or badge. The badge incorporates a
series of filters to determine the quality of the radiation. Radiation of a given
energy is attenuated to a different extent by various types of absorbers.
Therefore, the same quantity of radiation incident on the badge will produce a
different degree of darkening under each filter. By comparing these results,
the energy of the radiation
can be determined and the dose can be calculated knowing
the film response for that energy. The badge holder also
contains an open window to determine radiation exposure
due to beta particles (since beta particles are shielded by a
thin amount of material).
The major advantages of a film badge as a personnel
monitoring device are that it provides a permanent record,
it is able to
distinguish between different energies of photons, and it can measure
doses due to different types of radiation. It is quite accurate for
exposures greater than 100 mR. The major disadvantages are that it
must be developed and read by a processor (which is time consuming)
and prolonged heat exposure can affect the film.
 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)
Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) are often used instead of the film
badge. Like a film badge, it is worn for a period of time (usually 3 months
or less) and then must be processed to determine the dose received, if
any. TLDs can measure
doses as low as 1 mR and they have a precision of
approximately 15% for low doses which improves to
approximately 3% for high doses. TLDs are reusable, which is
an advantage over film badges. However, no permanent
record or re-readability is provided and an immediate, on
the job readout is not possible.
A TLD has a phosphor, such as lithium fluoride (LiF) or calcium fluoride
(CaF), in a solid crystal structure. When a TLD it is exposed to ionizing
radiation at ambient temperatures, the radiation interacts with the
phosphor crystal causing some of the atoms in the material to produce
free electrons and become ionized. The free electrons are trapped and
locked into place in the imperfections in the crystal lattice structure.
Heating the crystal causes the crystal lattice to vibrate, releasing the
trapped electrons in the process. Released electrons return to the
original ground state, releasing the captured energy from ionization as
light, hence the name thermoluminescent. Instead of reading the optical
density (blackness) of a film, as is done with film badges, the amount of
light released versus the heating of the individual pieces of
thermoluminescent material is measured. The “glow curve” produced by
this process is then related to the radiation exposure. The process can be
repeated many times.
 Safety Controls
Since X-ray and gamma radiation are not detectable by the human senses
and the resulting damage to the body is not immediately apparent, a
variety of safety controls are used to limit exposure. The two basic types
of radiation safety controls used to provide a safe working environment
are engineered and administrative controls. Engineered controls include
shielding, interlocks, alarms, warning signals, and material containment.
Administrative controls include postings, procedures, dosimetry, and
training.
Engineered controls such as shielding and door interlocks are used to
contain the radiation in a cabinet or a “radiation vault”. Fixed shielding
materials are commonly high density concrete and/or lead. Door
interlocks are used to immediately cut the power to X-ray generating
equipment if a door is accidentally
opened when X-rays are being produced. Warning lights are
used to alert workers and the public that radiation is being
used. Sensors and warning alarms are often used to signal
that a predetermined amount of radiation is present. Safety
controls should never be tampered with or bypassed.
When portable radiography is performed, most often it is not practical to
place alarms or warning lights in the exposure area. Ropes (or cordon off
tape) and signs are used to block the entrance to radiation
areas and to alert the public to the presence of radiation.
Occasionally, radiographers will use battery operated
flashing lights to alert the public to the presence of
radiation.
Safety regulations classify the areas surrounding the location where
ionizing radiation is present into restricted areas and controlled areas
according to the radiation intensity level:
Restricted areas: Areas with a dose rate higher than 300 mR/h must be
secure so that nobody can enter this area. If anybody accidently enters
this area, radiation must be terminated and the person must be checked.
Access is only permitted under specific conditions and if there is an
absolute need for it, the body dose should be calculated and the personal
dose measured.
Control areas: These are areas with dose rates which are equivalent to or
higher than 0.75 mR/h. Control areas must be cordoned off and provided
with a radiation warning signs.
 Applications of Radiographic Testing
• Used to inspect most types of solid materials, both ferrous
and non-ferrous alloys as well as non metallic materials and
composites.
• Used to inspect the condition and proper placement of
components, for liquid level measurement of sealed
components etc.
• Used extensively for castings, weldments and forgings
when there is a critical need to ensure that the object is
free from internal flaws.
• Well suited to the inspection of semiconductor devices for
detection of cracks, broken wires, unsoldered connections,
foreign material and misplaced components, whereas other
methods are limited in ability to inspect semiconductor
devices
Thank you