Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.

PART IV: ACIDS AND ALKALIS

I. Acids 酸
A. Introduction
1. Peoples expect acids to be dangerous and corrosive. Many acids are indeed corrosive and they attack
metals and stones. However, acids have other typical properties too.

2. The word "acid" comes from the Latin word acidus, meaning "sour". A sour taste usually means that an
acid is present.

B. Common domestic acids

We come across acids quite often in out daily lives. Some of them are listed below:

Substances Acids which they contain

car battery sulphuric acid 硫酸
fizzy drink powder citric acid 菓酸
gastric juice hydrochloric acid 氫氯酸 They are in forms of solids or
grapes tartaric acid酒石酸 dilute aqueous solutions.
hair conditioners citric or tartaric acid
oranges and lemons citric acid 菓酸
soft drinks carbonic acid 碳酸
sour milk & yoghurt lactic acid 乳酸
stings of ants & bees methanoic acid 甲酸
tea leaves tannic acid 丹寧酸
vinegar ethanoic acid 乙酸

C. Common acids in the laboratory

We often use three acids in the laboratory:
1. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 硫酸
2. Hydrochloric acid, HCl 氫氯酸
3. Nitric acid, HNO3 硝酸
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.2

a. These acids are also called mineral acids because people in the past prepared them from minerals.

b. There are also many organic acids composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
e.g. ethanoic, CH3COOH
methanoic acid HCOOH

c. All pure acids are covalent compounds containing hydrogen.

d. At room conditions, pure acids may be

gases (e.g. hydrogen chloride, HCl),
liquids (e.g. sulphuric acid H2SO4, nitric acid HNO3, ethanoic acid CH3COOH),
and solids (e.g. oxalic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid).

e. We can obtain acids as pure substances. However, in the laboratory, we usually mix the acids with water
to form solutions.

(i) Concentrated acids contain acids dissolved in a small amount of water.

(ii) Dilute acids contain acids dissolved in a large amount of water.

D. Characteristics of Dilute Acids

1. Taste
Most dilute acids have a sour taste.

2. Effect with indicators

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.3

An indicator is a dye, which can determine whether a solution is acidic.

Some common indicators are
(i) litmus solution 石蕊溶液
(ii) methyl orange 甲基橙
(iii) phenolphthalein 酚酞

Colour in acid solutions

Indicator
H2SO4 HCl HNO3
Litmus solution Red Red Red
Methyl orange Red Red Red
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Colourless

3. Effect of dilute acids on metals

a. Dilute acids react with reactive metals (such as magnesium, zinc and iron) to give off hydrogen gas.
Unreactive metals (such as copper and silver) do not react with them.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.4

b. Potassium and sodium react explosively with dilute acids. Never do this in the laboratory.

metal + dilute acid  salt + hydrogen

c. For example, magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid and gives off hydrogen. This is an indicator
that hydrogen ions are present in dilute acids.

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

or Mg(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

d. Note that acids at home, such as vinegar and lemon juice, react with magnesium to form hydrogen also.

e. Only very dilute nitric acid reacts with magnesium to give hydrogen. Dilute nitric acid produces
oxides of nitrogen because nitric acid not only acts as an acid, but also acts as oxidizing agent.

Classwork
Write a complete equation and an ionic equation for each of the reactions below:
a. sodium + very dilute nitric acid
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.5

b. magnesium + dilute sulphuric acid

c. zinc + dilute hydrochloric acid

d. copper + dilute hydrochloric acid

4. Effect of dilute acids on carbonates and hydrogencarbonates

a. Dilute acids react with carbonates or hydrogencarbonates to give carbon dioxide gas.

carbonate or hydrogencarbonate + dilute acid  salt + water + carbon dioxide

b. Aqueous sodium carbonate reacts with dilute nitric acid to give carbon dioxide gas.

Na2CO3(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)  2NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.6

or CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq)  H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Similarly, sodium hydrogencarbonate reacts with dilute nitric acid to give carbon dioxide gas.

NaHCO3(aq) + HNO3(aq)  NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

or HCO3- (aq) + H+(aq)  H2O(l) + CO2(g)

c. Sodium hydrogencarbonate is also called baking powder. It is used in baking bread.

d. Test for carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide turns limewater [Ca(OH) 2(aq)] milky because of the formation of insoluble calcium
carbonate.

CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

However, when we pass an excess of carbon dioxide into the limewater, the precipitate (CaCO3)
disappears.

The ppt. (CaCO3) redissolves to form soluble calcium hydrogencarbonate. This serves as a test for
carbon dioxide.

CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)  Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

Calcium carbonate has several forms, including limestones, chalk and marble.

Classwork
Write a complete equation and an ionic equation for each of the reactions below:
a. hydrochloric acid + copper(II) carbonate powder
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.7

b. nitric acid + potassium hydrogencarbonate solution

c. sulphuric acid + ammonium carbonate crystals

5. Effect of dilute acids on bases

Bases are chemical opposites of acids. Bases are usually metal oxides and metal hydroxides.
The reaction between an acid and a base is called neutralization.

Acid + Base  Salt + Water Neutralization

e.g. H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

6. Electrical conductivity
All acid solutions conduct electricity. They are electrolytes.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.8

E. Definition of an Acid
An acid is a hydrogen-containing substances which produces H +(aq) ions when dissolves in water.

HCl(g) + water  H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

HNO3(l) + water  H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

H2SO4(l) + water  2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

H3PO4(l) + water  3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)

All the above acids produce H+(aq) ions when they dissolve in water.

F. Importance of water for acids

In order to exhibit the acidic behaviours of acids, water is required.

Evidence:
a. Solid citric acid has no action on dry blue litmus paper and magnesium. However, when we
dissolve the crystals in water, the litmus paper becomes red and magnesium reacts to gives
hydrogen. Therefore, water is necessary for an acid to behave as an acid.

Explanation
When citric acid crystals dissolve in water, the molecules break up to form ions. They always give
hydrogen ions [H+(aq)]. The aqueous hydrogen ions are responsible for all the acidic properties.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.9

b. Dry hydrogen chloride gas is bubbled into water and methylbenzene (a non-aqueous solvent)
separately.

(i) When hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, a chemical reaction takes place. The hydrogen
chloride molecules ionize in water:

H-Cl(g) + water  H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

(ii) There is a change in bonding. The covalent bond H-Cl is broken and ions are formed.

(iii) On the other hand, when hydrogen chloride is dissolved in dry methylbenzene, no chemical reaction
takes place. The resulting solution is just a mixture of hydrogen chlorides molecules and
methylbenzene molecules.

Test Hydrogen chloride in water Hydrogen chloride in

(i.e. hydrochloric acid) dry methylbenzene
Effect in dry blue turns to red colour no colour change
litmus paper
Electrical good none
conductivity
Action on bubbles of hydrogen evolved: no gas evolved
magnesium Mg(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + H2(g) (no apparent reaction)
Action on solid bubbles of carbon dioxide evolved: no gas evolved
sodium carbonates Na2CO3(s) + 2H+(aq) 2Na+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) (no apparent reaction)
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.10

It is clear that water plays an important part in the behaviour of acids. It is the hydrogen ion H +(aq) that
is responsible for all the acidic properties. Without water, acids cannot give H +(aq) and hence do not
have acidic properties.

G. Applications
a. Fizzy drink powder
It contains solid acid (often citric acid) and solid sodium hydrogencarbonate. The solid acid gives H+
(aq) ions (when dissolved in water) which reacts with hydrogencarbonate to give carbon dioxide gas, i.e.
effervescence (vb. effervesce).

H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)  H2O(l) + CO2(g)

b. Baking powder 發粉
It is either sodium hydrogencarbonate or a mixture of sodium hydrogencarbonate/carbonate and a
solid acid (tartaric acid).

After mixing water with baking powder and flour, the mixture is heated up. Two possible reactions
occur:

(1) Sodium hydrogencarbonate decomposes to give carbon dioxide gas, steam and sodium
carbonate.
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

(2) Carbon dioxide can also be produced when sodium hydrogencarbonate/carbonate reacts with
H+(aq) ions from the solid acid. The carbon dioxide gas together with high temperature
makes the cake rise.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.11

H. Basicity of Acids
Basicity = total number of ionizable hydrogen atoms in an acid molecules.

Each molecule of HCl gives one H+(aq) ion - monobasic acid

Each molecule of HNO3 gives one H+(aq) ion - monobasic acid
Each molecule of H2SO4 gives two H+(aq) ions - dibasic acid
Each molecule of H3PO4 gives three H+(aq) ions - tribasic acid

Acid Ionization in water Basicity of acid

Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Nitric acid HNO3(aq)  H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
1
Nitrous acid HNO2(aq)  H+(aq) + NO2-(aq)
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq)  H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
Sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq)  2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Sulphurous acid H2SO3(aq)  2H+(aq) + SO32-(aq)
2
Carbonic acid H2CO3(aq)  2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
Oxalic acid H2C2O4(aq)  2H+(aq) + C2O42-(aq)
Phosphoric acid H3PO4(aq)  3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq 3

Notice the following points:

1. The basicity of an acid refers to the number of ionizable hydrogen atoms. This number is not
necessarily the total number of hydrogen atoms. For example, the basicity of CH 3COOH is 1, not 4.

2. Acids with two or more ionizable hydrogen atoms are called polybasic acid. Polybasic acids ionize step
by step. For example:

H2SO4(aq)  H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)

HSO4-(aq) H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

For simplicity, they are combined into one ionic equation as,
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.12

H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

3. Some acids, for example, nitrous acid HNO 2(aq), sulphurous acid H2SO3(aq) and carbonic acid
H2CO3(aq), cannot be isolated as pure substances. They exist only in aqueous solution.

Classwork
1. How can we determine whether a clear and colourless solution is an acid?

2. Name the acids found in lemon and vinegar?

3. What is the gas given out when dilute nitric acid reacts with sodium carbonate? Describe how we can
test for the gas.

4. a. magnesium + dilute sulphuric acid

b. solid zinc carbonate + dilute hydrochloric acid
c. calcium + dilute hydrochloric acid
d. sodium hydrogencarbonate solution + dilute sulphuric acid
For each of the above reactions, write down:
i. the names of the products formed.
ii. a complete equation for the reaction.
iii. an ionic equation for the reaction.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.13

I. Corrosive nature of concentrated acids

Concentrated acids are corrosive. A corrosive substance would “eat away” other substances such as
metals, clothes, paper and the skin

a. Concentrated hydrochloric acid

(i) Ordinary concentrated HCl (about 11 M) contains about 35% HCl by mass.

It is a colourless liquid, which gives out white fumes (acid mist) in air.

(ii) Conc. HCl reacts with metals and carbonates in the same way as the dilute acid, but at a faster rate.

The acidity of hydrochloric acid increases as the concentration increases.

Concentrated HCl is highly corrosive because of its high concentration of H+(aq).

b. Concentrated nitric acid

(i) Ordinary concentrated HNO3 (about 16 M) contains about 70% nitric acid by mass.

It is a colourless liquid, but often turns yellow on storage. Nitric acid would decompose to give
nitrogen dioxide, which dissolves in water for form a yellow solution. Concentrated HNO 3 is kept in
brown bottles because light speeds up its decomposition.

4HNO3(aq)  4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l)

(ii) Conc. HNO3 shows the usual acidic properties, except towards metals.
Very dilute acid is not corrosive, but conc. HNO 3 is very corrosive. This is mainly due to the
oxidizing properties of nitric acid.

c. Concentrated sulphuric acid

(i) Ordinary concentrated sulphuric acid (about 18 M) contains about 98% sulphuric acid by mass. It is
a colourless oily liquid. It does not give out white acid fumes when exposed to air.

(ii) Concentrated sulphuric acid has the usual acidic properties, except towards metals. Dilute sulphuric
acid is irritant, but conc. H2SO4 is very corrosive. The highly corrosive nature of conc. H 2SO4 is due
to its dehydrating property and oxidizing property. In fact, conc. H2SO4 is even more corrosive
than conc. HCl or conc. HNO3.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.14

J. Characteristics of Concentrated Acids (Book 3 Part VII)

Concentrated acids are very corrosive, they attack metals, skin and cloth.

Do concentrated acids show the same properties as dilute acids?

Let us compare the action of concentrated and dilute acids on various substances.

a. Concentrated and Dilute Hydrochloric Acid

(i) Ordinary concentrated hydrochloric acid (about 11 M)contains about 35% hydrochloric acid by
mass.

(ii) When compare the action of dilute and concentrated hydrochloric acid, both of them give hydrogen
gas with zinc and carbon dioxide gas with sodium carbonate. Concentrated hydrochloric acid
reacts more vigorously than dilute hydrochloric acid.

Dilute hydrochloric acid Concentrated hydrochloric acid

Zinc

Sodium
carbonate

Note:
Concentrated HCl is usually fuming with a pungent smell of hydrogen chloride gas.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.15

b. Concentrated and Dilute Nitric Acid

(i) Ordinary concentrated nitric acid (about 16M) contains about 70% nitric acid by mass. It is
colourless, but often turns yellow on storage. This is because it contains dissolved nitrogen
dioxide NO2 formed from decomposition of some of the acid and the nitrogen dioxide is brown in
colour.

4HNO3(aq)  4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l)

(ii) Concentrated nitric acid is kept in brown bottles because light speed up its decomposition.
The decomposition also can be speeded up by high temperature.

(iii) The figures below show the actions of nitric acids of different concentrations on magnesium and
copper.

Action of nitric acid of different concentration on Action of nitric acid of different concentration on
magnesium copper
Very dilute Dilute Concentrated Very dilute Dilute Concentrated
Hydrogen Brown NO2 in Brown NO2 No reaction Brown NO2 in Brown NO2
air air

It shows that very dilute nitric acid (0.1M) has no reaction with copper; more concentrated nitric
acid oxidizes copper. Therefore, very dilute nitric acid is irritant (not corrosive), but concentrated
nitric acid is very corrosive. Thus the oxidizing property of concentrated nitric acid may, to a large
extent, account for its corrosiveness.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.16

Let study the properties of nitric acid in more detail.

1. Acidic property
a. Only very dilute nitric acid reacts with metals which are high in the electrochemical series (for
example, magnesium) to give hydrogen.

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + H2(g) (very dilute nitric acid)

It acts like a typical acid.

b. But for the dilute nitric acid (1 to 2 M) and concentrated nitric acid (16M), no hydrogen gas
evolved when react with magnesium, therefore, they do not act like a typical acid.

2. Oxidizing property
Both dilute and concentrated nitric acids are strong oxidizing agents.

a. With metals
(i) Dilute nitric acid (1 - 2 M)
 The nitrate ion is reduced to nitrogen monoxide (NO). The oxidation number of
nitrogen decreases from +5 to +2. Thus, nitrate ion acts as oxidizing agent in this
reaction.

The half equation is: NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e-  NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

 Dilute nitric acid oxidizes most metals, even those which are below hydrogen in the
electrochemical series (for example, copper).

For magnesium,

3Mg(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 8H+(aq)  3Mg2+(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)

Observation:
The magnesium dissolves, colourless gas evolved, brown fumes are seen at the
mouth of test tube.

For copper,

3Cu(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 8H+(aq)  3Cu2+(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)

Observation:
The copper dissolves, the solution becomes blue, colourless gas evolved, brown
fumes are seen at the mouth of test tube.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.17

 Nitrogen monoxide gas (NO) is colourless. When this gas mixes with air, it changes to
reddish brown nitrogen dioxide gas (NO2), which is very poisonous and corrosive.
Therefore, brown fumes can be seen at the mouth of test tube.

2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO(g)

colourless reddish brown

(ii) Concentrated nitric acid

 The nitrate ion is reduced to nitrogen dioxide. The oxidization number of nitrogen
decrease from +5 to +4.

The half equation is: NO3-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e-  NO2(g) + H2O(l)

Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes most metals (for example, magnesium and copper).

For magnesium

Mg(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Observation:
The magnesium dissolves, brown fumes are evolved.

For Copper:

Cu(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq)  Cu2+(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Observation:
The copper dissolves, a blue solution is formed, brown fumes are evolved.

Therefore, the corrosive nature of concentrated nitric acid is due to its powerful
oxidizing property.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.18

b. With non-metals
 Hot concentrated nitric acid oxidizes carbon to carbon dioxide, brown fumes of
nitrogen dioxide being produced:

C(s) + 4HNO3(aq)  CO2(g) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

 It also oxidizes sulphur to sulphur dioxide:

S(s) + 4HNO3(aq)  SO2(g) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

c. With iron(II) salts

Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes iron(II) salts to iron(III) salts on warming.

3Fe2+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq)  3Fe3+(aq) + NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO2(g)

Observation:
The green iron(II) solution turns brown, brown fumes are seen at the mouth of test
tube.

d. With sulphites
Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes sulphites to sulphates.

SO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)  SO42-(aq) + 2NO2(g) + H2O(l)

Classwork
Write a complete equation and ionic equation to show the reaction between silver and concentrated
nitric acid.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.19

c. Concentrated and Dilute Sulphuric Acid

Ordinary concentrated sulphuric acid (about 18 M)contains about 98% sulphuric acid by mass. It is a
colourless oily liquid.

1. Dehydrating property
(i) When we add concentrated sulphuric acid to hydrated copper(II) sulphate crystals, the blue
crystals turn white. This is because the acid removes water from the crystals.

CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

blue white

(ii) Concentrated sulphuric acid also removes the element of water (that is hydrogen and oxygen)
from some compounds.

When we add the acid to some sugar crystals, the sugar changes from white to dark brown and
then go black. The black product is carbon. The water liberated is in steam form and will foam up
the black carbon particles like a "cake".
C12H22O11(s) 12C(s) + 11H2O(l)
sugar crystal
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.20

(iii) Because of its dehydrating property, concentrated sulphuric acid reacts vigorously with water,
giving out a great amount of heat.

Therefore we should dilute the concentrated acid by adding it slowly to a large amount of water
while stirring.

If water is added to the acid, the heat given out will change the water into steam. This will cause the
acid droplets to spurt out of the container.

2. Oxidizing property
Concentrated sulphuric acid is a strong oxidizing agent, particularly when hot.

When concentrated sulphuric acid acts as an oxidizing agent, it is usually reduced to sulphur
dioxide.

The oxidation number of sulphur thus decreases from +6 to +4.

(i) Hot concentrated sulphuric acid on metals

Hot concentrated sulphuric acid attacks all metal except gold and platinum, forming the
corresponding sulphate and sulphur dioxide (not hydrogen). Take copper as example,

Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l)  CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Observation:
The copper dissolves to a blue solution, colourless gas evolves.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.21

Zinc react in a similar way,

Zn(s) + 2H2SO4(l)  ZnSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Note:
Metals above hydrogen in the Electrochemical Series are also oxidized by dilute sulphuric acid.

However the oxidation is carried out by H+(aq) ions, not by H2SO4(l) molecules.

(ii) Hot concentrated sulphuric acid on non-metals

Carbon and sulphur are also oxidized to their oxides by hot concentrated sulphuric acid.

C(s) + 2H2SO4(l)  CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

S(s) + 2H2SO4(l)  3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

(iii) Concentrated sulphuric acid on solid sodium halides (NaCl, NaBr, NaI)
Concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a non-volatile (boiling point: 338oC) and strong acid. It can be
used to displace more volatile acids when heated with their salts.

e.g. NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l)  NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)

steamy fumes of hydrogen chloride, the more volatile acid

NaNO3(s) + H2SO4(l)  NaHSO4(s) + HNO3(g)

steamy fumes of nitric acid, the more volatile acid

NaBr(s) + H2SO4(l)  NaHSO4(s) + HBr(g)*

steamy fumes of hydrogen bromide, the more volatile acid

NaI(s) + H2SO4(l)  NaHSO4(s) + HI(g)*

steamy fumes of hydrogen iodide, the more volatile acid

For the four examples above the more volatile acids displaced by the less volatile concentrated
sulphuric acid include HCl, HNO3, HBr and HI.

* The HBr and HI will be further oxidized by the conc. sulphuric acid while HCl and HNO 3
does not.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.22

For the NaBr(s),

NaBr(s) + H2SO4(l)  NaHSO4(s) + HBr(g)

2HBr(g) + H2SO4(l)  SO2(g) + Br2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Observation:
Brown fumes of Br2(g) evolved.

For the NaI(s)

NaI(s) + H2SO4(l)  NaHSO4(s) + HI(g)

8HI(g) + H2SO4(l)  H2S(g) + 4I2(s) + 4H2O(l)

Observation:
Black substance of iodine I2 are formed, bad egg smell [H2S(g)] are observed.

3. Hygroscopic property
A hygroscopic substance is a compound which absorbs water vapour from air. Concentrated
sulphuric acid is hygroscopic. It absorbs water vapour if left to stand in air, diluting itself.

Concentrated sulphuric acid is often used as a drying agent.

It is used for drying gases (e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and
hydrogen chloride).

However, it cannot be used to dry ammonia and ethene (CH 2=CH2). The reason is that chemical
reactions would take place.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.23

d. Comparing the three mineral acids

Acid Action On
magnesium copper
Bench dilute HCl H2 evolved no reaction
Conc. HCl H2 evolved no reaction
Very dilute HNO3 (0.1M) H2 evolved no reaction
Bench dilute HNO3 NO evolved NO evolved
Conc. HNO3 NO2 evolved NO2 evolved
Bench dilute H2SO4 H2 evolved no reaction
Hot conc. H2SO4 SO2 evolved SO2 evolved

Summary
1. An acid is a hydrogen-containing substance that gives hydrogen ions H +(aq) as the only positive ion
when dissolved in water.

2. Concentrated acids contain acids dissolved in a small amount of water.

3. Characteristics of dilute acids are as follows:

a. Most dilute acids have a sour taste.
b. Acid solutions turn litmus solution red.
c. Dilute acids react with most metals to give hydrogen.
d. Dilute acids react with carbonates or hydrogencarbonates to give carbon dioxide gas.
e. Acid + Base  Salt + Water

4. The maximum number of hydrogen ions produced by an acid molecules is called the basicity of the
acid.

5. Hydrochloric acid
Both concentrated and dilute hydrochloric acid give hydrogen gas with zinc and carbon dioxide gas
with sodium carbonate. Concentrated acid reacts more vigorously.

6. Nitric acid
a. Acid property
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.24

Only very dilute nitric acid reacts with metals which are high in the electrochemical series to
give hydrogen.

b. Oxidizing property
Both dilute and concentrated nitric acid are strong oxidizing agents. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes
most metals. The nitrate ion is reduced to nitrogen monoxide.

NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e-  NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes most metals. The nitrate ion is reduced to nitrogen dioxide.

NO3-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e-  NO2(g) + H2O(l)

7. Sulphuric acid
a. Acidic property
Dilute sulphuric acid shows all the typical properties of a dilute acid.

b. Dehydrating property
Concentrated sulphuric acid can act as a dehydrating agent. It removes water from hydrated
crystals. It also removes the elements of water from some compounds such as sugar and paper.

c. Oxidizing property
Concentrated sulphuric acid is a powerful oxidizing agent. It oxidizes most metals. The acid is
itself reduced to sulphur dioxide.

2H2SO4(l) + 2e-  SO42-(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.25

II. Bases And Alkalis

A. Introduction
(i) Bases are substances which neutralize acids. They are the chemical opposites of acids. When a base
neutralizes an acid, only salt and water are formed.

(ii) A base is a compound which reacts with an acid to give a salt and water only.

Acid + Base  Salt + Water

(iii) Bases are usually oxides or hydroxides of metals. Ammonia is also regarded as a base. Carbonates
are not regarded as bases. Though they react with acids to give salts and water, carbon dioxide is also
produced.

(iv) An alkali is a special kind of base - one that dissolves in water. This means that all alkalis are bases,
but not all bases are alkalis.

(v) The common alkalis are sodium hydroxide NaOH, potassium hydroxide KOH, calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 and ammonia NH3.

B. Common Alkalis
a. Alkalis in home
The main use of alkalis is in neutralizing acids. Alkalis also make household cleaners because they
react with fats to form soap.

Name Formula Where it is used

Sodium hydroxide NaOH In the home, for removing greases;
(caustic soda) many uses in industry
Ammonia NH3 In the home, as a cleaning liquid for glass surface;
many uses in industry
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 In farms and gardens, to neutralize soil acidity
(lime)
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.26

Like acids, strong alkalis can be corrosive and dangerous. Sodium hydroxide is often called caustic soda
(caustic means burning).

b. Alkalis in the laboratory

We often use four alkalis in the laboratory:
(i) Potassium hydroxide, KOH. (iii) Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
(ii) Sodium hydroxide, NaOH. (iv) Aqueous ammonia solution, NH3(aq).

C. Characteristics of Alkalis
1. Taste
Aqueous solutions of alkalis have a bitter taste.

2. Feel
Dilute alkaline solutions have a "slippery" feel. Concentrated solutions of potassium and sodium
hydroxide attack and burn flesh. Thus they are called caustic (that is burning) alkalis. Their corrosive
nature can be tested by their action on meat.

3. Effect with indicators

Colour in alkaline solution

Indicator
KOH(aq) NaOH(aq) NH3(aq)
Litmus solution Blue Blue Blue
Methyl orange Yellow Yellow Yellow
Phenolphthalein Pink Pink Pink

4. Electrical conductivity
Like acids, alkalis are electrolytes. They dissolve in water to form solutions that conduct electricity.

5. Effect of alkalis on metal ions

(i) By definition, alkalis are defined as the bases (metal oxides or metal hydroxides, including ammonia
NH3) which are soluble in water. Generally, there are only a few of bases which are soluble in water.
They are:

KOH(s) + water  K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

NaOH(s) + water  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Ca(OH)2(s) + water  Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

NH3(g) + water  NH3(aq)

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.27

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

(Ammonia gas is molecular. The gas is extremely soluble in water, but reacting slightly with water
to give OH-(aq) ions. Aqueous solution is also known as ammonia solution.

(ii) Because most of the metal hydroxides are insoluble in water. Precipitates will form when we add
sodium hydroxide to the metal ions.

e.g. CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

or Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s) a blue gelatinous precipitate

The metal hydroxides precipitates are usually gelatinous (jelly-like).

Metal ion Precipitation with NaOH(aq) or NH3(aq)

Pb2+(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Pb(OH)2(s)

colourless white powdery precipitate

Cu2+(aq)
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s)

blue blue gelatinous precipitate

Fe2+(aq)
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Fe(OH)2(s)

green dirty green gelatinous precipitate

Fe3+(aq)
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq)  Fe(OH)3(s)

yellow or brown reddish brown gelatinous precipitate

Mg2+(aq)
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Mg(OH)2(s)

colourless white gelatinous precipitate

Al3+(aq)
Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq)  Al(OH)3(s)

colourless white gelatinous precipitate

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.28

Zn2+(aq)
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Zn(OH)2(s)

colourless white gelatinous precipitate

Ag+(aq) 2Ag+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Ag2O(s) + H2O(l)
Colourless dark brown precipitate

In general, hydroxides of main group metals are white, while those of transition metals are coloured.
Colours of the precipitates may help us to identify some metal ions.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.29

(iii) Some metal hydroxides will redissolve in excess dilute sodium hydroxide solution or ammonia
solution due to the formation of soluble complex salts.

a. Aluminium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide and lead(II) hydroxide dissolve in excess dilute sodium
hydroxide solution to give colourless solutions.

Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq)  Na[Al(OH)4](aq) sodium aluminate

Zn(OH)2(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2[Zn(OH)4](aq) sodium zincate

Pb(OH)2(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2[Pb(OH)4](aq) sodium plumbate

b. Zinc hydroxide also dissolves in excess ammonia solution to give a colourless solution.

Copper(II) hydroxide dissolves in excess ammonia solution to give a deep blue solution.

Silver oxide dissolves in excess ammonia solution to give a colourless solution.

Classwork
1. a. Copper(II) sulphate solution + sodium hydroxide solution
b. Iron(II) sulphate solution + sodium hydroxide solution
c. Aluminium chloride + sodium hydroxide solution
d. Silver nitrate solution + ammonia solution

For each of the above reactions, write down:

(i) the name of the metal hydroxide formed.
(ii) the colour of the metal hydroxide formed.
(iii) an ionic equation for the reaction.

2. Describe the observation if NaOH solution is added to zinc chloride solution until in excess.

3. Describe the observation of NH3 solution is added to copper(II) sulphate solution until in excess.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.30

6. Reaction with acids

Alkalis neutralize acids to form a salt and water:

Acid + Alkali  Salt + Water

e.g. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Classwork
Write a balanced equation and an ionic equation reaction for the reactions below:
a. hydrochloric acid + ammonia solution
b. nitric acid + calcium hydroxide solution (lime water)
c. sulphuric acid + potassium hydroxide solution

Name the salt produced for the above reactions.

Note:
Neutralization is defined as the reaction between an acid and a base to give a salt and water only.
 Acid + Base  Salt + Water

e.g. 2HCl(aq) + CaO(s)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) neutralization

H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) neutralization
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.31

7. Reaction with non-metal oxides

Alkalis react with some non-metal oxides (e.g. carbon dioxide):

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g)  Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Ca(OH)2(s) + CO2(g)  CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

white solid

8. Reaction with ammonium compounds

Alkalis liberate ammonia gas NH3(g) when warmed with an ammonium compound:

ammonium compound + alkali salt + ammonia + water

e.g. NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)

[or NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l)]

Note: ammonium compound can react with base to give ammonia gas, salt and water.

e.g. 2NH4Cl(aq) + CaO(s) CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)

2NH4Cl(aq) + CuO(s) CuCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)

D. The role of water for alkalis

a. KOH(s) and NaOH(s) both consist of ions. These ions (K +, Na+ and OH-) are not mobile. When these
solids dissolve in water, they ionize to give mobile hydroxide ions OH -(aq) which are the only negative
ions in the solution.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.32

KOH(s) + water  K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

NaOH(s) + water  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

b. Ammonia gas consists of ammonia molecules. When ammonia gas dissolves in water, it reacts with
water to give ammonium and hydroxide ions. However, ammonia does not react with water completely.
Only very few hydroxide ions are formed.

NH3(g) + water  NH3(aq)

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Thus the ammonia solution contains ammonia molecules, water molecules and a few ammonium ions
NH4+(aq) and hydroxide ions OH-(aq).

c. The properties of solutions of alkalis depend on the presence of mobile hydroxide ions OH -(aq)

E. The corrosive nature of concentrated alkalis

Concentrated sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide solutions are very corrosive. They attack skin
readily and stain it yellow or even black. It any of the alkalis is split on the skin, place the affected area
under slowly running cold water until the pain fades. For severe burns, seek medical aid without delay.

III. Acidity and Alkalinity

A. The pH Scale
a. All aqueous solutions contain H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.33

A solution can be described as acidic, neutral or alkaline. This depends on whether the H +(aq)
concentration is greater than, equal to or less than OH -(aq) concentration.

i.e. for any aqueous solution or pure water itself, it is described as

neutral when [H+(aq)] = [OH-(aq)]
acidic when [H+(aq)] > [OH-(aq)]
alkaline when [H+(aq)] < [OH-(aq)]

where [H+(aq)] = concentration of H+(aq)

[OH-(aq)] = concentration of OH-(aq)

b. To express H+(aq) concentrations more conveniently, a scale of numbers called the pH scale is used.

pH = -log [H+(aq)]

i.e. for a 0.1 M HCl solution, pH = -log[0.1] = 1.0

0.01 M HCl solution, pH = -log[0.01] = 2.0
0.001 M HCl solution, pH = -log[0.001] = 3.0

Therefore, the higher the hydrogen ion concentration, the lower is the pH value.

c. Generally, all pH values are positive and range from 0 to 14. Pure water, which is neutral has a pH
value of 7. Any solution with a pH value less than 7 is acidic. On the other hand, any solution with a
pH value above 7 is alkaline.

A solution of pH 1 or 2 is strongly acidic while a solution of pH 5 or 6 is weakly acidic. A solution

of pH 13 or 14 is strongly alkaline while a solution of pH 8 or 9 is weakly alkaline.

d.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.34

B. Common Acid-Base Indicators

A dye whose colour is sensitive to the change of [H+(aq)] is called an acid-base indicator.

An indicator has its specific pH range in changing colours. For example, the pH range of litmus is 5-8.
Litmus has a red colour in a solution with pH below 5; for pH 5-8, litmus has a purple colour; for pH
above 8, litmus has a blue colour.

Colour in
Indicator
Acidic solution Alkaline solution
Litmus solution Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Red / Pink
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.35

Indicator pH range over which colour

changes
Methyl orange 3.1 - 4.4
Litmus solution 5-8
Phenolphthalein 8.3 -10

C. Measuring pH of a solution
1. Universal Indicator
A universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators, showing different colours at different pH values. It
is available either as a solution or paper. Universal indicator paper is often called pH paper.

2. The pH meter
Universal indicator gives the approximate pH values only. To find a more accurate pH value, we use a pH
meter. By dipping the electrode into a solution of unknown pH, we can read the pH value directly from the
meter scale.

Universal indicator pH paper pH meter

3. Data-logger
We can also use a data-logger to determine the value of a solution accurately. Dip the electrodes of the
solution of unknown pH ands read the pH value directly from the computer display.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.36

Classwork
1. A student was given the following solutions:

Solution A B C D E F
pH value 1 5.5 7 9 11 14

a. Which solution is the most acidic?

b. Which solution is the most alkaline?
c. Which solution is neutral?

2. Match the two lists:

pH value Solution
1 sodium chloride solution
5 0.1 M potassium hydroxide
7 battery acid
10 rainwater
13 milk of magnesia

3. Predict the pH value changes (increase/decrease) in each of the following cases:

a. adding water into a 2M sodium hydroxide solution
b. adding magnesium ribbon into dilute sulphuric acid
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.37

D. Strengths of Acids and Alkalis

1. Strength of acids
Let us consider two different acids: hydrochloric acid and ethanoic acid, both of the same concentration
(0.1M).

a. pH measurement

Acid pH
0.1M hydrochloric acid 1
0.1M ethanoic acid 4

This means that hydrochloric acid produces H+(aq) ions to a greater extent than ethanoic acid.

Conclusion:
The hydrochloric acid contains more H +(aq) than the ethanoic acid although their concentrations are the
same.

b. Electrical conductivity

Result:
The light bulb glows brighter in hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is found to have a greater
electrical conductivity.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.38

Conclusion:
The hydrochloric acid contains more ions than the ethanoic acid although their concentrations are the
same.
Explanation:
In 0.1 M HCl(aq), the acid molecules ionize completely, i.e. they all changes into ions.

HCl(g) + water H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

In 0.1 M CH3COOH(aq), the acid molecules ionize very slightly. Only a very small percentage of the
acid molecules change into ions:

CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, ethanoic acid is a weak acid.

A strong acid is an acid which completely ionizes in water.

A weak acid is an acid which only partly ionizes in water.

The three mineral acids (HCl, HNO 3, H2SO4) are strong acids, as they fully or highly ionize in water.

Examples of weak acids: sulphurous acid H2SO3, carbonic acid H2CO3, ethanoic acid CH3COOH.

Classwork
Which is the stronger acid between the two acids below?
2M ethanoic acid and 0.01 M hydrochloric acid
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.39

2. Strengths of alkalis
Alkalis, like acids, can also be classified as strong and weak ones.

A strong alkali is one which completely ionize in water to give OH -(aq) ions

A weak alkali is one which only partly ionizes in water to give OH -(aq) ions

The common strong alkalis include NaOH and KOH

NaOH(s) + water Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

KOH(s) + water K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Ammonia (NH3) is a molecular compound. It is only slightly ionized in water to form OH -(aq) ions. It is
therefore a weak alkali.

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

3. Remark on strength and concentration

Strength of an acid/alkali describes how easily the acid/ alkali ionizes.

Concentration of an acid/ alkali describes the quantity of the acid/ alkali in the aqueous solutions.

Thus, 0.1 M CH3COOH is a dilute solution of a weak acid.

0.1M HCl is a dilute solution of a strong acid.
12.0 M CH3COOH is a concentrated solution of a weak acid.
12.0 M HCl is a concentrated solution of a strong acid.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.40

Classwork
1. Complete the following concept map.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.41

2. A, B, C and D are four unlabelled bottles, each containing one of the following reagents:
Dilute ammonia solution
Dilute sodium hydroxide solution
Dilute sulphuric acid
Distilled water

The following flow diagram is used to identify the reagents:

a. (i) What is the reagent in bottle A?

(ii) Write a chemical equation for the reaction between this reagent and solid sodium carbonate.
b. (i) Suggest a test to distinguish between the reagents in bottles B and C.
(ii) State the observable change in this test and explain your answer.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.42

IV. Neutralization and Salts

A. Introduction
We have learned that acids and alkalis can be regarded as " Chemical opposites".

When acids and alkalis are mixed, they react with one another. Their acidic and alkaline properties
disappear. We say that they neutralize one another.

B. Neutralization of Acid and Alkali

a. Definition of Acid-Alkali Neutralization
Neutralization is the process in which an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water.

Acid + Base  Salt + Water

Complete the following equations

1. 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

2. NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) 

3. CuO(s) + HCl(aq) 

4. Ca(OH)2(s) + HNO3(aq) 

5. NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) 

Neutralization is in fact the process in which hydrogen ions combine with hydroxide ions (or oxide
ions) to form water.

H+(aq) + OH-(aq)  H2O(l) or 2H+ + O2-  H2O

b. Heat of Neutralization
When an acid reacts with an alkali, heat energy is also given out. We call this type of reaction an
exothermic reaction. Therefore neutralization is an exothermic reaction.

Mix the following solutions together in a polystyrene cup and record the temperature rise:
1. 25 cm3 2.0 M NaOH(aq) + 25 cm3 2.0 M HCl(aq)
2. 50 cm3 2.0 M NaOH(aq) + 50 cm3 2.0 M HCl(aq)
3. 50 cm3 1.0 M NaOH(aq) + 50 cm3 1.0 M HCl(aq)
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.43

It is found from the experiment that same temperature observed in cases (1) and (2). But the temperature
rise in case (3) only half as much.

Note: The amount of heat energy evolved decreases in the order:

[Strong acid + weak alkali]

[Strong acid + strong alkali] > or > [Weak acid + weak alkali]
[Weak acid + strong alkali]

c. Some Uses of Neutralization

1. Soil pH control
Most plants grow well in neither too acidic nor too alkaline. A pH close to 7 is suitable.

To treat with acidic soil (due to rotten vegetation, acid rain or use of acidic fertilizers), powdered
limestone (calcium carbonate) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is often used to neutralize the acid
in the soil. This process is known as 'liming the soil'.

To treat with basic soil, alums (KAl(SO4)2.12H2O) is added to lower the soil pH.

2. Neutralization of excess acid in stomach

Anti-acid such as Milk of Magnesia (a suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water) is often used to
neutralize excess acid in stomach, so as to relieve stomach-ache. Sometimes, limewater is given to
babies for the same purpose.
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq)  AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.44

3. Industrial waste disposal

Liquid waste from industries is often acidic e.g. the effluent from copper plating industry and sulphuric
acid plant is strongly acidic.
e.g. copper plating solution from an electroplating factory contains sulphuric acid.
Mordant (alums) used in a dyeing factory is acidic.

The acidic industrial waste will kill aquatic life if directly discharged into a river. Thus, slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide) is added to neutralize it (pretreatment).

Gaseous acidic pollutants evolved from power stations are neutralized by lime (CaO).

In dyeing industry, since concentration sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and soap are used to
degrease the cotton, the waste water is usually strongly alkaline. Sulphuric acid is added to bring the pH
to the range 5 to 9 which is suitable for aquatic lives.

4. Acid burn treatment

If concentrated acid is split on the skin, wash the affected area immediately with plenty of water. Then
wash with dilute sodium hydrogencarbonate, which is weakly alkaline.

5. Fertilizer production
Important fertilizers are made by neutralization. e.g. ammonium nitrate can be prepared from nitric
acid and ammonia.

HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq)  NH4NO3(aq)

6. Insect sting treatment

Stings by ants and bees are acidic in nature. The uneasy feeling can be relieved by washing with weakly
alkaline solution (e.g. sodium hydrogencarbonate).

Stings by wasp are alkaline and weakly acidic solution such as vinegar solution should be used.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.45

C. Salts
A salt is a compound formed when the ionizable hydrogen atoms of an acid are partly or
completely replaced by metallic ions (or ammonium ions).

For example, when the ionizable hydrogen atom in ethanoic acid is replaced by sodium, the salt sodium
ethanoate is formed.

Classwork
What is the parent acid and parent base of
a. copper(II) chloride b. magnesium sulphate c. potassium nitrate?

a. Acids Salts and Normal Salts

Definition :
An acid salt is a salt in which only part of the ionizable hydrogen atoms of the parent polybasic acid has
been replaced.

e.g. NaHSO4, KHSO3, Ca(HCO3)2, NaH2PO4, Na2HPO4, etc.

An normal salt is a salt in which all the ionizable hydrogen atoms of the parent acid have been replaced.
e.g. NaNO3, KCl, Na2SO4, Na3PO4, K2CO3, CH3COONa, Na2CO3, etc.

A monobasic acid can form one series of salt only. A dibasic acid can form two series of salt while a
tribasic acid can form three series of salt.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.46

Parent acid Acid Salt Normal Salt

HCl NaCl sodium chloride
HNO3 KNO3 potassium nitrate
Monobasic acids cannot form acid salts
HNO2 KNO2 potassium nitrite
CH3COOH CH3COONa sodium ethanoate
H2SO4 NaHSO4 sodium hydrogensulphate Na2SO4 sodium sulphate
H2SO3 NaHSO3 sodium hydrogensulphite Na2SO3 sodium sulphite
H2CO3 NaHCO3 sodium hydrogencarbonate Na2CO3 sodium carbonate
NaH2PO4 sodium dihydrogenphosphate
H3PO4 Na3PO4 sodium phosphate
Na2HPO4 disodium hydrogenphosphate

Note :
1. Most acid salts give an acidic solution when dissolves in water e.g. NaHSO 4 in solid toilet cleaner. But
an acid salt may not be necessarily acidic in nature. It may be alkaline. e.g. NaHCO 3.

2. Normal salt may not be neutral as some salt reacts with water to form new products (hydrolysis).
e.g. FeCl3(aq) +3H2O(l) Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl(aq)

The pH of salt solutions :

Strength of Strength of Examples Hydrolyse or pH of salt solution

parent acid parent base not ?
strong strong NaCl, KNO3, no 7(neutral)
Na2SO4
strong weak NH4Cl, CuSO4, yes less than 7 (acidic)
Zn(NO3)2
weak strong Na2CO3, KHCO3, yes greater than 7 (alkaline)
CH3COONa
weak weak CH3COONH4 yes cannot predict

Basic salts
A basic salt contains metal oxides or metal hydroxides.
e.g. basic copper (II) carbonate : CuCO3 .Cu(OH)2
basic lead (II) carbonate : 2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.47

b. Preparation of Salts
Any method of preparing a salt involved two important steps:
a. Making the salt by a suitable reaction.
b. Separating the salt from the reaction mixture and purifying it.

Which method is used depends on the nature of the salt to be prepared. Thus we have to consider
whether the salt is
a. soluble or insoluble in water
b. hydrated or anhydrous

The table below shows rules on solubilities of common salts (and metal hydroxides) in water.

Soluble Insoluble
All common salts of K+, Na+, NH4+
All nitrates
All hydrogencarbonates
All halides (chlorides, bromides and iodides) except AgX and PbX2
All sulphates except BaSO4, PbSO4, CaSO4
K2CO3, Na2CO3, (NH4)2CO3 All other common carbonates
KOH, NaOH All other common metal
(calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble) hydroxides

Soluble salts are separated from the reaction mixture by crystallization (and then filtration).
Insoluble salts are separated by filtration.

General methods of preparing salts

Salt Methods of preparation

Insoluble salt precipitation
Soluble salt 1. action of acid on a metal, an insoluble base or an insoluble carbonate.
2. action of acid on an alkali or soluble carbonate
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.48

(i) Preparation of soluble salts

General steps:
Step 1 : After a soluble salt has been prepared by a suitable method, it is usually separated from
solution by crystallization.

Step 2 : The crystals formed are filtered.

Step 3 : They are then washed with a little cold distilled water to wash away the surface solution
from the crystals.

Step 4 : The crystals obtained can be dried by using filter papers, oven or infrared lamp.

Methods:
1. By the reactions of excess metal carbonate / hydrogencarbonate / oxide with dilute acids.
e.g. MgCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) 

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) 
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.49

2. By the reaction between excess reactive metals (above Cu in the reactivity series) with dilute acids.
e.g. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

3. Action of acid on alkalis / soluble carbonate

Potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are prepared by neutralization reactions between solutions of an
acid and an alkali (or soluble carbonate).

Suppose we have to prepare sodium chloride.

Step 1 : Place a known volume, say 25 cm3 , of sodium hydroxide solution in a conical flask. Add
two drops of methyl orange indicator to give a yellow colour.

Step 2 : Run hydrochloric acid from a burette into the flask, until the solution just turns into a
persistent red colour. AT this point, just enough acid has been added to neutralize the
alkali. The solution now contains sodium chloride together with the methyl orange
indicator:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

To obtain the salt without any indicator, use one of the following methods:
(1) Add a little activated charcoal to the above orange solution. Warm and then filter the
mixture. The filtrate would be a colourless solution of sodium chloride.

(2) Repeat the experiment with exactly the same volumes of acid and alkali needed for
neutralization (as found by the above experiment). However, do not add methyl orange
indicator at the start this time.

Step 3 : After the soluble salt is formed, separate it out from the solution by crystallization. Filter
the crystals formed. Then wash them with a little cold distilled water. Finally dry the
crystals obtained by using filter paper, an oven or an infrared lamp.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.50

4. By direct combination between a metal element and a non-metal element.

e.g. Na(s) + Cl2(g) 

Fe(s) + Cl2(g) 

(ii) Preparation of insoluble salts

By the precipitation of an insoluble salt through the reaction between two aqueous salt solutions.
e.g. AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) 

CaCl2(aq) + MgSO4(aq) 

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) 

The precipitate is separated by filtration. It is then washed with plenty of distilled water to remove any
soluble impurities. It is finally dried by filter papers, oven or infrared lamp.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.51

Note:
Conversion of an insoluble salt into another insoluble salt
Suppose an insoluble salt (e.g. lead(II) carbonate) is to be converted into another insoluble salt (e.g.
lead(II) sulphate). We usually change it into a soluble salt (e.g. lead(II) nitrate) first:

PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Pb(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

insoluble salt soluble salt

Sodium sulphate solution can then be added to form the lead(II) sulphate precipitate:

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)  PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

soluble salt another insoluble

The precipitate is filtered off, washed and dried.

Conversion of a soluble salt into another soluble salt

Suppose a soluble salt (e.g. copper(II) chloride) is to be converted into another soluble salt (e.g.
copper(II) sulphate). We usually change it into an insoluble substance (e.g. copper(II) hydroxide) first:

CuCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

soluble salt insoluble

The ppt. is filtered off and washed. Sulphuric acid is then added.

Cu(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

insoluble another soluble salt
(excess)

Classwork
Write full equations to show how you would carry out the following preparations:
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.52

a. hydrated copper(II) sulphate from copper.

b. hydrated copper(II) sulphate from copper(II) nitrate.

c. lead(II) sulphate from lead(II) nitrate

d. potassium sulphate from potassium carbonate

e.zinc sulphate from zinc

c. Characteristics of salts
1. Water of crystallization
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.53

Hydrated salts contain chemically combined water called water of crystallization which has a fixed
number for a particular salt :
e.g. CuSO4.5H2O - copper (II) sulphate-5-water (blue)

Salts containing water of crystallization are called hydrated salts or hydrates. Hydrated salts lose water
quite easily in heating. If water is driven off from a hydrated salt, it becomes an anhydrous salts.

Water of crystallization, being part of the crystal structure, contributes to the shape of crystals.
Sometimes, it affects the colour too.

e.g. hydrated copper(II) sulphate CuSO4.5H2O is blue crystals while,

anhydrous copper(II) sulphate CuSO4 is white powder.

2. Deliquescent
Compounds which are solids that absorb water vapour (moisture) from air and then dissolve to form a
solution.
e.g. NaOH(s), KOH(s), NaNO3(s), P2O5(s), anhydrous FeCl3(s), anhydrous CaCl2(s), etc.

3. Hygroscopic
Compounds which absorb water vapour/moisture from air,
e.g. concentrated H2SO4, CuO(s), anhydrous CuSO4(s), CaO(s), silica gel, soda-lime

N.B. Soda-lime is a solid mixture of NaOH and Ca(OH) 2which is a cheaper substitute for NaOH(s).

Because of their great affinity for water, hygroscopic compounds can be used as drying agents. For
example, concentrated sulphuric acid can be used to dry gases which do not react with it.

4. Efflorescent
Hydrated salts lose part or all of their water of crystallization on standing in air.
The transparent crystals become powdery and their mass decreases.

e.g. Na2CO3.10H2O(s)  Na2CO3(s) + 10H2O(l)

Na2SO4.10H2O(s)  Na2SO4(s) + 10 H2O(l)
FeSO4.7H2O(s)  FeSO4(s) + 7 H2O(l)

V. Concentration of Solutions
Definition
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.54

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in a unit volume of solution.

Concentration of a solution is usually expressed in molarity 摩爾濃度.

Molarity (or Molar concentration) of a solution is the number of moles of solute per dm3 of the
solution (molar or M).

Molarity of a solution (in mol dm-3) =

or simply as,

* Sometimes the concentration of a solution can be expressed in g dm-3

Concentration of a solution (in g dm-3) =

Example
What are the molarities of the constituent ions in a 1.5 M solution of CuCl 2 ?

The ionic formula of CuCl2 is Cu2+(Cl-)2, i.e. 1 mole of CuCl2 contains 1 mole of Cu2+ ions and 2 moles

of Cl- ions.
 Molarity of Cu2+ ions = 1.51  1 = 1.5 M
Molarity of Cl- ions = 1.51  2 = 3.0 M

Classwork:
1. 250 cm3 of an aqueous sodium sulphate solution contain 14.21 g of the solute. Calculate
(a) the concentration of the solution
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.55

(b) number of moles of Na2SO4 in 50 cm3 of solution.

(Relative atomic masses: S =32.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)

2. What are the molarities of the constituent ions in a 0.50 M solution of Al 2(SO4)3 ?

3. Calculate the number of moles of K+ and CO32- ions in 25 cm3 of 0.20 M K2CO3 solution.

4. a. 2.0 g of sodium hydroxide are dissolved in water to make up to 250 cm 3 solution. Find the
concentration of the solution.

b. What volume of water has to be added to the solution in (a) to dilute it to 0.080 M?
(Relative atomic masses: H=1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)

5. 14.3 g of sodium carbonate crystals Na 2CO3. 10H2O are dissolved in distilled water and then the
solution is made up to 250.0 cm3.
What is the concentration of the sodium carbonate solution?
(Relative atomic masses: H=1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)

6. What mass of sodium sulphate is required to prepare 500.0 cm 3 of 1.30 M sodium sulphate solution?
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, S =32.0, Na = 23.0)

7. 86.1 g of zinc sulphate crystals ZnSO4. 7H2O are used to prepare a 0.250 M solution. What is the
volume of solution formed?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, S = 32.0, Zn = 65.0)

8. A sample of concentrated nitric acid has a density of 1.37 g cm -3 and contains 65.4 % of nitric acid by
mass. What is the molarity of the nitric acid in the sample?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0, O = 16.0)

9. A sample of concentrated hydrochloric acid has a density of 1.21 g cm -3 and contains 32.3 % of
hydrochloric acid by mass. What is the molarity of the hydrochloric acid in the sample?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, Cl = 35.5)

VI. Volumetric Analysis 容量分析

Analysis which is carried out by measuring accurate volumes of reacting solutions is called volumetric
analysis. Volumetric analysis usually involves two stages:
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.56

a. Making a standard solution 標準溶液

b. Titration 滴定

A. Preparation of Standard Solutions 標準溶液

A standard solution is a solution of accurately known molarity

It has to be made from a solid which is very pure. the common acids and alkalis cannot be used
because their pure forms are difficult to obtain. This is partly because they are very hygroscopic.

Ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid) is often used to make a standard acid solution. Sodium carbonate is a
simple basic standard.

Apparatus for preparing standard solutions

a. Weighing bottle: to hold the sample to be weighed.

b. Balance: for weighing of sample. e.g. triple beam balance and electronic balance.

c. Volumetric flask: it is calibrated 校準 so that a certain solution can be made up to a specific

volume. The most usual volume is 250 cm3.

d. Pipette: it is calibrated for delivering a specific volume of solution. The most usual volume is
25 cm3, 10 cm3, 5 cm3 and 1 cm3 pipette.

e. Pipette filler: to fill the pipette.

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.57

1. Use of pipette 移液管

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.58

2. Use of Volumetric flask 容量瓶

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.59

3. Preparing standard solution of ethanedioic acid by dissolving acid in water

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.60

Steps in preparing standard solution from solid ethanedioic acid H 2C2O4.

(i) Calculate the mass of ethanedioic acid required to prepare the standard solution.

(ii) a. Add H2C2O4 to the bottle until we have approximately the mass calculated.
b. Weigh the weighing bottle plus the sample accurately. Record the total weight, m 1.

(iii) a. Tip out the solid acid from the weighing bottle into a beaker.
b. The nearly empty bottle is reweighed accurately. Record the weight, m 2.

(iv) Dissolve the sample in about 100 cm3 of distilled water.

(v) Wash any remaining sample into the beaker with distilled water.

(vi) After dissolving, transfer the solution to a 250 cm 3 volumetric flask.

(vii) Wash the beaker with a little distilled water.

(viii) Pour the washing into the flask. Add distilled water to the flask but stop about 2 cm below the
graduated mark.

(ix) Add distilled water from the dropper until the meniscus sits in the graduated mark.

(x) Stopper the flask and turn it down several times to mix the solution well.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.61

Specimen results:
Initial mass of weighing bottle and H2C2O4, m1 = 20.52 g
Final mass of weighing bottle and H2C2O4, m2 = 14.15 g

Calculate the concentration of the standard solution.

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.62

4. Preparing standard ethanedioic acid solution by dilution

The standard ethanoic acid solution prepared above can be diluted to give another standard solution.

Suppose the given ethanedioic acid solution has a molarity of 0.202 M. If 25.0 cm 3 of the solution are
diluted with distilled water to make 250 cm 3 solution, the diluted solution has a molarity of

or 0.0202 M.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.63

Classwork
1. Suppose you are going to prepare 250 cm3 of 0.10 M sulphuric acid solution by diluting 1 M sulphuric
acid. Calculate the volume of 1 M sulphuric acid needed for the preparation.
Ans: 25cm3

2. 1.68 g of potassium hydroxide solid is dissolved in water to make up to 500 cm3 solution.
a. Calculate the molarity of the solution.
b. What volume of water must be added to 25 cm3 of the solution to make it exactly 0.02 M?
Given: relative atomic mass of K: 39.0; O:16.0; H:1.0
Ans: a. 0.06M; b. 50 cm3
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.64

3. 400 cm3 of a 2M solution of sulphuric acid is concentrated to 125 cm 3, what is the molarity of the
concentrated acid?

B. Titrations
A fixed volume of one of the solutions is measured into a flask. The other solution is added from a
burette until the end-point is reached.

The end-point is the stage at which the solutions have just reacted completely. Usually an indicator is
added to the solution in the flask beforehand.

The end-point is a indicated by a colour change of the indicator.

(i) Apparatus for volumetric analysis

a. Weighing bottle
b. Balance
c. Volumetric flask
d. Pipette
e. Pipette filler
f. Beaker
g. Burette: It is calibrated for delivering variable volumes of a solution.
h. Conical flask: It is used for containing solutions. Its conical shape enables it to be swirled gently
without spilling out the solution.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.65

(ii) Steps in titration

1. Wash a 25.0 cm3 pipette with distilled water and one of the solutions (for example, solution A). Place
25.0 cm3 of solution A in a clean conical flask using the pipette and pipette filler.

2. Add a few drops of indicator to solution A.

Note: The indicator is used to indicate the end-point.

3. Wash the burette with distilled water and solution B. Fill the burette with solution B. Make sure that
the tip of the burette is filled. Arrange the apparatus as shown below.

4. Run solution B from the burette until the indicator just changes colour. Control the stopcock of the
burette with the left hand. Swirl the conical flask with the right hand.

5. Note the volume of solution B added. This is the titre reading of the first trial. record the result.
Note: the readings should be taken to the nearest 0.05 cm3.

6. Repeat the titration 2 or 3 times to check if the titre readings are coincident. Record the results.
Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.66
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.67

(5) & (6)

Titration Trial 1 2
Final burette reading (cm ) 3

Initial burette reading (cm3)

Volume required (cm3)

Question
The conical flask used in titration has to be cleaned by washing with water. (It should not be washed
with the solution it is to hold.) The washed conical flask need not be dried before use. Explain.

The conical flask is to hold a specific volume of a solution (usually 25.0 cm 3) and hence a specific
amount of the solute. The conical flask has to be washed with water to get rid of impurities, which may
affect titration results. It should not be washed with the solution, since an additional amount of
solution would certainly affect titration results.

After washing, a little water would remain in the conical flask. This will not change the amount of
solute present. Thus we should not waste time in drying the conical flask.

C. End Point Detection in Acid-Alkali Titrations

1. By use of indicators
An Indicator is a substance which changes colour within a specific pH range. Commonly used
indicators are methyl orange and phenolphthalein..

Titration type Example Suitable indicator(s)

Strong acid - strong alkali HCl(aq) vs. NaOH(aq) methyl orange;
phenolphthalein
Strong acid - weak alkali HNO3(aq) vs. NH3(aq) methyl orange
(Strong acid - carbonate) HCl(aq) vs. Na2CO3(aq)
Weak acid - strong alkali CH3COOH(aq) vs. KOH(aq) phenolphthalein
Weak acid - weak alkali CH3COOH(aq) vs. NH3(aq) no suitable indicator
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.68

Classwork
Name a suitable indicator for titration of each of the following complete neutralizations:
a. H2SO4(aq) vs. K2CO3(aq)
b. H2SO4(aq) vs. KOH(aq)

2. By use of pH meter
pH meter is an instrument which gives direct reading of pH on the scale 0 to 14.

When 0.1 M HCl is titrated against 25 cm3 of 0.1 M NaOH, the following graph would be obtained:
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.69

3. By conductivity measurements
Changing concentration of hydrogen or hydroxide ions in a solution causes a change in the
conductivity of that solution. As acid-base titrations involve change of ionic concentrations, thus the
reaction can be followed by means of conductivity measurement.

Again let us consider the addition of 0.1 M HCl from a burette into a conical flask containing 25 cm 3
of 0.1 M NaOH and note the conductivity of the solution.

At A : Conductivity high due to presence of large number of mobile OH- ions from NaOH.

A to E : Conductivity falls as mobile OH- are replaced by less mobile Cl-.

At E : The end-point. Conductivity is at a minimum when the neutralization is complete.

Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)  Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

The conductivity at the end-point is not zero as the solution contains sodium and
chloride ions.

E to B : Conductivity increases due to the addition of excess mobile H + from HCl. The graph
rises more steeply than from A to E as H+ ions are more mobile than OH- ions.

4. By thermometric titration

The reaction H+(aq) + OH-(aq)  H2O(l) is exothermic.

There is the greatest temperature rise at end point.

Consider 25 cm3 of 0.1 M NaOH places in a polystyrene beaker together with a thermometer. 0.1 M
HCl is added, a definite quantity at a time, the temperature being noted after each addition. The
following graph is obtained:
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.70

A to E : Temperature rises as more heat is liberated by adding more acid.

At E : The end-point. Temperature is maximum.

E to B : Temperature drops as more acid added will not liberate more heat but will cool the
solution.

D. Preparing a soluble salt by titration

To prepare NaCl by titration

Step 1: Place a known volume of NaOH in a conical flask and a few drops of acid-base indicator are
added.

Step 2: Titrate the NaOH by hydrochloric acid until the indicator change just changes colour (end point
is reached)

Step 3: Repeat the experiment with the same volume of alkali. Do not use any indicator this time. Add
the volume of acid needed for neutralization (as found from the first experiment).

Step 4: Evaporate the reaction mixture slowly to obtain the salt.

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.71

E. Calculations on Volumetric Analysis

1. Mole ratio from equation
Problems on volumetric analysis can be solved by using the mole concept.

We have to write a balanced equation for each reaction that takes place. We should then find mole ratio
of reactants from the equations.

Consider two examples:

a. H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

The mole ratio of H2SO4 to NaOH is 1:2. In other words, 1 mole of H 2SO4 required 2 moles of
NaOH for complete neutralization.

b. CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)  CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

The mole ratio of CH3COOH to NaOH is 1:1. In other words, 1 mole of CH 3COOH requires 1
mole of NaOH for complete neutralization.

Example
Find number of moles of hydrochloric acid required for complete neutralization of 30 cm 3 of 0.50 M
ammonia solution.

Answer
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq)  NH4Cl(aq)

no. of moles of NH3 = (0.50M)(0.03 dm3) = 0.015 mol.

According to the equation, 1 mole of HCl reacts with 1 mole of NH 3

therefore, the no. of moles of HCl required = 0.015 mol

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.72

2. Applications of volumetric analysis :

To determine :
(1) concentration of a solution (standardization).
(2) number of water of crystallization of a hydrated salt.
(3) composition of a mixture.
(4) charge of ion.
(5) percentage of ammonia in an ammonium salt (or percentage purity of an ammonium salt).
(6) molar mass of a substance.
(7) atomic mass of a metal.

Example 1

2.65 g of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) were dissolved in water and made up to 250 cm 3 solution. 25

cm3 of this required 20.0 cm3 of a hydrochloric acid solution for complete reaction. Find the molarity
of the hydrochloric acid.

Answer
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106 g

Number of mole of Na2CO3 in 250 cm3 of solution = 2.65/106 = 0.0250

Number of mole of Na2CO3 in 25.0 cm3 of solution = 0.0250  (25.0/250) = 0.0025

2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

From the equation, 2 moles of HCl react with 1 mole of Na 2CO3,

 number of moles of HCl in 20.0 cm3of solution = 0.0025  2 = 0.0050

Number of moles of HCl in 1000 cm3 of solution = 0.0050  (1000/20.0) = 0.250

 Molarity of the HCl solution = 0.250 M
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.73

Example 2
4.0 g of a sample of hydrated sodium carbonate, of formula Na 2CO3.nH2O, are dissolved in water
and the solution made up to 250 cm3. Using methyl orange as indicator, 25 cm 3 of this solution
require 29 cm3 of 0.05 M sulphuric acid for neutralization. Calculate n, the number of molecules of
water of crystallization, in the sample of sodium carbonate.

Molar mass of Na2CO3.nH2O = (25  2 + 12 + 16  3 + 18n)g

Number of moles of Na2CO3.nH2O in 250 cm3 of solution = 4.0/(106 + 18n)

Number of moles of Na2CO3.nH2O in 25 cm3 of solution =

According to the equation

Na2CO3.nH2O(aq) + H2SO4 (aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + (n+1)H2O(l)

Number of moles of Na2CO3.nH2O in 25 cm3 of solution

= number of moles of H2SO4 in 29cm3 of 0.05 M H2SO4

= 0.05  29/1000 = 0.00145

 = 0.00145

 n = 9.4
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.74

Example 3
0.949 g of a mixture of sodium hydroxide and anhydrous sodium carbonate was dissolved in 100 cm 3
of water. This solution requires 30.0 cm 3 of 0.650 M hydrochloric acid for complete reaction. Find the
percentage by mass of the mixture.

Let y g be the mass of NaOH, then the mass of Na2CO3 = (0.949 - y) g

Molar mass of NaOH = 40 g
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106 g

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

no. of moles of HCl required to neutralize NaOH = y/40

Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

no. of moles of HCl required to neutralize Na2CO3 = 2 [(0.949-y)/106]

Therefore the total no. moles of HCl = y/40 + 2 [(0.949-y)/106]

From the given data, the no. of moles of HCl = 0.650 x 30.0/1000 = 0.0195

y/40 + 2 [(0.949-y)/106] = 0.0195

y = 0.260
 % by mass of NaOH = 0.260/0.949  100% = 27.4%
% by mass of Na2CO3 = 100% - 27.4% = 72.6%
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.75

Classwork
1. 1.5 g of a dibasic acid containing two molecules of water of crystallization are dissolved in distilled
water and the solution made up to 250 cm3. 25 cm3 of this solution require for neutralization 26.2 cm 3
of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution.
Calculate the relative molecular mass of the crystalline solid acid

2. 25.0 cm3 of a 1.0 M solution of sodium hydroxide were placed in a flask. 1.40 g of an impure
specimen of ammonium chloride was added.
The flask and its contents were then carefully heated until no more ammonia gas was evolved.
The resulting solution was found to be alkaline and was diluted to exactly 250 cm 3. 50 cm3 of this
solution required 5.10 cm3 of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid for neutralization.
Calculate the percentage purity of the original impure ammonium chloride.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.76

3. 25.0 cm3 of 0.0527 M sodium carbonate solution were pipetted into a conical flask. Two drops of
methyl orange were added. Sulphuric acid was then added from a burette, until the solution just turned
from yellow to red. The titration was repeated 2 more times.

Titration 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 26.90 27.90 26.90
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.30 2.20 1.00
Volume of acid added (cm3) 26.60 25.70 25.90

Calculate the molarity of the sulphuric acid.

4. 2.17 g of ethanedioic acid (COOH) 2.2H2O were made up to 250 cm3 of solution. 25.0 cm3 of the

solution required 29.3 cm3 of 0.119 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete neutralization. Find the
basicity of the acid.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.77

5. 2.00 g of a solid dibasic acid (H 2A) were dissolved in water and made up to 250 cm 3. 25.0 cm3 of this
solution required 31.8 cm 3 of 0.10 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete neutralization. Find the
molar mass of the acid.

6. 0.186 g of a sample of hydrated sodium carbonate Na 2CO3.nH2O required 15.0 cm3 of 0.10M sulphuric

acid for complete neutralization. Find the number of molecules of water of crystallization in the sample
of sodium carbonate.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.78

7. 0.509 g of an impure sample of anhydrous potassium carbonate (containing potassium chloride as

impurity) dissolves in water. The resulting solution required 35.0 cm3 of 0.20 M hydrochloric acid for
complete neutralization. Find the percentage purity of the anhydrous potassium carbonate sample.
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.79

Solutions of the Classworks

P.5
a. 2Na(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  2NaNO3(aq) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq)  2Na+(aq) + H2(g)
b. Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
c. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
d. No reaction

P.7
a. 2HCl(aq) + CuCO3(s)  CuCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2H+(aq) + CuCO3(s)  Cu2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
b. HNO3(aq) + KHCO3(aq)  KNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)
c. H2SO4(aq) + (NH4)2CO3(s)  (NH4)2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2H+(aq) + (NH4)2CO3(s)  2NH4+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2H+(aq)+ CO32-(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)

P.12
1.
Test Result
Adding of litmus solution The solution turns red
Adding of methyl orange solution The solution turns red

2. Lemon: citric acid

Vinegar: ethanoic acid
3. The gas is carbon dioxide.
Pass the gas into limewater and the limewater will change to milky from colourless.
4. a. magnesium sulphate and hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

b. zinc chloride, carbon dioxide and water

ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
ZnCO3(s) + 2H+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.80

c. sodium sulphate, carbon dioxide and water

2NaHCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)
P.19
Ag(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  AgNO3(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)
Ag(s) + 2H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)  Ag+(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)

P.29
1. a. Copper(II) hydroxide; blue
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s)
b. Iron(II) hydroxide; green
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Fe(OH)2(s)
c. Aluminium hydroxide; white
Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq)  Al(OH)3(s)
d. Silver oxide; dark brown
2Ag+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Ag2O(s) + H2O(l)

2. When NaOH(aq) is added, white ppt. is formed.

When excess NaOH(aq) is added, the white ppt. dissolves into a colourless solution.

3. When NH3(aq) is added, dark brown ppt. is formed.

When excess NH3(aq) is added, the dark brown ppt. dissolves into a colourless solution.

P.30
a. ammonium chloride
b. calcium nitrate
c. potassium sulphate

P.35-36
1. a. A is the most acidic solution
b. F is the most alkaline solution
c. C is neutral

2.
pH value Solution
1 battery acid
5 rainwater
7 sodium chloride solution
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.81

10 milk of magnesia
13 0.1 M potassium hydroxide

3. a. decreases
b. increases
P.38
0.01 M hydrochloric acid is stronger

P.39
2. a. (i) A is dilute sulphuric acid
(ii) Na2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
or Na2CO3(s) + 2H+(aq)  2Na+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
b (i) Add the solutions separately to a small amount of AlCl 3(aq) until in excess.
(ii) The one can turn the AlCl3(aq) to a white ppt. and then into a colourless solution is NaOH(aq).
It is because the Al3+ will react with OH- to give a white ppt. of Al(OH)3, which will then react
with excess OH- to form the soluble Al(OH)4-(aq).

P.44
a hydrochloric acid and copper(II) hydroxide
b. sulphuric acid and magnesium oxide
c. nitric acid and potassium hydroxide

P.51
a. Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l)  CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

b. Cu(NO)3(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Cu(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

c. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

d. CaCO(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

CaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  CaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)

e. Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

P.54
1. a no. of moles = 14.21 / (23.02+32.0+16.04) = 0.100 mol
concentration = (0.100 mol) / (0.25 dm3) = 0.4 M
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.82

b.

number of moles = (0.4M)(0.05 dm3) = 0.02 mol

2. Since 1 unit of Al2(SO4)3 gives 2 Al3+ and 3 SO42-

therefore, the molarity of Al3+ = (0.5M)(2) = 1.0M
the molarity of SO42- = (0.5M)(3)=1.5M

3. no. of moles of K2CO3 = (0.20M)(0.025dm3) = 0.005 mol

since 1 unit of K2CO3 gives 2 K+ and 1 CO32-
no. of moles of K+ = (0.005 mol)(2) = 0.01 mol
no. of moles of CO32- = 0.005 mol

4. a. no. of moles of NaOH = (2.0) / (23.0 + 16.0+1.0) = 0.05 mol

concentration of NaOH = (0.05mol) / (0.25 dm3) = 0.2 M

b. In dilution, the no. of moles of NaOH will not be changed,

therefore, no. of moles of NaOH = 0.05 mol = (0.08M)(V)
V is the final volume of the diluted solution.
0.05 = 0.08 V
V = 0.625 dm3 or 625 cm3
Volume of water added = 625 – 250 = 375 cm3

OR
M1V1 = M2V2
where M is the molarity, V is the volume
therefore, (0.2M)(0.25 dm3) = (0.08M)(V)
V = 0.625 dm3 or 625 cm3
Volume of water added = 625 -250 = 375 cm3

5. no. of moles of Na2CO3.10H2O = 14.3 / (23.02 + 12.0 + 16.03 + 1018.0) = 0.05 mol
Since 1 unit of Na2CO3.10H2O gives 1 unit of Na2CO3
therefore, no. of moles of Na2CO3 dissolved in the water = 0.05 mol
concentration = 0.05 mol / 0.25 dm3 = 0.2 M

6. no. of moles of Na2SO4 = (1.3M)(0.5 dm3) = 0.65 mol

mass of Na2SO4 = (0.65)(23.02 + 32.0 + 16.04) = 92.3 g
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.83

7. no. of moles of ZnSO4. 7H2O = (86.1) / (65.0 + 32.0 + 16.04 + 18.07) = 0.3 mol
since

therefore, volume of the solution = (0.3 mol) / (0.25 M) = 1.2 dm 3 or 1200 cm3

8.

no. of moles of HNO3 = (0.896) / (1.0 + 14.0 + 16.03) = 0.01422 mol

concentration of the nitric acid = (0.01422 mol) / (0.001 dm3) = 14.22 M

9. mass of 1 cm3 of the hydrochloric acid = 1.21 g

mass of HCl in 1cm3 of the hydrochloric acid = (1.21g)(32.3%) = 0.3908g
no. of moles of HCl = (0.3908) / (1.0 + 35.5) = 0.01071 mol
concentration = (0.01071 mol ) / (0.001 dm3) = 10.71 M

P.60
mass of H2C2O4 = 20.52 g -14.15 g = 6.37g
no. of moles of H2C2O4 = 6.37 / (1.02 + 12.02 + 16.04) = 0.07078 mol
concentration = (0.07078 mol) / (0.25 dm3) = 0.283 M

P.62
1. Since M1V1 = M2V2
Let V be the volume of the 1M sulphuric acid needed.
(1M) (V) = (0.10M)(250 cm3)
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.84

V= 25 cm3
The volume of 1M sulphuric acid needed is 25 cm3.

2. a. no. of moles of KOH = (1.68) /(39.0 + 16.0 + 1.0) = 0.03 mol

molarity = (0.03 mol) / (0.5 dm3) = 0.06 M
b. As M1V1 = M2V2
Let V be the final volume of the diluted solution.
(0.06 M)(25 cm3) = (0.02 M) (V)
V = 75 cm3
Volume of water added = 75 – 25 =50 cm3

3. As M1V1 = M2V2
Let M be the molarity of the concentrated acid solution.
(2M)(400 cm3) = (M)(125 cm3)
M = 6.4 M
The concentration of the concentrated acid is 6.4M.

P.67
a. methyl orange
b. methyl orange or phenolphthalein.

P.74
1. Let the formula of the crystalline solid acid be H2A.2H2O.

H2A(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2A(aq) + 2H2O(l)

no. of moles of the NaOH solution = (0.1M)(0.0262 dm3) = 0.00262 mol

no. of moles of H2A in the 25 cm3 solution = (0.00262 mol) /2 = 0.00131 mol
 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.85

no. of moles of H2A in the 250 cm3 solution = (0.00131 mol)(250 / 25) = 0.0131 mol
Because 1 unit of H2A.2H2O(s) gives one unit of H2A(aq)
therefore, the no. of moles of H2A.2H2O = 0.0131 mol

Since no. of moles = mass / molar mass

therefore, the relative molecular mass of the solid acid = 1.5 / 0.0131 = 114.5 (no unit!)
2.

NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)  NH3(g) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

no. of moles of HCl = (0.1M)(0.0051 dm3) = 5.110-4 mol

no. of moles of NaOH in the 50 cm3 solution = 5.110-4 mol
no. of moles of NaOH in the 250 cm3 solution = (5.110-4 mol)(250 / 50) = 2.5510-3 mol

The initial no. of moles of NaOH = (1.0M)(0.025 dm3) = 0.025 mol

The no. of moles of NaOH reacted with NH4Cl = 0.025 mol - 2.5510-3 mol = 0.02245 mol

no. of moles of NH4Cl reacted = 0.02245 mol

mass of NH4Cl = (0.02245)(14.0 + 1.04 + 35.5) = 1.201 g

percentage purity = (1.201 / 1.4)(100%) = 85.79%

3. Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Average volume of sulphuric acid used = (25.70 + 25.90)/2 = 25.80 cm 3

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.86

no. of moles of Na2CO3 = (0.0527M)(0.025dm3) = 1.317510-3 mol

no. of moles of H2SO4 = 1.317510-3 mol
concentration of H2SO4 = (1.317510-3 mol) / 0.0258 dm3 = 0.051 M

4.

molecular mass of the solid acid = (12.0 + 16.02 + 1.0)2 + 18.02 = 126.0
no. of moles of the solid acid = (2.17)/(126) = 0.01722 mol

since 1 unit of (COOH)2.2H2O(s) gives 1 unit of (COOH)2(aq)

therefore, the no. of moles of (COOH)2(aq) in 250cm3 solution = 0.01722 mol

no.of moles of (COOH)2(aq) in 25 cm3 solution = 0.01722mol / 10 = 0.001722 mol

no. of moles of NaOH = (0.119M)(0.0293 dm3) = 0.00349 mol

no. of moles of NaOH / no. of moles of (COOH)2(aq) = 0.00349 / 0.001722 = 2.024

therefore, the basicity of the acid is 2.

(H2A + 2NaOH  Na2A + 2H2O)

5. H2A(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2A(aq) + 2H2O(l)

no. of moles of NaOH = (0.10M)(0.0318dm3) = 0.00318 mol
no. of moles of H2A in the 25 cm3 solution = 0.00318 mol /2 = 0.00159 mol
no. of moles of H2A in the 250 cm3 solution = 0.00159 mol 10 = 0.0159 mol

molar mass of H2A = (2.00g)/(0.0159 mol) = 125.8 g mol-1

 Part IV Acids and Alkalis/P.87

6. Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

no. of moles of H2SO4 = (0.10 M)(0.015 dm3) = 0.0015 mol

no. of moles of Na2CO3(aq) reacted = 0.0015 mol

since 1 unit of Na2CO3.nH2O(s) gives 1 unit of Na2CO3(aq) when dissolves in water.

therefore, no. of moles of Na2CO3.nH2O(s) = 0.0015 mol

formula mass of Na2CO3.nH2O(s) = 23.02 + 12.0 + 16.03 + 18n = 106 + 18n

no. of moles of Na2CO3.nH2O(s) = 0.186 / 106+18n = 0.0015

n=1

7. K2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2KCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

no. of moles of HCl = (0.20 M)(0.035 dm3) = 0.007 mol

no. of moles of K2CO3 reacted = (0.007 mol) /2 = 0.0035 mol

mass of K2CO3 = (0.0035 mol)(39.02 + 12.0 + 16.03) = 0.483 g

percentage purity = (0.483 g / 0.509 g) 100% = 94.89%