Engineering Materials Book by Dr. M. A. Aziz

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University Campus
Publisher & Seller
A Text book
of
ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
Dr. M.A. Aziz
B.Sc. Eng. Professor of Civil Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Thoroughly Revised and Extensively Modified By

Dr. Mohammad Iqbal
University Campus
Publisher & Seller
Publisher:
UNIVERSITY CAMPUS
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Cell: 01939074582 reproduced, stored in a retrieval or transmitted in any form or by any
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First Edition: September, 1973 or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
Re-print: September, 1981 recording, or by any information storage and etrieval system, without
Re-print: January, 1990 permission in writing from the author)
Revised Edition: August, 1995
Revised Reprinted: 2012
Reprinted: 2016
Second Edition: August, 2019
Re-print: January, 2022
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Cover Design and Modified MD. Khalil Ullah
ISBN: 978-984-94240-24
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Dedicated to the sweet memory
of my beloved parents
PREFACE
of data and opinion from a great many different sources. The author
This book is the outcome of my experience gained while dealing with takes pleasure in acknowledging his great indebt Ness to the large
the manifold aspects of the topics covered both in the teaching as well as in number fo engineers, architects, government officials and
the practical fields. Its preparation was undertaken to meet the need in the manufacturers who have privately or by their writings contributes
engineering education and profession which was felt for a general textbook much to make up this volume. Care has been taken to give accurate
information in this text book; however, in a subject so varied as
covering the manufacture. Properties and uses of the most common
engineering Materials, mistakes any occur. I will appreciate having
materials of engineering construction in a comparatively concise and
errors called to my attention. Any suggestion for future improvement
thoroughly modern manner.
would be graciously welcomed.
This book on engineering materials is designed for use as a textbook The author is deeply grateful to Dr. A. Hasnat, Professor and
to the students pursuing engineering and technical education in the Head, Civil Engineering, Department, Bangladesh University of
Engineering Universities. Engineering Colleges, Polytechnic Institutes and Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, for his kind encouragement in
other Technical Institutions, Industrial as well as structural properties and writing this book. Thanks are due to Dr. S.H.K. Eusufzal, Dr. A.
application of various important locally available engineering materials are Hannan, Al-haj A.F.M. Abdur Rauf, Dr. M. Shajahan, Dr. J.R.
described and hence this book is a unique offer to the students of all Chowdhury, Dr. A. Salam. Dr. A Habib, Mr. Shamimuzzaman and
branches of engineering. The practicing engineers, architects and to those Prof. Ali Akber of Civil Engineering Department for their interest,
preparing themselves for AM1E (Bangladesh) Examination. The treatment encouragement and valuable assistance in writing this book. I wish to
of various classes of materials follows a general systematic pattern which express my gratitude to my wife, Saleha for her unfailing inspiration
has been made uniform throughout so far as has been found practicable. The support and help during writing and in the final preparation of the
consideration of each material is prefaced by and introduction and general book. Finally, sincere appreciation is extended to my family for
discussion of its applications in manufacture or natural occurrence and allowing me to take so much of their time to write this book.
The author also thanks his publisher for kind co-operation and
concluded by a discussion of physical and mechanical properties in relation
help in bringing out this book in time in spite of loss of difficulties.
to its uses.
This book aims at presenting in a simple, concise and lucid form the
best of the most up to-date knowledge concerning materials use in all types
of engineering construction in Bangladesh. Numerous illustrative diagrams,
worked-out examples, tables, charts and graphs have been presented in this
book to enable the requiring no previous knowledge in this field.
The author cannot make pretense of being a specialist in all of fields
which are converted in various chapter of this book. This work is therefore
to a large degree a compilation
Dr. M.A. Aziz

B.Sc. Eng. Professor of Civil Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
CONTENTS Chapter 9 : Mortar and Plaster 127
Mortar: Types. Function of Sand in Mortar and Surki. Uses.
Page Preparation. Special mortars. Plaster: Uses.
Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Specification. Classification. Sand Rubbing Pointing color wash.
General considerations. Properties of Engineering Distemper,
Materials. Selection of Engineering Materials Used in Chapter 10: Concrete 141
Bangladesh. Introduction. 'Fine and coarse Aggregates. Classification of
Chapter 2: Building Stones 13 concrete. Lime concrete. Cement concrete. Properties of
Introduction. Minerals. Classification of Building concretes Slump test. Sieve Analysis. Water-cement Ratio.
Curing of concrete. Shuttering. Crepe. Leaching. Precast
Stones. Properties of Building Stones. Important
concrete. R.C.C. slabs, beams, columns. Prestressed concrete.
Building Stones of Bangladesh and Their Uses, Light weight Aggregates. Architectural and Ornamental
Quarrying Artificial Stones. Concretes. Concrete Products. Design of Concrete Mixes. Light-
Chapter 3: Bricks 35 Weight Concrete. Design of Light weight Concrete Mixes.
Definition Factors Affecting Qualities of Good Concluding Remarks.
Bricks. Constituents of Brick-Clay. Harmful Constituents Chapter 11 : Iron and Steel 257
Brick Manufacturing. Moulding Drying. Burning. Introduction Iron Ores Pig Iron Wrought Iron. Cast Iron.
Properties. Uses. Steel Physical Properties. Magnetic Properties.
Characteristics of Good Bricks. Field Tests.
Uses. Galvanized Iron and Steel. Alloy Steel. Special Purpose
Classification. Special Bricks. Uses of Bricks.
Steel. Reinforcing and Prestressing Steels. Creep.
Chapter 4 : Tiles 57
Chapter 12 : Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys 287 Introduction.
Introductory. Classification. Characteristics. Uses.
Copper. Zinc. Lead. Tin. Aluminum. Magnesium. Nickles.
Glazing. Chapter 13 : Soils 309
Chapter 5 : Refractories and Other Ceramics 61
Introduction. Origin and Formation. Classification.
Definition. Uses. Composition. Manufacture, Varieties.
Basic Properties. Soil-Moisture Relationships Index Capacity.
Properties. Earthenware, Stoneware. Porcelain.
Chapter 14 : Road Materials 331
Porouse wares.
Introduction. Soling, base. Surfacing. Bituminous Materials
Chapter 6 : Lime 67
Testing. Stone Metals and Tastings.
Introductory. Uses Technical terms. Classification. Fat Chapter 15 : Timber 339
Lime. Hydraulic Lime. Natural Cements. Tests.
Introduction. Timber Trees Wood Structure. Annual Growth
Manufacture Qualities.
Rings Spring and Summer Wood. Sapwood and Heartwood.
Chapter 7 : Cement 81
Felling, Girdling. Conversion. Sawing. Moisture Contest Weight
Introductory. Types. Composition. Functions of
and Measurement. Defects. Knots. Seasoning. Mechanical
Various Ingredients. Manufacture. Properties. Tests.
Properties. Characteristics of Good Timber. Uses of Timber.
Types of Portland Cement. Special Cements.
Chapter 8 : Sand and Surki 117
Sand. Classification. Properties. Availability. Uses.
Bulking Grading. Fineness Modules. Surki: Properties.
Uses.
Decay. Preservation of Timber. Processes of Applying
Preservatives. Bleeding Veneers. Plywood. Laminated Boards.
Batten Boards. Partex Important Timbers of Bangladesh.
Important Foreign Timbers. Structural Properties of Timber.
Chapter 16 : Protective Coating Materials 403
Paints. Bases. Vehicles. Pigments. Dryers. Thinners. Types of
Paints. Oil Paints. Water Paints. Aluminum Paints. Cellulose
Paints. Water-Repellent Cement Paints. Distempers.
Miscellaneous Paints; Application of Paints Enamels, Varnishes.
Resins. Types of Varnishes. Oil Varnishes. French Polish. Rosin.
Lacquers Wax Polish. Knotting. Size. Glue. Putty.
Chapter 17: Miscellaneous Materials 421
Coal. Glass. Rubber. Plastics. Asbestos. Leather.
A Text Book of Engineering Materials 1
CHAPTER-ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Consideration: Any material which has got application in engineering constructions is termed
engineering material. In all branches of engineering and understanding of the fundamental nature of
engineering, materials is becoming increasingly vital. Not only are requirements for materials for engineering
applications growing more complex, but there are more materials to choose from every day. The engineer can
no longer be satisfied with a superficial knowledge of fees standard properties of a few commonly used
materials. So many variations in properties are available that the engineer must have more basic understanding
of the behavior of materials. This understanding can be developed only through knowledge of the properties of
the materials.
A bridge or a dam or a building or a road is to be built and the choice of materials is up with the engineer. Shall
steel or concrete being selected or are there newer materials that might prove superior? The choice must be
based on several factors; availability of materials, economy, ease of handling and fabrication, strength,
durability and workability.
A civil engineer engaged in the task of planning design and construction of building bridge, dams, roads, water
purification plants, sewage treatment plants, airfields or any other structure, should be thoroughly familiar with
the desired engineering materials and their properties. Every engineering construction (structure) must be
sufficiently strong and
Introduction 2
durable to resist the action of external forces and Internal stresses due to
1. Physical properties: Size, Shape, density, porosity,
various types of loads In order to achieve maximum economy. The
engineer must know the strength characteristics of the materials and the structure.
permissible stresses in each case. 2. Mechanical properties: Strength, elasticity, plasticity,
stiffness, ductility, malleability, hardness,

A structure must be a harmonious blend of beauty strength utility and
economy. To achieve this, specification for engineering materials must be brittleness, resilience, creep.
laid down. A specification for an engineering material supplies a set of 3. Chemical properties: Corrosion resistance, acidity,
statements of requirements which the material should conform to in order alkalinity, chemical composition.
to be acceptable for use in structure. In all engineering constructions, it is 4. Thermal Properties: Specific heat, thermal
Imperative in the interest of the safety and the durability of the structure
expansion, conductivity.
that only materials of the acceptable quality and strength be used.
5. Magnetic properties: Permeability, cohesive
Therefore, the engineer and other related personnel must have to acquaint
themselves thoroughly with the functions and qualities of engineering force, hysteresis.
materials, because upon the quality of engineering materials, depends the 6. Electrical Properties: Conductivity, dielectric
quality of structures. The quality control of all engineering materials is of permittivity, dielectric strength.
prime importance to improve the quality of engineering Construction as a Fundamentally, the properties of a material depend on the nature of that
whole. particular material alone. Nearly all those, properties listen, however,
are also inseparably tied in with conditions of use environment and the
1.2 Properties of Engineering material: A duality that define a specific state of the material. The actual evaluation of a property depends on all
characteristic of a material is termed as a property. The properties of a these factors. Mechanical strength, for example, differs for various
material provide a basis for predicating its behavior under various forms of loading, and is commonly expressed by such terms as tensile
conditions. They are the tools of the engineer uses to solve his material strength, compressive strength or fatigue strength.
problems. Some of the most important properties of engineering material Most properties of engineering materials must be evaluated entirely by
are: experiment: Certain specific conditions are applied and the
corresponding properties are measured. Experiments for determining
properties of engineering materials are usually called tests. Tests may
provide
Introduction
4
properties for use in design or information on the quality of material. The
Where S is the stress, P is the external force applied and A is the cross-
procedures are usually standardized because if identical procedures are
sectional area of the surface on which the force P is applied. Stress is
always followed, the results of a number of tests may be compared with
usually expressed is psi (pounds per square inch). There are three types
some assurance Much of the standardization is done by then the national
of stresses (a) compressive stress, b) Tensile stress and (c) shear stress.
organization set up in each country to improve the use or materials in
engineering constructions and also in industries Some of these organizations Tensile Stress: This type of stress is induced in an engineering material
are (1) BSI (British Standard Institute); (2) ASTM American Society of when it is subjected to a tensile force.
Testing Materials; Compressive Stress: This type of stress is induced in an engineering
(3) AASHO (American Association of State Highway Official), (4) ACI material when it is subjected to a compressive force,
(American Concert Institute). Each organization gives standard test methods Shear Stress: When a part of an engineering material tends to slide over
of all kinds in addition to standard specifications for materials and standard
another portion at a given section, the fibers at the section are side to be
definitions of terms.
shear.
The following are the very important properties of engineering materials, o
o Shear Load
(1) Strength: It is the property of material that represents its ability to resist Shear stress = --------------------------- 1.2
Are under shear
internal forces or stresses. The three basic strengths of a material, the type of
Strain: When load (external force) is applied to a material not only a
force to which the materials is to be subject, must be known. As for example
the compressive and tensile strength of structural steel are nearly equal, stress is induced in the fibers, but the size or the shape of the material is
whereas cast iron can take more compression and it is weak in tension. also changed. Strains are the geometrical deformation of a material due
Similarly, concrete is very strong in compression but very week in tension. to application of an external force. In other words, strain is a measure
Stress: Stress is the intensity of internal force developed when an external

of the deformation produced by the application of external force. It
force is applied on -an engineering material. should be noted that the value of the strain is not expressed in any
It is denoted by the following expression. dimensional unit. Strain is denoted by the following expression:
x
P 1.1 e = ---- 1.3
L
Introduction 6 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 7
Where e is the strain, x is the extension or shortening of length and L
(2) Elasticity: It is a property of a material which allows it to return to its
is the original length.
original shape and size after the load to which it is subjected is released.
This is a very important property of engineering materials. The strain
for a given of load during the unloading process is equal to the strain for
the same value of load during the loading process. A limiting value of
load will be found at which the strain does completely disappear with
the removal of the load. The value of stress corresponding to this load is
called the Elastic Limit. It was discovered by Hooke that if a material
loaded without exceeding the elastic limit, then the deformation
produced is proportional to the load production it, from the expressions
of stress and from Hooke’s law it can be said that stress varies as strain.
Strains are again three types: (a) tensile strain, (b) compressive strain This expression will equally apply in tension and compression up to a
and (c) shear strain. stress value at the elastic limit.
Extension of length
Tensile, strain, et =-------------------------- (Fig. 1.1) 1.4 Young’s Modules of Elasticity: The physical constant obtained from the
Original length
stress-strain ratio is given the name, Young’s Modulus of Elasticity, and
is denoted by the letter E as follows
Shortening of length
Compressive stain=-------------------------- (Fig. 1.2) 1.5
Original length Stress
E = --------------- 1.6
Shear Strain Shear strain is concerned with the change of shape or Strain
deformation resulting from the shear stress. The element ABCD Hooke’s elastic law holes also in the case of shear streams and shear
shown in the Fig. 1.3 is subjected to shear stress. The rhombus PQRS strain but the value of this ratio differ from that obtained in tension and
is the deformed shape of the entire element ABCD caused by the
compression and is termed as the ‘shear modules’ of the given material.
shearing stress Ss. The value of shear strain is given by 2a.
Since the value of
Introduction 8 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 9
strain is expressed as a number; the units of E will be as same as
(3) Plasticity: Plasticity is the opposite property of elasticity. A perfectly
that of stress. It should be noted carefully that ‘Young’? Modules plastic material does not return to its original shape and size when the
has no significance beyond the elastic limit. load causing deformation is removed. Lead is an example of plastic
Modules of Rigidity: It can be defined as the ratio of the shearing material.
stress to shearing strain; or (4) Malleability: This property, permits plastic deformation of a material
Shearing stress when subjected to compression. Materials that can be hammered into
G= ----------------- 1.7 thin sheets are malleable materials.
Shearing strain
(5) Brittleness: The opposite property of malleability is brittleness. Cast
Where G is the modules of rigidity.
iron is example of brittle material.
Bulk Modules: This elastic constant expresses the relationship
between the volumetric strain caused by direct forces, it is denoted (6) Stiffness: The term stiffness designates the resistance of materials to
by the letter K. deformation in the elastic range. Stiffness of ductile material is
Direct stresses cussing a change in volumes measured by the modules of elasticity.

K= ------------------------------------------------------ 1.8
Volumetric strain (7) Ductility: Ductility indicates the ability of a material to deform in the
plastic range without breaking. No accurate measure of ductility exists.
For comparative purposes however, ductility is usually defined by the
Poisson’s Ratio: If a direct force acts on a body, it produces direct percentage elongation of a tensile specimen at fracture for a specified
strain in the direction of its action and an opposite kind of strain in
length.
every direction of action. This is known as lateral strain while the
strain, in the direction of action of the force is known as (8) Toughness: This property matures the ability to absorb to release energy
longitudinal strain. The ratio of these two kinds of strain is a in the plastic range.
constant and is known as Poisson’s Ratio It is generally denoted by (9) Fatigue: Certain materials are very often subjected to repeat stress. The
µ.
term fatigue (fatigue strength) of a material is used to indicate its
µ=\f(Lateral strain, Longitudinal strain strength in resisting repeated stress.

1.9 (10) Hardness: The term hardness, when used as a technological property of
materials is primarily associated with the surface,
Introduction A text Book of Engineering Materials 11
an appropriate definition of hardness is the resistance of a material
alert for new materials that may be developed but he should also keep his
to permanent deformation of its surface. This deformation may be in
mind receptive to possible new ways of using existing materials.
the form of scratching, mechanical wear or cutting.
The next important considerations are economy and availability.
(11) Resilience: The resilience of a material is its ability to absorb Preference should always be given to the locally available materials.
energy in the elastic range. It is measured by the energy per unit Sometimes a material must be selected even though inferior properties,
volume required to stress a material in tension form zero stress to because the right material is not locally available or too expensive.
the proportional limit. 1.4 Engineering Materials commonly use In Bangladesh:

(12) Creep: In many applications engineering materials are required to The following are the important engineering materials that are
sustain steady loads for long periods of time. commonly used in Bangladesh; Stones, brick and other structural clay
e.g. R.C.C (reinforced cement concrete) beams columns etc. Under products, lime, cement, surki and sand, concrete, iron, steel, ferrous
such conditions the material may continue to deform until its alloys, non-ferrous metals and alloys, timber a timber product,
usefulness is serially impaired. Such time- dependent deformations bamboos, soils, bituminous materials, glass. Plastic, paints, and
may be almost imperceptible, but over the life time of a material or varnishes, rubber, etc.
structure they can grow large and even result in final fracture The important features of all the engineering materials with respect to
without any increase in load. availability, manufacture, desirable properties standard specifications
Under short-time loading, as in the conventional compression and uses in engineering constructions and in industries are discussed
test, of a material there is an initial deformation that increases thoroughly in following chapters.
simultaneously with the load. As shown in the static stress-strain

diagram. If under any conditions, deformation continues when the Questions
load is held constant, this additional deformation is termed as 1 What is an engineering material? Critically examine the importance of
creep. In fact, creep is the time-dependent part of the strain relating engineering materials in engineering construction Do you think that
from stress. paper, water, air and ink can be termed as engineering materials?
1.3 Selection of Engineering Materials: Selection of materials for Justify your answer
engineering applications depends first upon their properties in

relation to intended use. The engineer should he
Introduction 12 A Text Book of Engineering Materials
13
2. What do you mean by the term “Property of a material? Why it is
CHAPTER-TWO
very important? Enumerate various properties of engineering BUILDING STONES
materials.
3 Define the following: Stress, Strain, Elastic limit. Young’s Modules of 2.1 Introduction. A building stone is obtained from the rocks in the earth-
Elasticity, Modules of Rigidity Poisson's Ratio, Malleability, crust. It is a naturally occurring substance. Stone is considered to the
ductility, Fatigue, and Hardness. king of engineering materials, and where durability and permanency of
4. What are the important considerations that are looked for selecting a structure are required. It continues to enjoy its superiority over all
engineering materials? Name the engineering materials commonly other rival materials of engineering construction. Stones were used in
used in our country Enumerate the specific uses of any ten of them. early days for structural works. Important historic examples of the uses
of stones are the Taj Mahal, Buddhist Temples and Kutub Minar in
India. The Pyramids of Egypt, the remains of Grecian and Roman
structures and many other masses we and beautiful structures found
practically throughout the world. The main censer of extensive use of
stone is that when selected properly. It has less wear and tear and does
not involve much maintenance cost. Therefore, engineers must have
thorough understanding of the characteristic properties of different
types of stones available in their own country to ensure their proper
and most beneficial application leading to the successful design and
construction of structures.
To understand the properties of stones very thoroughly one should
study first the characteristics of stone forming minerals.
2.2 Minerals: The problems of civil engineering relate with foundation and
again, foundation relates with rocks and soils. Since the rocks are
nothing but the aggregates of minerals knowledge of minerals is
essential first for civil engineers.
Minerals are naturally occurring substances, having characteristics
internal structures, and of more or less definite
Building Stones A Text Book of Engineering Materials 15
chemical composition and displaying more or less definite physical few of them have got engineering applications. The following- are the
properties. They can be easily identified by the following properties important rock forming minerals.
1. Streak and Color: The color of a mineral is often of assistance in 1. Silica. Quartz is pure Silica. It is unaffected by weathering. Its color
its identification. Streak is the color of mineral in powdered form. may be white, grey, pink, purple or yellowish. Streak is white. No
2. Cleavage and Fracture: The cleavage of a mineral is its capacity to cleavage, luster is vitreous and the structure is granular. It is hard and
split more readily in certain directions than in others, due to the specific gravity is 2.66. It is used in the manufacture of bricks,
arrangement of the atoms. Fracture of a mineral is the haphazard way ceramics, glass, concrete, mortar, plaster etc.
the mineral breaks. 2. Feldspars: Contains Silica, Alumina, Potassium, Sodium or Calcium.
3. Hardness: The hardness of a mineral is measured by its ability to Generally, two types:
resist scratching. If a mineral is scratched by a knife, it is softer than (a) Potash Feldspars: Also known as orthoclase. It contains Potassium,
the knife. If a mineral cannot be scratched by a knife, the two are Alumina and Silica. Its color is white, reddish, grey or grass. Streak is
equal in hardness or the mineral is the harder. If the knife is
white 2 cleavages at 90°, luster is vitreous, granular in structure, very
scratched by a mineral, the mineral is harder.
hard and specific gravity is 2.5 to 1.7. It is used in the manufacture of
4. Luster: Luster is the appearance of a mineral in ordinary light. porcelain wares, glasses and also for glazing.
5. Structure: Some minerals are granular, for example: (b) Lime-Soda Feldspars: Also known as plagioclase. It contains
olivine, others are fibrous, crystalline etc. Sodium, Calcium Alumina and Silica. Its color is generally white, may
6. Specific gravity: Specific gravity gives a very good basis
be grey, blush or reddish, Streak is. white 2 cleavage at 90°. Luster is
tor identification of minerals.
vitreous, structure is granular or fibrous, very hard, sp. gravity is 2.4 to
7. Magnetism: A few minerals are attracted by magnet- of
2.85. It is used for manufacturing glasses and ceramic products.
this mineral; magnetite is the most common example.
3. Micas: Complex Silicates of Potassium, Alumina, Silica, Magnesium
8. Association: The association of creation minerals with others is
and Iron. It is generally of two types
suggestive for identification of minerals.
Principal Stone forming Minerals: About 200 minerals have been (a) Muscovite: Complex silicates of Potash, and Alumina. Its color is
recognized by the chemists and geologists but a generally white, yellowish or grey Steak is white, luster is vitreous,
structure foliated very weak. One perfect cleavage has sp. Gravity of
3.0. It disintegrates very rapidly; hence a source of weakness is present
in building stones.
16
(b) Biotite: It is a complex silicate of Potassium, Magnesium, 3 good cleavages, luster is vitreous, structure is crystalline, sp. gr. =
2.86.
Iron and Alumina. Its color is black, one perfect cleavage, luster is
vitreous. Structure is foliated, moderately hard, sp.gr. =3.6 9. Magnetite. It is magnesium carbonate Color is white or grey. Streak is
4. Amphibole: Also known as Hornblende. This is a complex silicate of white. Cleavage is not distinct, luster is vitreous. Structure is granular.
Sodium, calcium, Magnesium, Iron and Aluminum, with a dark It is a fine grained and compact mineral commonly used for making
green to black color. refractory materials.
Streak is pale black, two cleavages at 90°. Luster is vitreous. 10. Garoet: It is a complex lime-alumina or magnesia alumina silicate. It is
Structure is granular and very hard. sp. gr. =3.2 strong, sp. gravity = 4.00. It also contains manganese and Iron. Its color
5. Pyroxene: Also known as Augite. It is a complex silicate of calcium, is generally green. Streak is pale green: luster is vitreous. Structure is
Magnesium. Iron and Aluminum, It is similar to hornblende, but granular and cleavage is not clear. It is used as an abrasive for sawing
slightly harder and heavier. Its color is green; streak is greenish and grinding stones.
cleavage 2 at 90°. Luster is vitreous, structure is granular. 11. Asbestos: This is a fibrous mineral and is composed of silicates of
6. Olivine: It is composed of Magnesium, Iron and silica. calcium and magnesium. This also contains iron oxide and alumina, its
Yellowish green color, streak is pale green, cleavage is not distinct, color varies from grey, brown to pale black Streak. Streak is pale grey.
Luster is vitreous, structure is granular, very hard. sp. gr. is. 3.5. It is not very hard. It has a physical property of being separated into
7. Calcite: It is calcium carbonate. It has a color varying from white to fiber; it is used to manufacture asbestos-sheets, fire resisting and
grey. Streak is white. 3 good cleavages, luster is vitreous, structure is insulating materials, and asbestos-cement.
granular. It is not very hard and sp. Gravity is 2.7. The chemical 12. Iron Oxide: Three common iron oxides are:
-7.
combination as calcite viz. CaO and C02 is liable to ready
(a) Hematite: It is Fe2O3 its color varying from red to brown. Streak is
decomposition. A drop of dilute hydrochloric acid causes effervescence,
reddish-brown, well-developed cleavages, luster is metallic, and
liberating CO2 from the mineral. But on exposure to atmosphere the
structure is granular.
anhydrous CaO absorbs moisture and becomes calcium hydroxide
which further takes up CO2 from the atmosphere and forms CaCO3. (b) Limonite: It is hydrous iron oxide. Its color is brown, black is
8. Dolomite: It is calcium magnesium carbonate. It is harder than yellow. Streak is yellowish, no cleavage, luster is earthy, structure is
calcite. Color varies from white to grey. Streak is white, granular or fibrous.
(c) Magnetite: It is FeO, Fe3, O3. Its color is black. Streak is black, no
cleavage, luster is metallic and structure is granular.
Building Stones 18 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 19
Iron oxides are used for the manufacture of wrought iron and cast unstratified structure which yields much strength and durability.
iron. Stratified structure is a characteristic feature of sedimentary stones.
2.3 Classification of Stones: Geologically stones classified as follows: This is why sedimentary stones are not strong and durable and also,
they split very easily. Metamorphic stones have foliated structure
which yield much strength and durability like igneous stones
1. Igneous Stones: These are extracted from igneous rocks. These
2. Texture: it is the arrangement, size and shape of the constituent
rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of rock masses from their
minerals of a stone. Texture of a stone has a direct relation with its
molten conditions on and within the earth crust. Building stones
hardness. Stones with crystalline or homogenous texture are close
available from these types of rocks are very heavy strong and durable.
grained and compact and better suited for resisting the weathering
Examples are granite, trap and basalt.
action of the atmospheric agencies. Good building stones should have
uniformity in texture with compactness. Stones with fine grains are
2. Sedimentary Stones: These stones are obtained from sedimentary
rocks. These rocks form by hardening the sedimentation under lakes more durable and better suited for purposes of molding and receiving a
and seas. These are compacted by pressure and cemented together by finer polish.
deposition of materials carried by strains. Building stones, a from this 3. Appearance and Color: Stones with uniform colors are found
veanety of rocks are not very heavy and strong, common examples generally strong and durable. Better architectural aspects of structures
are limestone and sandstone. are also produced by using highly colored stones Red and Brown
shades indicate the presence of harmful matters such as oxide of Iron,
3. Metamorphic Stones: These stones are obtained from loose-earth particles etc. Stones containing higher percentages of iron
metamorphic rocks. Due to high pressure and temperature inside the should never be used because they are liable to be disfigured from
earth crusts both igneous and sedimentary rocks are converted into unsightly rusts and stains formed by the oxidation of Iron under
metamorphic rocks with development of new characteristics. The atmospheric conditions.
stones: which are obtained from this variety of rocks are very strong 4. Porosity: The porosity of a stone is defined as the percentage of
and durable. Common examples are marble, quartzite and slate. total volume occupied by pore-spaces. Porous stones are always weak.
2.4. Properties of Building Stones: When stones are selected for use in
So, they should never be used in the face-works of buildings because
structural and building constructions, the following properties are to
they get decomposed and disintegrated by rainwater which is
be considered:
1. Structure: This relates to the manner in which the particles that chemically very active.
go to form a stone are arranged. Igneous stones possess
Building Stones 20
10. Permeability: This is this capacity of a stone to transmit a fluid
5. 5. Absorption: When a stone is kept under water for a couple of through it. A porous stone is more permeable and hence very weak. A
ho, hours, absorbs water. A porous stone will absorb more water when good stone should be impermeable in nature.
soap soaked. Absorption of water by marble stones is only 1% by volume; 11. Heat Resistance: Stone is a poor conductor of heat. Heat brings
hen hence, it is a very strong stone. On the other hand, the absorption of about rapid destruction of stone -structures by disintegration and
wat water by sands tone is 20% by volume. This indicates that sandstone decomposition. Limestones and marbles begin to calcite between a
is p is porous and hence very weak. So, absorption is a good property of temperature of 600° to 800° C. and trap stones resist heat from fire very
a st stone to see whether it is strong or weak. well, but granites disintegrate very quickly. Sandstones are very good in
6. 6. Strength: Stones are subject to direct compressive loads in resisting heat in short, most of the stones are very good heat- resistant.
7. structures. So, their compressive or crushing strength is to be 12. Electrical Conductivity: Stones are poor conductors of electricity.
determined, stone are very strong in compression. Granite stone has a When dry, they offer a very high resistance but when wet their
compressive strength of 5,000 to 7,000 psi. The texture, specific gravity resistance becomes less. In an-electric installation, marbles and Slater
and porosity of a stone greatly affect its compressive strength. It is are used because they are non-conductor of electricity. «
texture is even, specific gravity is high and porosity less, the stone is 13. Seasoning Qualities: Stones contain a higher percentage of moisture
considered to be very strong under compressive forces. (Quarry sap) when quarried. This makes the stones soft and easier to cut
so, stones should be roughly dressed just immediate after the quarrying
7.Density: The density of a stone is determined by dividing the total
weight of a stone by total volume. A denser stone will have higher and final dressing and polishing should be done at the work site. Before
specific gravity which yields higher strength. Densest stones are used use, the stones must be seasoned to remove moisture by leaving them in
in foundation works whereas light o stones are used in ornamental
the sun for about six months; otherwise, the stones will disintegrate and
works.
destroy the durability and also the quality of the work.
8. Toughness: This is the resistance of a stone to impact. This property
14. Facility of Working: Economy in the cost of dressing stones plays a
is particularly important where the stones are subjected to severe use in
Impact. A good stone should be very tough. vital role in engineering constructions by stones. Hard stones are very
difficult to dress and hence very costly, whereas soft stones can be
9. Abrasion Resistance: This is the property of a stone to resist dressed more economically.
abrasion i.e., wears and tear. The stone that will be used in road
Construction should have very good abrasive resistance.
Building Stones
2.3. I Important Building Stones available in Bangladesh and Their Uses: The
following are the important building stones available in Bangladesh: The A Text Book of Engineering Materials 23
following are the important building stones available in Bangladesh. 4. Sandstone: It is a sedimentary rock. It is a porous stone and exhibits
1. Granite: This is a crystalline variety of igneous rock. It is very different shade of colors. Sandstones are easier to work and dress, fts
heavy and strong. It weighs 170 lb. per cu. It. and the sp. gravity is density is about 150 lbs. per cult and sp. gravity is 2.3 and its crushing
about 2.7. The crushing strength of good granite is about 1,800 tons strength is about 650 ton per sq. ft. It is extensively used as local
per sq. ft. Granite is used for works requiring great strength and building material.
durability and also for ornamental and monumental works and also for Sandstones are abundantly found In Bangladesh. They are found at
inscription purposes: It is also used when the stone is subjected to Cox’s bazar, Saint Martin Island, Sitakundu in Chandranath, and Hill
abrasion like paving blocks, road metals etc. It is comparatively a Range in Chittagong Hill Tracts.
costly stone due to high cost involved in its cutting and dressing. 5. Limestone: It is a sedimentary rock. The chief constituent of
limestone’s is calcite (CaCO3). It is not very hard. It is easily affected by
It is in small quantities In Sylhet and Chittagong. acids to cause effervescence. Lime stone is weak against abrasion. Its
2. Trap: It is an amorphous variety of igneous rock. It is very weight is about 165 lbs. per Cu. ft. and the sp. gravity is 260. Its
strong, hard and durable. It weighs about 175 lbs. per cu ft and its sp. crushing strength varies from 300 to 600 tons per sq. ft.
gravity is 2.85 and possesses a crushing strength of about 1.000 tons The following are the important varieties of limestone.
per sq. ft. This is suitable for ordinary building works road (a) Kanker or Argillaceous (Clayey) Limestone: These are found in
construction. nodular from. Their size varies from to 4 Inch and they are composed of
pure compact carbonate of lime Kankar is invariably used as a source of
Its deposits in Bangladesh are very rare, it is found in traces at
Chhatak in Sylhet and Rangamati in Chittagong. lime. It serves as a cheap material for railway ballast and road metal. It is
3. Basalt: It an igneous rock. It is very hard, compact, tough, and also used as building stones.
durable. Its sp. gravity is 2.85 and weighs 180 lbs. per cu • It is (b) Silicus Limestone: They contain higher percentage of silica and
used as road metal and paving set to resist abrasion. It is hence suitable for building stones.
extensively used in foundation of structures and as an aggregate in (c) Magnesium Limestone or Dolomites: They contain calcium and
concrete works. magnesium carbonates practically in equal proportions. They are very
It is found in traces in Sylhet. heavy and compact. They are used to manufacture refractory bricks.
Limestone are abundantly found in our country. They are found at
Chhatak in Sylhet, Saint Martin Island, Cox’s
Building Stones
Bazaar. Chittagong Hills Tract and also Khasia. Jaintia and Garu Hills area.
6. Shale: It is a sedimentary stone. Shale is a hardened mud, containing
quantities in Sylhet are (a) Madhab Tilla and Bouji Tilla, a few miles
anhydrous aluminum silicate and small amount of mica and quartz. It is very
strong and durable. Its weight is 1 80 lbs. per eft, and sp gravity 2.74. Its from Jun off the Juri-Fultala Road and Juri- Karimgonj Road, (b) near
crushing strength varies from 600 to 900 tons per sq. ft. It is generally used for Juni-Sheola Road (24 miles) between Dhalcherra and Quaya river and (c)
the manufacture of toys and ceramic products.
Amura and Silghat villages about 3 miles from Gopalganj. The deposits
Shale is found In Sylhet. Mymensingh and Chittagong
are also found in the districts of Chittagong Hill Tract, Rajshahi,
7. Gneiss: It is a metamorphic stone and has same composition as granites

Dinajpur and Bogra.
but its structure differs due to metamorphic action. This yields good paving 10. Quartzite: Siliceous sandstone under the metamorphic action yields
blocks and road-metals. It is a very durable type of stone. It weights 135 lbs. per quartzite stones: It is fine grained, dense, strong and very durable. It is
Cu. ft. and its sp gravity is 2.42. Its crushing strength varies from 250 to 450 considered to be the strongest type of building stone. But it is very
tons per sq. ft. It is found in Sylhet (small quantities). difficult to work with it because it breaks into irregular shapes and
uneven surface. Its average wt is 185 lbs. per cu. ft. and sp. Gravity is
8. Schist: it is a metamorphic stone. It splits very easily This Is due to
3.00. Its crushing strength varies from 1,000 to 1,450 tons per sq ft.
greater quantity of mica present in it This is not very strong and durable. This is
Quartzite’s are quite suitable for retaining walls, revetments and aprons
suitable for less important works.
where dressing is of secondary importance.
Little traces are found to exist in Bangladesh.
It is found In Cox’s Bazaar in Chittagong district.
11. Slate: This is metamorphic product of clay, mudstone and shale’s. It
9. Laterite: It is a sandy clay stone of metamorphic type It is comparatively a
absorbs less water and gives good abrasion resistance and also gives
soft stone. It weighs about 140 lbs. per cu ft and the sp. gravity is 2.45. It's
ringing sound when stuck with a hammer. It weighs 160 lbs. per Cu. ft.
crushing strength vanes from 300 to 500 tons per sq ft. It is generally used in
and sp. gravity is 2.48 and the crushing strength varies from 300 to 650
light constructions.
tons per sq. ft. It is best used as roofing materials, damp proof course,
Laterite in fairly large quantities is available in various places of Sylhet district.
steps, and floor tiles and as road metal.
These are suitable for use as soiling under metal e roads. The places where
Slate is found in Sylhet and Chittagong.
laterite is available In large
12. Marbles: When Limestone becomes crystallized under the
influence of high heat and pressure, it is called marble. So, Marble is a
metamorphosed limestone. It is very compact and dense form of
limestone and takes a very fine polish. It is generally white in color and
used especially for decorative
Building Stones 26
purposes. It can be easily sawn and resists weathering action very well. A Text Book of Engineering Materials 27
Taj Mahal of Agra in India is one of the famous examples of its use.
Roofing: Slate.
Very small deposit in Sylhet and Chittagong.
Rubble Masonry: Granite, Trap, Basalt and Sandstone.
2.6 Natural Water-Worn Stones: These are mainly five types. Boulder. Shingle. Superstructures: Granite, Trap, Laterite and Quartzite. Arches and
Pebble. Gravel, and Conglomerate. Carvings’: Granite and Marble.
Boulder: This is larger sized, roughly rounded water worn stone. This is
Ballast: Granite, Trap and Quartzite.
crushed by a crushing machine to have building stones of required sizes.
Bed-Block: Granite and Quartzite.
Shingle: This is larger sized water-worn stone found near sea-shore. This is
Bridges: Granite and Slate.
crushed to get required sizes of building stones.
Dams Construction: Granite and Trap.
Pebbles: These are small sized rounded water-worn stones found in river
beds. They are used directly as building mater. Damp-Proof Course: Slate and Granite.
Gravel: This is a mixture of rounded water-worn pebbles of any stone with Lintels: Granite.
sand and is found in river beds and in alluvial tracts these are also used Marine Structures (Sea-Wall, Light-House, etc): Granite.
directly in road surfacing and as concrete aggregate. Mill Stones and Grinding Stones: Course grained sandstone,
Conglomerate: This is the stone formed when gravel and shingle get Table-Tops. Steps, Columns and Ornamental Works: Marble.
consolidate into stone. The pebbles being bound together by some 2.7 Quarrying of Building Steps, in Bangladesh: The term “Quarrying” is
cementing materials like clay lime etc. These stones are irregular in shape generally applied to the art of extracting from the natural bed rocks the
with porous granular texture. They are unsuitable for building purposes. stones of various types as used in general engineering constructions.
2.8 Uses of Different varieties of Stones for Various Engineering Constructions: The exposed part of such bed-rock where all the works in connection
Concrete and Foundation: Granite. Quartzite, Trap and with above is carried out, is termed as “quarry.” The various
operations involved in quarrying are open to the sky. The selection of
Basalt
site for a quarry often requires preliminary geologic Investigations
Paving of Roads: Granite, Gneiss, Trap and Slate.
about rock-deposit in the locality where a quarry has to be opened.
Building floors: Sandstone, Granite and Marble.
The suitable location of a quarry depends upon the following
considerations:
I. Availability of the desired building stones.
Buildins, Stones
28
2. Nearness of the quarry to the existing communications systems such as A Text Book of Engineering Materials 29
roads, water-ways and railways.
(3) Uses of Labor and Machinery: If the quarry is small; the work
3. Availability of suitable sites for the location of powder station, crushing should be done manually to minimize cost of quarrying.
and dressing machinery, labor sheds, etc. If the work is to be carried on a large scale and enough capital Is
4. In case of quarrying by explosives (Blasting method) the locality of the available, then mechanical equipment should be used, otherwise, the
quarry should be at, a sufficient distance from the site of building works and project might be a losing concern.
other permanent structures. 2.11 Various Quarries of Bangladesh: In Bangladesh most of the big quarries
are in Sylhet district. All shingles occur as river wash in the bed of
5. The storage facilities of the quarried materials to the outside of the
rivers and streams coming down from hills. The collection is made by
quarry of further conveyance.
boats. The collection is huge and it is estimated that about 2 to 3 cores
2.9 Methods of Quarrying: The methods of quarrying are of two types
cu. ft of materials can be collected in this district annually. The
depending upon then a true of the rock- deposit and the purpose for which the
following are the names of different quarries in Sylhet district.
stones are required to be used. They are (1) Quarrying by hand tools like
1. Lubha Quarry: This quarry is on the stream linking the Khasi Hills
crowbars, axes, etc. and (2) Quarrying by blasting by the help of explosives
to Surma River. From this quarry, boulders and shingles of inferior
such as blasting powder or gun powder, dynamite etc. In either case, quarrying quality are obtained.
may be carried out either by manual labor or by the help of machinery or by
2. Plyan or Jafflong Quarry: This very important quarry, both in
both.
respect of quality and quantity. The materials available are very hard
2.10 Precaution in Quarrying: The following are the precautions that are to be and there is abundant supply of both shingles and boulders. The
adopted in quarrying: location is 35 miles away from Chhatak railway station. This is why the
(1) Layout Planning: When the selection of the site for quarry is made, quarrying is very expensive.
the, engineer in charge should prepare a complete layout plan of the 3. Bholagonj Quarry: Largest collection is made nowadays from this
various stages of operation involved in quarrying so that with minimum quarry for its convenient location. This is situated on the Noa River and
cost, maximum amount of materials can be quarried. the site collection is 14 miles from this quarry are very hard, clean and
(2) Stability of a Quarry: The quarrying should be done in such a way that fairly well-graded. Boulders available are also hard and fairly big sized.
the structural stability of the rock-side is not at all affected, otherwise, The supply is unlimited.
there is every possibility of dangerous rock-slide. 4. Sheila and Bhowal Quarries: These are comparatively small quarries
located in the beds of streams originating from
Building Stones
30 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 31
Khasi hillisand falling on the Surma River. The sites of collection are 12 and
Quartzite: Cox’s Bazaar.
11 miles respectively from Chhatak and Sunamgonj. The materials are
late: Sylhet.
collected throughout the whole year. Though the materials are not of best
class, but are quite hard, clean and well grades. 2.13 Chief Requirements of Good Building Stones: The following are the chief
O'
requirements of good building stones 1. Strength; 2. Density; 3.
5. Sari River Quarry: This is about 6 miles away from Sari bridge In the
Durability; 4. Facility of working (Dressing and Polishing) 5. Cost.
23rd mile of Sylhet-Shillong Road. This quarry is Important for its
2.14 Artificial Stones: Strong and durable stones are not always available
particularly well-graded hard pebbles of smaller size. easily, cheaply and locally. This is why artificial stones (cast stones or
Chittagong District and Chittagong Hill Tracts: Small quantities of sandstone reconstruction stones) are manufactured now a day. Mirpur Ceramic
are quarried at Sitakundu in Chandranath Hill Range for local use. Works in Dhaka is now manufacturing artificial stones of various sizes
Considerable quantities of sandstone, shale laterite and limestone are which are used in different types of engineering constructions. But they
quarried in Rangamati. Cox’s Bazaar and Sent Martin Island. are costlier that natural stones. Artificial stones generally consist of
Jalpaiguri: Shingles of 1-to-3-inch size occur as river wash in the beds of crushes stones of small size mixed with cement. The usual proportions
adopted are 1 pit of crushed stones o l Inch. The two sizes of stones are
rivers Chawal and karatoa. The supply is quite considerable.
mixed together and added to one part of cement to three parts of mixed
Mymensingh District: Shingles are available as river wash in the beds of
crushed stones with required quantity of water. The stones are cast by
Mohadeb and other rivers coming from Garo Hills. The quantity collected
automatic machine or manually by moulds of wood or steel.
is not abundant and cannot satisfy local needs.
The main advantages of artificial stones are (1) It can be easily molded
2.12 Name of the quarries in Bangladesh where Important Building Stones are
to suit ornamental works: (2) Its strength can be controlled by
quarried:
proportioning the ingredients and by using reinforcing steel; and (3) It
Limestone: Sylhet, Cox’s Bazaar, and St. Martin Island.
can be cast to any desired size and shape.
Sandstone: Sitakundu, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Cox’s Bazaar. 2.15 Important Verities of Artificial Stones:
Granite: Sylhet and Chittagong. Mosaic Stones: These consist of grounded marbles (marble chips of any
other suitable stone chips. 1 inch down size). They are used with
Trap and Basalt: Sylhet.
cement in the usual ratio of 1.2 for making superior floor surfacing with
Laterite: Sylhet and Chittagong Hill Tracts.
usual variety of colors
32
and patterns. This type of flooring is generally cast-in-situ but Bricks: Theses are made of clay of special variety. The manufacturing
mosaic slabs or tiles (size 6” x 6”) are as quite commonly processes, Characteristic and uses of bricks will be discussed
used. elaborately in the following (chap. 3).
Mosaic is also termed as terrazzo in some places. Mosaic flooring is very
popular now- a- days. Mosaic work is also used for decorative and Questions
ornamental purposes. 1. “Stone is considered to be the king of engineering materials”. Critically
Ransome Stones: These are prepared by mixing dry sand with a small
examine the statement.
quantity of finely grounded chalk or stones in a mortal mill or pug mill and 2. What is a building stone? Give the classification of building stones with
their characteristics.
forced into moulds. A cooled calcium chloride solution is poured over the
3. Discuss the properties of a good building stone.
blocks and then the blocks are immersed in the boiling solution of the same.
So that, the pores get completely filled up with the solution which makes it 4. Name the common natural building stones that are available in
hard. The calcium silicate is formed and the remaining of sodium chloride Bangladesh and enumerate their uses.
solution is washed off. Otherwise, it gives efflorescence. This type of 5. Explain the term “Quarrying” How would you select the exact location
artificial stone is hard, durable and can resist corrosion. This stone can be of a quarry. Name the different quarries in Bangladesh and discuss
about the types of stones that are found from these quarries.
dressed and curved easily. But due to its cost, it no commonly used now a
7. Give the specific uses of the following stones:
days.
Victoria Stone: These consist of finely powdered granite or any other
(1) Granite, (b) Marble, (c) Laterite, (dl Quartzite,
suitable stones, and cement mixed with usual proportion (4:1). The molded (e) Limestone.
blocks are hardened by the help of sodium silicate solution. This type of 8. Write explanatory notes on the following;
stone is very hard, and durable and generally used in pavements, landings (a) Toughness of stone, (b) Artificial stones,
etc. (c) Boulders and conglomerates.

Aggregate Stones: (Machine Made) these are manufactured mechanically (d) Kankar, (e) Trap,
from finely grounded stones (stone chips). '/4 inch down size mixing with (a) Plain cement concrete (1: 2:4) and (b) Reinforced cement concrete
cement and water in definite proportion. Their usual sizes are 1/2, 3/4, 1. Vi (1: 2: 3) with 0.5 percent reinforcement.
and 2”. They are used in making cement concrete. For special purposes Ans. (a) Cement = 21.5 eft. = 17 bags (approx.)
when high strength and durability are desired.
Building Stones 34
Sand = 43.0 eft
Brick whoa = 85.5 cut CHAPTER-THREE
(b) Cement = 25 cut = 20 bags

BRICKS
Sand = 50 eft
3. Definition: A brick is an artificial kind of stone made of clay whose
Brick whoa = 75 eft chief characteristics are a plasticity when wet and stone like hardness
Steel = 0.5 eft = 245 lb (1 eft steel = 490) after being heated to: high temperature.
3.2 Factors that Affect the Quality of Bricks: The following are the factors
on which the quality of bricks depends:
1. Chemical properties of the clay used.
2. Preparation of the clay.
3. Process of drying.
4. Different degrees of burning.
3.3 Constituents of Brick Clay and Their Functions:
A good brick-clay should be such a mixture of pure clay and sand that
when prepared with water, it can easily be moulded and dried without
cracking or warping. It should also contain alumina, (aluminum oxide)
lime, iron oxide add magnesia (magnesium oxide). Chemical analysis
of a good brick-clay should give the following chemical
Silica 55%
Alumina 30%
Iron oxide 8%
Magnesia 5%
Lime 1%
Organic matters 1%
100%
Silica: Silica exists in all clays in a state of chemical
combination with alumina forming silicate of alumina and
Bricks 36 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 37
sometimes exists in a free state when it is called flint or sand. The
because on buring it becomes quick lime and absorbs moisture causing
presence of sand prevents cracking, shrinking, and warping. The higher disintegration.
the proportion of sand, the more shapely and uniform in texture shall be Alkalies and Organic Matter: A small quantity of organic matter will assist
the brick. But too much of sand makes the brick brittle and weak. burning bricks, Excess in bad, because if it is no completely burnt, the
Alumina (Aluminum Oxide): The is the principal constituent of brick bricks will be porous. Small quantity of alkalies will lower the fusion point
clay. It imparts plasticity to clay which is very essential for the purpose of clay.
of moulding. It also imparts density. But the clay containing too much 3.4 Harmful constituents of Brick-Clay:
alumina should not be used decease bricks will crack and warp buring Iron Pyrites: Presence of pyrites cause crystallization and disintegration of
brying and becomes very hard under the influence of heat. bricks on burning.
Iron Oxide: The presence of iron oxide in clay enhances the impermeable Alkalies: They are mainly the chlorides and sulfates of calcium, magnesium,
and durable qualities Iron and lime in small quantities give creamy sodium and potassium. They produce a dark greenish hue on the surface of
colour to bricks the colour of bricks is very much dependent upon the bricks on drying. They cause the bricks to fuse, twist, and warp during.
contents of iron and the colour ranges from light yellow to orange and Alkalies in bricks absorb moisture from and on drying cause efflorescence.
red. The colour gradually depend to red and then purple as the iron Stone Particles: Small particles of stones do not allow the clay to be mixed
content goes up 8%. By adjusting the burning temperature, red colour thoroughly and uniformly. These are harmful to the uniformity of brick-
due to iron oxide or back colour due to presence of manganese can be texture. These make bricks porous and weak.
produced Magnesia in presence of iron makes the brick yellow. Vegetation and Organic Matter: They make the bricks porous and weak
Magnesia (Magnesium Oxide): Presence of magnesia in small quantity because vegetations and organic matter get burnt during the burning of
decreases shrinkage and gives yellow tint. bricks leaving small pores in them.
Lime. It reduces shrinkage of bricks during drying and enables the silica Lime: Lime if present in excess causes the brick to fuse too readily and the
to melt in burning and thus binds the particles of brick together. In shape is lost. Lime in the form of limestone and kankar nodules is very
excess, however, it will cause the brick to fuse too readily and the shape harmful and cause serious trouble to Bricks. Because due to high heating,
will be lost. Lime should be present in a very finely divided state. limestone (CaCO3), is converted into lime (Cao), and carbon-dioxide (CO2).
Because, if present in the form of lumps it is very injurious to bricks, 0" contact with water, lime gets hydrated and swells and causes
the bricks to split and crumble to pieces Limestone in the form of kankar made homogeneous having uniform consistency, so that it may
nodules should not be present because it deteriorates the quality of a good possess the required plasticity for moulding for large scale
brick. manufacturing of bricks. A pug mill is generally used to temper
the clay shown in fig. 8.1. This consists of a conical vessel of
3.5 Manufacturing of Bricks: The following are the different steps
wrought iron. 5 ft. 6 inch, high, partially (2 ft. 6 inch.) buried
manufacturing bricks.
underground. It is provided with a central revolving shaft to
Selection of Brick- Clay: Brick-clay should be free from harmful constituents.
which are attached horizontal blades. To these horizontal
The sedimentary deposits of clay are Bricks generally quite suitable for the blades, small vertical wedge-shaped steel knives are fixed.
manufacture of bricks. It is necessary that a few sample bricks should be made Feeding of clay and water is done through the top. The shaft is
first and the suitability of the clay is judged from the product. The proportion of rotated either by bullocks or by mechanical power. When
different constituents of clay could then be adjusted. To manufacture bricks on Tempering is complete, the clay is forced out of an aperture at
a large scale and analysis of the clay constituents is to be made to determine the base of the mill.
their best proportions.
Preparation of Brick-Clay: First selection is made where from the brick-clay is
to be excavated and this earth is excavated before the rains and spread out or the
ground for sometimes. This process is termed as weathering and has an
important effect on the plasticity and strength of the clays. The clay should be
kept moist during the period it is weathered. About 100 cu. ft of clay is required
for manufacturing of 1000 nos. of standard bricks. The quality of brick-clay is
to be improved (if there is any deficit of important constituent ingredients) by
adding sand lime, alumina and magnesia. This process is known as blending.
The clay is then cut slashed and well worked with spade and is trodden which
makes it soft. This process is known as tempering. Water is gradually added
when tempering is in progress. The clay is well tempered by kneading it under
feet of men and cattle into a stiff condition and thereby the clay is
FIG. 3.1 PUG MILL
Brick Moulding: Having prepared the brick-clay as described above the
next step is brick moulding. Moulds are rectangular boxes with top or
bottom made of any variety of hard wood, sometimes lined with iron
or brass where
accurate mouling is needed. The edges are protected with thin strip of iron
superior to ground moulded bricks because of the regularity of the level
to prevent wearing of the mould. Moulds are sometime made of iron or
and shape and also because sharp corners are obtained in table moulded
brass. The mould is generally made for one brick its size being bricks.
determined by the dimensions of brick required after buring. It is an usual The mould is placed either on the ground made smooth and even or on
practice to make the internal-dimensions of the mould about 1/10 larger a table, the tempered brick-clay is rolled up into shape slightly longer
than the size of the burnt bricks to allow for shrinkage on buring. Typical and thicket than the required brick. The rolled-up clay is lifted over
brick-moulds are shown in Fig. 3.2. Generally, identification marks head with both hands and dashed with force into the mould and pressed
(Frogs and Impression) are left on the face of the brick drying the process by hand very carefully and thoroughly so as to fill the mould
of moulding to indicate the name of the manufacture of bricks. This is completely. The excess earth on the top of the mould is removed by a
done by fitting a fillet or projection on the corresponding face of the straight edge of wood or steel, known as strike. The usual dimension of
mould, usually on the lower surface. a wood or strike is "12 x 2" x 1/8" and that of a steel strike "12 x 2"x 1/8"
There are two methods, of moulding: (1) Hand Moulding and (2) Machine " A thin piece of wood known as pallet board, little larger than the size
Moulding. of the mould, is placed on the top of the mould and the mould with the
brick inside is lifted up and put upside down. The mould is then lifted
Hand Mouling: It is divided into two methods: (A) Ground Moulding and
leaving the wet brick on the pallet.
(B) Table Moulding. In ground moulding the bricks are made on the
Before the mould is filled with clay above, it is frequently dipped
ground usually in wooden
during use in water to prevent the clay sticking to the mould. This is
called sloup moulding. Another method to secure some object is to
sprinkle fine sand or ashes over and into the mould. This is called sand
mouding. Sand mouldling is considered to produce cleaner and sharper
bricks.
Machine Moulding: Generally, two types of machines are used namely:
(1) The Plastic Clay Machine; and (2) The Dry Clay Machine. The
plastic clay machine combines the process of crushing, tempering and
moulding. The raw-clay is tipped into a hopper at the top of the
machine.
Fig. 3.2
moulds while in case of table moulding, they are made on a table
usually with metal moulds. Table moulded bricks are
Bricks 42
The clay passes between crushing rollers and the crushed clay then passes
bricks are dried by being placed on their, edges for sometimes and then
through a horizontal pugmill. The tempered clay moves on to a mouding
piled in open order in long row and stacks. The length and breadth of
box and is forced from the box by reciprocating piston moved by a rack
the stacks are generally kept equal. This should be carried on a slightly
and pinion movement, alternately from either end of the box through two
raised platform and the surroundings should be carried on a slightly
roller dies on to a smooth and greased platform in a continues rectangular
raised platform and the surroundings should be sanded to keep it dry in
bar. The bar as comes over the platform is cut into bricks by wires wet weather. To protect the bricks from the rain, they should be
stretched across a frame shown in Fig. 3.3. The distance between the covered with some sort of thatched roof. In Bangladesh brick-moulding
consecutive wires corresponds to the length of the bricks. The bricks are is generally suspended during the monsoons. Brick- drying generally
called wire-cut bricks as they are cut by wires. In this method, uniform size takes 5 to 12 days depending upon the local climatic conditions. In case
and density of bricks are secured. of machine-made bricks, drying is performed by circulating hot air or
gases around the bricks. Great care should be taken in this system of
drying because rapid drying may develop cracks in the bricks.
Brick Brurning: When drying is complete, the bricks are burnt for the
following purposes:
1. To impart hardness and strength to bricks.
2. To increase the density of bricks to make them less absorbent to
water and thereby increasing durability.
Great care and skill are required in burning bricks because under burnt
bricks are soft and useless. Well burnt bricks are hard, strong, compact
and durable. Overburnt bricks will vitrify and hence not sound.
fig. 3.3
During drying, free water contained in the clay gets removed due to
In the dry clay machine, stony clay is first ground to powder and mixed evaporation but the water which incorporated with the clay in the form
with a small proportion of water so as to form stiff plastic paste. This of water of crystallization is removed only when the bricks are burnt.
paste is fed through a power-driven press where it is first formed into a Bricks are burnt in clamps or kilns where the temperature is raised to
rough clot and then shaped accurately. The bricks made by this process about 2100 F. At a temperature of about 1200°F, the organic master
are very hard and compact. present in the bricks is oxidized and disappears. When the temperature
Brick Drying; Before burning it is necessary to dry the bricks so that they
are sufficiently hard to be. handled and stocked in the burning kiln
without any injury. The moulded
raised to about 2100°F, certain chemical changes take place in its The clamps are formed on the sloping ground measuring about 30' x
constituent minerals, giving new properties to the bricks. Particles of 40'. "The height is generally 8' to 12". In the first course, a layer of fuel
is laid about 2".6" thick. Bricks are laid in alternate layers. The upper
alumina and sand bind themselves together and that increases the density
surface is kept sloping at an angle of about 30° in the direction of its
and strength of the bricks. Fusible glass in small quantity is produced by length. The clamp is fired from below. During burning the violent
burning of alumina and sand grains. But when heated beyond 2100°F, the outburst of flames is noticed and earth is thrown on to suppress it.
fusible glass is formed in a much greater quantity and the bricks are said to When fireing is completed, the clamp is left to bum itself out
thoroughly and completely. The burning of bricks by this method is
be vitrified. Vitrification softens the bricks are said to be vitrified.
very slow. In a large of bricks can be burnt in about month. In this
Vitrification softens the bricks and they begin to lose their shape. Therefore, method, bricks are not uniformly burnt. Nowadays, this method, has
vitrification must be controlled so as to be just sufficient to impart the become obsolete and is used in rural areas where the quantity required
required density' and strength. Bricks are burnt in clamps (Pazawha) or in is small and the quality also not of a high standard.
kilns. Kiln Burning: Kiln burning is preferred when bricks are required to be
Clamp or Pazawah Burning: In clamps, bricks and fuels (grass, cow dung, manufactured in large quantities. The kiln consists of a regular walled
structure with proper arrangements for healing and the bricks are
wood-chips, rice-husks, jute-sticks etc.) are placed in alternate layers, shown
arranged in regular stacks. A good kiln should supply the maximum
in Fig. 3.4 and the whole male mass is plastered over with mud on the
number of well burnt high class brick with less consumption of fuels
external surface. (powdered coals). There are various types of kilns, the most common
ones that are generally used in our country' have been shown in Fig 3.5
and Fig 3.6.
Hoffman's Kiln: It is circular in plan and consists of an annular chamber
by brick partitions with small opening into twelve or more
compartment each of which is connected by a flue to a central chimney.
Each compartment is also provided with a door-opening outward for
loading and unloading bricks. When the compartments are in use, the
doorway is closed by dry bricks and sand, and the joints are closed by
mud filling. Holes are provided on the top of each compartment, and
through these holes, fuel (powdered coal) is dropped.
SLOPING FLOOR OVER ONE BRICK FLAT

Fig. 3.4
Bricks
compartments. Depending upon the output desired, continues kiln may

have 12, 16 or 20 compartments’
Generally cool air enters through the open door of the compartment nos.
1 and 2, passes through the cooling compartment nos. 3 and 4 them
enters into a heated condition in the burning compartment nos. 5 and 6
and finally the hot flue gases enter compartment no’s, 7 to 8.
In a moderately sized kiln, each compartment, if made about 36 ft. long,
15 ft. mean width an 8 ft. high, will hold 25,000 bricks and
8x25.000=2,00,000 bricks may, therefore, be burnt in 12 days. Such a
kiln will, therefore, bum approximately 60 lakhs of bricks annually.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HOFFMAN'S KILN:
Advantages: (1) Economy of fuel; (2) Uniform burning of bricks, (3)

Regulation of heat, (4) Preheating of unburnt bricks (5) Higher
percentage of good bricks (6) Regularity of supply (7) No smoke as the
combustion of the fuel is.
Disadvantages: Only one that is the high initial cost of - construction.
Fig. 3.5
Trench or Tunnel Kiln: This type of kiln is continuous in operation,
At any particular time, each compartment of the kiln has a specific consists of a tunnel of generally 200 ft. long 18 to 24 ft. wide and 6 to 8
function to perform. In Fig. 3.5, compartment no. 1 is being filled up with ft. deep, rectangular, circular or oval in plan. Of course, the length of the
unburnt bricks, compartment no. 2 contains burnt bricks which have
kiln depends upon the site available and the number of bricks to be
cooled and are being unloaded, compartments nos. 3 and 4 contain bricks
manufactured. The most common shape of the kiln is an oval one with
already burnt that are being cooled down, compartment nos. 5 and 6
semicircular ends to save space, but in this case irregularity of boring
contain bricks which are being supplied with, fuels and compartment no’s
bricks result as firing approaches or leaves the
7 and 8 contain bricks which are being dried and preheated. Due to
continuity in operation form the loading of the new bricks, this type of kiln
is also termed as continuous kiln. The kiln, shown in Fig. 3.5 has got 8
Bricks 48
semicircular ends. A typical oval shaped kiln with semicircular ends is A Text Book of Engineering Materials 49
shown in Fig. 3.6. Uniformity in burning o is generally results in a circular well but in others, chimneys are placed over the arranged bricks in the kiln
section and the second best in the rectangular section.
and in the case no hole is to be provided in the walls. Dampers or iron
plates are placed by the side of these openings. The space between two
dampers in the trench is called a section. Each section of a trench 18 ft.
wide contains 10.000 bricks which require 58 cu ft. of coal of burn.
CHIMNEY CHIMNEY
Roughly. 6 mounds (692 lbs.) of coal are required per 1000 bricks. The fig.
7^
3.6 shows an oval trench kiln in which loading drying, burning, cooling and
^-TRENCH
unloading take place in two stages. Two chimneys and two batches of
SECTIONAL ELEVATION ON A-A workers are required for its operation. The arrows on the plan indicated the
direction of movement of chimneys. One section is loaded first, and then
covered with earth on top to prevent the escape of heat. When one section
is being burnt, its hot gases pass on to the next section to warm up the
bricks already slacked in the second section before passing out through the
chimneys. When first section is burnt and the fire has advanced to the next,
all the flue holes of the first are closed and it is allowed to cool down
PLAN
gradually. When fire has advanced through a number of sections from one
side, the first section cools sufficiently and is unloaded and reloaded with
dry raw bricks which in their turn are warmed up first with the hot gases of
Fig: 3.6
the last section and then burnt up by the advancing fire going round the
It is made in a trench excavated below ground and lined with masonry
kiln. Thus, the kiln works continuously admitting loading, drying, burning,
walls. A number of openings are built around the outer walls. A number
cooling and unloading to go on simultaneously in different sections. The
of openings are built around the outer wall of the kiln and movable iron
average output of this type of kiln is as follows;
chimneys are placed over the opening (generally 2’ 6” x 1 x 7”) at about
1st class bricks 60%
12 ft. apart and the coal pits lie between them. These chimney openings
are connected to the trench by two arched opening for draught. 2nsd class bricks 15 %
Sometimes, permanent, chimneys are built over these openings but for 3rd class bricks 10%
economy, movable chimneys on four wheels can be used by easily
moving them along the kiln. In some cases, chimney, openings are
provided in the inner wall as
Bricks
50 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 5j
Picked Jhama 5%
2.5% in burnt bricks, because the presence of excess soluble salts
Jhama bats 5% causes efflorescence.
Bricks bat 5% 7. They should be neither overburnt or under burnt.
The smallest size kiln of 20 chambers of sections 18' x j? with one 8. They weight should be generally 6 lbs. per brick and the weight per
chimney will turn out about. 10,000 bricks daily large size kiln of 24 to 40 cu ft should not be less than 125 lbs.
chambers worked by two chimneys will be much economical to operate 9. They should have low thermal conductivity as it is desirable than
and also cheaper in construction. the buildings built of them should be cool in summer and warm in
A trench kiln generally takes 36 to 40 hours for burning and 10 to 12 days winter.
for cooling. 10. They should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
In Bangladesh, most of the brick manufactures prefer this type of brick 11. Bricks should not change in volume when wetted.
burning because of the following reasons: (1) Economy in construction; 3.7 Field Tests of Bricks: The following are the test that are generally
(2) Net affected by wind and moderate rain as it is constructed below performed in the field to determine the quality of good bricks:
ground level and covered with earth on top: (3) Short period of burning: 1. Take a brick and try to make mark on the surface by nil. If you can
(4) Better quality of bricks. make it. it is not, a good brick, if not. it is very hard and compact.
3.6 Characteristics of Good Bricks: 2. Take a brick and strike it with a hammer. If it gives clear
1. Bricks should be uniform in colour, size and shape. ringing or metallic sound, it is a good brick, if not a bad one.
2. They should be sound and compact. 3. Take two bricks and form a tee (T) and drop from a height ■
3. They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles; of 6 ft on a more or less solid surface. If they break, they are not
stone nodules etc. good bricks. If they remain unbroken, they are good bricks.
4. They should not absorb more than 1/5 of their own wt. of water 3.8 Size of Bricks: In Bangladesh, according to P.W.D. specification, each
brick should measure 91/4" x 9 1/2" x 23/4" This is the standard size of bricks
when immerged in water for 24hours (15 to 20% dry wt.,).
in our country. There are other sized bricks also. But this size is most
5. The compressive strength of bricks should be in the range of 5,000 economical. Because when bricks are put in any construction with the size
to 8,000 psi. becomes 10 "x 5" x 3" (approximately). The size of
6. The percentage of soluble salts (sulphates of calcium, magnesium,

sodium and potassium) should not exceed
52
Bricks
A Text Book ©^Engineering Materials 53
walls which are constructed by bricks in our country 3", 5", 10", 15", 20". 25”
and 30" So 'his size of bricks 21 used safely Without any breakage. Hence, this
«• Picked Jhama Bricks: These bricks are uniformly vitrified
standard size is most economical in engineering constructions in our 91/4" x 9
1
/2" x 23/4" country. throughout, but must be of good shape heavy and of selected
quality. They must not be spongy.
3.9 Classification of Bricks: The following is the classification of bricks by PWD 7. Jhama Bricks: These are well- burnt bricks but not quite
in our country. so well-shaped as picked jhama bricks. They must not be spongy
and must be free from cinders and projecting lumes and of fairly
1. First Class Bricks: They should be of uniform size; and colour,
good shape.
thoroughly and evenly burnt. They should ring clearly when struck.
8. Jhama Bats: These are broken bricks of the classes picked
With a hammer or another brick. They should be well shaped with jhama and jhama bricks.
even surfaces and without cracks, rain spots or flaws of any kind. They
3.10 Special Bricks: Bricks are usually made rectangular but they are also
should not absorb more than one sixth of their weight of water when made in various special forms to meet the different situation where they
wet in water for 24 hours. are used also to suit to the taste of the users. Such bricks are called
2. Second Class Bricks: These bricks must possess the hardness and purpose-made bricks and are more costly than ordinary bricks. These
colour of first-class bricks but are slightly irregular in shape: size or are:
rough on the surface. (1) Perforated bricks used in building walls: (2) Hollow bricks
3. Third Class Bricks: These are bricks which are not sufficiently well- used in hollow walls in building; (3) Checkered bricks, used in
burnt sufficiently and of uniform shape and size for use in unimportant bricks masonry; (4) Stable bricks (with grooved Pannels); (5)
constructions. Plinth bricks, (6) Jam bricks-bricks chamfered and rounded to the
4. First Class Bats: These are broken bricks of the same quality as first desired shape at one corner; (7) Klinker (paving brick) for internal
and second-class bricks. flooring. In addition to these, there are other varieties of special
5. Second Class Bats: These are broken bricks of the same quality as third- bricks. They are mainly used for decorative and ornamental
class bricks. purposes.

The Mirpur Ceramic works in Dhaka manufactures various types of
special bricks. A few special bricks are shown in Fig.
3.7
Bricks Text Book of Engineering Materials
54 A 55
3.13 Brick Works: The following are the different types of brick works:
1. First Class Brick-work: This consists of first-class bricks in lime or
cement mortar. All the material required should be of first-class
quality.
2. Second Class Brick-work: This consist of second-class bricks laid
in lime or cement mortar.
3. Third Class Brick-work: This consists of third-class bricks
in mud mortar.
For 100 cft, of brickworks 1200 no’s, bricks and 45 cft, of mortar
are required 830 bricks will make 100 eft, of khoa for concrete.
Questions
1. Discuss the factors that are to be considered in selecting raw materials

KLINKER (PAVING)BR|CK HOLED BRICK
for manufacturing good bricks.
2. Name the factors that affect the quality of good bricks. Give the
constituents of a good brick clay and state their functions.
Fig- 3.7
3. What are the harmful constituents of brick clay?
Explain why they are termed harmful?
3.11 Uses of Bricks:
4. Name the different steps in the manufacturing process of bricks.
1. Construction of walls of any size.
5. Discuss the principal aspects of burning bricks.
2. Construction of floors.
(a) Draw the plan in oval and elevation of a teach kiln.
3. Construction of arches and cornices.
Explain also its working principle.
4. Making khoa (broken bricks of required size) to use as an aggregate
(b) If a daily production of 3 lacs of bricks is required, what should be
in concrete.
size of the kiln? What will be the amount of c dust that will be required
5. Manufacture of surki (powdered bricks) to be used in lime piaster
and lime concrete. per day?
Bricks
7. What is the standard size of bricks in our country? Do you think that the
existing size is economical? Justify y0Ur answer. CHAPTER-FOUR
8. Give the characteristics of good bricks. What is the test that are carried out
TILES
in the field to determine the quality of good bricks?
Tiles
9. Supply the classification of bricks with proper specification. 4.1 Introductory: Tiles are than slabs made of clay burnt in kiln. They
10. Write explanatory notes on the following: are used for flooring, walling and drainage purposes. Tiles require more
(a) Pug Mill, (b) Machine moulding (c) Brick drying care in manufacture than bricks, as from their greater delicacy they are
more liable to deformation. The clay should be much stronger than that
(d) Pazawah (e) Hoffman's kiln (f) Brick works.
used for bricks. The manufacturing process is same as that of bricks.
11. What is the function of special bricks? Give neat (sketches of the different
4.2 Classification: The following are the various types of tiles according to
types of special bricks that are commonly used in Bangladesh.
the purpose they serve:
1. Roofing Tiles: There are various types of roofing tiles of which
plain tiles, pot tiles and pan tiles are most common in use.
Plain Tiles: They are handmade tiles from clay. They are glazed to
prevent the absorption of water. They are provided with two small
projections beneath the top edge to facilitate fixing against roof battens
(Fig. 4. 1).
Pot tiles: They are made by hand on a potter's wheel. They are hollow,
half round and tapering in shape. The length varies from 10" to 12" on
and the diameter is generally kept 6" on one side and 5" on the other
side. The thickness is generally 3/8". On the wheel, the tile is first made
into a tapering tube just before taking the tile off the wheel the potter
makes two vertical cuts, one at each end of the diameter. These cuts are
intended to assist in easily the tube into two pot tiles after the tube has
been burnt (Fig.4.2).
Tiles 58 A Text Book of Engineering Materials sq
Concrete Tiles: They are made in various shapes and shades from L3 (1
part cement and 3 parts sand) cement mortar with powdered coloring
ingredient. They are used very commonly in the form of precast thin
slabs.
3. Flooring Tiles: The size of the flooring tiles varies from 6" square up
to 12" square and the thickness ranges from 1/2" to 3" they are made
Fig. 4.1 PLAIN TILE FIC. 4.2 POT TILE exactly like flat tiles. They may be of concrete or mosaic.
4. Wall Tiles: The size is generally 6"X6"X1/2". They are mainly used in
bathrooms and latrines.
Pan Tiles: Pan tile is similar to the pot tile. In shape and differs from it
5. Drain Tiles: They are used for drainage purposes. They are
only in being shorter, heavier and less curved and having equal width at
manufactured circular. V or (U shaped and in lengths of 2 to 4 ft each.
both ends. They are first moulded flat, then curved and are provided with
The clay should be of best variety, perfectly homogeneous and of
a small projection beneath their top edge which rests against horizontal
uniform semi-stiff consistency to admit of hollow moulding.
battens and prevents the tile from sliding down the slope of the roof (Fig.
6. Sewer or Water Pipes: They are made from highly silicious clays
4. 0).
contain about 75% of silica and 22% alumina.
Flat Tiles: They vary in size from 6"X6"X 1/2" to 8"X8" X 1/2" • The larger
4.3 Characteristics Of Good Tiles: The tiles should be of regular desired
variety called paving tile is used on floors while tiles. Fig. 4.4 shows a
shape and size, free from twist, cracks, flaws and bends. They should be
typical flat tile.
of well burnt and of uniform colour. They should be compact, hard and
Ridge Tiles: This is meant to serve a specific purpose in roofing shown in
sound.
fig. 4. 5.
4.4 Glazing of tiles And Its Purposes: The surface of tiles is sometimes
glazed for the protection of the surface from the action of the
atmospheric destroying agents and sometimes for beautiful appearance.
A glaze is a mixture of glass forming materials of special compositions
like lead silicate, titanium, zirconium oxides etc. They are ground to a
very fine powder and give colorless glazes, other metallic oxides such as
iron oxide for red and brown, iron oxide with tittle time for cream and
Fig: 4.3 PAN TILES Fig: 4.4 FLAT TILE Fig: 4.5 RIDGE TILE
Tiles 60
yellow, copper oxide for green, cobalt oxide for blue colour etc. The process of CHAPTER-FIVE
applying the glaze on tiles is known as glazing.
The glazing is applied to the surface of clay-wares for improving the REFRACTORIES AND OTHER CERAMICS
appearance, for producing decorative effect of 'the desired colors and design,
for making them nonabsorbent, for imparting durability, for protecting them 5.1 Definition: Refractories are constructional materials which must perform
from the destroying effects of atmospheric agents. In case of sewers, glazing is their duties at high temperature. Hence, they must have a high fusion
applied to save them from the corrosive action of sewage and sewage gases point. The clay which is used for manufacturing refractories and
and also to provide smooth surface. refractory linings is called fire clay. This type of clay can resist high
temperature without melting or becoming soft.
Questions:
5.2 Uses of Refractories: They are used in building works for setting stones in
1. What is a tile? Discuss the different types of tiles with neat
ovens and fire places. They are used for the manufacture of fire bricks
sketches wherever possible.
and chimney posts. They are also used as lining of sand melting furnace
2. Give the characteristics of good tiles. Name the different uses of tiles.
of glass factor}' and iron-ores melting furnaces in steel plant. Fire bricks
3. What is glazing? Explain its functions over tiles.
are used for the construction of boilers, combustion chambers and
chimney flues.
5.3 Composition of Fire Clays: Fire clay should contain a higher percentage
of silica and alumina and very small quantity of lime and magnesia, iron
oxide and alkalies. Silica (SiO2) becomes soft at about 2800°F and
finally fuses and becomes a glassy substance at about 3200°F. It melts
around 3300°F. Due to this high softening and melting point, it is,
therefore, used as a principal material in the manufacture of refractories
and fire bricks. Alumina (A12O3) has still higher softening and fusion
temperature. It melts at about J800°F. It is, therefore, used in
Combination with silica to manufacture refractories to resist high heat
and temperature. But the presence of time magnesia, iron oxide and
alkalies act like fluxes to lower the softening and fusion point and
temperature. So, silica and alumina are nondetrimental and
Refractories and Other Ceramics basic open-hearth steel furnaces and copper melting furnaces. They can
Lime, magnesia, iron oxide and alkalies are termed as detrimental in resist a high temperature of 2000°C.
fire clay. The following chart show the approximate compositions of (c) Ganister Bricks: They manufactured from the silicious variety of
fire clays depending upon the ganister rock containing 85% of silica and 10% clay with an addition of 2%
special use. 60 to 96 percent of lime. They are very hard, compact and rigid at a high temperature of
Silica
Alumina 2 to 36 2100°C.
(2) Basic Refractories: The following are the different varieties of basic
Lime, magnesia, iron
oxide and alkalies 2 to 5 refractory bricks.
4.5 Manufacture of Refractory Bricks: Fire bricks are manufactured (a) Magnesia Bricks: They are manufactured from fire clay containing
from fire-clay and the different steps in the manufacturing process 85% of magnesium oxide, 3 to 5% iron oxide and the balance lime and
such as digging, weathering, tempering and moulding of fire bricks alumina. They can resist a higher temperature of 1800 to 2100°C. They
are same as those of ordinary bricks but the burning is generally are used for basic lining of furnaces.
carried out in a superior type of kiln under carefully graduated (b) Dolomite Bricks: They are manufactured from fire clay containing
temperature control. higher percentage of dolomite. They are cheap substitutes for magnesia
Varieties of Refractory Bricks: There are mainly three varieties of bricks in furnace lining. They are weaker refractories but can be made
refractory bricks, namely: (1) Acid Refractories; (2) Basic stronger by the use of serpentine. They can resist a temperature of
Refractories and (3) Neutral Refractories.
1400° to 160o°C.
(1) Acid Refractories: Following are the different types of acid
(c) Bauxite Bricks: They are manufactured from fire clay containing
refractories:
86% of bauxite. They can resist a higher temperature of 1600°C.
(a) Ordinary Fine Bricks: These are made of ordinary natural fire
clay with a mixture of crushed flin clay and sand. They provide very (3) Neutral Refractories: They are used for separating the acid and basic
good type of acid refractory lining to furnaces. They can resist a high linings of furnaces to prevent them reacting together. The following are
temperature of 1600°C. the different varieties:
(b) Silica Bricks: They contain 95% of silica and are manufactured Chromite Bricks: They are made from fire clay containing 50% of
from sandstones or quartzite with an addition O to 0 of lime to act as chrome iron ore, 30% iron oxide (Ferrous oxide) and 20% bauxite with
a binding material and flux. Silica bricks are quite suitable for acid little silica. They can resist a higher temperature 2000°C.
lining of furnaces such as manufacture of glass and also for the walls
and arches of
Refractories and Other Ceramics 64 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 65
Carborundum: This is a special type of natural refractory bricks. It is made such as cornices bases and capital of pillars and other ornamental works.
from fire clay containing higher percentage of silicon carbide. It is used in A good terracotta clay should contain 73% of silica, 10% alumina. 3%
electric furnace. It can resist a high temperature of 1900°C. iron oxides 1% lime. 7% organic matter. 0.3% alkalies. 0.2% magnesia
5.6 Properties of Good Refractories: and 5.5% water.
1. They must resist stress developed at high temperature in furnace walls Terracotta is manufactured in the same way as ordinary bricks are made.
and arches. It should not show any sign of shrinkage and should be hard, compact
2. They must preserve their rigidity at high temperature. and impervious to water. Usually, terracotta blocks are 12' to 20' long. 6
to 15’ high and 4.5 to 9” thick on the bed. They can be given any desired
3. Irreversible volume change should not occur at furnace temperature,
colour by the help of some coloring ingredients. The main advantages of
because shrinkage leads to opening of joints and results in a leaky
terracotta are that it is very strong, hard and durable.
furnace.
Terracotta which is burnt twice in the kiln is called ’Faince', It is stronger
4. They must resist the tendency to crack and spit off fragments when
and harder ordinary terracotta and hence, durable.
exposed to sudden change of temperature.
5.9 Earthenware’s: They are made from ordinary clay, similar to that used
5. They must not easily form fusible products with slags.
for bricks, and is burnt at a comparatively low temperature. Earthenware’s
6. They must not be acted upon by furnace gases.
are very weak and porous. They comprise the bulk of most pottery and table
7. They should weigh about 150 lbs. per cu. ft.
wares like toys, ash toys, flower vases etc. They are always given a glaze to
8. They should take a compressive strength of about 20.000 to 30,000
look beautiful.
lbs. per sq. inch.
9. They should not absorb more than 6% of water by wt. when kept in 5.10 Stoneware: This is employed when chemical resistance and
water for 24 hrs. impermeability are required. It is largely used in sanitary wares
5.7 Laying of Fire Bricks: Fire bricks are laid by a mortar of fire clay but not (Basins, sewer pipes, glazed tiles for bath and latrines) and is chemical
in lime or cement mortal. Generally, 1.5 to 2 eft of fire clay mortar is engineering. This is manufactured from the clay containing 76% of
required for laying 100 nos of fire • bricks of the standard ordinary bricks silica, 214% alumina and very small quantity of other ingredients. It is
size. always glazed.
8 Terracotta. This is a special type of earthen-ware. It is used as a
substitute for stone in the ornamental parts of buildings
O)
Refractories and Other Ceramics 66
A Text Book of Engineering Materials
5.11 Porcelain: This is a whiteware which is so highly vitrified that it is 67
CHAPTER-SIX
translucent in sections. This is manufactured from kaolin, a special variety LIME
of clay containing high percentage of silica and alumina. It is used for
variety of purposes such as tableware, insulators, electric furnaces, resistor
6.1 Introductory: Lime is a more or less impure calcium oxide (CaO) and
tubes, reactor chambers, crockeries.
obtained by the alcination (heating of shells corals, limestones, kankar
5.12 Porous Ware: This is a light-weight cellular clay product used for sound
and other substances. Composed of almost pure or impure calcium
proofing and thermal insulations. carbonate (CaCO3). Lime acts as a binding or cementing material in
engineering constructions.
Exercise 6.2 Uses of Limes: Lime is used for the following purposes.
1. What are refractories? Enumerate their engineering application.
1. White washing.
2. What is fire clay? Explain its constituents and point the importance of
2. Lime punning.
each.
3. Making mortar (Lime mortar and surki mortar).
3. Give the properties of good refractories.
4. Making concrete (lime concrete).
5. Manufacturing cement.
6.3 Technical Terms: To understand the manufacturing process of lime, the
following technical terms are to be understood thoroughly.

Calcination: This is the heating of limestone to redness (1500°C) in air.
Quick Lime or Caustic lime: This is the lime immediately, after
calcination of limestone.
Slaking: When water is poured on quick lime it gives rise to heat due to
certain chemical reactions and this process is termed as slacked or
hydration.
Slaked Lime: The substance left slaking of quick lime is called slaked
lime or hydrate of lime.
Lime 68
Setting (Hardening): When lime is mixed with water to form a paste it 6.5 Classification of Limes: These are mainly three types of limes. They are:
hardens and this process is called setting or hardening of lime. (1) Fat lime. (2) Hydraulic lime and (3) Natural cement.
Hydraulicity: This is the property of the lime for setting under water. (1) Fat Lime: This also known as High Calcium Lime. This is a purer type of
lime and is so called because it swells two to three times it volume when
6.4 Constituents of Limestones: Limestones exist in nature either as pure or
slakes. Fat lime is obtained by calcination of nearly pure limestone, chalk
impure calcium carbonate. The following are the main constituents:
and sea shells. It is nearly white and free from other substance to produce
Calcium oxide: This is the principal constituent of limestone. It acts as any major effect upon either the staking or setting action. It does not set
a binder.
under water but dissolves.
Clay: Clay in small quantity retards slaking and in large proportion Fat lime is generally used for finishing coat in plastering, white washing
arrests slaking. It causes setting of lime and renders it insoluble in
and lime punning.
water. It should, therefore, be proportioned properly with the remaining
(2)Hydraulic Lime: It possesses the property of setting and hardening under
constituents. Generally, 5 to 10% of clay presence in limestone is
recommended because with this the lime will make excellent mortar. water. This is obtained from kankar or clayer limestone. It is hot white
because It contains impurities of clay and magnesium carbonate.
Silica and Alumina: They impart hydraulicity in lime.
This is used for masonry in foundations and for thick walls. It is also
Magnesium Carbonate: It slakes lime more slowly, evolves less heat,
expands less, set more slowly but finally gains greater strength. used for mortar for masonry work in superstructure of buildings and
Alkalies and Metallic oxides: They impart hydraulicity in lime. plastering.

Sulphates: Small quantity of sulphates retards the slaking action and (3) Natural Cements: These are hydraulic binding material almost similar to
increases the rapidity of setting. hydraulic limestone but containing a higher percentage of clayey matter
Iron Pyrites: Presence of iron pyrites is highly objectionable as they (40%). These natural stones are the complication the products exhibit a
reduce the strength of lime.
high value of hydraulicity.
The following table (TABLES 6.1) shows the composite ions of
limestones for producing different varies of limes.
Lime
70
Table 6/1 Composition of Limestone for Different Type of Limes
between calcium oxide and carbon dioxide in limestone is very weak the
following reaction will take place:
Limestone + Heat = Lime + Carbon-dioxide
Principal (CaCO3) (CaO) (CO2).

Percentage composition Quality of Limestone Allow the product to cool and weight again. From the loss of weight, the
Ingredient:
amount of calcium carbonate in the specimen can be determine. For
Fat Lime Hydraulic Natural Cement every loss in weight of 44 parts, there is 56 parts of lime by weight. This
Lime
is adopted if the sample does not contain magnesium carbonate. Clayey
Calcium oxide 96 45 to 65 30 to 35 and silicious impurities required higher temperature to drive out carbon
dioxide and this indicates the extent to which the lime is hydraulic.
Magnesium oxide 1 to 2 30 to 40 10 to 15
Example: An one pound sample of limestone was heated in a lime-kiln
Aluminum oxide Little or Nil 2 to 5 5 to 10
at a temperature of 1500°C. After heating the sample weighed 0.325 lbs.
Silica 2 20 to 30 20 to 35 Calculate percentage of quick lime that will be available from this
sample.
Iron oxide Little or Nil 2 to 5 about 5
Solution:
Others Impurities Little or Nil 1 105 upto 2 Loss of wt due, to heating = 1,00 - 0.825 = 0.675 lbs.
Percentage of quick lime = ⸨0.675x 56) / 44⸩ x 100= 86%

6.6 Tests on Limestones: For the manufacture of lime and cement, engineers are to
Slaking Test: Quick lime is an anhydrous product of
carry out some tests on limestones, the tests are discussed below:
calcination or heating. When water is added to it, the
1. Physical Tests: The sample of limestone showing a slightly following reaction takes place.
earthy surface indicates the presence of clay and will be x suitable for
Quick Lime + Water = Hydrated Lime (6.2)
producing hydraulic lime. White colour indicates a pure limestone.
2. Chemical Test: The following are the different chemical tests that are (CaO) (H2O) [Ca(OH2l)]
generally performed on limestone.

During the
(a) Heat Test: Weigh a piece to dry limestone. Heat it to redness in an open During the process
process of of hydration, heat is given out the energy
fire for about six hours. Since the bond thus liberated is often enough to split it and to make it crumble
hydration, heat
to powder. A vigorous slacking indicates high
l
is given out and
the energy
Lime 72
calcium content in the sample i.e., fat lime, while with hydraulic
acid gradually. Stir and sand hydrochloric acid until effervescence
limes, the slacking action is very slow.
ceases. Strain the content through filter paper. Carefully dry the
Again, sufficient water is added and if the sample sets under water, it residue on the filter paper and weight it. Let the wt. be Wigms. Then
is hydraulic lime, if not, fat lime.
(W-W,) will be the weight of calcium carbonate in the sample. To
From this test, it is possible to determine whether or not a particular separate the clay from sand in the residue, stir up the residue with
sample of limestone will yield ft lime or hydraulic lime.
water, the sand being heavier will settle at the bottom, while the clay
(b) Acid Test: This test is carried out for two purposes which are particles will be in suspension. Decant the water.
discussed below:
Dry the sand and weigh it. Let the wt. be W2 gms. Then (W1 - W2) will
(i) To determine the presence of calcium carbonate in a given sample be the wt. of the clay.
of limestone: Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to the specimen. This
Example: The initial wt. of a sample of powder limestone is 445.45
will cause effervescence with the liberation of carbon dioxide and
formation of calcium chloride. The reaction is as follows: gms and the wt. of the dried resiue on filter paper is 120.23 gms. The
Hydrochloric Calcium residue after decantation and drying weighed 68.42 grams. Calculate
Limestone x Acid= Chloride + Carbon - dioxide + H2O the percentage of carbonate sand and clay present in the sample of
limestone.
(CaCO3) (2HC1) (CaCl2) + CO2+H2O)
Effervescence will be vigor if the presence of calcium carbonate Solution: Here W = 445.45 gms. W1 = 120.23 gms. W2 =
68.42 gms. Wt. of calcium carbonate=W-Wj=445.45-
Content of the sample is very high and thereby the residue will be
120.23=325.22 gms. Percentage of calcium carbonate
less. If the effervescence is not vigorous, calcium carbonate content
is less and the residue will be more.
325.22
x 100 = 73%
(ii) To determine the rough composition of limestones: Powder a 445.45
445.45
sample of limestone and dry it gently to remove moisture, weight its Clay = 120.23 - 68.42 = 5 1.81. gms
Let the weight be W gms put the powdered sample in a number and
Percentage of clay = (325.22/445.45) x 100= 73%
add dilute hydrochloric
Percentage of sand = 100 -(73+12) = 15%
3. Chemical Analysis: of Limestones: It is very rare that the engineers are
called upon to carry our detailed chemical that the engineers are called
upon to carry out detailed chemical
Lime 74 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 75
test on limestones but the selection of limestones will not be proper if Table 6.2
the following important things are not known to the engineers. By Hydraulic Values of Different Type of Hydraulic Limes
detailed and routine chemical tests, the correct values of five
principal components of limestone (calcium oxide, magnesia,
Quality of Lime Hydraulic Index Cementation
alumina, silica, and iron oxides) must be known to determine the
following: Feebly Hydraulic Lime 0. 1 to 0.2 0.2 to 0.4
Hydraulic Index or Ratio = Moderately Hydraulic Lime 0.2 to 0.3 0.4 to 0.6
Silica + Alumina + Oxides of Iron Eminently Hydraulic Lime 0.3 to 0.4 0.6 to 1
Example: The chemical analysis of a sample of limestone gave the
Lime + Magnesia
It may be noted from the above equation that there is a possibility of following results.
getting the same ratio though the percentage of the ingredients Calcium oxide = 70%
change in themselves. This indicates that two different samples will
Silica = .20%
have the same value of the ratio.
Cementation Index = Alumina = 6%
2.8 Silica +1.1 Alumina + 0.7 Oxides of Iron Magnesia = 1.5%

Lime +1.4 Magnesia.
Iron Oxides = 2.5%
The hydraulicity of limestone is always expressed on the basis of Determine the hydraulic index and cementation index and
hydraulic index and cementation index. The following table 6.2
shows the hydraulic values of different types., also write what type of hydraulic lime it is?
20-6 + 2.5 28 5
Solution: Hydraulic Index = — ------------------ = —— 0.399
J
70 + 1.5 71.5
2.8 X 20 + 1.1 x 6 + 0.7 x 2.5
Cementation Index = ---------------------------------
70 + 1.4 x 1.5
64.35
= -------- = 0.892
72.10
This is eminently hydraulic lime.
/0
Lime A Text Book of Engineering Materials 77
6.7 Manufacture of limes: The principal stages involved in the of lime kilns, the most widely used one has been shown in Fig 6.1.
manufacture of lime are: (1) Pre-heating (2) Calcination or Burning Due to its continuity in operation, this is known as continues kiln Fig
and (3) Hydration or Slaking. 6.1 shows that the central section of the kiln is widened out to form the
zone of calcination so as to accommodate the hot gases of combustion
Pre-Heating: Limestones are heated in a closed container to remove
and to establish a continuous draught. The kiln is provided with a
moisture present in them. This is generally done at temperature of
lining of fire clay plaster. This is built partly below the ground level
about 600° F.
and a loading plant form is provided at the mouth of the kiln to
facilitate the dropping of feed. As the level of the material at the top of
LOADING PLATFORM the kiln sinks, the feed consisting of limestones or kankar with coal is
LS
put at the mouth. An iron grating is provided at the bottom with holes
LIMESTONE STORAGE
HC HOPPER CONE to draw the calcined particles. The top of the grating could be racked
E ELEVATOR
CH CHARGING HOPPER
to admit and easy fall of calcined particles. The burnt limestones
BZ BURNING ZONE (Quick lime) are collected for further treatment of slaking or
F FURNACE
CA POLD AIR
hydration.
CZ COOLING ZONE
G
At the temperature of about 1500°F, limestone dissociates into calcium
GRATING
QL QUICK LIME oxide (lime) and carbon-dioxide. Limestone should not be heated more
U
UNLOADING
D that 1600°F, because at higher temperature of about 2200°F. a series
OOOR CZ
of complicated reaction will take place and these reactions are not
G
QL
desirable to have a good variety of time.
Hydration or Slaking: After calcination, the next step is hydration or
slaking. After hydration, lime powder is obtained. Hydration of lime is
accompanied hy (1) chemical combination of calcium oxide with
Fig: 6.1 MODERN CONTINUOUS LIME KILN
water to form calcium hydroxide or hydrated lime (2) evolution of
heat energy and (3) increase in volume.
Calcination or Burning: Limestone is burnt in clamps or in kiln and
the process of burning is called the calcination of lime. Kiln
burning is generally adopted in every country because it economies
the fuel. Fuel used for calcination is generally coal, coal ashes or
firewood. There are various types
Lime
6.8 Qualities of good lime:
4. Soundness Test: The- lime is mixed with the necessary quantity of water
1. It should be free from ashes, under burnt particles and to form a paste. The paste is made into a small ball, I" diameter by
other impurities. hand, and then allowed to set under a wet cloth for 24 hours.
2. It must pass through Sieve No. 64. Thereafter, it is exposed to steam for 6 hours. At the end of this period
6.9 Testing of lime. The following are the tests that are generally carried
the ball should not show any sign of cracking or warping.
out to determine the strength of lime.
1. A Adhesive Strength Test: Prepare a past of freshly burnt lime and Questions
standard and in the proportion 1:3 with requisite amount of water. 1. Discuss the different Constients of limestones.
Two standard sized bricks are placed flat in a cross fashion one
2. What are the different types of limes? Give their properties.
over the other with a joint of '/2 thick by the prepared mortar. The
two jointed bricks should be kept wet with the help of gunny bag 3. Name and discuss the tests are generally carried out to determine the
for 24 hours and then they are kept immersed in water for 7 days. quality of limestones.
The two cemented bricks are then testes. The force (pull) required 4. A sample of limestone weighing 1 lb was heated in a lime kiln at a
to separated them at the joint should not be less than 30 psi. temperature of 1500°C. After heating, the sample weighed 0.254 lbs.
Calculate the percentage of quick lime that will be available from the
2. Tensile Strength Test: A lime mortar of ratio 1 :3 is prepared and a briquette sample. Ans. 95%
of the shape shown in Fig.7.7 is made and kept under water for 7 days. The 5. The initial wt. of a sample of powdered limestone is 330.50 gms and
section central neck of the briquette is l/2-inch square. This is in the machine the wt. of the dried residue on the filter paper is 100, 25 gms. The
for tensile strength of lime. This should less than 45 psi after 7 days and 90 residue after decantation and drying weighed 60.50 gms. Calculate the
psi after 28 days. percentage of calcium carbonate, sand and clay present in the sample
Compressive Strength Test: With the help of same mortar of 1'3 ratio. 2"cubes of limestone.
are made shown in Fig. 7:8 and are kept for 7 days in water. The cubes are
Ans. calcium carbonate = 69.6%
then tested for compressive strength by machines. The compressive strength
should not be less than 200 psi after 7 and 450 psi after 28 days. clay 12% sand = 18.4%
6. Explain hydraulic index and cementation index. The chemical analysis
of a sample limestone gave the following results.
Calcium oxide 72 %
Silica 18°/o
Lime
Alumina 5 % CHAPTER-SEVEN
Magnesia 1 -5 % CEMENT
Iron oxides 3.5 % 7.1 Introductory: Cement is a cementing or binding material used in
Determine the hydraulic index and cementation index and speak engineering construction. It is manufactured from calcareous substance
what type to hydraulic lime it is. (compounds of calcium and magnesium) and is similar in many respects
Ans. Hydraulic index = 0,36 to the strongly hydraulic limes but possessing far greater hydraulic
properties. Cement differs from lime in many respects. Cement is very
Cementation index = 0.787
useful and superior to lime under the following conditions and
Hydraulic lime. requirements.
7. Explain the importance of lime as a material of construction. 1. For construction of structures in wet places and under water.
8. What are the characteristics of good lime? Name the tests that are 2. Where great strength and durability of structures are required.
generally performed to determine the strength of lime.
3. Where mortar or plaster has to set quick and attain its strength.
9. Write explanatory7 notes on the following:
4. Where hard surface is required for the protection of exposed
(a) Hydration, (b) Calcination, (c) Natural cements
surfaces of structures against the destructive agents of the
(c) Quick lime, (e) Setting of lime, (f) Hydraulicity. weather and certain organic or inorganic chemicals.
10. Draw the section of a limes kiln for manufacturing lime and explain
5. For water tightness of structures.
its working principle. 11
6. For decorative ornamental and pointing works.
11. Give the specification of good limes. There are two classes of cements: Natural Cement and Artificial
Cement.
Natural Cement: This is manufactural by boring and crushing to
powder natural stones containing 25 to 40 percent of clay, the
remainder being the carbonate of lime, sometimes mixed with
carbonate of magnesia. It is brown in
82
Table 7.1 Mineral Constituents of Portland Cement
colour and sets very quickly when mixed with water. It is not so
strong as the artificial cement. The best vanity of natural cement Constituents Oxide
is known as 'Roman cement' in England. Romans first used Composition Abbre-Range of viation
powdered calcined limestone as binding materials in construction percent composition
works. Roman cement is not used in Bangladesh. This type of
cement was first obtained by Joseph Parker in England by 1. Tricalcium silicate SCaO. SIO C2S 45-55
calcining nodules of argillaceous limestone in 1824. 2. Dicalcium silicate 2CaO,SiO2 C2S 20-30
3CaO.A]2O3
Artificial Cement: The best variety of artificial cement is known as 3. Ti calcium Aluminate C3A 9-13
ordinary Portland due to its resemblance in colour and quality to
4. Tetra calcium
Portland stone, which was first found and quarried in Dorset in Aluminoferrite C4AF 8-20
Europe. This is also known as 'Normal Setting Cement'. In most of 4CaO, Al2O3
5. Calcium sulphate Fe203' CaSO4 2-6
the engineering works Portland cement is used. In this chapter,
composition, properties and the manufacturing processes of 6. Other compounds - 2-8
Portland cement will be dealt with. Also, the different varieties of
cement and their properties and uses will be discussed briefly.
7.2 Composition of Portland Cement: Raw materials used for Table: 7.2 Acid and Alkaline Constituents
manufacturing of Portland Cement are:

Constituents Range of percentage Composition
(1) Calcareous materials which are the compounds of calcium and
1. Calcium Oxide CaO 60-67
magnesium and (2) Argillaceous materials which are mainly silica,
alumina and oxides of iron. 2. Magnesium Oxide MgO 0.1-4.0
Limestones are the common calcareous materials and clay and 3. Silica SiO2 17-25
shale are the common calcareous materials and clay and shale are
the common argillaceous materials. 4. Alumina Al203 3-8
Constituents of Portland cement are mainly two types (1) Mineral 5. Iron Oxide Fe2°3 0.5-6
constituents and (2) Acid and Alkaline constituents. 1-3
SO3
6. Sulphur Trioxide
K20 0.3-1
7. Potassium Oxide
8. Sodium Oxide Na2O 0.4-1.3

84
Cement A Text Book of Engineering Materials 85
10. Loss on ignition 1.8-2 4. Magnesia (Magnesium Oxide, MgO): Magnesia should not be present
11. Insoluble residue 0.3-0.5 more than 2 percent in cement. An excess is harmful and will reduce
the strength of the cement.
Two terms used in Table 7.2 require explanation. The insoluble
5. Iron oxide (Fe2O3): It imparts colour to cement. It acts as a flux. At a
residue, determined by treating with hydrochronic aid is a measure
very high temperature it enters into chemical reaction with calcium
of adulteration of cement, largely arising from impurities in
and aluminum to form tricalcium aluminoferrite. This new compound
gypsum (calcium sulphate, GaSO 4 H2O). The insoluble residue
imparts hardness and strength to cement.
should not exceed 1.5 percent of the weight of cement.
6. Calcium sulphate (CaSO4): This is present in cement in the form of
The loss on ignition shows the extent of carbonation and hydration
gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O). It shows down or retards the setting action of
free lime and free magnesia due to the exposure of cement to the
cement.
atmosphere. The maximum permissible loss on ignition (at
7. Sulphur Trioxide (SO3): It should not be present more than 2 percent in
l,000°C) is 3 percent
cement. An excess causes cement to become unsound.
7.3 Functions of Various Ingredients of Cement:
8. Alkalies: These should not be present more than I percent in cement,
1. Lime (Calcium Oxide, CaO): Lime plays a very important role on the
because excess alkaline matter causes efflorescence.
quality of cement because it forms about 63 percent of cement. To
form the required silicates and a luminated of calcium, a sufficient 7.4 Manufacture of Cement: There are generally two processes adopted for
quantity of lime must be present. A deficiency in lime reduces the manufacturing cement in Bangladesh namely, (1) Wet process and (2)
strength of cement and causes it to set quickly. On the other hand, Dry process.
and excess will make cement unsound and cause it to expand and Wet process: The manufacture of cement by this process is divided
disintegrate. into three stages: (1) Preparation of cement slurry, (2) To obtain
cement clinkers, and (3) To prepare cement.
2. Silica (SiO2): Sufficient quantity of silica should be present
In the first stage, the raw materials (calcareous materials - limestone
in cement to dicalcium and tricalcium silicate. Silica imparts
kankar, marl, chalk, etc. can argillaceous material clay containing
strength to cement and usually present to the extent of about
30 percent cement. requisite among of silica, alumina, magnesia and oxides of iron) are
mixed together. Generally, 3 volumes of calcareous materials are
3. Alumina (Aluminum Oxide, A12O3): It imparts quick
setting property to cement, Clinkering temperature is lowered mixed with 1 volume of
by the presence of requisite quantity of a alumina. But an
excess of alumina weakens the cement.
86
Cement
thick iron handing chains is provided. The slurry dries and peels off in
argillaceous materials. After mixing the materials arc crushed in a
the form of fakes and drops down at the bottom of the kiln. This
crushing machine.
section of the kiln is termed as drying zone and has a temperature of
The crushed materials are put into a wash will where they are about 400 to 600°F to remove water from the slurry.
finely grounded with addition of requisite quantity of water. The
quantity of water used in the wet process is round about 45 percent.
The grinding of the materials in the wash mill should be such that
about 80 to 85 percent should pass through No. 200 sieve. The
mixture now exists a complete homogeneous condition of
suspension in water. Such an intimate mixture is termed as slurry.
This slurry is sufficiently liquid to pass through pipes and to admit
of being handled by pumps. 'The slurry is then pumped into
correcting silos where it is corrected for its composition.
In the second stage 2 the slurry is fed into a rotary kiln (See Fig-
7.1) at the top. A rotary kiln is a long-inclined steel cylinder lined Fig. 7.1 Rotary kiln
with refractories. It is inclined about 1/2" to a foot and is about 8 to
12 ft in diameter and 200 to 400 ft in length. The fuel to be used for In the next section, termed as calcination zone, takes place at a
the purpose may be either coal, oil or gas. If coal is to be used, it temperature range of 1200 to 1600 °F and the entire moisture from the
should be in thoroughly grounded form. The coal dust is blown in flakes are removed. The flakes gradually slide down to the third and
the rotary kiln under pressure from the lower end together with last section, termed as clinkering zone.
sufficient among of air to be utilized during the progress of In the clinkering zone. The temperature ranges from 1600 to 3000°F.
combustion. The kiln revolves at a speed of about 2-3 revolution per In this zone, the calcareous and argillaceous materials enter into
minute (RPM), depending upon the nature of the material and the chemical real actions to from the cement compounds of silicates,
time taken by the material to reach the lower end of kiln In the first aluminates and ferrites. These compounds come out as vitrified glassy
few feet length of the kiln, a system of nodules of varying sizes from 3/8 to 1/4" down wards. These re-termed
as clinkers. The hot clinkers have to be cooled and
88 A Text Book of Engineering Materials
Cement 89
stored before grinding them into cement. Cooling cylinders are
mounted on the lower end of the rotary kiln into which the hot
clinkers fall and are cooled. The cooled clinkers drop down from
the lower end of the cooling cylinders and collects into a pit from ◄—FUEL
which they are conveyed by means of a belt conveyor to the
(COAL DUST)
clinker storage compartment.
Dry Process: The calculated proportion of both calcareous and
argillaceous materials are grounded and mixed in dry state. The
finely ground mixture is then fed into the rotary kiln to prepare
cement clinker, as in the wet process.
In manufacturing Portland cement, the wet process is commonly
employee. A typical flow diagram based on wet process of Manu ◄—GYPSUM
faction cement is shown in Fig. 7.2.
CEMENT
Fig. 7.2
CALCAREOUS 7.5 Storing of cement: Cement should be stored in a dry place and on a
raised platform and should be protected against wind and rain.
Because cement has better affinity for water and will readily absorb
MATERIALS
moisture from the atmosphere or from damp contact surfaces. As far
r
GRINDING as possible, long period of storage should be avoided because long
storage reduces the strength of cement.
7.6 Properties of Cement: The most important properties of cement are:

MIXING
(1) Hydration. (2) Setting; (3) Fineness, (4) Soundness, and (5)
--------- 1 _____ Strength.
WET GRINDING
I ------- — Hydration of Cement: The term 'Hydration' is applied to all reactions
of cement to water. All the cement constituent compounds are in an
SLURRY
hydrous (dry) state. As soon as water is added to Portland cement,
chemical reactions start
90
simultaneously between them. The different constituent compounds added to cement clinker during grinding. Gypsum and C3A react to
have different rates of hydration. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and form insoluble calcium sulpho-aluminate (which does not hydrate)
tetra calcium alumina ferrite (C4AF) react instantaneously with but eventually a tricalcium aluminate hydrate is formed
water and are the first to hydrate. Tricalcium silicate (C3S), the most
C3A+6H2O —>3CA. 3C3aSO4. 3H4.O >C3A.H2O (7.3)
important constituent compound is next to hydrate and within a
(Tricalcium sulph-(Tricalcium aluminate hydrate) aluminate
week a substantial part of it reacts with water. It is mainly
hydrate)
responsible for imparting strength to cement in early days.
This has in general a retarding action on the starting of initial setting
Dicalcium silicate (C2S) is the slowest constituent compound to
of the cement after the water is added and gypsum also retards the
hydrate and the process continuous for several days. This
hydration of tricalcium silicate. For tricalcium a alumino-territe
constituent compound is responsible for the progressive strength of
(C4AF). Gypsum reacts not only with C3A; with C4AF it forms
cement.
calcium sulpho-ferrite as well as calcium sulpho-aluminate and its
The process of hydration is essentially the formation of minute
ressnee may accelerate the hydration of the silicates. The amount of
crystals of calcium and gels from the solution of cement and water
gypsum added to the cement clinker has to be very carefully watched;
and continues for a long period. The hydration of different
in particular an excess of gypsum leads to an expansion and
constituent compounds (Pure compounds) of Portland cement is
consequent disruption of the set cement paste and also the initial
illustrated as follows: For tricalcium silicate (C3S):
(7,1) setting time is much delayed. The amount of gypsum added to cement
2C3S+6H2O-- ----- >C3S2 H2O+3Ca (OH)2
clinker is usually expressed as the weight of SO3 present; this is
(Calcium silicate (lime)
limited to a maximum of 2.5 per cent when the C3A content is not
(hydrate) more than 7 per cent and to 3 per cent when the amount of C3A
For dicalcium silicate (C2S): exceeds 7 per cent but not more than 10 per cent.
2C3S+6H2O)..... -» c3S2 H2O+Ca (OH)2 The progress of hydration of cement can be determined by different
(Calcium silicate (lime) hydrate) means, such as the measurement of: (a) the amount of Ca (OH)2 in the
(7.2) paste; (b) the heat evolved by hydration; (c) the specific gravity of the
The reaction of true C2A with water is very violent and leads to paste; (d) the amount of chemically combined water; (e) the amount
immediate stiffening of the paste, known as flash setting. To
of chemically
prevent this form happening, gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) is
Cement
differs from hardening of cement. The term 'hardening' refers to the
gain of strength of a set cement paste, although during setting the
combined water; (f) the amount of unhydrated cement present
paste acquires some strength.
(using x-ray quantitive analysis); (g) also indirectly from the
In practice, the terms 'initial setting’ and 'final setting’ are used to
strength of the hydrated paste. Unfortunately, the application of
describe arbitrarily chosen stages of setting. The setting process is
these methods to commercial cements is by no means simple.
accompanied by temperature changes in the cement paste: initial
The rates of hydration of various cement constituent compounds are
setting corresponds to a rapid rise in temperature and final setting to
graphically represented in Fig. 7.3.
the peak temperature. The setting of cement paste decreases with a
rise in temperature but above about 85°F a revers effect may be
observed. At low temperatures, setting is retarded.
False Setting: False setting is the name given the abnormal premature
stiffening of cement within a few minutes of mixing with water. It
differs from flash setting in that no appreciable heat is evolved, and
the remixing the cement paste without addition of further amount of
water restores plasticity of the paste until it sets in the normal manner
and without a loss of strength.
Some causes of false setting are: (a) dehydration of gypsum when
Interground with too hot a clinker; semi-hydrate
(CaSO4 0.5H2O) or anhydrite (CaSO4) are formed and when 2

the cement is mixed with water this hydrate to form gypsum again,
thus setting takes place with a resulting stiffening of the paste: (b)
Another cause of false setting may be associated with the excess
Fig. 7.3 alkalies present in cement. During storage, they may carbonate, and
Setting of Cement: The term 'setting' is used to describe the alkali carbonates react with calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH)2] liberated
stiffening of the cement paste. Broadly speaking setting refers to by the
change of cement paste from a fluid to a rigid state. Setting differs
from hardening of cement. The term hardening' refers to the gain a
fluid to a rigid state. Setting
94
Cement
. Soundness of cement: It is essential that a cement paste, once it has set
hydrolysis of C3S to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3). ns
does not undergo a large change in volume. Such changes in volume
precipitates and induces a rigidity of the paste; (c) It has also been
may take place due to the delayed in the hardened cement, namely
suggested by many researchers that false setting may be due to
free lime, magnesia, and calcium sulphate.
activation of C3S by aeration at moderately high humiaities. Water
If the raw materials fed into the kiln contain more lime (CaO) than
is adsorbed on the grains of the very rapidly with more water during
that can combine with the acidic, oxides, the excess will remain in a
mixing. This rapid hydration would produce false setting.
free condition. The free lime will hydrate very slowly in a subsequent
However, a good cement should be free from false setting.
stage and the mortar and concrete prepared with such cement is
Fineness Cement: It may be recalled that one of the last steps in the
therefore liable to expand and crack after a few months or a year.
manufacture of cement is the grinding of clinkers mixed with
Cements which exhibit has expansion are known as unsound.
gypsum. Since the hydration starts at the surface of the cement
particles, it is the total surface area of cement that represents the A cement can be unsound due to the presence of magnesia (MgO),
material available for hydration. Thus, the rate of hydration depends Which reacts with water in a manner similar to quick lime (CaO).
on the fineness of the cement particles, and for a rapid development However, only crystalline variety of magnesia (Periclasue MgO) is
of strength, high fineness is necessary'. On the other hand, the cost deleterious, but magnesia present in glass form is of course, harmless.
of grinding to a higher fineness is considerable and also the finer the
Calcium sulphate is the third compound liable to cause expansion; in
cement the more rapidly it deteriorates on exposure to the
this case calcium sulpho-aluminate is formed. It may recalled that a
atmosphere if proper protective measures are not taken. Finer
hydrate of calcium sulphate-gypsum is added to cement clinker in
cement leads to stronger reaction and hence greater strength. An
order to prevent flash setting, but if gypsum is resent in epcess of the
increase in fineness increases the amount of gypsum required for
amount that can react with C2A during setting, unsoundness in the
proper retardation as in a finer cement more C3A is available for
early hydration. The water content of a paste of standard (normal) form of a low expansion will result. For this reason, it is essential to
consistency (to be described in the following section) is greater the limit- very strictly the amount of gypsum that can be added to
finer the cement, but conversely an increase in fineness of cement clinker, but the limits are well on the safe side as far as the danger of
slightly improves the workability of a cement concrete mix. unsoundness is concerned.
96
Cement
Strength of cement: The mechanical strength of hardened cement is 7.7 Testing of cement: The manufacture of cement requires stringent
perhaps most obviously required for structural uses. It is not control and a number of tests are performed in the laboratory to
surprising, therefore, that strength tests are prescribed by all ensure that the cement is of the desire quality and that it conforms to
specifications for cement. the requirement of the relevant standards. The following standard
tests are conducted for ordinary Portland cement.
The strength of mortar, plaster or concrete depends on the cohesion
1. Test for Fineness
of the cement paste on its adhesion to the aggregate particles, and
lastly on the strength of aggregate itself. 2. Test for Setting time: Initial and final
Strength tests are not made on a neat cement paste because of 3. Test for Soundness
difficulties moulding and testing with a consequent large variability 4. Test for Chemical Composition
of test results. Cement-sand mortar and, in some cases, concrete of 5. Test for Strength: Compressive and Tensile
prescribed proportions and made with specified materials under
Test for fineness: Fineness is a vital, property of cement and has to be
strictly controlled conditions are used for the purpose of carefully controlled. The fraction of a cement retained on No. .170 B,
determining the strength of cement. S. (British standard) test sieve is determined, and the maximum
There are several forms of strength: (a) Tensile strength, (b) residue is limited to 10 percent by weight for ordinary and 5 percent
Compressive strength and (c) Flexural strength. The latter for rapid hardening Portland cement.
determines in reality the tensile strength in bending. Since the Test for Setting Time: Initial and final: For the determination of the
flexural strength of cement is not used in Bangladesh and little used initial and final setting times and for soundness test, neat cement
elsewhere, it will not be further discussed. paste of a standard consistency has to be used. It is, therefore,
necessary to determine first for any given cement the water content of
Generally, compressive strength is used in Bangladesh and
the paste which will produce the desired consistency.
elsewhere. Since structural techniques are designed mainly to
The consistency is measured by the Vicat apparatus shown in Fig 7.4
exploit the good- strength of mortar, paster and concrete in
using a 10 mm diameter plunger fitted into the needle holder. A trial
compression, the tensile strength of cement is often of tesser interest
Paste of cement and water is
than its compressive strength. Moreover, cement is very weak in
tension but very strong in compression.
Cement The quantity of water required for a standard cement paste is used to
determine the quantities of water required for preparing (a) the
cement paste for setting test (b) the cement paste for soundness and
(c) the standard mortar to test compressive and tensile strengths.
The technique of mixing cement with water or cement. Water and
any other inert materials (sand, stone, brick, khoa, etc.) in a specified
manner for testing its properties is termed as Gauging.
Initial Setting Time: The setting times (initial and final) of standard
cement pastes are determined by the Vicat apparatus. For the
determination of the initial setting time. A round or square needle,
with a cross sectional area of 1 sq. mm is used. This needle, acting
under a prescribed weight is used to penetrate a paste of standard
Fig. 7.4 Vicat Apparatus
consistency placed in- the Vicat mould. When the paste stiffens
mixed in a prescribed manner and placed in the cylindrical mould sufficiently for the needle to penetrate only to a point about 5 mm
(80 mm diameter and 40 mm deep) of the Vicat apparatus. The from the bottom (35 mm from the top) initial setting is said to have
plunger is then brought into contact with the top surface of the taken place. Initial setting is expressed as the time elapsed
paste and releases. Under the action of its weight the plunger will since the mixing water (clean water, fit for drinking) added to
penetrate the paste, the depth of penetration of the plunger into the the cement.
paste is observed on the vertical scale. This is considered to be the
standard when the plunger penetrates the paste to a point 5 to 7
The following are the prescribed timing for the initial setting for
mm from the bottom of the mould. Several trial pastes are made
different variety of Portland cement.
each time with different percentages of water for the plunger to
penetrate to a depth of 33 to 35 mm from top. The water content of Ordinary Portland Cement Not less than 45 minutes
the standard pasts is expressed as a percentage of the weight of
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
cement. The cement paste which allows the above penetration of
Low Heat Portland Cement- Not less than 60 minutes
the plunger is termed as standard cement paste or cement paste of
normal (standard) consistency. Aluminous Cement- Not less than 2 hours.
Cement
Final Setting Time: Final setting is determined by 1 mm squire Soundness Test: The soundness of cement is tested by the Le
needle fitted with a metal attachment hollowed out so as to leave a Chatellier apparatus. This apparatus (shown in Fig. 7.5) consists of a
small brass cylinder split along it generates (axially).
circular cutting edge 5 mm in diameter and set 0.5 mm behind the
tip of the needle. The final setting is said to have taken place within
the needle, gently lowered to the surface of the paste, makes and
impression on it but the circular cutting edge fails to do so. This
final setting time is reckoned from the moment when mixing water
was added to the cement. The following are the standards of the
final setting time (British standards):
Ordinary, Rapid hardening. Low Heat, and Blast Furnace Portland

Cement- Not more than 10 hours.
Aluminous Cement- Not more than 2 hours after the initials setting.
Since the setting of cement is affected by the temperature and the Fig- 7.5 Le Chatler Apparatus
humidity of the surrounding medium these are specified as follows: Two indicators with pointed ends are attached to the cylinder on
(a) temperature between 58 to 64°F and (b) relative humidity of air either side of the split: in this manner the widening of the split,
not less than 90 per cent. caused by the expansion of cement is greatly magnified and can be
It should be remembered that the speed of setting and the rapidity easily measured. The cylinder is placed on a glass plate filled with
of hardening (gaining of strength) are entirely independent of one cement past of standard consistency and covered with another glass
another. For instance, the prescribed setting times of rapid plate. The whole assembly is them immersed in water at 64 to 68°F
hardening cement are of no different from those for ordinary for 24 hours. At the end of that period, the distance between the
Portland cement, although the two cements harden at different indicators is measured. Let it be denoted as d|. The mould is them
immersed in water again and brought to boil in 30 minutes. After
rates.
boiling for one hour; the mould is removed and after cooling, the
distance between the indicators is again measured. Let it be denoted
by d2. The increases in this distance (d2-dj) represent the expansion is
limited to 10 mm. It the expansion exceeds this value a further test is
made after
Cement
the cement has been spread and aerated for 7 days during this time chemical analysis, both ordinary and rapid hardening cement should
some of the lime may hydrate or even carbonate and a physical give the following results:
breakdown in size may also take place. At the end of 7 days the Le (a) Net proportion of lime to silica, alumina and iron oxides, shown
Chateller test is repeated and the expansion of aerated cement must below.
not exceed 5 mm. A cement not satisfying at least one of these two
tests should not be used. CaO
The Le Chatellieer test detects unsoundness due to free lime only.
----------------------------------------------
2.8’(SiO2) + 1.2(A”12O3) + 0.065 (Fe2O2)
But sometimes an access of magnesia is present in cement. For this
reason, another test, named as. Autoclave test (devised in U.S.A) is
performed on cement to test its soundness. Both free lime and (b) Magnesia should not exceed 2 percent by wt.
magnesia are very sensitive to ’Autoclaving’. In this test, a neat (c) Loss on ignition should not exceed 2 per cent by wt.
cement bar (prescribed by ASTM standard) 2-inch square in cross (d) Insoluble residues should not exceed 0.5 percent by wt.
section and 10 inches long is cured in humid air for 24 hours. The
(e) Total Sulphur content as Sulphur trioxide should not exceed 2%
bar is than placed in an autoclave (a high-pressure steam boiler),
by wt.
which is raised to a temperature of 420°F (steam pressure of 300
psi) in one hour and maintained at this temperature for 3 hours. Test for Strength: For carrying out both the tensile and compressive
The high steam pressure accelerates the hydration of both strengths for cement, briquettes and cubes (shown in Figs. 7.6 and
magnesia and lime. The expansion of the bar due to autoclaving 7.7) of specific shapes are made of standard mortar of cement, sand
must not exceed 0.5 percent for Portland cement. and water.
No test is so far devised for the detection of unsoundness due to Standard Sand: The sand used for making mortar should be pure
and excess of calcium sulphate but its content can be easily natural silica and should be well grades. All sand particles should be
determined by chemical analysis. smaller than No 18 (BS.) sieve and at least 90% is retained on No. 25
(BS.) sieve. Sand should be completely dry when weighing for
Chemical Composition Test: This test is generally carried out to

proportioning. The ratio of cement to sand for making standard
mortar is taken as 1: 3.
determine whether or not certain cement constituents are present in
Water: Clean water, fit for drinking should be used for making
quantities exceeding those specified to be safe (see Table: 7.2)
standard mortar. The quantity of water for gauging to make standard
Both for ordinary and rapid hardening Portland Chemical mortar for briquettes can be determined roughly following empirical
composition is the same. On equation.
Cement
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement: Not less than 300 psi alter 24
hours and not less than 450 psi after 3 days.
1
w= ---- (0. 78p) + 2.5 Test for compressive Strength: There are two standard methods of
4 testing the compressive strength of cement. One uses the mortar and
in which W is the percentage of water by weight of solids and p is
the other concrete.
the percentage of water required to prepare the cement paste of
normal consistency. In the mortar test 1: 3 cement-sand mortar is used. The sand is again
Usually, a water content of 8 per cent of the weight of solids is
the standard sand and the weight of water in the mix is 10 percent of
used.
the dry materials. Expressed a water, cement ratio, this corresponds to
0.40 by weight. A standard procedure is followed in making 6 nos.
2.78-inch cubes (Fig. 7.7) with standard mortar. The cubes are
demolded after 24 hours and cured further for 3 and 7 days. After
curing, they are tested under direct compression. They average
strength of six cubes after 3 and 7 days should not be less than those
shown in Table 7. 3.
In the concrete test, fixed weights of cement and water (corresponding
Fig. 7.6 Fig. 7.7 to water/cement ratio of 0.6) are mixed with such amount of course
(stones, brick khoa, etc.) and fine (sand) aggregates (inert materials) as
Test of Tensile Strength: The briquette, shown in Fig, 7.6. are
will produce a v workable concrete with a slump (to be discussed in
moulded with standard mortar in a specific manner cured for 24
chapter 10) of between l/2 and ich. Three 4-inch cubes are made by
hours at a temperature between 64 to 61 °F in an atmosphere of at
least 90 percent relative humidity. The briquettes are demolded hand in mould with standard concreate, one at a time in a prescribed
after 24 hours and further cured for 3 and 7 days and tested in manner. The cubes are demolded after 24 hours and cured for 3 and 7
direct tension the pull being applied through special jaws engaging days. They are tested under direct compression. The average strengths
the wide ends of the briquettes. The following should be the results of 3 cubes after J and 7 days should not be less than those values
(average of six briquettes) for tensile strength of different varieties shown in Table 7.3.
of Portland cement.
Ordinary Portland Cement: Not less than 300 psi after 3 days and
not less than 375 psi after 7 days.
106
Cement
TABLE 7.3 Requirement for compressive Strength of Cement 6. Surphate Resisting Portland Type V
Minimum Compressive Strength in psi 7. Blast Furnace Type IS

Age 8. Pozzolana Portland
Type IP
in Mortar Test Concrete test
Mortar Test nressive Strength in psi ______________ 9. White Portland
days
Ordinary Ordinary Rapid Ordinary Portland Cement: This is by far the most common cement
is Bangladesh and elsewhere: nearly 95 percent of all cement used in
Portland Rapid Portland Portland Portland
Bangladesh is of, the ordinary Portland type. The chemical
Cement Cement Cement Cement composition, manufacturing properties of ordinary Portland cement
have already been discussed in the preceding sections of this chapter
2,200 3,000 1,200 1,700
3 and need not therefore be repeated.
7 3.400 4,000 2.000 2,500
7.8 Types ’of Portland Cement: In order to facilitate discussion, a list of Modified Portland Cement: (a) Air Entraining Portland Cement: It is
varieties of Portland cements, together with American description seen that entrainment of air or formation of gas bubbles while
(by ASTM) where available, is given in the following Table - 7.4 applying cement increase resistance to frost action fire, scaling and
other similar defects. Air entraining cement is produced by grinding
TABLE 7.4 Main Types of Portland Cement minute air entraining materials with clinker of by adding some
American (ASTM) resinous materials, e.g-vinsol resin to ordinary Portland cement.
English Description (B.S.I) Entrainment of air improves workability' and durability' of cement
Description
but reduces the strength by about 10 percent Air entrainment from 3
1. Ordinary Portland to 6% by volume gives satisfactory results.
Type I
2. Modified Portland (b) Expanding Portland Cement: In this type of cement, certain chemicals-
Type 11
(a) Air Entraining Portland are added which causes its expansion by predetermined amount
(b) Expanding Portland during setting and this expansion is more than the shrinkage of
ordinary cement concrete. This property is utilized for preventing
3. Rapid Hardening Portland
Type III cracks caused by shrinkage. It is very useful in works like
4. Quick Setting Portland underpinning were
5. Low Heat Portland
Type IV
Cement
manufactured by double burnings in the kiln in Belgium but it is now
the increase in volume fills up the spaces which are not otherwise
introduced in England, Italy, France and Sweden.
easily accessible, this cement is never recommended for use in
contact with sea water because salinity reduces the strength and I here am another variety of rapid hardening Portland cement, named
durability of this cement. as Extra Rapid Hardening Portland cement. This cement is obtained
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement: This cement is very similar to

by intergrading calcium chloride with rapid hardening cement. The
quantity of calcium chloride should not exceed 2 percent. Because
ordinary Portland cement. Rapid hardening cement, as its name
calcium chloride is deliquesced not (capable of absorbing moisture
implies, develops, strength more rapidly and therefore, it is also
from the atmosphere), it is vital to store this cement under dry
termed as high early strength cement. It has been shown it Table 7.3
conditions, and it should generally be used within one month of
that the strength developed at the age of 3 days is of the same order
dispatch from the manufacturing plant.
as the 7-day strength of ordinary' properties like hydration fineness,
soundness and setting have already been discussed and therefore, This cement is suitable for cold weather concreating or when a very
need not be repeated. high early strength is required but when it is not advisable to use
aluminous cement. The strength of this cement is about 25 percent
The used of rapid hardening cement is indicated where rapid
higher than that of rapid hardening cement after 1 or 2 days and 10 to
strength development is desired e.g., when form work (shuttering) is
20 percent higher after 7 days. The initial setting time is short.
to be removed early for re-use of where sufficient for further
construction is wanted as quickly as practicable. This cement is Depending upon temperature, this can be 5 to 30 minutes so that early
comparatively costly than ordinary Portland cement. placing is essential Shrinkage is rather higher than when rapid
hardening Portland cement is used.
A special type of rapid hardening Portland cement is speed
cement’. It is extremely fine ground with a 0.5 percent residue on Quick setting cement: This cement has the property of setting initially
No. 170 (B.S.) sieve and a specific surface area of 4500 cm2/gm. after about 7 minutes and final setting is only 30 minutes. The quick
No. accelerators or admixtures are added. The standard mortar cube setting action of this cement is achieved by fineness and adding small
test gives strengths of about 4,000 psi after 1 day, 7,000 psi after 3 percentage of aluminum sulphate and also by adding very little or no
days and 9,800 psi after 28 days. This very rapid gains of strength percentage of retarder (Gypsum) to the clinker during grinding. This
make ‘speed cement' suitable for winter concreting or urgent jobs cement has got disadvantage in normal working because the time is
such as road repair, well sealing, grouting etc. It was first too short to ensure proper-missing
110
and laying of concrete. But where concrete is to be laid under water is liable to disintegrate because of the unfavorable chemical reaction
or in running water. This cement is very advantageous. between the water and cement.
Low Heat Portland cement: The rise in temperature in the interior of In manufacturing this type of cement, the following are the limits of
a large concreate mass (such as dams, etc.) due to the heat evolved the principal constituent: (a) C2A content not exceed 5 percent (b)
by the hydration of cement can lead to serious cracking. For this Total contents of C2AF plus twice the C3A content should not exceed
reason, it is necessary to limit the rate of heat evolution of the 20 percent (c) Magnesia content should not exceed 4 percent.
cement used in this type of structure; a greater proportion of the
heat can then be dissipated and a lower rise in temperature results. 1 his cement is recommended to be used for hydraulic structures in
This type of cement with low rate of heat evolution was first alkaline water and for canal lining culverts etc.
produced for use in large gravity dams in the U.S.A. The following Blast Furnace Portland Cement: This type of cement is made by
are the specification (B.S.) for low heat Portland cement:
intergrading Portland cement cylinder and granulated blast furnace
(a) The heat of hydration should not be more than 60 calories per slag the proportion of the latter not exceeding 65 percent of the
gm after 24 days. weight of the mixture.
(b) The limits of lime content should be as follows:
Slag is a waste product in the manufacture of pig iron and is a mixture
CaO of lime, Silica and alumina, that is the same oxides that make up
Portland cement, but not in the same proportions. Quickly cooled
2.4(SiO2) +1.2(Al2O3)+0.65(Fe2O3) zl
glassy slags which are used for this purpose possess the property of
and
hardening under water in presence of lime. This cement is rather
______________ CaO _______________ similar to ordinary Portland cement and requirements for fineness,
setting times, soundness and strength are the same for both cements. It
1 .9(SJO2)+1.2(Al2O3)+0.65(Fe2O3) zl
is fairly high sulphate resistant and is frequently used in seawater
(c) Specific surface area to ensure a sufficient rate of gain of
strength must not be less than 3,200 cm21 gm. constructions. It has got various special names, in Germany it is under
the name of Eisen Portland (up to 30% slag) and Hochofen
Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement: This type of cement is
specially manufactured for uses in situation where resistance to cements,(31 to 35% slag), in France,
disintegration under the action of sulphate is required. In certain

regions water may have high content of sulphates of various
minerals and ordinary Portland cement
112
Cement Table 7.5 Typical Compound Composition of White
most common names are cement metallurgies mixture (50% slag) Portland Cement
and cement hant Journea (65% to 75% slag).
Constituent compound Content, percent
Pozzolana Portland Cement: This is the name given to intergrown or
blended mixture of Portland cement and pozzolana. C3S 51
Pozzolana is a natural or artificial materials containing silica in a C2S 26

reactive form. It is essential that pozzolana be in a finely divided C 3A 11
state as it is only then that silica can combine with lime in presence
of water from stable calcium silicates which have cementing ____C4AF ___ 1
properties. Pozzolana materials most commonly used are volcanish
ash (original natural Pozzolana), pumicited, shales, calcined earth, so3 2.6
burnt clay, fly ash etc. The percentage of pozzolana should be
between 15 to 50 of the weight of the cement. _______ Alkalis _________ _________ 0.95 _________
Pozzolana Portland cements gain strength very slowly and require,

The strength of this cement is lower than that of ordinary Portland
therefore, curing over a comparatively long period, but their
cement. It is not liable to cause staining because it has low content of
ultimate strength is approximately the same as that of ordinary soluble alkalis. It is 4 to 6 times costlier than ordinary Portland
Portland cement. cement.
White Portland Cement: This cement is made from raw materials snow Crete is the commercial name given to white Portland cement.
containing very little iron oxide and manginess oxide, China clay is It is mainly used for architectural and ornamental purposes, especially
generally used together with chalk or limestone free from specified in tropical countries.
impurities. Oil used as fuel for the kiln in order to avoid 7.9 Special Portland Cement: These are: (1) Colored Cement (color Crete)
contamination by cool ash. Since iron acts as a flux in clinkering its (2) Aluminous Cement and (3) Antibacterial Cement.
absence necessitates higher kiln temperatures but sometimes Coloured Cement: Color Crete is a trade name given to coloured
cryolite (solidum aluminum-fluoride) is added as a flux. A typical cement. The basis of coloured cement is the white Portland Cement. A
compound composition of white Portland cement is given in Table better way to obtain a uniform and durable colour concrete is to use
7.5. colour cement. The colour cement consists of white cement
interground with 2 to 10 percent of pigment (a colouring ingredient).
A through distribution of pigments is essential for satisfactory results.
1 14
The common pigments are: (a) Iron oxides-red yellow black and even at 6 to 8 hours the concrete is strong enough for the side
brown (b) Manginess dioxide-black and brown (c) Chromium formwork to be struck off and for the preparation of further
oxide-green (d) Cobalt blue-blue and (e) Carbon pigments black. concreting to take place. Concrete made of aluminous cement and
Specification of this type of cement are given by the individual aluminous cement clinker as aggregate with water cement ratio of 0.5
manufacturer of this rather specialized product. This cement is can reach strength about 1.4000 psi in 24 hours and 18,000 psi in 28
mainly used for architectural and ornamental works, external and days.
internal decorations of building, mosaic (terrazzo) floorings, Aluminous cement is slow setting but the final setting follows the
swimming pools, fountains, bathrooms and ornamental plastering. initial setting more rapidly than is the case in Portland cement.
Aluminous Cement: This is also known as high alumina cement. Its Typical values are: (1) Initial setting time 4 hours 40 mins to 5 hrs.
French name is ’Cement Fondu' which is now used in England as a 35 mins.
trade name. Its other names are Lightning cement, (in England) and The cement is used for manufacturing pipes and for lining in
Luminate (in the U.S.A.). chemical plants
From the very name of the cement-aluminous or high alumina it Antibacterial Cement: It is a Portland cement interground with an
can be inferred that it contains a large proportion of alumina. This antibacterial agent which prevents microbial growth. This cement is
cement consists in fact of approximately equal parts' about 40 used in floors of food processing plants, in slaughter houses
percent each of alumina and time with some ferrous and ferric
swimming pool, public baths and other similar places where bacteria
oxides and upto about 5 percent of silica.
and fungi might grow.
This cement is manufactured by calcining limestone Bauxite.
Questions
Bauxite is a residual deposit with high alumina content! This
1. What is cement? Compare the suitability of cement over lime when
cement is very resistant to sulphates. It is not affected by the CO2
used in engineering constructions.
dissolved in pure water and is therefore suitable for the
manufactured of pipes. High alumina cement is also unaffected by 2. Discuss the importance of cement in engineering constructions.
corrosive action of acids (unaffected upto PH value 4). Another 3. What do you mean by 'Portland cement'? Give both chemical and
outstanding feature of this cement is its very high rate of strength mineral constituents of ordinary Portland cement and discuss briefly
development. About 80 percent of its ultimate strength is achieved the function of each in cement.
after 24 hours and
Cement 116
4. What are the different methods of manufacturing ordinary Portland
cement? Draw neat diagram of a rotary kiln and explain the CHAPTER-EIGHT
different steps in the wet process of manufacturing Portland cement SAND AND SURKI
with a neat flow diagram.
8.1: Sand: Sand, as an engineering material, plays and important part in
5. Discuss the following properties of ordinary Portland cement and
engineering constructions. In concrete work, it is usually termed as
give their specification:
fine aggregate, Sand is a form of silica (quarts) and may be of
(a) Setting times, (b) Soundness, (c) Fineness, and argillaceous, silicious or calcareous according to its composition.
(d) Strengths. Natural sands are the weathered and worn-out particles of rocks
(mainly quartzite) and are of various grades or sizes depending upon
6. Name the different standard tests that are carried out on ordinary
the intensity of weathering. The sand grains may be of sharp, angular
Portland cement and enumerate their purposes.
or rounded.
7. Write short notes on: 8.2 Classification of Sand According to Source: Sand is usually obtained
(a) Hydration, (b) Natural Cement, (c) Rapid Hardening Portland from pits, shores, river beds and seas. There are mainly three kinds of
Cement (d) Pozzolana, (e) Coloured Cement. sands in use: (1) Pit sand (2) River sand and (3) Sea sand.
8. Give the specifications of the ordinary Portland cement with Pit Sand: The type of sand is sharp angular, porous and free from salts.
respect to the follows: (a) Setting times (b) Fineness (c) Soundness It might contain clay and other impurities which should be screened
and (d) Strengths. and washed before use. It is light brown or yellowish colour. It is most
suitable for mortar work.
River Sand: This variety of sand is fine, round and polished. It
generally contains earthy impurities like gravels, pebbles etc. These
impurities should be screened and washed before the sand is used. It is
whiter in colour, globule and smaller in size than pit sanid and hence
most suited for plastering works.
Sea Sand: This type of sand is also fine, round and polished. But it is
the worst of the three varieties because it contains sea salts which
absorb moisture from the atmosphere (hygroscopic) causing
permanent dampness and efflorescence and thereby the work
gradually disintegrates. It also contains
118
Sand and Surki A Text Book of Engineering Materials 119

shells and organic matter which decompose in the body of mortar: 85. Tests on Sand: Sand is usually tested for silt and clay, and organic
plaster and concrete also reduce their life and strength. matter.
8.3 Classification of Sand According to Size: According to size, sand is lest for Silt and clay: The presence of silt and clay in sand is
Classified into three major groups: (1) Fine Sand: All the sand determined by the percentage loss in weight of a sample after washing
particles should pass through No. 16 (ASTM sieve (size, 1/16 inch). the same with clean water.
This is usually used in plastering works: (2) Moderately coarse sand: 8.5 Availability of Sand in Bangladesh: It Is abundantly available all over
All the sand particles should pass through No. 8 (ASTM) sieve (size Bangladesh. Very good variety of river sand is available in the
1/8 inch). This type of sand is generally used for mortar in masonry districts of Dhaka, Mymensingh and Sylhet (Savar, Kaliakair,
works and (3) Coarse sand: All the particles should pass through No. Durgapur, Sunamganj). Both sea sand and river sand of good quality
4 (ASTM) sieve (size 3/16 inch). This type of sand is very suited for are found in coastal districts like Khulna, Noakhali and Chittagong.
concrete work. A good variety of coarse sand is abundantly found in Cox’s Bazar.
8.4 Properties of Good Sand: Sand should be of pure silica (SiCO2). It Sand is also available in northern districts of Bangladesh but not good
should be free from clay, silt, organic matter, shells, and salts. It is quality.
preferable that sand should be washed before use in all engineering 8.6 Uses of sand: Sand is mainly used in making mortar plaster. Sand and
construction. concrete. It is also used for manufacturing. How and sheet glasses.
8.5 Test on Sands: Sand is usually tested for silt and clay and organic Sand is also used to fill up gaps in between bricks in road
matters. construction.
Test for Silt and Clay: The presence of silt and clay in sand is 8.7 Bulking of Sand: This is the increase in the volume of a given weight
determined by the percentage loss in weight of a sample after of sand due to the presence of moisture. For upto about 5 to 8 percent
washing the same with clean water. of moisture by weight of sand there is a steady increase in volume to
about 20 to 30 percent. The bulking of sand for small moisture content
Test for Organic Matter: The presence of organic matter is
is to the formation of thin film of water around the sand grains and
determined by stirring a sample of sand with 3% solution of sodium
hydroxide or caustic soda in a closed bottle. The sample is left for interlocking the air in between the sand grains and the film of water.
24 hours. The colour of the solution turns brown if any organic The bulking phenomenon of sand due to the presence of moisture can
matter is present. The amount of organic matter is determined from be experimentally demonstrate as follows. Take a known volume of
the intensity of darkness of the solution. dry sand in a graduated cylinder and small quantities of water
successively. It will be observed that each time there is an increase in
volume upto 8 percent
Sand and Surki 120 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 121
of moisture. Upon further addition of water, the moves into the
voids between the particles so that the total volume of sand decrease The bulking of moist sand is determined by the following expression:
until when fully saturated (Flooded) its volume is approximately the Vm
b= ------ x 100 (8.1)
same as the volume of dry sand originally take. This is apparent Vs
from, 8.1 which also shows that finer sand bulks. considerably more in which b is the bulking in percentage, Vs is the volume of dry or
and reaches maximum bulking at a higher water content than does fully saturated sand and Vm is the moist sand.
coarse sand. Extremely fine sand has been known to bulk as 40 Since it has been a common practice to measure sand by volume in
percent at a moisture content of 10 percent but such a sand is in any preparing mortar and making concrete, due allowance should be made
case very unsuitable for making of good quality concretes. in its volumetric measurements for its apparent increase in bulk.
8.3 Grading of Sand: All sand particles should pass No. 4 to No 16 sieves
(3/16 to 1/16 inch). But at the same time, sand should not contain very fine
particles. In between these two extreme sizes, (3/16 to 1/16 inch), sand
should contain particles of uniformly varying sizes or it should be grades
in order to get dense mortars. The grading of these various sizes, of sand
particles is determined by the help of ’Sieved Analysis'. A known quantity
of dry sand (generally 100 to 200 gms.) is taken and sieved through a
consecutive order of standard sieves 8", 11/2",3/4", 3/8" No. 8, No 16. No.
30, No. 50 and No. 100. The percentages of the respective retained
quantities are added and divided the sum by 100 to obtain a figure termed
as 'Fineness Modulus' of the sample.
Fineness Modulus is an empirical formula obtained by taking the sum of

the cumulative percentages of sand retain on the following standard sieves,
3". 11/2",3/4", 3/8", No. 8, No 16. No. 30, No. 50 and No. 100m and
dividing the sum by 100. It is generally denoted by 'F'. The fineness
modulus of and should be between 2 to 3. A smaller value of fineness
modulus
Fig. 8.1
Fig. 81 Bulking of sands with different moisture content.
Since the volume of saturated sand is the same as that of dry sand,
the most convenient way of determining bulking is by measuring
the volume of the given sand when moistened.
Sand and Surki 122 A Text Book of Engineering Materials
123
indicates the presence of larger proportions of finer particles and
vice-versa. 3 0.00
/4"
It two or more different variety of sand are mixed together the
combined fineness modulus of the mixed.
3 0.00
/8"
Sample can be determined as follows:
m. F + m, F-, + ......... + Fn No. 4 0.00
(8.2) No. 8
From = —— ----- — ------------------ 0.00
Mx + M2 + .............. + mn
No 16 10.00
In which F com = combined fineness modulus.
No. 30 30.00
Fi and F2 = Fineness modulus of sample 1 and 2 respectively, mi
No. 50 100.00
and m2 = Amount of samples 1 and 2 respectively.
No. 100 100.00
If R is the ratio of one variety of sand to be mixed with 1 of the
Compute the fineness modulus of the sample of sand. 240
other variety7, then
Fi-Fcom
Solution:
R = ---------------- (8.3)
10+30+100+100 240
Fcom-F2 F= --------------------- = -------- = 21.40
100 100
The Eq. 8.3 can also be written as Example: The following is the result of the sieve analysis of two
Fi-Fcom
samples of sand (1250 gms each), one from Savar and another from
R= -----------------
(8.4) Durgapur. Calculate the combined fineness modulus.
F1-F2
Where Ri is the ratio of one variety in the combined mix. Example:

100 gms of Sunamganj sand was sieved through standard sieves
Sieve Durgapur sand
and the following result were obtained:
Savar sand Cumulative Cumulative amount
amount retained, gms. retained, gms
Sieve Cumulative percentage retained 3" 0 0
3" 0.00
11/2" 0.00 0 0
11/2"
3
/4"
0 0
4.92
= --------- = 2.46
2
Example: Two samples of sand, one from Kaliakari (Fineness

modulus = 2.24) were mixed together to get a combined fineness
modulus of 2.54. Determine the ratio in
which they were mixed.
Solution:
Fcom = 2.54, Fk = Fs = 2.24
2.84 -2.54
R= ---------------------
Durgapur sand 2.54-2.24
Sieve
Cumulative amount 0-30
Savar sand Cumulative
= ------------= 1
amount retained, gms. retained, gms 0.30
Samples were mixed in the ratio 1: 1
No. 4 4 0
No. 8 16 4 8.9 Surki: Surki is made by grinding freshly burnt and well burnt bricks.
No. 16 24 20 It should be perfectly clean free from foreign matter and sufficiently
No. 30 52 32 fine to pass through No. 8 sieve (US). Surki is largely used in making
No. 50 90 50 lime mortar, lime plaster and lime concrete.
No. 100 100 100
286 206
Questions
Fs = 286/ 100=2.86 Fd= 206 / 200=2.06
1. Discuss the importance of sand in Engineering Construction.
1250x2.86+ 1250x2.06 2. Give the classification of sand passed on the following;
Fcom = -------------- ---------------------- ------
(a) source and (b) size.
1250+ 1250
3. Give the specification of good sand. Why sea sand is not
recommended for making cement concrete?
1250(2.86 + 2.06)
-------------------------
2 x 1250
Sand and Surki
CHAPTER-NINE
4. What do you mean by bulking of sand? Do you think this MORTAR AND PLASTER
phenomenon is important in designing a concrete mix? Justify your
answer. 9.1 Mortar: Mortar is a paste generally made by mixing cementing or
5. What is the purpose of grading sand? How is it done? What is binding material (Lime or Cement) and an inter material (Sand or
"Fineness modulus”? Explain its significance in sand grading. Surki) with water. There are different types of morter:
6. A mixed sample of 1200 gms. of two different variety of sands, on (1) Lime mortar: Lime + Sand + Water
from Savar (Fineness modulus = 2.28) and the other from Durgapur (2) Surki Mortar: Lime + Surki + Water
(Fineness modulus = 2.74 were sieved and the combined fineness
(3) Lime Surki Mortar: Lime + Sand + Surki + Water
modulus was found to be 2.1: Calculate the amount of each variety
of sand in the mix. (4) Cement Mortar: Cement + Sand + Water
Ans. 600 gms each (5) Mud Mortar: Mud + Saw dust + Water
7. Three different variety of sand A, B and C were mixed in the ratio 1. or Rice husk
2, 3 and their fineness modulus were 2.62. 2.32 and 2.80
or
respectively. Compute the combined fineness modulus.
Cow-dung
Ans. 2.61
8. What is surki? Enumerate its uses. Give specifications for a good Sand should be sharp, angular, porous and free from salts and other
surki. impurities. Surki should be perfectly clear free from foreign matter
and sufficiently fine to pass through No 8 (US) sieve. Lime must be
well slaked and cement must be fresh and free from adulteration.
Water should be clean, free from salts and other impurities and should
be of drinking water standard. Mud should be free from foreign
matter.
9.2 Function of Sand in Mortar: (1) Sand in mortar does not generally and
to its strength but is used mainly as an intern material to give volume
for economy (2) It subdivides the Paste of the cementing materials
into a uiin film, which is the basic principle involved in using all
cementing materials (3)
Mortar and Plaster 128
It offers the requisite surface areas lor the film of cementing A Text Book of Engineering Materials 129
materials to adhere and to spread (4) It prevents shrinkage and Grinding is done either by ponding the ingredients in small mortal
pits and mixing by human labor or by a bullock driven mortar mill,
cracking of mortar in setting (5) A well grades sand adds to the
known as ’Ghani’ or 'Chakki’ or by power driven mortar mill.
density of the mortar (6) It allows carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere to reach to some depth in case of fat lime mortars and The first method is used when mortar is required in small quantities.
thereby improves their setting power (7) It is also claimed that some Bur for a steady and continuous supply of mortar as in the case of
chemical reactions take place between silica (SiO2) of sand grains large construction, power driven mortar mills are employed.
and the constituents of the cementing materials to form a hardened Mortars are ground in two stages. In the first stage, the cementing
mass. material is ground with water to the consistency of a thin and lean
mix. In the second stage, sand or surki or both is added in the require
9.3 Functions of Surki in Mortars: In mortar, surki is used as an
proportion and grinding is done. During the process of grinning, the
adulterant (a material which provides volume). Surki imparts
mixture is properly turned by a scraper and a requisite quantity of
strength and hydraulic property to mortars.
water is again added to impart the proper consistency.
9.4 Uses of Mortar: Mortar is used (1) to bind together the bricks or
Mortar should consist of one part lime to two or more parts of sand,
stones in brick or stone masonry (2) to give a soft even bed between
or sand and surki together. The proportion may vary depending upon
different layers of brick or stone masonry for equal distribution of
the nature of works. The lime, sand and surki, are to be measured dry
pressure ever the bed (3) to fill up the spaces between bricks or
by volume and not by weight. They are to be thoroughly mixed by
stones for making walls tight (4) in concrete as a matrix (5) in
grinding with a sufficient quantity of water to bring the mortar up to
plasting works to hide the joints and to improve appearance and (7)
the proper consistency to give very workability. The mortar should
for moulding and ornamental purposes.
always be used as stiff as it can be spread and should be used as soon
9.5 Preparation of Lime Mortar, Surki Mortar and Lime Surki Mortar: as possible after being mixed. The mortar which has once set or
These mortars are prepared by grinding the ingredients in a specific which has been left for more than 24 hours after it has been mixed,
manner. Grinding is purely a mechanical process. It helps in should not be used. These mortars are used in temporary and
preparing and intimate mixture of sand and lime, sand and surki, or important types of construction works.
sand, surki and lime with water and in slaking the unslaked lime
9.6 Preparation of Cement Mortar: Cement and sand in definite proportion
particles if any.
are measured by volume (cement is
Mortar and Plaster 130 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 131
generality measured by weight, 93 lbs. being taken as equivalent to 9.9 Special Varieties of Mortar: The following are the special varieties of
1 eft or 1 bag cement = 1.25 eft = 112 lbs.). Sand is first spread to mortars that are used in special types of engineering constructions:
uniform thickness on a non-porous plant form and then the cement is
(1) Grout: Very thin lean or liquid mortars are termed as grout and are
spread over sand. The cement and sand are mixed together
specially prepared to fill in the cracks, faults or narrow joints. The
thoroughly till the colour is uniform to get a dry mix. The quantity process is term as "grouting.
of water to be added is calculated and only half of that quantity is
(2) Cement-Lime Mortar: This is prepared by adding 15 to 20 per cent of
sprinkled on the dry mix. The remaining quantity of water to be
hydrated lime in cement mortar. This mortar is more plastic, spreads
added is calculated an only half of that quantity is sprinkled on the
readily and easily and produces greater uniformity and better
dry mix. The remaining quantity of water is now added and the
workability.
whole mixture is turned over twice or thrice to form cement mortar
should be mixed in small quantities which can be used up on the (3) Gauged Mortar: Lime mortar is not very strong. There-fore to achieve
more strength, 1 part of cement is used with 6 to 8 parts of lime mortar.
work before the initial setting of the cement commences. Mortar
This process of adding cement to lime mortar for better strength is
which has set already should not be used Cement mortar is used in
termed as ’gouging'.
all important types of constructions.
(4) Pumice Mortar: This is prepared by adding finely ground pumice with
9.7 Mud Mortar: Sticky clay and saw dust or cow-dung or rice husk are
lime mortar. Finely ground pumice is added in the proportion of half or
puddled or pugged with water until it comes to the required
one part to one part of lime. This imparts better strength to lime
consistency. It is frequently used for economy in temporary works
mortar.
not exposed to the action of water and other unimportant works like
’kancha’ walls etc. Brick masonry in good mud mortar can stand a (5) Pozzolana Mortar: It is prepared by adding required proportion of
safe pressure of 1 ton per sq ft. pozzolana to lime mortar in order to impart more strength.
9.8 Curing of works in lime and Cement Mortars: All works done in lime (6) Cinder Mortar: This type of mortar is prepared by mixing 1 part of
and cement mortar should be kept wet for about 15 days for the slaked lime, 1 1/2 part of crushed cinder (obtained from railway engines
purpose of curing. During this period important chemical reactions and boiler ashes) and 1 l/2 part of sand with required quantity of water.
take place and the whole mass gains strength through the process of This mortar is light in weight and is mainly used for cheap and
hardening. Occasional sprinkling with water is necessary until the unimportant constructions.
works set and become hardened. (7) Light-weight Mortars: These mortars are prepared by mixing saw dust,
rice husks, jute fibers, coir’s, asbestos fibers
colour washing and for moulding, ornamental and architectural
etc. along with sand and lime or cement. Cinder mortar is also
works.
another variety of light-weight mortals. For developing adhesion,
9.13 Specification of Good Plaster:
small quantities of glue or other adhesive materials are added to
mortars. 1. It should adhere firrnaly to the surface on which it is applied.
9.10 Precautions in Using Mortars: The following precautions are to be 2. It should not strink or contract in volume on drying and setting,
adopted carefully to get good works from mortars: otherwise it cracks and gives an unsightly appearance
(1) Mortar should be mixed in small quantities so that it can used 3. In case of lime plaster, it should not contain unslaked particles of lime
conveniently before the mortar starts setting. The mortar which has which absorb moisture from the atmosphere and spoils the plastered
already should never be used. surface.
(2) In using mortars, bricks or stones to be jointed together should be 9.14 Classification of Plaster: Plaster is divided into the following classes:
soaked in water very thoroughly at least for 12 hours before they are 1. Lime Plaster: Lime plaster consists of lime and sand (usually 1 part
put into work with mortar so as to prevent the absorption of moisture lime, 2 to 3 parts sand) mixed with water to form a paste of required
from the mortar before it sets. consistency/. The mixture should be kept in a vat for about 24 hours
(3) Mortar should be as stiff as it can be used without inconvenience and and then to be laid on the soaked surface 3/8 to 1/2 inch thick in one
the joints should be well filled. coat and thoroughly smoothed. The plastered surface should be kept
moist for at least two weeks afterwards.
(4) Works made of mortar should be kept wetted for a week or two after
it has been laid so as to prevent the rapid drying of mortar especially 2. Surki Plaster: Surki plaster consists of lime and surki (I part lime: 1 1/2
in hot weather like in Bangladesh. to 2 parts surki): mixed with water to form a paste of required
9.11Plaster: Plaster is a thin coat of mortar of different composition which consistency and is mainly used in plinths and walls. It is suitable for
is applied on both external and internal faces of walls ceilings, surface exposed to sun and air. Surki shrinks on drying and so plaster
columns, staircases etc. The process of applying plaster is termed as white selling is beaten well for hours with wooden mallets. It is laid
plastering. Plastering, work must be cured properly and carefully, on soaked surface 3/8 to 1/2 inch thick in one coat.
otherwise, cracks may develop. 3. Lime-Surki Plaster: To prevent shrinkage, sand is added to surki
9.12 Uses of Plaster: Plaster is used go give a smooth and finished surface plaster in the proportion of 1 part lime: 1-part surki and
to the works (2) to cover joints and defective workmanship, (3) to
preserve surface from the action of weathering (4) to provide a ground
for decoration or white or
Mortar and Plaster 134 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 135
1 part sand. It is laid in thickness 3/8 to l/2 inch in one coat on soaked must be filled up again with plaster finally the mud plastered surface
is given sometimes a thin coat of pure lime plaster.
surface.
7. Cement Plaster: This is composed of Portland cement and
4. Neeru or lime Putty: This is prepared from the best variety of quick
standard sand in the proportion 1:2, unless otherwise specified. The
lime. The quick lime is slaked first with fresh water and then screned
ingredients are mixed with water to form a paste of required
through a fine screen. It is them kept immersed in water for about 7
consistency. The wall or the surface to be plastered is carefully
days and the excess water is then decanted. The paste thus obtained
scraped off and thoroughly cleaned and soaked with water before
is termed as neeru or lime putty. This putty when used in making
laying the plaster. It is always laid in single coats from 1/4 to 1 inch
plasters imparts high degree of plasticity and workability. This type
thick. The plastered surface is cured for about two weeks. Cement
of plaster is mainly used for the finishing coat of plastering of walls
plaster is used in most important engineering constructions like dams,
of various types.
reservoirs irrigation canals and other structures in contact with water
and also for wall, floors, ceilings etc.
5. Moghal Plaster: This is composed of stone lime, sand and surki in the
8. Stucco Plaster: The term ’stucco' is generally applied to an
proportion 1:2:3 or 1:3:4. The ingredients are ground very
ornamental coat of plaster on walls. This made of either cleans white
thoroughly and mixed with some adhesive (glue) substances. The
shell lime and powdered marble (1: 2) or cement plaster (1:21/2) or (1:
Moghal plaster is usually applied in two coats, 3/8 to V2 inch thick
3). This type of plastering consists of three coats, each about 1 1/2
each on wet surface and properly rubbed and smoothed. After laying,
inch thick. These coats are scratch coat brawn coat and finished coat.
the surface should be kept moist for about 15 days.
Scratch coat is generally 3/8 to 1/4 inch thick. This coat is troweled
hard and tight and deeply cross-scratched just before setting in order
6. Mud Plaster: This is composed of selected mud and cow dung or saw
to provide bond for the nest coat. Brown coat is applied to thickness
dust in equal proportion and sometimes one pound of straw is added
of 3/8 to l/2 to 3 days and then allowed to dry completely. Finished
to every two eft of plaster. The materials are mixed very thoroughly
coat is applied when all other works in the structure are completed,
and the plaster is applied on the surface in two coats of total
otherwise it is spoiled or damaged by the workmen. The thickness of
thickness of 3/4 inch. The first coat is applied by hand to fill up all
the finished coat is generally Vs to V2 inch.
the interstices of the surface and is left with rough surface. When the
first coat is nearly dry, the second coat is applied with trowel and 9. Gypsum Plaster: First natural gypsum is crushed and ground
worked to a smooth even surface. The straw or saw dust need not to to fine powder and heated to a high temperature of 125 to
be used in the second coat. When the surface will dry up there will
be development of cracks on the surface which
A Text Book of Engineering Materials ] 37
140°F. The product thus obtained is termed as plaster of Paris. Gypsum
It may be of precast tiles, normally 1" thick and 6" x 6" in size. It can
plaster is prepared by mixing plaster of Paris and sand (1:3 or 1:4) with
have many variations in colour, shades patterns and designs.
sufficient quantity of water to produce required consistency. To avoid
quick setting, retarder in the form of coir, saw dust. Jute cutting etc. is The external and internal surface of structure finished with mosaic or
terrazzo plaster enhance beauty of the structured. It is mainly used in
used with gypsum plaster.
room-floors, floors and walls of toilets and bathrooms. It is also used
Gypsum plaster is very strong and fire resistant. There is no
for decorative and ornamental purpose.
abnormal change in volume when dry. It is generally used for
9.15 Sand Rubbing: The
decorative face works, internal walls and ceiling, decorations and for
external plastered surface of buildings is sometimes finished with sand
architectural structures. It is also used for soundproofing. But it is rubbing which is a plaster composed of cement, lime and clean sand in
very costly. the proportion, 1:2:6 unless otherwise specified. It is laid on plastered
surface in thickness of 1/16 to 1/8 inch. The surface is thoroughly
10. Mosaic Plaster or Terrazzo Plaster: This consist of marble chips or rubbed, smoothed and finished. The surface is to be kept moist for at
stone chips /2- inch down size and white or colored cement in the least 2 days.
ratio 2:1 unless otherwise specified. Sometimes a coloring ingredient 9.16 Pointing: Pointing is the finishing off (with the trowel) of the mortar
is used with white cement in place of colored cement. The thickness in the rough brick joints of walls to give the surface a beautiful
of this type of plaster ranges from V2 to 1/4 inch. The ingredient is appearance. For cement pointing the plaster should consist of cement
mixed thoroughly by adding water gradually. Minimum amount of and clean sand in the proportion 1:2. In lime and surki pointing, the
water is to be used otherwise the colour will be spoiled by plaster consists of lime and surki in the proportion 1:1. All joints on
efflorescence which takes place if too much water is added. The walls are raked out to a depth not less than 7 inch and all dusts are
mixture is then laid over a prepared sub-base poked properly and brushed off. The surface of walls kept moist for at least 24 hours
levelled. The plastered surface should not be disturbed for 24 hours. before pointing is started. If specified coloring ingredient is added to
After that, the surface should be kept moist for about 2 weeks. Then the plaster. There are various types of pointing such as tuck pointing,
polishing is done by stone like carborundum in plenty of water. bastard (half tuck) pointing, cut pointing, rule pointing, V-pointing
Finally, the surface should be finished up with soft powdered slate (Fig, 9.1) and the choice of a particular type depends upon the owner.
and oxalic acid and a through wash with clean water is given. After
washing, the surface is allowed to dry and finished with way-polish.
Pointing gives attractive appearance of walls. I he Curzon Hall in A Text Book of Engineering Materials 139
Dhaka city is a typical example of good pointing. Pointing protects I he white was is prepared in vats by mixing and stirring slaked lime
joints from dampness and makes then water proof. Pointing is also a water in a proportion which will produce a mixture of the
applied on old walls when the joints become loose and defective. consistency of thin film. Some, adhesive substance like gum or paste
of boiled rice are used in the white wash. To prevent glamour and to
give pleasing effect, a small quantity of copper sulphated is
sometimes added to it.
The white wash is laid on plastered clean surface in 2 to 3 coats
vertically and horizontally alternately. Each coat is to be dried
A.TUCK POINTING B. BASTARD POINTING C. CUT POINTING
perfectly before the succeeding one is laid on it. The final coat is laid
by hair brushes.
9.19 Colour Wash: This nothing but white wash with some, desirable
coloring ingredients added to it. The process of laying is exactly
similar to that of white wash except a sufficient quantity of colour
E. V-POINTING
wash is to be prepared at a time to complete a certain portion of the
surface so that colour is uniform. This is mainly used for decorative
Fig. 9.1 Various Types of pointing
purposes.
9.20 Distemper: Distemper is a coloring substance in solutions. The
9.17 Lime Punning: This is a very thin coat of lime plaster. This is usuals
process of colouring surfaces of walls with distempers is termed as
applied to the ceilings and walls. This plaster consists of fresh slaked
distempering. Distempers are readily available in the market with
lime and good sand in equal volumes. The lime and sand are first to
manufactures instruction for mixing and applying.
mixed dry thoroughly and then water is added just enough to make it
a workable mixture. The lime punning is laid in thickness not more
Questions
than 1/16 inch and the surface is made smooth.
9.18 White Wash: This is applied to give better appearance to the surface
1. What is mortar? Name the different types of mortars used in
and also for sanitary reasons, because lime is said to have antiseptic engineering constructions. State their composition, pointing out
and disinfectant properties. The process of application of white wash clearly the importance of each ingredient and the functions played by
is termed as white washing. it.
9 State the functions of sand and surki in mortars. Enumerate the uses of A Text Book of Engineering Materials 141
mortars.
CHAPTER-TEN
3. Explain the objectives of (a) grinding of lime-surki mortars in mills CONCRETE
(b) spacing bricks or stones before use and (c) curing of mortar
works. 10.1 Introduction: Concrete is an artificial stone manufactured from a
4. What is cement mortar? How it is prepared? Supply the specification mixture of binding materials and inert materials with water.
of a good cement mortar. Concrete = Binding materials + Inert materials + water.
5. Write short notes on: Concrete is ’considered as a chemically combined mass where the
(a) Groutins (b) Gauging (c) Pozzolana mortar (d) Lightweight inert material acts as a filler and the binding material acts as a binder.
mortars (e) Precautions in using mortars. The most important binding material are cement and lime. The inert
materials used in concrete are termed as aggregates. The aggregates
6. Distinguish between mortar and plaster. What is the different type of
are of two types namely. (1) fine aggregate and (2) coarse aggregate.
plasters. Give specification of a good plaster.
Fine aggregate: Sand and Surki are commonly used as fine aggregate
7. Write explanatory notes on the following:
in Bangladesh., Stone screenings, burnt clays, cinders and fly-ash are
(a) Plaster of paris (b) Stucco plaster (c) Terrazzo plaster, (d) Lime
sometimes used as a substitute for sand in making concrete. The fine
punning (e) Sand rubbing. aggregate should not be larger than 3/16 inch (4.76mm) in diameter.
8. What is pointing? Explain various types of pointing with near Coarse Aggregate: Brick Khoa (broken bricks) broken stones, gravels,
sketches.
pebbles, clinkers, cinders etc. of the size of 3/16 to 2 inch are
9. Distinguish between white washing and lime punning. What is a commonly used as coarse aggregate in Bangladesh. It may be
distemper? Distinguish between distempering and colour washing. remembered that 3/16 inch is the dividing lime between fine and
coarse aggregates.
Functions of Aggregates in Concrete: The aggregate give volume to

the concrete, around the surface of which the binding material
adheres in the form of a thin film. In theory the voids in the coarse
aggregate is filled up with fine aggregate and again the voids in the
fine aggregate is filled up
Concrete 142 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 143
with the binding materials. Finally, the binding materials as the name
Functions of Water in Concrete : 3 Water serves the following
implies, binds the individual units of aggregates into a solid mass
purposes : (1) to wet the surface of aggregates to develop adhesion
with the help of water.
because the cement paste adheres quickly and satisfactory to the wet
Qualities of Aggregates: Since at least three quarters of the volume of surface of the aggregates than to a dry surface (2) To prepare a plastic
concrete is occupied by aggregate, it is not surprising that its quality mixture of the various ingredients and to impart workability to
is of considerable importance. Not only the aggregate limit the concrete to facilitate placing in the desired position and 3 Water is
strength of the concrete, as weak aggregates cannot produce a strong also needed for the hydration of the cementing materials to set and
concrete, but also the properties of aggregates greatly affect the harden during the period of curing.
durability and structural performance of the concrete. 10.2. Classification of Concrete: There are mainly two types of concrete
Aggregate was though, originally viewed as an inert material namely, (1) lime concrete and (2) cement concrete.
dispersed throughout the cement paste largely for economic reason, Lime Concrete = Lime + Surki + Khoa + Water.
yet it is possible, however, to take an opposite view and to look on
Cement Concrete = Cement + Sand + Khoa + Water or Stones.
aggregate, as a building material connected into a cohesive whole by
Lime Concrete: Lime concrete consists of lime surki and khoa or
means of cement paste in a manner similar to masonry constructions.
stones in the proportion 1:2:5 unless otherwise specified. The khoa or
In fact, aggregates are not truly inert and their physical chemical and
stones should be soaked thoroughly in water before mixing. The lime
sometimes thermal properties influence the structural performance of
and surki in required proportion are to be first mixed dry by volume
a concrete.
on a clean watertight platform till the colour is uniform. The requisite
Aggregates are cheaper than cement and it is therefor, economical to quantity of thoroughly soaked khoa or stones is then added and the
put into the mix as much as of the former and as little of the latter.
whole again mixed very thoroughly. Water is then added gradually
But economy is not the only reason for using aggregate, it confers
and mixing is continued till a workable mixture is obtain. Concrete
considerable technical advantage on concrete, which has a higher
should be mixed in such a quantity that it can be utilized during the
volume stability and better durability than the cement past alone.
day it is mixed and the concrete which has been left overnight should
The qualities of fine aggregate (sand) have already been discussed in not be used. The concrete thus mixed should be laid evenly in the
chapter 8. position in which it is desired to be used. The common practice of
Thee coarse aggregates should be clean, strong, durable and well throwing concrete in the desired position by the
grades and should be free from impurities and deleterious materials,
such as salts, coal residue etc.
workers should be avoided. Concrete is to be laid in layers not concrete is to be poked very thoroughly with steel rods of recommended
exceeding 3 inch in thickness. Each layer is to be thoroughly size to get rid of voids and to ensure a good between concrete and the
compacted before the next layer is laid. Concrete is to be kept well reinforcing steel sometimes a mechanical vibrator is used to minimize
wetted while setting and at least 7 days after the final layer is voids as soon as the concrete has set the surface should be sprayed with
completed. water. The process of curing is to be applied 28 days to attain its proper
strength. Mixing concrete by hand does not generally produce a good
Limes concrete is used mainly in foundation and in terrace roofing.
concrete. Where large quantity of concrete is required and also a very
Cement concrete: Cement concrete is widely used in all important good quality concrete is desired the mixing is done in a mechanical mixer.
engineering constructions. It consists of cement, sand and brick khoa
10.3 Advantage of Concrete Over other Materials of Construction: The
or stones of required size in the proportion 1: 2: 4 or 1: 3: 6 unless
following are main advantages of concrete construction:
otherwise specified.
1. Concrete is free from defects and flaws which natural stones are
The ingredients are measured dry separately by volume according to
associated.
required proportion. In measuring cement generally 90 lbs. will be
2. It can be manufactured to desired strength and durability7 with
taken as I cu ft and hence I bag of cement. (112 lbs.) equals 1.25 cu ft.
economy.
The khoa or stones are soaked thoroughly in water before use. The
fine and coarse aggregates are mixed dry first on a clean watertight 3. It can be cost to any desired shape.
platform. The cement is then added and mixed thoroughly once again 4. Maintenance cost of concrete structures is almost negligible.
till the colour is uniform. The required quantity water is then gradually 5. Concrete does not deteriorate appreciably with age.
added and the whole is mixed thoroughly. When the coarse aggregate
10.4 Special Terms: To understand thoroughly the proper ties of concrete
has been soakes thoroughly the approximate quantity of water is 4.5
gallons for one cut it of cement in a concrete of 1:2:4. The quantity of the following terms need classification first.
water should be such that the mixture would give a good workability. 1. Segregation: Segregation can be defined as separation of the
The concrete is to be prepared in small quantities which can be used constituents of a heterogenous mixture so that their distribution is on
within 45 minutes and any unused concrete after that time should not longer uniform. In case of concrete, it is the difference in the size of
be used. In foundation works, the concrete is to be rammed properly particles and in the specific gravity of the mix constituents that are the
the water appears on top and on khoa or stone is left uncovered by primary cause of
mortar. In reinforced concrete work the
Concrete 146
segregation but its extent can be controlled by the choice of suitable
grading and water-cement ratio and by care in handling transporting formwork and of the cement paste towards the top. Such concrete
and placing of concrete. obviously would be very weak.
It may be noted that entrained air reduces the danger of segregation.’
In concrete, there are two forms of segregation. First the coarse
On the other hand, the used of coarse aggregate whose specific
particles tend to travel further along a slope or settle more than finer
gravity differs appreciably from that of the fine aggregate would lead
particles. The second form of segregation, occurring particular in wet
to increased segregation.
mixes is manifested by the separation of grout (cement plus water)
from the mix. With some gradings where a lean mix is used the first Segregated is difficult to measure quantitatively but is easily detected
type of segregation may occur if the mix is too dry; addition of water when concrete is handled on a site in any of the ways discussed
would improve the cohesion of the mix but when the mix becomes earlier as undesirable. With a correct method of grading handling,
transporting and placing, the likelihood of segregation can be greatly
too wet, second type of segregation would take place.
reducing.
This influence of grading on segregation will be discussed later in
2. Bleeding: Bleeding (known also as ’water gain') is a form of
detail but the actual extent of segregation depends on the method of
segregation in which some of the water in the concrete z tends to rise
handling and placing of concrete. If the concrete is transferred directly
to the surface of freshly placed concretes. This is caused by the
from the mixer or mixing place to the final position in the formwork,
inability of the solid constituents of the mix to hold all of the mixing
the danger of segregation is small. On the other hand, dropping
concrete from a considerable height to the final position, the water when they settle downwards. Bleeding is a special case of
sedimentation. It can be expressed quantitatively as the total
segregation is encouraged. Concrete should always be placed directly
in the position in which it is to remain and must not be allowed to settlement per unit height of concrete.
flow or be worked along the formwork. This prohibition includes the As a result of bleeding the top of concrete becomes too wet and if the
use of vibrator to spread a heap of concrete over* a large area. water is trapped by supper imposed concrete a porous, week, and
Vibrator provides a most valuable means of compacting concrete, but non-durable concrete will result. If the bleeding water is remixed
because a large amount of work is being done on the concrete, the during finishing of the top surface, a weak wearing surface will be
danger of segregation due to improper use of the vibrator is incurred. found. This can be avoided by delaying the finishing operation until
This is particularly so when vibration is allowed to continue too long the bleeding water has evaporated. On the other hand, if evaporation
resulting the separation of coarse aggregate towards the bottom of the of water from the surface of the concrete is faster than the bleeding
rate, plastic shrinkage cracking may result (to be discussed later).
Some of the rising water becomes trapped on the underside of the are following types: (a) compressive strength (h) tensile strength
particles of coarse aggregate or of reinforcement thus creating zones (c) flexural strength and (d) shear strength.
of poor bond. The tendency of bleeding depends largely up to the Compressive Strength Test: Two types of test specimens are used in
properties of cement and is also affected by certain chemical factors: our country: (i) Cubes and (ii) Cylinder.
there is less bleeding when the cement has a high alkali content, a
The cube specimens of concrete of a desired proportion are cast in
C3A content or when calcium chloride is added.
steel or cast-iron moulds, normally 6-inch cube. The standard cylinder
Rich mixed are less prone to bleeding then lean (weak) ones. specimen of concrete is 6 inch in diameter and 12 inch high and is cast
Reduction in bleeding is obtained by the addition of pozzolana or of in a mould generally made of cast iron.
an aluminum powder. Air entrainment also effectively reduces The standard practice is to fill the cube mould with concrete in three
bleeding. Physical properties of fine aggregate (size) also affect equal layers. Each layer of concrete is compacted by not less than 35
bleeding. strokes of a 1-inch square steel punner. Ramming is continued until
Bleeding of continues until the cement paste has stiffened sufficient compaction has been achieved. The top surface of the cube
sufficiently to put an end to the process of sedimentation. is to be finished smooth by means of a trowel.
3. Laitance: Laitance is the formation of a crust of squeezed out mortar Cylindrical specimens are made in a similar way to the cubes but are
on the surface of concrete. This is due to bleeding and had compacted either in three layers using a 5/8-inch diameter steel rod or
workmanship. This produces a bad or weak concrete. For preparing in two layers by means of an immersion vibrator.
watertight concrete, segregation, bleeding and laitance should be very After preparation, the cubes and cylinders are stored undisturbed for
carefully avoided. 24 hours at a temperature of 58° to 66° and a relative humidity of not
10.5 Properties of Concrete: The following are the desirable properties of less than 90 percent. After 24 hours the moulds are stripped of and the
concrete (1) Strength, (2) Elastic properties. (3) Fatique (4) Durability cubes and cylinder are further cured in water at 58° to 66°F (B.S.)
(5) Impermeability and (6) Workability. Standard cubes and cylinders are tested at prescribed ages, generally
Strength. Strength of concrete is commonly considered its most 28 days with additional tests often made at 1,3, and 7 days. The
valuable property, although in many practical cases other properties specimens are tested for crushing strength under a testing machine.
like durability and impermeability may in fact be more important. The crushing strength is taken.
Nevertheless, strength usually gives the over a picture of quality of
concrete. Strengths of concrete
Concrete 150
The cube tests give much greater values of crushing strength usually
20 to 30 per cent more than those given by cylinders Table 10.1 Table 10.1 show that there is no definite relationship between the
shows the typical test results on cubes and cylinders on the same strength of the two shapes. The ratio of cylinder/cube strength
depends primarily on the level of the strength of the concrete and is
concrete.
higher when the strength of concrete is higher as shown in Table
10.1. However, after extensive research, it is suggested that the ratio
Table 10.1 Crushing strength of Cubes and Cylinders. of the strength of a cylinder and a cube can be expressed as follow:
strength, psi Ratio of strengths Difference of

Crush in Cylinder/cube strength ratio = 0.76 + 0.2 log 10 (se/2.840) 10.1
strengths (cube
Cube Cylinder Cylinder/cube in which Se is the strength of cube in psi.
cylinder)
It is very difficult to say which type of specimen is better but there
1,300 1.000 0.77 300 seems to be a tendency, at least for research purposes to use cylinder
2,200 1,700 0.77 500 specimen rather than cubes. Cylinder specimens are believed to give
greater uniformity of results for nominally similar cube specimens
2,900 2,200 0.76 700
because of the following reasons: (1) their failure is less affected by
3,600 2,900 0.91 700 the end restraint of the specimen (2) their strength is less influenced
4,000 3,500 0.87 500 by the properties of the coarse aggregate used in the matrix: and (3)
the stress distribution on horizontal planes in a cylinder is more
4,200 3,800 0.91 400
uniform than of a specimen of square cross section.
4,300 3,900 0.81 400
Effect of Age on Strength of Concrete: Concrete attains strength with
5,200 4,600 0.89 600 time. The rate of gain of strength of different type of cement concrete
5,300 5,000 0.94 300 has been shown in typical strength time curves in Fig 10.1. Ordinary'
6,100 cement concrete (with ordinary Portland cement) gains above 70 to
5,300 0.87 z800
6,400 75% of its final strength within 28 days and about 90 to 95 percent in
5,900 0.92 500
the course of one year.
7,000
6,400 0.91 600
| 7,600
7,300 0.96 300
According to British standard the strength of a cylinder specimen is equal
to three quarter, (75%) of the strength of the cube specimen, but the
experimental results shown in
high and the ratio of the 21 days to 7 days strengths tends to be lower
than in cooler weather.
In practice, the relationship between the 28 days strength, S28. and the
7 days strength, S7 is often taken to lie between;
S28= 1.4557+ 150 (10.2)
and S28 = 1.75S7 + 850 (10.3)

Some engineers also recommended the use of an approximately linear
relationship between the strength and the logarithms of age within the
range of 3 days to 2 months. Thus, if the strength is determined at 3
and 7 days, it is possible to estimate the 28 days strength by
extrapolation.
All the expressions mentioned here apply only to concrete made with
ordinary Portland cement. Many of the other cements gain strength at
Age (Long Scale) different rates and when they are used, the prediction of strength
Fig. 10.1 Rate of Development of Strength of Different Types of should be based on experimentally results.
Cement Concrete.
Tensile Strength: Concrete is very weak in tension. The tensile
The rate of gain in strength of concrete is of interest in connection strength of ordinary concrete ranges from about 7 to 10 percent of the
with testing. It is often desirable to check the suitability of a concrete compressive strength.
long before the results of the 28-day test are available. When no
Flexural Strength: The flexural strength of plain concrete is almost
specific data on the materials used in making concrete are not
wholly dependent upon the tensile strength. Experiments show,
available, the 28 days strength may be assumed to be 1.5 times the 7
however, that the modulus of rupture is considerably greater than the
days strength. Tests have shown that for concrete made with ordinary
strength in tension. Flexural strength is of importance in the design of
Portland cement the ration of the 28 days to 7 days strength lie
concrete pavents.
generally between 1.3 to 1.7 but the majority of the results fall above
1.5. The extrapolation of 28 days strength from the 7 days strength is, Shearing Strength: The shearing strength of concrete is almost
therefore quite reliable. However, in a hot climate country like important property of the material, since it is the real determining
Bangladesh, the gain in early strength is factor in the compressive strength of short columns. The strength of
concrete beams depends also, under
certain condition, upon the shearing strength of the material. The
causes within the concrete itself. The external causes can be physical,
average strength of concrete in direct shear varies from about half of
chemical or mechanical; they may be due to weathering, extreme
the compressive strength for rich mixtures to about 0.8 of the temperature changes, abrasion, electrolytic action and attack by
compressive strength for lean mixtures. natural or industrial liquids and gases.
Elastic Properties: The elastic properties of concrete are of The internal causes are the alkali-aggregate reaction (the reaction
importance hot only because of their bearing upon the deformation of between the silica constituents of the aggregates and alkalis in
concrete structures under load but also for the design of reinforced cement), volume changes, due to the differences in thermal properties
concrete, it is necessary to know the relative stresses in the steel and of aggregates and cement paste and above all, the permeability of the
concrete under like distortions. concrete. The last cause, permeability determines vulnerability of
Concrete is not perfectly elastic for any range of loading, an concrete to external agencies so that in order to be curable, concrete
must be relatively impervious.
appreciable permanent setting taking place for even low loads and
the deformation is not proportional to the stress at any stage of 5. Impermeability of concrete: Penetration of concrete by materials in
loading. The elastic properties of concrete vary with the richness of solution may adversely affect its durability, for instance when Ca
the mixture and with the intensity of the stress. They also vary with (OH)2 is being leached out or an attack by aggressive liquids (acids)
age of concrete. takes place. This penetration depends on the permeability of the
3. Fatigue of concrete: Plain concrete when subjected to flexure, exhibits concrete and since this determines the relative case with which
fatigue. The flexure-resisting ability of a concrete of a given quality concrete can become saturated with water, permeability has an
is indicated by an endurance limit whose value depends upon the important bearing on the vulnerability of concrete to water and frost.
number of repetitions of stress. In concrete pavement design, the Furthermore, in the case of reinforced cement concrete (concrete
allowable Flexeril working stress is limit to 55 percent of the which is strengthened by using steel rods), the penetration of moisture
modulus of rupture strength of the concrete used. and of air will result in the corrosion of steel. Since this leads to an
increase in the volume of the steel, cracking and spalling of the
Durability of concrete: It is essential that concrete should withstand
concrete may well follow.
the condition for which it has been designed without deterioration
over a period of years. Such concrete is said to be durable. Permeability of concrete is also of interest in relation to water
The absence to durability may be caused either by the environment tightens of liquid retaining structures and some other hydraulic
to which the concrete is exposed or by internal structures and also with references to the problem
Concrete 156
of hydrostatic pressure in the interior of dams. Therefore, concrete
should be impervious for its durability. estimated and Table 10.2 gives typical values of water content for
different slumps and maximum size of the aggregates.
6. Workability of Concrete: The strength of concrete of given mix
proportion is very seriously affected by the degree of its compaction;
Table 10.2 Approximate Water Content for different Slumps and
it is, therefore, vital that the consistency the mix be such that the
Maximum Sizes of Aggregates
concrete can be transported placed and finished sufficiently easily
and without segregation. A concrete satisfying these conditions is
said to be workable but to say merely that workability determines the Maxi Water content in lb per cu yd of concrete
case of transportation, placement and finishing, and the resistance of 3–4-inch
concrete to segregation is too loose a description of this vital property Mum 1 -2-inch slump slump 6–7-inch slump
of concrete workability can be best defined as a physical property Size of Rounded Angular Rounded Angular Rounded Angular
which is the amount of useful external and internal works necessary
Aggrae- Aggrega aggrega- aggrega- aggrega- aggrega- aggrega-
to produce of compaction of concrete.
tes tes tes tes tes
gates inch tes
3/8 320 360 340 380 390 430.

Another term used to describe the state or fresh concrete is
consistency. In a simple language, the word consistency' refers to the 3.4 290 330 320 350 350 380
firmness of a form of a substance or to the case with which it will l'/2 270 290 290 320 320 350
flow. In case of concrete, consistency is sometimes taken to mean the
2 250 280 280 300 300 330
degree of witness; within limits, wet concrete is more workable than
dry concrete, concretes of the same consistency may vary in 3 230 260 260 280 270 310
workability. Workability is also governed by the maximum size of the aggregates
their gradings shape and texture. Grading and water/cement ratio have
Factors Affecting Workability: The main factor is the water content of
to be considered together, as a grading producing most workable
the mix, expressed in pounds per cube yard of concrete, it is
concrete for one particular value of water/cement ratio may not be the
convenient, though approximate to assume that for a given type and
best for another value of the ratio. In particular, the higher the
grading of aggregates and workability of the water content is
water/cement ratio the finer the grading required for the highest
independent of the aggregate cement ratio. On the basis of this
workability. In actual fact, for a given value of
assumption the mix proportions of concretes of different richness can
be
water/cement ratio, there is only one value of the course/ fine
placed on a steel plate to have a smooth surface with the smaller
aggregates ratio that gives the highest workability.
opening at the top and filled with
Air entrainment also increases workability. In general terms,
entrainment of 5 per cent air increases the compacting factor of
concrete by about 0.03 to 0.07 and slump by '/2 to 2 inches but actual
values vary with properties of the mix. Air entrainment is also
effective in improving the workability of the rather harsh mixes
made with light weight aggregates.
The reason for the improvement of workability by the entrained air is

probably that air bubbles act as a fine aggregate of very low surface
friction and considerable elasticity. It is also claimed that the air
Fig. 10.2 Measurement of Slump
entrainment reduces both segregation and bleeding.
concrete in four layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times with a standard

Measurement of Workability: Unfortunately, no test is known that
will measure directly the workability, numerous attempts have been bull-nosed 5/8-inch diameter steel rod and the top surface is struck
made, however, to correlate workability with some easily measurable plain with a trowel. The mould must be held firmly against its base
parameter, but none of these is fully satisfactory although they may during the entire operation. Immediately after filing, the cone is
provide useful information within a range of variation in workability. slowly lifted very carefully and the unsupported concrete will now
slump or subside and the depth of subsidence is a measure of the
Slump Test: This is a test used extensively in site work all over the slump. In order to reduce the influence on the slump of the variation in
world. The slump test does not measure the workability of concrete the surface friction, the inside of the mould and its base should be
directly but it is an indirect measure of the same. There are some moistened at the beginning of every test, and prior to lifting of the
slight differences in the details of procedure used in different
mould the area immediately around the base of the cone should be
countries, but these are not significant. The standard procedure is as
cleaned from concrete which might have dropped accidentally during
follows:
the filling operation.
The mould for the slump test is a frustum of a cone with top and
If instead of slumping evenly all round as in a true slump (Fig. 102),
bottom diameter of 4 inch and 8 inches respectively. The height of
the cone is 12 inch (Fig. 10.2). It is provided with two handles for one half of the cone slides down an inclined plane
lifting being filled with concrete. It is
Concrete 160
a shear slump is said to have taken place. 1 he shears slump, A Text Book of Engineering Materials 161
indicates the lack of cohesion in the mix. Sometimes instead or true Table 10.3 Values of Slump and Workability for Different Concrete
Mixes
slump or shear-slump, the concrete may collapse and the resulting
slump due to collapse is termed as thick (Fig. 10.2) Only true slumps
indicate the workability of the concrete. Instead of true slump, if Degree of
Slump Use for which concrete is suitable
workability
shear or collapse slump is found to take place, the test should be value inch
repeated.
Precast and vibrated concrete works in roads
The order or the magnitude of slump for different workability is 0-1 Very low and piles (vibrated by power operated
given in Table 10.3 machines).
Slump test is very useful on the site as a check on the day to day or 1-2 Low Road works (vibrated by hand operated
machine). Mass concrete in foundation
hour to hour variation in the materials being fed into the concrete
(without vibration). Lightly reinforced
mixer. An increase in slump may mean that the moisture content of
sections (With vibration)
aggregates has unexpectedly increased another cause would be a
change in the grading of the aggregates, such as deficiency of sand.
Slabs (manually compacted), normal
Too high or too low a slump gives immediate warning and enables 2-4 Medium
reinforced concrete (manually compacted),
the engineer in charge of proportioning and mixing the Concrete to
Heavily reinforced sections (with vibration).
remedy the situation, the slump test in general indicates the
For sections with congested
following: (1) Provided the grading of the aggregates and
4-7 High reinforcement (not normally suitable for
proportioning are correctly made, the slump is proportional to the
vibration).
water/cement ratio. But one thing is to be remembered.
that the actual a mound of water to be added to the concrete depends

upon the moisture content of the aggregates particularly that of sand:
(2) For a constant water/cement ratio and with a fairly uniform
moisture concrete in the aggregates, an variation in the slump
indicates the corresponding change in the grading of the aggregates.
These applications of slump test as well as its simplicity, are of these particles is more than what would be if the same volume
responsible for its wide spread use. contained by larger size particles. This justifies the use of a smaller
10.6 Factors Controlling Properties of Concrete: size of aggregate for stronger and richer concrete mixes because they
The properties (strength, durability, impermeability and workability) require more cement.
of concrete depend upon the following parameters (factors): Maximum Size of Aggregate: It is clear that the larger the aggregate
1. Grading of the aggregates. particle the smaller the surface area to be wetted per unit weight.
2. Moisture content of the aggregates. Thus, extending the grading of aggregate to a larger maximum size
3. Water/cement ratio. lowers the water a cement requirement of a concrete mix. Recent
experimental results show that above the l1/2-inch maximum size of
the aggregate, the gain in strength due to the reduced water
4. Proportioning of the various ingredients of concrete. requirement is offset by the detrimental effects of lower bond area
5. Method of mixing. and of discontinuities introduced by the very large particles. Concrete
6. Placing and compaction of concrete. becomes grossly heterogeneous and results in lowering the strength.
7. Curing of concrete. The graph in the Fig. 10.3 shows the influence of the maximum size
of aggregate on the compressive strength of concrete. It is clear that
1. Grading of Aggregate: The term 'grading’ indicates the art of
combining various sizes of the particles composing the aggregate to from the view point of strength, there is on advantage in using
produce a dense and an economic concrete using minimum amount of aggregate with a maximum greater than
cement per unit volume for a desired strength. The fundamental
principle of grading is that the smaller particles fill up the empty
spaces in between larger particles. To secure proper interlocking of
the various sizes of the aggregate, it is essential that the particles
should be angular and sharp. It has been suggested that the main
factor governing grading are: (1) the surface area of the aggregates,
which determines the amount of water necessary to wet all the solids
(2) the relative volume occupied by the aggregate (3) the workability
of the mix and (4) the tendency to aggregation.
Surface area of Aggregate, It is recalled that if a given volume
contains smaller size particles, the total surface area
1 inch. There are of course, structural limitations too. The maximum
in which: RI is the ratio of the fine aggregate in the combined
size of the aggregate should be no more than 1/5 to 1/2 of the aggregates.
thickness of the concrete section and is Fig. 10.3 influence of Volume of Combined Aggregates: When the fine and coarse
maximum related also to spacing size of aggregate on the strength of aggregates are mixed in a definite proportion the volume of the
reinforcement concrete. combined aggregates is not equal to the sum of their volumes,
1 Sieve Analysis: Proper grading of aggregates is done by the help of because there is always a shrinkage in volume. The shrinkage factor
sieve analysis. The fineness modulus of a particulars type of coarse is determed as follows: Fine and coarse aggregates are mixed in the
aggregate, the combined fineness modulus of different type of coarse desired proportion and filled to compactness in a container. The
aggregates and the ratio in which two types of coarse aggregates volume before and after are measured and their ratio gives the
should be mixed, can be determined following exactly the same shrinkage factor.
procedure described in chapter 8. Art. 8.8. The combined fineness Example: The combined fineness modulus of fine aggregate (sand,
modulus of fine and coarse aggregates can be determined by the Fq. Ff= 2.85)
8.8. after re-denoting the terms as follows; and coarse aggregate (broken stones, Fc=6.77) was found in be 5.30.
mFc + nFf If 8.49 cu ft of combined and well packed aggregate is required,
F com = -------------- determine the volume of fine and coarse aggregates mixed initially.
m+n
Take shrinkage factor to be -0.75.
where Fcom= the combined fineness modulus of fine and coarse
Solution: Using Eq. 10.5.
aggregates
6.77-5.30 1.47
Fc=the fineness modulus of coarse aggregate f the fineness
F= ------------ = -------- = 0.60
modulus of fine aggregate m and n =the amount of course and fine 5.30-2.85 2.45
aggregate respectively. Similarly, the ratio of the fine aggregate to be .’. The fine and coarse aggregates are in the ratio of 60.100 Let Vf
and Vc are the volumes of fine and coarse aggregates taken before
mixed with 1 of coarse aggregate (R) is determined by the following compaction. If V is the total volume, then
relationship. 8.46
Fc-Fcom V=Vf+Vc = --------- = 11,28 cu ft
R= ---------------- 0.75
Fcom-Ff Since Vf/Vc= 60/100
The Eq. 10. 5.. can also bek written as 60
then Vf = — x 11,28=4.23 cu ft
R= Fc-Fcom 160
Fcom-Ff 100
and Vc= — x 11.28 = 7.05 cu ft.
160
Concrete Water/Cement ratio: In engineering practices, the strength of concrete
Moisture Content of the Agreements: he bulking of the legate (sand)
2. at a given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is assumed to
due to the presence of small percentage of small has already been
depend primarily on two factors:
discussed in Chapter 8. Art 8.7 (see Fig 81). The bulking is very (1) the water/cement ratio and (2) the degree of compaction. The
high in case of fine aggregate but it is less in case of coarse proportion between the amount of water and cement used in a
aggregate (fig. 10.4) concrete mix is termed as the water cement ratio. The water in the
concrete does primarily the three functions:
(1) to wet the surface of the aggregate (2) to impart work ability and
(3) to combine chemically with cement.
When concrete is fully compacted. Its strength is taken to be
inversely proportional to water/ cement ratio. It may be
recalled that the water/cement ratio determines the porosity of
the hardened cement paste at any stage of hydration Fig.
(10.5)
MOISTURE CONTENT-PER CENT
Fig. 10.4 Bulking of coarse aggregates with different percentage of

moisture content.
It is seen from Figs. 8.1 and 10.4 that the bulking in fine aggregate
(1/16 size) with 8 per cent moisture content is 33 percent and the
same for the coarse aggregate (1/2” size) is 11 percent. Therefore, if I
cu ft of dry material each is required then 1+0.33=1.33 cu ft of wet
fine aggregate and 1+011 - 1.11 cu ft of wet coarse aggregate is to be
taken.
Concrete mixes are designed on the basis of dry volumes of
aggregates. The ratios used are the ’real mix ratios’. But in the field,
the aggregates are generally wet, particularly when they £re washed
for clearing. So, their moisture content must be determined and due
allowance must be made in their volumetric measurement in the Fig. 10.5 Relationship between the water/cement ratio and the
field. The correct ratios are then termed as "field mix ratios”. degree of hydration.
168 A Text Book of Engineering Materials
Concrete 169
Experiments have own that the quantity of water in a mix
determines its strength and there is a water/cement ratio which
gives the maximum strength to the concrete. It will be found that
there is a certain percentage of water below which the water will
not be sufficient to hydrate the cement. The use of less water than
that required will not give workability and will produce porous and
weak concrete. On the other hand, if more water is used than that
actually required, the concrete will be weak. The Figs. 10.6 and
10.7 show that the graph of strength against water / cement ratio is
approximately in the shape of a hyperbola. It is a geometrical
property of hyperbola. y=k/x that against 1/x plots as a straight
line. The relationship between the strength and cement/water ratio Fig: 10.7 Effect of cement/water ratio on the strength of
between about concrete
It has been suggested by some research workers that as an
approximate on the relationship between the logarithm of the
strength and the natural value of the water/cement ratio can be
assumed to be liner. As an illustration. Fig. 10.8 gives the relative
strength of mixes with different water/ cement ratios,
Fig. 10.6 Effect of water/cement ratio on the strength of concrete.
1.2 and 2.5 (Fig 10.7) This relationship is clearly more convenient to
use than the water/cement ratio curve (Fig. 10.6) particularly when
interpolation is desired.
Concrete 170
The Fig. 10.9 shows the relationship between the water I cement ratio 171
and the gain in strength with time for
WATER / CEMENT RATIO BY WEIGHT

FIG 10.10. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH AND WATER/CEMENT RATIO
The water/cement ratio is usually expressed as a decimal fraction, but
for practical purposes, it is better to express it many gallons of water
per bag of cement. Therefore,
WATER/CEMENT RATIO Weight of cement
FIG: 10.9 WATER I CEMENT RATIO AND GAIN IN Water/cement ratio = --------------------- 10.7
Weight of cement
STREMENT WATER TIME
Suppose, 30 lbs. of water are required per 100 lbs. of cement then
the concrete (1:2:4) made with ordinary Portland cement. water/cement ratio = 30/100=0.3
It the Fig. 10.10. the relationship between the water /cement ratio This can be expressed as gallons of water per bag of
and the compressive strength of and rapid hardening cement are 0.3 x 112
shown. = -------------- = 3.36 gallons
10
cement as because 1 bag of cement = 1.25 cu ft = 112 lbs and 1 gallon
of water= 10 lb.
The Table 10.4 Shows the relationship between the water / cement
distinction must be made between the effects of mixing matter and
ratio and amount of water in gallons per bag of cement. the attack on the hundred concretes by aggressive waters.
In many specifications the quality of water of concreting is cover by
Table 10.4 Relationship between Water/Cement Ratio and
a cluse saying that the water should be fit for drink, pleasant to taste
Amount of Water and suitable for domestic and industrial purposes.
As a rule, the water should not be saline or brackish and it should be
Water/cement Amount of Water/cement Amount of water in free from acids. The following are the water quality standard
Ratio water in Ratio gallons recommended for mixing and curing of concrete (Table 10.5).
gallons
0.1 1.12 1.3 14.55

0.2 2.24 1.4 15.68
0.3 3.36 1.5 16.80
Table 10.5 Water Quality Standard for Concreting
0.4 4.48 1.6 17.92
Substance Maximum permissible
0.5 5.60 1.7 19.04
concentration, ppm
0.6 6.72 1.8 20.16
0.7 7.84 1.9 21.28 Dissolved solids 2.000
0.8 8.96 2.0 22.40 suspended solids 1,000
Chloride 500
0.9 9.08 2.1 22.52
10 10.20 2.2 23.64 Sulphates 2,000
11 11.31 2.3 25.76 Proportioning of Various Ingredients of Concrete:
12 12.44 2.4 26.88 The object of proportioning the ingredients (cement, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate and water) is to obtain a strong and durable concrete
Quality of Water for Mixing and Curing: The vital influence of the
to suite all requirements. The following are the possible methods of
quantity of water in the concrete mix on the strength of the resulting
proportioning the ingredients (cement, fine aggregate, coarse
concrete has been repeatedly mentioned. The quality of water also
aggregate and water) is to obtain a strong and durable concrete to
plays its role • impurities present in water may interfere with the
suite all requirements. The following are the possible methods of
setting of cement, may adversely affect the strength of the concrete or
proportioning: (a) Arbitrary method (b) Minimum voids method (c)
cause staining of its surface and may also lead to corrosion of the
Sieve analysis method and (d) Trial mixture method.
reinform cement. For these reasons the suitability of water for mixing
and curing purposes should be considered. Clear
Concrete 174 A Text Book of Engineering Materials ] 75
Arbitrary Methods: In proportioning the concrete ingredients, the
cement equal to the voids is used. Usually, an extra among of 8 to 10
proportion of cement is taken as unity to be mixed with parts of
percent of cement is used.
fine aggregate and parts of coarse aggregate. The amount of water
is determed from the strength versus water/cement ratio curves
Sieve Analysis Method: This is also known as Fineness Modulus
(Fig. 10.10) and from slump test. The table 10.6 shows the
Method First, the fine and coarse aggregates are graded and their
recommended proportions ions of the concrete materials for
combined fineness modulus is calculated by Eq. 10.4 for a desired
various type of works.
strength. Then the ratio of the fine and coarse aggregates is
Table 10.6 Proportions of Concrete Materials for Various
determined by using Eq. 10.5, taking the proportion of cement as
Type of Works unity.
Type of construction Concrete Mix Trial Mixture Method: In this method, fine aggregate and coarse
Mass concrete in foundation and concrete blocks
1:3:6 aggregate are mixed in different proportion and the mixture of the
All R.C.C (Reinforced cement concrete) works in
1:4:8 same is taken after thoroughly compacted. The proportion which
slabs, beams columns, walls, lintels etc.
1:2:4 yields the heaviest mixture is taken for a dense concrete. Trail
Dams, reservoirs, overhead R.C.C, water tanks,
1:3:6 specimens (cylindrical) are made with a workable mixture of cement,
different units of water works and Sewage treatment
fine and coarse aggregate with requisite quantity of water and tested
plant, precast R. C. C. works etc. 1:11/2 :3 after 28 days.
1:1:4
5. Method of Mixing of Concrete: The object of mixing is to coat the

surface of all aggregate particles with cement past and to blend all the
materials of concrete into a uniform mass. There are mainly two
Minimum Voids Method: The fundamental principle of this method is that
methods of mixing: (a) Hand mixing and (b) Machine mixing. Hand
for a dense concrete the voids in the coarse and fine aggregates, should be mixing does not generally produce a good concrete unless proper care
completely filled up. Because the dense concrete imparts higher strength. is taken for a thorough mixing of the materials. On the other hand,
The voids of the coarse aggregate are determined first and an amount of machine mixing (mixing the materials in a concrete mixer) produces a
fine aggregate is used so as to be equal to the voids of the coarse good concrete. On the site there is often a tendency to mix concrete as
aggregates. Generally, and extra of 5 to 10 per cent of fine of aggregate is rapidly as possible and it is therefore, necessary to know what is the
used for having a dense mix. Similarly, the voids the combined aggregates minimum mixing time necessary to produce a concrete, uniform in
are determined and an amount of composition and as a result of satisfactory strength. This time varies
with the type of
Concrete 176 A Text Book of Engineering Materials ] 77
mixer and strictly speaking, it is not the mixing time but the number done by a standard steel rod of recommended size forcing the concrete
of revolutions of the mixer that is the criterion of adequate mixing.
round the corners and edges to enable the spaces between the reinforcing
Generally, about 20 revolutions are sufficient. The average strength
bars (in use of R.C.C.) to be completely filled up.
of concrete increases with an increase in mixing time, as shown in
Fig. 10-11.
The most modern means of compaction is vibration. There are various
types of mechanical vibrators. These vibrators, of course, momentarily
separate the aggregate particles but finally allow them to be drawn into
a compact mass Compaction be vibrators produce and strong
concretes.
7. Curing of Concrete: In order to obtain good concrete, the placing of

concrete should be followed in a suitable environment during the early
stages of hardening. Curing is the name given to procedure used for
promoting the hydration of cement and consists of control of
temperatures and of the moisture movement from and into the
Fig. 10.11 Effect of mixing time on strength of concrete concrete. More specifically, the object of curing is to keep concrete
saturated so that hydration of cement can take place in a suitable
6. Placing and Compaction of Concrete: Concrete must be transported environment. Hydration at a maximum rate can proceed only under
from the place of mixing to the place of final placing as quickly as condition of saturation. The order of influence of curing on strength
practicable, by the method which will prevent segregation of can be judged from the Fig. 10.13, obtained for concrete with a
aggregates. Placing of concrete must be done in one continuous water/cement ratio of 0.5. It is seen from the Fig. 10.12 that the curing
operation as far as possible to avoid the necessity of joints. Concrete for 28 days imparts maximum strength on concrete.
should be deposited and not thrown or dumped from a distance to
prevent segregation.
After placing, the concrete should be compacted or consolidated to
eliminate entrapped air. The compaction is
Concrete
Large surface of concrete, such as road-slabs, present a more serious
problem. In order to prevent crazing of the surface or drying out, loss
of water must be prevented even prior to setting. As at the concrete is
at that time mechanically weak, it is necessary to suspend a covering
above the concrete surface. This protection is required only in dry
weather but may also be useful to prevent rain from destroying the
surface of fresh concrete.
Once the concrete has set, wet curing can be provided by spraying or
flooding (ponding) with water or by covering the concrete with wet
sand or earth, sawdust or straw or water hyacinth. Periodically, wetted
hessian or cotton mats may be used. A continuous sparing of water is
naturally more efficient.
FIG. 10.12 INFLUENCE OF CURING ON STRENGTH The period of curing cannot be prescribed simply but it is usual to
OF CONCRETE (WATER/CEMENT RATIO=0.5) specify a minimum of seven days for ordinary Portland cement
Evaporation of water from concrete depends on the temperature and concrete. With slow setting cements, a longer curing period is
the relative humidity of the surrounding air and on the velocity of desirable.
wind which effects a change of air over the surface of concrete. The Maturity of Concrete: So far only the time aspect of curing has been
difference between the temperatures of concrete and of air also considered but, as mentioned earlier, the temperature during curing
affects the loss of water. In fact, the actual loss of water depends on also controls the rate of progress of the reactions of hydration and
the surface volume ratio of the specimen. consequently affects the development of strength of concrete. This
Methods of Curing: There are various methods of curing depending influence in shown in the Fig. 10.13. Since the strength of concrete
upon the conditions of the site and on the size, shape and position of depends on both age and temperature, it can be said that the strength is
the concrete structures. a function of L (time x temperature) and this summation is called
In case of structures with small surface volume ratio, curing may be maturity.
done by oiling and wetting the formworks before casting, the
formworks may also be wetted during hardening and after stripping
off the formworks the concrete should be sprayed with water and
wrapped with polythene sheets or other suitable covering.
180
were cured at 70°F. The specimens were sealed so as to prevent
movement of moisture.
Fig. 10.13 Ratio of strength of concrete cured at different

temperatures to the 28 days strength of concrete cured at 70°
Fig. 10.14 Effect of temperature during the first two hours after
F (Water/cement ratio=0.5)
casting on the development of strength, (water/ cement ratio -
0.58)
Influence of Curing Temperature on Strength of Concrete: It is Steam Curing: The modern trend is to cure concrete by steam at
recalled that a rise in curing temperature speeds up. atmospheric pressure and it is becoming a common practice to cure
The chemical reactions of hydration and thus affects beneficially the precast concrete structures in steam chamber. The primary object of
early strength of concrete without an ill effect on the later strength steam curing is to obtain a sufficiently high early strength so that, the
(Fig. 10.13). However, a higher temperature during placing and concrete products may be handled soon after casting: the moulds can
setting although it increases the very early strength, may adversely be removed earlier than would be the case with ordinary moist curing
affect the strength from about 7 days onwards. The explanation is and less curing strong space is required: all these mean an economic
that a rapid initial hydration appears to form products of a poorer advantage. For many applications the long-term strength of concrete is
physical structure, probably more porous, so that a large proportion of less importance.
of the pores will always remain unfilled. The Fig 10, 14 shows the 10.7 Concreting in Hot Weather: There are some special problems involved
effect of temperature during the first two hours after placing on the in concreting in hot weather specially in a country like Bangladesh
development of concrete with a water/cement ratio of 0.53. The range arising both from and increased rate
of temperatures investigated was 50 to 110°F. and beyond the age of
two hours all specimens
182
Concrete
of evaporation form the fresh mix. These problems concern the The evaporation of freshly laid concrete and also the evaporation of
mixing, placing and curing of concrete. curing water can be stopped by covering the surface by polythene
A high temperature of fresh concrete results in a more rapid hydration sheets and other suitable devices.
and leads, therefore, to accelerated settling and to a lower strength of 10.8 Concreting in Cold Weather: Concreting in cold weather offers some
hardened concrete. Furthermore, rapid evaporation may cause plastic special problems again. If it is done at a freezing temperature, the
shrinkage and crazing and subsequent cooling of the hardened mixing water freezes with a (Consequent increase in the overall
concrete would introduce tensile stresses. It is generally believed that volume of the concrete. Furthermore, since no water is available for
plastic shrinkage is likely to occur when the rate of evaporation the chemical reactions, the setting and hardening of concrete are
exceeds the rate at which the bleeding water rises the surface but it delayed, thus resulting in a poor concrete.
has been recently found that cracks also form due to rapid To avoid the ill effects of low temperature in fresh concrete certain
evaporation. precaution can be taken. The temperature at the time of casting can be
There are some further complications in hot weather concreting: air raises by heating the ingredients of the mix. Water can be heated
entraining is more difficult although this can be remediated by using easily, but it is inadvisable to exceed a temperature of 100 to 140°F as
larger quantities of the entraining agent. Curing also presents the flash setting of cement may result: the likelihood of this happening
additional problems as the curing water tends to evaporate rapidly. depends on the difference between the temperatures of water and
There is a member of remedial measures that can be adopted. First, cement. If heating the water does not sufficiently raise the temperature
the cement content should be kept as low as possible so that the heat of the concrete the aggregate may also be heated. Heating the
of hydration does not unduly, aggravate the effects of high ambient aggregate again above 125°F is inadvisable.
temperature. The temperature of the- fresh concrete can be lowered by The temperature of the mix ingredients must be controlled to make
pre-cooling one or more of the ingredients of the mix. For instance, sure that setting does not occur at too high a temperature. Because this
can be used instead of some of the mixing water but it is essential to would advisedly affect the development of the strength of the concrete.
see that ice melts completely before the mixing completed. In addition, a high temperature of fresh concrete lowers workability
The influence of the temperature during setting on the strength at later and may lead to high thermal contraction.
ages has already been discussed. Here it is wise to say that a In this preferable for the concrete to set, say 50 to 70 F but it is
temperature not higher than about 60°F should not be exceeded. essential that the temperature does not fall below about 50°F during
the next three days. There are numerous precautions that should be
taken in practice. For instance,
Concrete
concrete should not be allowed to cool unduly while being that a good surface is obtained. All formworks must be built so that
transported from the mixer to the formworks and should not be they may be struck without harm to the finished concrete and must be
placed against a frozen surface. watertight to prevent the loss of water from concrete when wet.
Control of temperature after placing is obtained by insulating the Generally, timber which is cheap, light in weight strong and smooth
concrete from the atmosphere and if necessary, by constructing when finished, is used in formworks. Thickness of timber depends on
enclosures around the concrete and providing a source of heat within the loads to be carried and the spacing of the supports below.
the enclosure. The form of heating should be such that the concrete Sometimes, plain C.I. (cast iron) sheets are used in place of timber.
does not dry out rapidly, that no part of it is heated excessively & For important structures (large number of same size) like R.C.C.
columns etc. steel sheet formworks are used. But this type of
that no high concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
formworks is very costly. In Bangladesh, timber and C.I. sheets are
results.
generally used. Sufficient time must elapse before shuttering’s are
10.9 Joints in Concrete Works: There are mainly two types of joints
stiffed off so that concrete will be in a condition to bear its own
which are provided in concrete works: (1) construction joint and (2) weight and other loads which may come on it. It may be added that
expansion joints. the removal of shuttering’s is dependent primarily on the setting
Construction Joints: Concreting must be carried out continuously up properties of cement used in the concrete. The following are the
to the construction joints the position and arrangements of which general practices for the removal of shuttering’s in Bangladesh.
must be predetermined. Construction joints are so positioned that the Table 10.7 Times for Shuttering Removal from Concrete
strength of the structural member is not affected. The most suitable Works.
Temperature Range: 50 to 70°F
location is where the bending moment of the member is zero or the
shear is maximum.
Expansion Joints: These joints are provided to take care of
expansion of concrete due to temperature change or formworks for
concrete.
Time of shuttering removal days
10.10 Shuttering (Formworks): Shuttering or formwork for concrete
Rapid Hardening
must be of suitable quality and adequate strength to remain perfectly Nature of concrete structures ordinary port
Portland cement
rigid and true to line during placing, ramming and setting concrete. land cement
The construction of formwork is a specialized job and is not as it
commonly considered to be if the formworks are required to be
Short beams (Spans less than 20 ft), 10 to 14 days 6 to 9 days
correct in dimensions. The inner face of the shuttering should be
walls, columns, roofs slabs etc.
clean and treated so
Concrete
Long beams (spans more Than 14 to 22 days 10 to 16 days ware houses, roads, institutions etc. To increase the resistance of wear
20 ft), supports or props uber and rear, small quantities of silicate compounds of sodium and
horizontal member (heavy) magnesium are used. Sometimes cement during the setting action,
combines with the solution and forms calcium silicate which forms a
10.11 Concrete Surface Finishing: Concrete is essentially an artificial hard and wear and tear resisting surface.
stone. It is subject to weathering agents like artificially stones. 10.12 Shrinkage of Concrete: Shrinkage is the contraction or concrete due
Therefore, the concrete surface should be given some finishing. The to drying and chemical changes, dependent on the time but not
finishings are of various types, such as plastered finishing, shuttering directly dependent on stresses induced by external loadings. There are
finishing, dressed finishing and granolithic finishing. various causes for shrinkage in concrete. Shrinkages are classified
Plastered Finishing: This is a very common type of concrete surface according to their causes. The following are the main type of
finishing. There are different types of plaster in use. Sometimes, the shrinkages: (1) Plastic Shrinkage (2) Drying shrinkage (3)
plastered surfaces are sand rubbed. Carbonation Shrinkage.
Shuttering Finishing: If the shuttering is very correctly made and the Plastic Shrinkage: During the progress of hydration, the cement paste
placing and compacting are done properly, the surface gives a good (plastic in nature) undergoes a volumetric contraction whose
appearance when the shuttering is removed. Pre-cast concrete magnitude is of the order of one per cent of the absolute volume of
sections may simply be jointed at their sides, with their surface left in dry cement. This contraction is known as plastic shrinkage, since it
the same conditions as when cast. Sometimes, shuttering finishing is takes place while the concrete is still in the plastic state. Loss of water
desired for important type of constructions, such as overhead R. C. by evaporation from the surface of the concrete or by suction by dry
C. water tanks, hydraulic structures, like dam’s bridge piers etc. concrete below aggravates the plastic shrinkage and can lead to
Dressed Finishing: In this type of finishing, the surface is given some surface cracking, such cracking is also possible when on evaporation
form of ornamental touch with the help of dressing tools. is permitted. Cracking develops usually over obstructions of uniform
Granolithic Finishing: In this type of finishing, the concrete surface

settlement, e. g. reinforcement or large aggregate particles or when a
is finished when green. Common types of finishing are: (1) trowel large horizontal area of concrete makes construction in that direction
finish with neat cement and (2) slightly rough finish with a wooden more difficult than vertically, deep cracks of an irregular pattern are
float. These finishings are generally used in dwelling houses and teen found. Early shrinkage is greater the larger the cement of the mix
factory and industrial buildings, and the earlier the stiffening of the concrete. It has been suggested
that a greater bleeding capacity of the concrete,
188
Concrete A Text Book of Engineering Materials
decreases the plastic shrinkage. But the relation between plastic 189
shrinkage and bleeding has not been confirmed.
Volume changes occur also after setting has taken place and may be
in the form of shrinkage or swelling, continued hydration, when a
supply of water is present, leads to expansion (see next section,
10.13) but when no moisture movement to or from the paste is
permitted, shrinkage occurs. Shrinkage of such a conservative
system is known as autogenous shrinkage and it occurs is practice in
the interior of a large concrete mass.
This shrinkage is relatively small and for practical purposes need
not be distinguished from shrinkage caused by drying out of
concrete. The latter is known as drying shrinkage and normally
includes that contraction which is due to autogenous changes.
2. Drying Shrinkage: Withdrawal of water from concrete stored in
saturated air causes drying shrinkage. The change in the volume of
drying concrete is not equal to the volume of water removed. The
loss of free water which takes place first, causes little or no
shrinkage. As drying continuous, absorbed water is removed and the Fig. 10.15 Relationship between shrinkage and loss of water of
change in the volume of unrestrained cement paste at that stage is concrete cured for 7 days at 70°F and then dried.
equal approximately to the loss of water. The relation between the Factors affecting the drying shrinkage are (a) amount of aggregate (b)
loss of weight of water and shrinkage is shown in Fig. 10.15 modulus of elasticity of concrete (shrinkage varies inversely with the
modulus of elasticity of concrete at early ages) (c) the water content
(d) the rate of evaporation or drying and (e) curing and storage
conditions.
Differential Shrinkage: This is a special type of drying shrinkage
takes place due to non-uniform shrinkage with the concrete member
itself. Moisture loss takes place at the surface so that a moisture
gradient is established in the concrete specimen, which is thus subject
to differential shrinkage. This shrinkage is compensated by strains
due to
Concrete
internal stresses tensile near the surface and compression in Carbonation of concrete also results in increases strength and
the core. Due to differential shrinkage, warping curving or reduced permeability, possibly because water release by carbonation
bending can result. aids the process of hydration and CaCO2 reduces the voids within the
cement paste.
3 Carbonation Shrinkage: In addition to shrinkage upon drying concrete
undergoes shrinkage due to carbonation a phenomenon only recently
10.13 Swelling of Concreted. Cement concrete cured continuously in
recognized and most of the experimental data on drying shrinkage
water from the time of castings exhibits a net increase in volume and
include the effects of carbonation. Drying shrinkage and carbonation
an increase in weight. This swelling is due to the absorption of water
shrinkage are however, quite distinct in nature. Carbon dioxide
by the cement gel.
(CO2) present in the atmosphere reacts in the presence of moisture,
with hydrated cement minerals (the agent being really the carbonic
acid). The action of CO2 takes place even at small concentration. Ca
(OH)2 carbonates to CaCO2 but other cement compounds are also
decomposed hydrated silica, alumina and ferric oxide being
produced. Such a complete decomposition of calcium compounds in
hydrated cement is chemically possible even at the low pressure of
CO2 in normal atmosphere. The rate of carbonation depends also on
the moisture content of the concrete and the relative humidity of the
ambient medium. Carbonation is accompanied by an increase the
weight of the concrete and by shrinkage. Carbonation shrinkage is
probably caused by dissolving of crystals of Ca (OH), while under a
compressive stress (imposed by drying shrinkage) and depositing -of
CaCO3) in spaces free from stress. The sequence of drying and
carbonation greatly affects the total magnitude of shrinkage.
Simultaneous drying and carbonation produces lower total shrinkage
than when drying is followed by carbonation, (fig. 10.16 & 10.17) Fig.10.16 Drying shrinkage and carbonation shrinkage at
different relative humidities.
Linear expansion of neat cement past (relative to dimensions
24 hours after casting) has typical values of 1,300x10 -6 after 100 days
Concrete
2,000 x 10-6 after 100 days and 10.14 Creep of Concrete: In many applications, concrete structures are
2,200 x 10-6 after 200 days. required to sustain steady loads for long periods of time, such as
It is to be noted that swelling, shrinkage and creep are expressed as concrete roofs, beams etc. Under such condition, the concrete may
linear strain. continue to deform until its usefulness is seriously impaired. Such
time dependent deformation may be almost imperceptible, but over
The swelling of concrete is considerably smaller approximately
the lifetime of concrete structure. They can grow large and even
100 x W6 to 150 x IO’6 for a mix with a cement content of 500 lbs.
result in final fracture without any further increase in load.
per cu yd after 6 to 12 months of casting.
Under short time loading, as in conventional, compression test, there
is initial deformation that increases simultaneously with the load, as
shown in the static stress-strain diagram. If under any condition,
deformation continues when the load is held constant, this additional
deformation is known as creep.
The relation between stress and strain for concrete is a function of
time. The gradual increase in strain with time is due to creep. Creep
can thus be defined as the increase in strain under a sustained stress
(Fig. 10.18) and since this increase can be several times as the strain
on loading, creep is of considerable importance in concrete
mechanics.
Fig. 10.17 Relative Humidity percent influence of the sequence of the

drying and carbonation on shrinkage.
Swelling is accompanied by an increase in weight of the order of 1

percent. The increase in volume as water enters to occupy the space
created by the decrease in volume on hydration of the system of Fig: 10.18 Time dependent deformation in concrete subjected
cement plus water. to a sustain load

194
Concrete A Text Book of Engineering Materials 195
Creep has in the past been referred to also a flow. How, plastic vied
concrete specimen is drying while under load it is usually assumed
plastic deformation, many of these teams arising from imperfect
that creep and shrinkage are additive. Creep is thus calculated as the
upstanding of the nature of the phenomenon. Nowadays, the term
difference between the total time deformation of the loaded
imperfect upstanding of the nature of the phenomenon. Nowadays,
specimen and the shrinkage of a similar unloaded specimen stored
the term creep is universally accepted.
under the same conditions through the same period. 1 his is a
Under normal conditions of loading the instances strain recorded convenient simplification, but shrinkage and creep are not
depends on the speed of application of the load and includes thus not independent phenomena.
only the elastic strain but also some creep. It is difficult to If a sustained load is removed from a concrete specimen, the strain
differentiate accurately between the immediate elastic strain and decreases immediately by the amount equal to the elastic strain at the
early creep, but this is not of practical importance is the total strain given age, generally lower than the elastic strain on loading. This
induced by the application of load that matters. Since the modulus of instaneous recovery is creep recovery (Fig. 10.19) The shape of the
elasticity of concrete increases with age the elastic deformation creep recovery curve is rather like that of the creep curve, but
gradually decreases and strictly speaking creep should be taken as recovery approaches its maximum value much more rapidly, the
strain in excess of the elastic strain at the time at which creep is being reversal of creep is not complete and creep is not a simply reversible
determined (Fig. 10.18). Often, the modulus of elasticity is not phenomenon.
determined at different ages and creep is simply taken as an increase
in strain above the initial elastic strain. This is alternative definition,
although theoretically less correct, does not introduce serious error
and is after more convenient to use.
Although the majority of the data more convenient here refers to
creep in compression, creep occurs also under tensile loading and it is
believed that the magnitude of creep in tension and in compression is
of the same order, and both are similarly affected by various factors.
This applies also to creep under torsion although few test data arc
available.
So far, we have considered the creep of concrete stored under such
conditions that no shrinkage or swelling takes place. If a
Fi Time Since Application of Load Days
Fig. Fig. 10.19 Creep and recovery of a concrete specimen storied in air
(relative humidity 95 percent) subjected to a compressive stress of
21.50 psi and then unloaded.
196
Concrete stress/strength ratio (fig. 10.20) Since for a given mix. strength and
Factor Influencing Creep: Factors that influence creep are Relative modules of elasticity are related to one another creep and modulus of
humidity (b) Shrinkage (c) Strength (d) elasticity are also related.
Aggregate (e) Temperature.
(a) Relative Humidity: The relative humidity of the medium Table 10.6 Creep of Concrete of Different Strengths Loaded at the Age of
surrounding the concrete is an important factor. For a given 7-Days
concrete, creep is higher the lower the relative humidity.

(b) Shrinkage: Concrete which exhibits high shrinkage shows Compressive strength of Ultimate specific creep.
generally also a high creep. This does not mean that the two concrete, psi 10-6 per Ib/inch2
phenomena are due to the same cause but they may be both linked
2.000 1.40
to the same aspect of structure of hydrated cement paste.
4,000 0.80
(c) Strength: The strength of concrete has a considerable influence
on creep: within a wide range creep is inversely proportional to the 6,000 0.55
strength of concrete at the time of application of the load. This is 8.000 0.40
indicated in the Table 10.6. It is thus possible to express creep as a From the influence of strength on creep it follows that creep is closely
linear function of the related to the water/cement ratio of the mix.
(d) Aggregate: Very recent tests have shown that the modulus of
elasticity of aggregate controls the amount of creep and concrete
made with different aggregates exhibit creep of varying magnitude.
(e) Age and Maturity: The age at which the load is applied greatly
affects the magnitude of creep (Fig 10.21), the influence of age
arising probably mainly from an increase in the strength of concrete
with age. For the same reason, maturity affects creep.
STRESS/STRENQTH RATIO PER CEN7
Fig: 10.20 Creep of concrete specimens cured and stored

continuously at different humidities
Concrete
of young concrete creep at 200°F can be nearly three times the creep of
the same concrete at 70°F.
Fig. 10.21 Influence of age at loading on creep of concrete made

with aluminous cement.
(i) Type of Cement: The type of cement affects creep so far as it

influences the strength of the concrete at the time if application of the
H -----------OAYS ---------- h ----------------------------------------- YEARS ------------------ H
load. Portland blast-furnace cement results in a higher creep than the
standard types of Portland cement. TIME SINCE LOADING (LOG SCALE)
(g) Fineness of Cement: Fineness of cement affects the strength

development at early ages and thus influences creep. The finer Fig. 10.22 Creep time curves
cement the higher its gypsum (retarder) requirement which produces Relation Between Creep and Time: Creep is usually determined by
high shrinkage and therefore, high creep. measuring the change with time in the strain of a concrete specimen
subjected to a constant stress and stored under appropriate conditions,
(h) Temperature: Creep of concrete at temperatures above normal
is becoming of increasing interest since concrete is now used in the under such conditions creep continues for a long time. The rate of
construction of pressure vessels in atomic reactors. Few test data are creep, however decreases at a continuous rate and it is generally
available but there is no doubt that a higher temperature leads to a assumed that creep tends to a limiting value after an infinite time under
higher initial rate of creep, compared with the behavior of the same load. The Fig. 10.22 shows the long-term measurements of creep and it
concrete at room temperature. This is due to an increase in the can be seen that: 18 to 35 per cent (average 26 per cent) of the 20-year
mobility of water and also to activation of molecular processes of creep occurs in 2 weeks:
deformation. However, the rate of creep soon falls off and becomes 40 to 70 per cent (average 55 per cent) of the 20-year creep occurs in 3
the same at all temperatures. Nevertheless, in case months, and 64 to 83 per cent (average 76 per cent) of the 20-year
creep occurs in 1 year.
Concrete 200
If the creep after 1 year under load is taken as unity, then the never recoverable can be time dependent and there is no
average values of creep at later ages are: proportionality between plastic strain. A viscous deformation is never
1.14 after 2 years: recoverable on unloading is always time-dependent and there is
1.20 after 5 years: always proportionality between the rate of viscous strain and the
1.26 after 10 years: applied stress and hence between stress and strain at a given time.
Effects of Creep: Creep effects strains and deflection and often also
1.33 after 20 years and
1.36 after 30 years. stress distribution but the effects vary with the type of structure. Creep
These values show that the ultimate creep is in excess of times of of plain concrete does not affect the strength although under very high
the one year-creep, although for calculation it is often assumed that stresses, creep hastens the approach of the limiting strains at which
the ultimate creep is equal to 4/3 of the one failure takes place. The influence of creep on the ultimate strength of
year-creep. simply supported reinforced concrete beam subjected to a sustained

Numerous mathematical expressions relating creep and time have load is not significant but the deflection increases considerably and
been suggested. They are hyperbolic, logarithm, exponential or may in many cases be a critical consideration in design.
power functions. But the fundamental principle is that the rate of In reinforced concrete columns, creep results in a gradual transfer of
creep at any time is proportional to the creep still to appear- load from the concrete to the reinforcement. In statically
characteristic of visco elastic fluid. But it may be said that the indeterminate structure creep may relieve stress concentration induced
present knowledge about creep is still largely qualitative but not by shrinkage, temperature changes, or movement of supports. In all
quantitative. concrete structures, creep reduces internal stresses due to nonuniform
Nature of Creep: The problem of the nature of the creep is still shrinkage so that there is a reduction in cracking.
controversial. The seat of creep is cement paste and the creep may On the other hand, in mass concrete, creep in itself may be a cause of
be related to internal movement of absorbed or intracrystalline cracking when a restrained concrete mass undergoes a cycle of
water. The exact mechanism of creep is still unknown. But it is temperature changes due to the development of the heat of hydration
apparent that creep and many mechanical properties of cement and subsequent cooling. Creep relieves the compressive stress induced
paste, depend largely on a grosser structure of colloidal dimensions by the radix rise in temperature so that the remaining compression
and only indirectly on the chemical constitution. disappears as soon as some cooling has taken place. On further
Although the nature of creep is still uncertain, one should have cooling of concrete, tensile stresses develop and since the rate of
thorough understanding of the nature of deformation which dictates creep is reduced
the nature of creep. An elastic deformation is always reversible on
unloading. A plastic deformation is
202 Text Book of Engineering Materials 203
Concrete
with age cracking may occur even before the temperature has 9. Portland blast-furnace cement and low heat Portland cement.
dropped to the initial (placing) value. For tins reason, the rise in 3. Sulphate resisting Portland cement and pozzolana cement.
temperature in the interior of a large concrete mass must be 4. Aluminous cement.
controlled by the use of low heat cement, a low cement content 1. Leaching (Efflorescence): Leaching of lime compounds may
precooling of the mix ingredients, limiting the height of concrete under some circumstance lead to the formation of salt deposits on the
lifts, and coiling of concrete by circulating refrigerated water surface of the concrete, known as efflorescence. This is found, for
through a network of pipes embedded in the concrete mass. instance when water percolates through poorly compacted concrete
Another instance of the adverse effects of creep are its influence on or through cracks or along badly made joints and when evaporation
the stability of the structure due to increase in deformation. Even can take place at the surface of the concrete. Calcium carbonate.
when creep does not affect the ultimate strength of a structure its CaCO3 formed by the reaction of C (OH)2 with CO2 is left behind in
effects may be extremely serious as far as the performance of the the form of a white deposited. Calcium sulphate deposited are
structure is concerned. encountered as well.
The loss of prestress due to creep is well known and indeed Efflorescence can also be caused by the use of unwashed seashore
accounts for the failure of all early attempts at prestressing. It was aggregated. The salt coating on the surface of the aggregate particles
only the introduction of high tensile steel, whose elongation is may in due course lead to white deposited on the surface of the
several times the construction of concrete due to creep and concrete. Gypsum and alkalis in the aggregate have a similar effect.
shrinkage, that made prestressing a successful proposition. A part from the leaching aspect, efflorescence is ot importance only
The effects creep may thus be harmful, but on the whole creep, in so far as it mars the appears of concrete.
unlike shrinkage is beneficial in relieving stress contentions and has 2. Sulphate Attack: Solid salts do not attack concrete, but when
contributed very considerable to the success of concrete as a present in solution they can react with hardened concrete. Some clays
structural material. contain alkali, magnesium and calcium sulphates and the ground
10.15 Chemical Attack of Concrete: The common forms of chemical water in such a clay produces a sulphate solution. Attack on concrete
attack are: (1) Leaching out of cement (efflorescence) (2) Action of can thus take place, the sulphate reacting with Ca (OH)2 and with
sulphates: (3) Sea water attack (4) Acid water attack. In general calcium aluminate hydrate.
terms the resistance of concrete varies with the type of cement used: 1 he products of the reactions, gypsum and calcium sulpho aluminate
it has been suggested that the resistance increases in the following have a considerably greater volume than the
order:
1 • Ordinary and rapid hardening Portland cement.
Concrete
compounds they replace, so that the reactions with the sulphates
and abrasion and all these tend to aggravate the damage of the
lead to expansion and disruption of the concrete.
concrete.
The rate of sulphate attack increases with an increase in the strength In case of reinforced concrete, the absorption of salts established
of the solution concrete attacked by sulphate has a characteristic anodic and cathodic areas: the resulting electrolytic action leads to an
whitish appearance. The damage usually starts at eddies and corner accumulation of the corrosion products on the steel with a consequent
and is followed by progressive cracking and spalling which reduce rupture of the surrounding concrete, so that the effects of sea water
the concrete to a friable state or even soft state. are more severe on reinforced concrete than on Plaine concrete. It is
The vulnerability of concrete to sulphate attack can be reduced by: therefore, re-essential to provide a sufficient cover to reinforcement
(a) the use of cement of low C3 A (3 inch preferably) and to use dense and impermeable concrete. The
(b) the addition of pozzolana material with cement type of cement used comes second, aluminous, sulphate resisting
(c) the use of dense and impermeable concrete Portland blast-furnace and Portland pozzolana cements giving good
(d) the keep of high-pressure steam curing and results.
(e) the addition of calcium chloride to the concrete mix. 4. Acid Attack: In damp condition, SO2, CO2 and other acid fumes
3. Sea water Attack: Sea water contains sulphate and attack concrete in present in the atmosphere attack concrete by dissolving and removing
manner similar to those described already in addition the chemical part of the set cement, a soft and mushy mass being ultimately left
action, crystallization of the salts in the pores of the concrete may behind. This form of attack occurs in chimneys and steam railway
result in its disruption owing to the pressure exerted by the salt tunnels. Acid attack is encountered also under industrial conditions.
crystals. Because crystallization takes place at the point of Although domestic sewage by itself is alkaline and does not attack
evaporation of water this form of attack occurs in the concrete above concrete, severe damage of sewers has been observed in many cases,
the water level. Since, however, the salt solution rises in the concrete specially at high temperatures, when Sulphur compounds become
by capillary action, the attack takes place only when water can reduced by an aerobia bacteria to ITS. This is not a destructive agent
penetrate into the concrete so that impermeability of the concrete is itself, but is dissolved in moisture films on the exposed surface of the
once again its most important attribute, in tropical climates this concrete and undergoes oxidation by aerobic bacteria finally
attack is more rapid. producing sulphuric acid. The attack occurs, therefore, above the
In some cases, the action of sea water on concrete is accompanied level of the flow of the sewage. The cement is gradually dissolved
by the destructive agents of frost, wave impact and progressive deterioration of concrete in the sewer takes place.
Concrete 206
Industrial wastes sometimes contain acid due to manufacturing The disadvantages are (a) during handling and transporting, there is
processes. Thus, industrial waste attacks industrial sewers (concrete always a risk of damage and breakage (b) large space is required for
sewers) and surface drains. curing precast blocks and part (c) large structural members present
The resistance of concrete to acid attack is increases successfully by major problem of handling transporting and placing in position.
the artificial surface treatment with coal-tar rubber or bituminous 2. Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C.): Concrete is very strong in
paints, sodium silicate, magnesium silico fluoride and other agents. compression and again comparatively very weak in tension. On the
Good protection of concrete for acid attack is obtained by subjecting other hand, steel is very strong in tension. Therefore, steel rods of
concrete in a vacuum to the action of silicon tetrafluoride gas. This recommended size are embedded in concrete to take care of tension.
gas reacts thus with lime. The concrete adheres quite well to the surface of the steel rods. In
2Ca (OH)2 + SiF4 -» 2CaF2 + Si (OH)4 19.8 other words, the bond between concrete and steel is very strong.
This treatment can be applied to precast concrete only, which is then Therefore, the cement concrete which strengthen or reinforced by
known as Ocral-concrete. using steel rods is termed as ’Reinforced Cement Concrete’ (RCC).
10.16 Various special types of concrete: There might be questions about why only steel rods are used as
1. Precast Concrete: This is a type of concreted which is cast into reinforcement and why not other materials like timber, bamboo etc.
moulds either in a factory or at the site. The better definition is that There are many reasons of superiority of steel over other materials as
this is the concrete which is not laid in position directly, like green reinforcement, but the following three reasons are most important: (a)
concrete which is placed in position directly, after mixing is termed as Steel as discussed already is very strong in tension (b) Co-efficient of
cast in situ concrete. The hardening and curing of precast concrete are thermal expansions of concrete and steel are approximately same and
also carried out where it is cast but not in the position where it is
(C) Bond between concrete and steel is very strong.
ultimately used. Precast concrete is used in simple units labs, line ties
Since most of the modern construction is made by reinforces cement
various types of ornamental and architectural works in buildings and
concrete, the strength of bond between concrete and steel is of
different units of prefabricated concrete houses.
considerable importance. Bond arises primarily from friction and
The advantages of precast concrete over cast in situ concrete are (a)
adhesion between concrete and steel and may also be affected by the
better supervision (b) production not hampered by weather condition
shrinkage of concrete relative to steel. Bond involves, however, not
(c) less shuttering requirement (d) quick laying of precast units on the
site and (e) hence time of construction is less. only the properties of concrete but also the mechanical properties of
steel and its position in the concrete member. In general terms, bond
is
Text Book of Engineering Materials 209
Concrete 208
Columns and Beams: Minimum cover 1 inch and should not be less
related to the quality of the concrete and bond-strength is
than the diameter of steel rods.
approximately proportional to the compressive strength of concrete
Minimum clear distance between the steel rods should not be less
up to about 3.000 psi. It has been found by research that for higher
than 1 inch or diameter of the rods in any case, the spacing should not
strength of concrete, the increase in bond strength becomes
be less than the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. The minimum
progressively smaller and eventually negligible. This is why most
clear distance between successive layers of rods should not be lens
codes of practice restrict the permissible value of bond strength
3/4 inch. The working stress of steel rods in tension should be 23.000
becomes progressively smaller and eventually negligible. This is why
most codes of practice restrict the permissible value of bond in high psi. When the rods are spliced, a length of lap 40x diameter of the rod
strength concrete. The British Code of practice CP 114(1957) is to be taken in addition to an anchorage in stie form of a
prescribes the permissible average bond as Ocb 12 fcb up to fcb = semicircular hook whose diameter should be 5x diameter of the rod
1,000 psi and 0.06 fcb+60 above fcb= 1,000 psi, where fca is the (minimum). Details of standard hook is shown in Fig. 10-23.
permissible compressive stress in bending and is equal to 1/3 of the According to ACI Code, splicing at points of maximum tensile tress
28 days cube strength. shall be avoided. All rods should be bent (from compression zone to
The American Concrete Institute Code 318-56 prescribes permissible tension zone and vice versa) preferable at an angle of 45°
bond stress as a fraction of the compressive strength of concrete up to
3.500 psi put allows no increase in bond stress in concrete of high
strength. The 1963 revision of the AC1 Code stipulates the bond O= ROO DIMETER — HOOK LENGTH
stress, as a proportion of the square root of the compressive strength

OOK RADIUS
of concrete with an upper limit of 500 psi.
40 MIN BUT J
After formwork is prepared, the reinforcing rods are placed in INOT LESS THAN 2
position and tied. The subsequent operations of placing compacting
Fig. 10.23 Details of Standard Hook
and curing are the same as in case of plain concrete.
Standard Hook Size (180° hook):
The steel rods should be embedded sufficiently and a covering of
R=21/2 d for rods 1/4 to 5/8- inch diameter (minimum).
following specifications should be provided: R=3d for rods 3/4 to 1 inch diameter (minimum).
Slabs. Minimum cover is 1/2 inch and should not be less than the
R=3 ½ d for rods 5-to 11/2 -inch diameter (minimum).
diameter of steel rods.
Hook length. L=24 x Rod diameter.
Concrete,
Some typical sections (showing the reinforcement) of R. C. C. 4.8√ fc
structural members (rectangular beams, T-beam with column and for deformed bars, Vc = ---------- -
roof slab) are shown in Fig. 10.24 d
In any case, the value Vc should not exceed 160 psi.
Some image part missing 3. prestressed Concrete: Concrete in which there have been introduced
REINFORCEMENT internal stress of such magnitude and distribution that stresses
REINFORCING ROADS SECTION
REINFORCEMENT resulting from given external loading are counteracted to a desired
(o) R.CX. RECTANGULAR BEAM
BINDER degree. In reinforced cement concrete members, the prestress is
SLAB (c) COLUMN SECTION commonly introduced by tensioning the steel reinforcement.
In prestressed concrete, high tensile steel is used which will have to be
REINFORCEMENT
elongated a great deal before its strength is fully utilized. If the high
tensile steel simply buried in the concrete as in ordinary reinforced
(b) R. C. C. Beam (c) R. C. C. Roof slab concrete, the surrounding concrete will have to crack very seriously
Fig. 10.24. Typical Sections of R.C.C. Structural Members Allowable before the full strength of the steel is developed. Hence it necessary to
Stresses in Reinforced Cement Concrete: According to AC1 Code, the pre stretch the steel with respect to concrete. By pre stretching and
following are the allowable stresses: anchoring the steel against the concrete, desirable stresses and strains are
c produced in both materials. Compressive stresses and strains in concrete
(a) Allowable compressive stress in concrete fc=0. 45 l where
fc =allowable compressive stress in concrete, psi and fc=ultimate and tensile stresses and strains in steels This combined action permits the
compressive strength of concrete, psi. safe and economical utilization of the two materials which cannot be
(b) Allowable tensile stress in steel reinforcement is generally taken achieved by simply burying steel in concrete as is done for ordinary
to be 18,000 psi or 20,000 psi. reinforced concrete. Therefore, prestressed concrete in nothing but an
(c) Allowable bond stress Previous Value: Vc=0.04fc
extension of the applications of the reinforced concrete to include steels
(For all conditions, but not to exceed 160 psi) Present Value:
of high tensile strength.
2.4√ fc Classification: Prestressed concrete structure can be classified in number
for normal bottom rods. Vc = -----------
of ways, depending upon their features of design and construction. These
d
where d is the diameter of rods are as follows.
1.75√ fc (a) Externally of Internally Prestressing. External 1) prestressing is a term
for normal top rods. Vc = ----------- applied to prestressed structures were
d
d
Concrete 212
X. A Text Book of Engineering Materials 213
tressing is applied externally. Similarly, internally prestressing is used
full strength of the high tensile steel it is necessary to restore
to describe the method of prestressing internally. Most of the
prestressing to prestress it. Prestressing the steel and anchoring it
prestressed concrete structures are internally prestressed.
against the concrete produces desirable stresses and strains which
(a) Circular and Linear pre stringing: Circular prestressing refers to
serve to reduce or eliminate cracks in concrete. Thus, the entire section
prestressing in circular or round structures like tanks, pipes etc. where
of the concrete becomes effective in prestressed concrete whereas only
the prestressing reinforcement are wound around in circle. Prestressing
the portion of section above the neutral axis is supposed to act in the
all other members like beams slabs etc. termed as linear prestressing.
case of reinforced concrete.
(b) Pre-tensioning and post-tensioning: The term pretension Ing is
The use of curved reinforcement will help to carry some of the shear in
used to describe any method of - prestressing in which the
a member. In addition, precompression in the concrete tends to reduce
reinforcement are stretched (tensioned) before the concrete is placed.
the diagonal tension. Thus, it is possible to use a small section in
The steel rods are temporarily encored against some posts when
prestressed concrete to carry the same amount of external shear in a
tensioned and the prestress transferred to the concrete after it has set.
beam.
In contrast to pretension Ing, post tensioning is a method of
High strength concrete which cannot be economically utilized in
prestressing in which the reinforcement is tensioned after the concrete
reinforced concrete constructions is found to be desirable and even
has hardened.
necessary with prestressed concrete. In reinforced concrete using
(c) Partial or Full prestressing: When a member is designed so that
concrete of high strength will result in a smaller section calling for
under the working load there is on tensile stress in it then the concrete
more reinforcement and will end with a more costly design. In
is said to be fully prestressed. If some tensile stresses will be produced
prestressed concrete high, strength concrete is required to match with
in the member under working load, then it is termed partially
high strength steel in order to yield economical proportions. Now, the
prestressed.
advantages of prestressed concrete as compared with reinforced
concrete will now be discussed with respect to their service ability,
Advantages and disadvantages of prestressed Concrete over Reinforced
safety and economy.
Concrete: The readers are already acquainted with reinforced concrete,
Service ability: Prestressed concrete design is more suitable for
so it will be interesting to compare prestressed concrete with it. The
structures of long spans and those carrying heavy loads. Prestressed
most outstanding difference between the two is the employment of
structures are more slander and hence more adaptable to artistic
materials of higher strength for prestressed concrete. In order to utilize
treatment they do not crack under working lords. Under dead load the
the
deflection is reduced owing to the cambering effect of prestress. This
becomes an
Concrete 2l4 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 215
important consideration for structures such as long cantilevers. Under First of all, the stronger materials will have a higher unit cost. More
live load the deflection is also smaller prestressed elements are more auxiliary materials are required, for prestressing such as anchorage
adaptable to pre casting because of the lighter weight. devices, conduits and grounds etc. More formwork is also needed, since
Safety: If is difficult to say that one type of structure is safer than the non-rectangular shapes are often necessary for prestressed concrete.
other. The safety of a structure depends more upon its design and More labor is required to place reinforcement. More attention in design
construction than upon its type. When properly designed prestressed construction and supervision is necessary. Skilled labor is required.
structures have overloading capacities similar to and perhaps slightly From the above discussion, it can be concluded that prestressed
higher than those of reinforced concrete. The ability to resist shock concrete structure is more likely to be economical when the same unit
and impact loads and repeated working loads has been shown to be as is repeated many times or when heavy good and experienced designer
good in prestressed as in reinforce concrete. The resistance to of experienced and skilled laborer’s, prestressing devices and of
stronger materials often helps to tip the balance in favor of prestressed
corrosion is better than that of the reinforced concrete for the same
concrete.
amount of cover owing to the non-existence of cracks. But if cracks
Uses of Prestressed Concrete: Prestressed concrete is very popular
are developed corrosion can be more serious in prestressed concrete.
nowadays in concrete constructions. It is used in the construction of
Prestressed concrete members do require more care in design
construction add erection than those of ordinary concrete, because of slabs, span beams, bridges, dams, piles, posts and pipes.
higher strength smaller section and same times delicate design Strength of Requirement for Concrete and Steel in Prestressed Concrete:
features involved. Concrete: Stronger concrete is required for prestressed than reinforced
Economy: From the economic point of view, it is at once evident that work. Present practice calls for 28 days cylinder strength of 4,000 to
smaller quantities of materials, both steel and concrete are required to 5,000 psi for prestressed concrete while the corresponding value for
carry the same loads, since the materials are of higher strength. There is reinforced concrete is around 2500 psi. High strength is necessary for
also a definite saving in stirrups since shear in prestressed concrete is the following reasons: (a) In order to minimize their cost, commercial
reduced by the inclination of the reinforcement and the diagonal tension anchorages for prestressing steel are always designed on the basis of
is further minimized by the presence of prestress.
high strength concrete (b) Concrete of high compressive strength offers
In spite of the above economic saving with prestressed concrete, its use high resistance in tension and in shear as well as bond (c) High strength
cannot be advocated for all conditions.
concrete is less liable to shrinkage cracks
(d) it has also a high modulus of elasticity and smaller creep strain. reason, the prepacked concrete is also known as colloidal concrete.
Resulting in smaller loss of prestress in steel. The following are the Advantages of Prepacked Concrete:
Steel: High tensile steel is almost the universal material for producing (a) Prepacked concrete is economical in cement.
prestress and supplying the tensile force in prestressed concrete. Such (b) Concrete of uniform properties is obtained.
steel can take any of three forms wires, stands, or bars. The most (c) Segregation is practically eliminated.
widely used at present are the wires, which are grouped, in parallel, (d) Prepacked concrete can be placed in locations not easily
into cables. The tensile strength is in the range of 150,000 to 270,000 accessible by ordinary concreting techniques: it can also be placed in
psi. sections containing a large number of embedded items that have to be
4. Prepacked Concrete: This type of concrete is produced in two stages. precisely located this arises, for instance in nuclear shields.
In the first operation, the coarse aggregate is placed and compacted in (e) The drying shrinkage of prepacked concrete is considerably
the formworks. The voids between the particles, forming some 30 to lower that of ordinary concrete.
35 percent of the overall volume to be concreted, are filled with (f) It is highly resistant to actions of freezing and thawing.
mortar in the second operation. The coarse aggregate must be (g) Prepacked concrete is suitable for the construction of water
thoroughly wetted before the mortar is intruded. The mortar is retaining structures like dam’s water tanks etc. and for repair works.
pumped under pressure through slotted pipes, starting from the (h) Prepacked concrete be used in mass construction where the
bottom of the mass, the pipes being gradually withdrawn. A typical temperature rise has to be controlled cooling can be achieved by
mortar consists of one part Portland cement, one part of very finely circulation of refrigerated water is later displaced by the raining
divided highly active pozzolana or fly ash (residue) the burning of mortar. At the other extreme, in cold weather when the frost damage
powdered coal, and three to four parts of fine sand with sufficient is feared, steam can be circulated in order to preheat the aggregate.
water to form a fluid mixture. An intrusion agent, (representing about Prepacked concrete appears thus to have many useful features, but
1 percent of the weight of the cement plus the pozzolana or fly ash) because of numerous practical difficulties (e.g. the need for an
containing a small amount of aluminum powder in order to improve extremely clear coarse aggregate) considerable skill and experience in
the fluidity of the mortar and to hold the solid constituents in application of process are necessary for good results to obtained.
suspension is used. As an alternative, a mortar consisting of cement
and fine sand can be mixed in special 'colloid' mixer which disperses
the cement to such a degree that it remains in suspension until the
pumping has been completed. For this
5 Vacuum Concrete: All the water used in mixing concrete is not. a) Animal and vegetable fats and oils and their fatty acids
required for hydration and therefore if excess water is removed after b) Natural wood resins, which react with lime in cement to form a
placing the strength of the concrete will be improved. soluble resin ate.
The procedure is briefly as follows a concrete mix with good c) Wetting agents such as alkali salts of sulphate and sulphonated
workability is place in the formworks in the usual manner. Since organic compound.
fresh concrete contains a continuous system of water filled channels
The air entraining agents can be dispensed either as an admixture (a
the application of a vacuum to the surface concrete results in a large
material adds to the mix when the ingredients are fed into the concrete
amount of water being extracted from a certain depth of the concrete,
mixer) or else as an addition to the cement, in which the agent is
the vacuum is applied through porous mats connected to a vacuum intergrown with the cement in fixed proportion. The air entraining
pump. The final water/cement ratio before setting is thus reduced and agents represent between 0.005 to 0.05 percent of the weight of the
as this ration largely controls the strength, vacuum concrete has a cement, but to facilitate the dispensing Operation, a solution of the
higher strength and also density a lower permeability and a greater agent in water is usually made up.
durability.
Entrained air produces discrete cavities in the cement paste and
Vacuum concrete stiffens very rapidly so that the formworks can be
therefore, reduces passage of capillary water.
removed within 30 minutes of casting even on columns to 20 ft.
It improves the workability because the air bubbles kept special by the
high. This is of considerable economic value, particularly in a
surface tension act as fine aggregate of low surface friction and
precast factory as the forms can be reused at frequent intervals. The
considerable elasticity. Air entrainment reduces segregation bleeding,
surface of vacuum concrete is entirely free from pitting and the
permeability and formation of laitance. But if lowers the density of
uppermost 1/16 inch is highly resistant to abrasion. These
the concrete and is liable to shrinkage on drying. Air entrained
characteristics are of special importance in the construction of
concrete is frost resistant. The type of concrete is mainly
concrete structures which are to be in contact with flowing water at a
recommended for used in dams, bridges tunnels and for reads in
high velocity. Another useful characteristic is that it bonds well to
extremely cold countries and sulphate bearing soils.
old concrete and can; therefore, be used for resurfacing road slabs
Lightweight Concrete: In concrete construction, self-weight represents
and other repair works.
a very large proportion of the total load on the structure and there are
6. Air Entrained concrete: Entrained air in concrete is defined as the air
clearly considerable advantages in reducing the density of the
intentionally incorporate by means of a suitable agent. The main
concrete, the chief of these are the use of smaller sections and the
types of air entraining agents are:
corresponding reduction in
Concrete 220
Lightweight concrete provides a very good thermal insulation but is
the size of foundation. Furthermore, with lighter concrete the
not highly resistant to abrasion. In general, lightweight concrete is
formwork needs to withstand a lower pressure than would be the
more expensive than ordinary concrete and mixing, handling and
case with ordinary concrete and also the total weight of materials to
placing also require considerably more care and attention than
be handled is reduced with a consequent increase in productivity.
ordinary concrete. However, for many purposes the advantages of
Lightweight concreted also gives better thermal insulation than
lightweight concrete outweigh its disadvantage and there is a
ordinary concrete. The practical range of densities of lightweight
worldwide trend towards using more lightweight concrete and also
concrete is between 20 and 120 Ib/ft.
toward using it is new applications.
Classification of Lightweight Concretes: There are three broad
Lightweight concrete can also be classified according to the purpose
methods of producing lightweight concrete. First, porous lightweight
for which it is to be used; structural lightweight concrete (load
aggregate of low apparent specific gravity is used instead of
bearing) and ordinary or non-structural lightweight concrete) non load
ordinary' aggregate whose specific gravity is approximately 2.6. The
bearing such as non-load bearing walls for insulation purposes and
resultant concrete is generally known by the name of the lightweight
the like). Structural lightweight concrete should have a compressive
aggregate used.
strength measured on a standard cylinder specimen at 28 days of not
The second method of producing lightweight -concrete relies on less than 2,000 psi. The density of such concrete, determined in the
introducing large voids within the concrete. These voids should be dry state, is usually above 60 Ib/ft3.
clearly distinguished from the extremely fine voids produced by air
Lightweight Aggregates:
entraining. This type of concrete is variously known as aerated
Introduction: The process of using lightweight aggregate. as a
cellular, foamed or gas concrete.
construction material is about 2000 years Old. But the use of
The third means of obtaining lightweight concrete is by simply
lightweight aggregate was not popular until recent years. The
omitting the fine aggregate form the mix so that a large number of
lightweight aggregate industry is mere infant compared to the sand,
interstitial voids is present. Coarse aggregate of ordinary weight is
gravel and crushed stone industries. However, it is growing rapidly
generally used. This concrete is described by the term No fines
and even now occupies an important position in building
Concrete.
construction. Ever increasing length of bridge spans and high of
In essence then, the decrease in density is obtained in each case by
building have created structural problems due to excessive self-
the presence of voids, either in the aggregate, or in the mortar or in
weight. In many places there is dearth of suitable material for use as
the interstices between the coarse particles. It is clear that the
coarse aggregate in concrete. Thin walls which are essential
presence of these voids reduces the strength of lightweight concrete
compared with ordinary concrete, but in many applications high
strength is not essential.
Concrete 222
in tall building for reducing dead load have heat insulation problems. introduction of framed structure and lightweight aggregates helped in
The solution of these problems and many other factors have led to building skyscraper and long span bridges.
the development of lightweight aggregate concretes. Principal Types of Lightweight Aggregates: The lightweight aggregates
Lightweight aggregate was first used by the Romans. They used to can be grouped into three general classes:
embed large pieces of pumice in the domes and walls of larger (1) Naturally Occurring lightweight aggregates.
bulling. From the fall of Roman empire until the twentieth century (2) By-products lightweight aggregate.
very small number of lightweight aggregates were used. According
(3) Synthetic (Manufactured) lightweight aggregate.
to published reports, the Germans started using slag as concrete
In naturally occurring aggregates the major ones are; pumice
aggregate in 1822 and the American started using in 1890. Cinders
volcanic, cinders, scoria and diatomite. Industrial cinders or fly ash,
from coalbuming furnaces were used as aggregates early in the
sintered aggregates and blast furnace stage belong to by-products
present century in the industrial area of the United States.
aggregates. The following aggregates belong to manufactured group :
The modem lightweight aggregate industry was born in earlier part of
expanded clay, shale, diatomaceous shale, perlite, obsidian and
this century (1917) when a process was developed of expanding
vermiculite.
shale and clay into sound, hard lightweight pellets suitable for use as
Naturally Occurring Lightweight Aggregates:
aggregate in structural concrete. This type of aggregate was used in a
Pumice: Pumice is a light colored forth-like volcanic glass of cottony
few concrete ships during the first World War and in more than
hundred concrete ships and burgers built during World War 11. The appearance, full of pores and light enough in weight to float on fresh
concrete ship is no longer important, but it served to illustrate the fact water. It is produced by nature in prehistoric times by the
that high quality concrete could be made with lightweight aggregates. extravasation of a water vapor at high temperatures. Those verities of
During the past 30 years other materials such as pumice, vermiculite, pumice which are not too weak structurally make a satisfactory
and perlite have been widely used. One important factor has concrete with a density of 45 to 65 Ib/ft3 and with good insulating
contributed to the use of lightweight aggregate was the radical characteristics, but having high absorption and shrinkage.
change in building design, that was brought in the latter part of Volcanic Cinders: A loose agglomerate composed largely of highly
nineteenth century. The introduction of structural steel and structural vesicular, glassy fragments of lava. These also produce a concrete of
concrete has changed the method of building design from load similar properties.
beginning will type to the framed structure. The Scoria: A highly vesicular lava in which the vesicles are rounded on
elliptical in cross section. Scoria aggregate
Concrete 224
resembles industrial cinders and usually red to black in color. This also A Text Book of Engineering Materials 225
produces a good lightweight concrete. lite. Delite and Lylag are the better-known sintered aggregates.
Diatomite: It is a consolidated sedimentary rock composed primarily Expanded Blast Furnace Slag: It is produced by treating molten iron
of diatom skeletons (diatomaceous earth). This produces a satisfactory blast furnace slag with controlled quantities of water, often combined
concrete of density 30 to 651 b/ft3. with compressed air or steam. There are three methods for bringing
By product lightweight aggregate:

the slag in contact with the proper quantities of water. In one process
the molten slag is run into pits containing a right amount of water,
Industrial Cinder or Fly Ash: The term Industrial Cinder or Fly Ash
which becomes steam due to heat and expands the material. In second
refers to the residue from the burning of powdered coal. As the
powdered coal passed through the zone of high temperature within the method the slag is broken and water is sprayed to expand the material
boiler the carbon is burnt and the residue remains in the suspension in in third process, the slag is put into the top of a machine, where it is
broken by paddles and blades revolving horizontally. This agitation
the form of fused particles. These particles, still in suspension, are
plus water spraying expands the slag. All Processes result in the same
quickly carried to a zone of comparatively low temperature where end product lightweight cylinder, subsequently processed by crushing
they solidify to form the fly ash. It is composed largely of silica, and screening in required sizes.
alumni, lime and iron with smaller quantities of magnesium and alkali Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates: The term Synthetic Aggregate has
compounds. recently been adopted by researchers and organizations to specify
In all industrial areas of the world where coal is used as fuel, huge structural quality aggregates produced by firing clays, shales. As all
quantities of fly ash are being product every year which substantially these raw materials are essentially hydrous aluminum silicate with
is a waste product necessitating disposal. But this waste material can occasional substitution of aluminum by magnesium and iron.
Chemically synthetic aggregate is predominantly a form of
be successfully utilized concrete construction resulting in a number of
amorphous silicate.
added advantages over the usual cement concrete. They fly ash can be
Although lightweight aggregates have been produced by expanding
utilized both as a complete or partial replacement of any of the
clay, shales and slates for about 40 years, the mechanism and the
ingredients incorporated in mortars and concrete.
reactions involved have not been thoroughly understood until
Sintered Aggregates: The lightweight aggregate produced by burning
recently. The principal obstacle to the understanding were the
the coal and shale clays, cinders, slag, or ashes in moving grates or
complexity of the raw materials
rotary kiln exposed to flames under drafts are known as sintered
aggregates. The aggregates are crushed to the desired sizes after the
sintering process. Cortile Sinter-
Concrete 226
and lack of knowledge of the importance of the relatively minor
for a long period is needed. Better known expanded clay and shale
components.
aggregates arc. Haydite, Rocklite, Gravelite, Gel-Seal. Nodulite,
In commercial operations, shale, clay and slate aggregates are expanded Claydite and Featherlite.
in a rotary kiln or on a moving grate.
Expanded Slate: Expanded slate is manufactured by rotary kiln
Expanded Clay a Shale: These type of clays and shales which are used process. Slates when hated becomes sticky and sticks to the kiln. To
for manufacturing bricks tiles, sewer pipes and similar wares are overcome this difficulty the slate is crushed and screened to sizes and
generally used for making, bloated (expanded) products. In the bloating coated with a refractory material. The refractory material can be
process the basic-mineral structure of the clays does not play part. The separated from the burnt slate and reused.
constituents responsible for the bloating are usually known as impurities
Processed Diatomaceous Shales: Discrete and Raylite aggregates are
in a clay or shale. These include carbonaceous materials, various iron
manufactured from diatomaceous earth or shale by crushing and
compounds, limestone, dolomite & gypsum, which are potential sources
screening to desired sizes, spraying with oil and burning in a rotary
of gases for bloating. The clay which does not contain the constituents
kiln. Airrox, another diatomaceous shale product is made from and oil-
which accuses bloating can be used only by adding the missing
impregnated shale by two processes. On one process the raw shale is
constituents. The organic material such as coal and oil are also used as
crushed and screened to desired size and coated with powdered
gas producing agents. The gases developed from these materials may be
limestone and heated in a rotary kiln and in the other process it is
retained in the fused materials to accuses bloating or the organic
produced by heating raw crushed shale in open beds at a temperature
material is only decomposed to leave avoid without much expansion of
below fusion.
the aggregate.
Expanded Perlite: Perlite is one of the natural volcanic glasses and is
The most suitable expansion temperature is between 900 to 1200°C.
related in origin to pumice. The rock from which perlite lightweight
Illite fuses a 1000 to 1530°C and kaolinite at 1650 to 1780c. A wide
aggregate is manufactured has a structure resembling tiny pearls
temperature range of softening coincident with evaluation help in
compacted a bound together. The perlite is raised to a high (about
getting optimum results and satisfactory performance in the rotary kiln.
1150°C) temperature and as a result of the process the material expands
A high percentage of illite in the samples produces satisfactory bloating.
with disruptive force and breaks into small expanded Particles.
The studies made to determine the time and temperature effects on
Generally expanded perlite is manufactured only in the sand sizes. The
bloating weight may be reached in many cases by either high
unit weight of perlite may be as low as 4 Ib/ft3. This type of aggregate
temperatures in a short time or lower temperatures over a long period.
is used in insulation.
To get lower weights a high temperature
Concrete 228 3 They should have a low specific weight
Expanded Obsidian: Obsidian is a volcanic glass: When it is heated1
4. They should have a large number of small, well-disposed internal
to the fusion temperature, gases are released which expand the
voids but should not have a minimum number of large external voids
material. The surfaces of the particles are smooth and quite
that gave to be filled with mortar or paste.
impervious but the interior becomes vesicular. In the process raw
5. The aggregates should possess adequate strength for its intended
materials is crushed and screened to sizes. A material of higher fusion
purpose.
characteristics is used as a coating to prevent agglomeration during
the heating process. 6. Particles should be of proper shape to promote good workability.
7. The particles must bond well with the cement paste.
Vermiculite: Vermiculite is a material with a platy structure
somewhat similar to that of mica. Upon calcination, vermiculite 8. The particles should be inert chemically.
expands at right angles to the cleavage into a fluffy mass the volume 9. They should have good resistance to weathering, moisture insects and
increasing as much as thirty time. The aggregate is a good insulating fungi.
material. It is sold under the trade name of Alexite, Vosicon. Vesco 10. If used for insulation purpose they should have high thermal
and Zonolite. insulation.
Properties of Lightweight Aggregates: Many lightweight aggregates 11. A low water absorption is desirable.
are angular and have a rough surface. The essential characteristic of
12. They must have low production cost.
all lightweight aggregate is high porosity.
Uniform composition and properties are desirable in order to make
Based on properties and uses the lightweight aggregate can be divided
concretes or other product of uniform strength and like qualities.
into two broad groups. The first group is low cost, low strength
The size gradation is an important requirement to ensure good
aggregate suitable for building blocks and insulated walls on which a
compressive strength of 1,000 psi is quality aggregates used in workability, as the aggregate must be composed of a range of sizes,
structural concrete which must have strength of 2,000 psi or more. including sufficient quantity of fines.
The following are the desirable qualities of good lightweight Lightweight is desirable to provide worthwhile saving in the weight
aggregates: of the structure. The lightweight aggregate should not be more than
1. They should be uniform in composition and properties. half weight of the standard aggregate it replaces.
2. They should be suitably graded for their intended use and the
desired grading should be maintained.
Strength is an essential quality so the individual particles should be Table 10.7 Physical Properties of the Commonly Used
Lightweight Aggregates. ______________ ___________ ___________
as strong as possible. In a concrete of a given strength. aggregate will
----- - ------- Unit Bulk Crushing
need less cement than a weaker one, thus saving cost.
Name
The inertness of aggregates with respect to reactions with both Weight lb. Specific Water Strength at 2-
cement and reinforcing steel is required. The compound that would per Gravity Absorption, inch
then to react with the cement and affect its setting should not be Clift. percentage compaction
present. by weight psi.
Low water absorption is desired because, if the aggregated much 4,000-
water in the concrete, it dehydrates the cement with resulting Expanded Clay 28-52 1.1-1.9 20-34 10,000
deteriorating effect upon the setting of the concrete. The lightweight Expanded Shale 60-80 1.8-2.1 7-8 4,000-
aggregate of a given type are likely to vary considerably because of 15,000
difference in manufacturing method and source of raw materials. This Expanded Slate 39-73 1.3-2.2 8-15 2,000-8,000
is most important because changes in the aggregates will certainly be Processed Diatom-
reflected in the concrete made with them unless special precautions aceous Shales 20-35 1.3-1.5 50-74 3,500-5,000
are taken. Lightweight aggregate of given type is likely to vary Expanded perlite 4-16 1.7-1.1 10-50 60,400
considerably because of difference in manufacturing method and Blast Furnace Slag 25-70 1.2-2.3 5-25 300- 1,500
source of raw materials. This is most important because changes in Vermiculite 6-12 0.9-1.3 20-35 34-45
the aggregates will certainly be reflected in the concrete made with Pumice 30-55 10-1.7 8-50 1,000-2,000
them unless special precautions are taken. Lightweight aggregate used Sintered fly Ash 40-65 1.7-21 9-16 400-1,000
for structural concrete should have ignition loss less than 5 percent, Scoria 65 2.0-2.3 8-9 4,000-6,000
while those used for masonry units should have less than 8 percent.
The lightweight aggregates if meant for structural concrete or Characteristics of Lightweight Concrete: Lightweight concrete
covers extremely wide field: using appropriate materials and methods, the
masonry units should have a proven record of durability. density of concrete can be varied between little over 20 and about 115
Table 10.7 shows the list of some physical properties of the Ib/ft3 and the corresponding strength range is between 50 and nearly
5,000 psi. For any particular aggregate, strength increases with density but
commonly used lightweight aggregates.
depending on the type of aggregate, 3,000 psi concrete may require
between 400 to 680 lb of cement per
232
Concrete
cubic yard of concrete, the corresponding range lor 4.500 psi concrete is lower thermal expansion and higher fire resistance than ordinary
concrete.
560 to 840 lb per cubic yard.
The strength of lightweight concrete used for non-structural purposes
Table 10.8 Typical Properties of Lightweight Concrete is not of primary importance. The main requirement is: thermal
Dry, Compres Drying Thermal Type of insulation a good surface for rendering and not too high a shrinkage.
Type o1
concrete density sive shrinkage conductivity, curing The Table 10.8 shows the typical properties of some lightweight
Mix,
propor- y of strength, e, 10-6 Btu/ Ft concrete.
tions by concrete psi 2toF/ft Special Varieties of lightweight concrete: Cellular Concrete or Aerated
volume of Concrete: As earlier mentioned one method of obtaining lightweight
Cement concrete is by introducing gas bubbles into the plastic cement mix to
aggregate produce a material with a cellular structure, somewhat similar to
Expanded 1:2 75 2000 550 0.19.-027 Vibration sponge rubber. For this reason, the resulting concrete is known as
Clay 1:12 60 850 500 cellular or aerated concrete. There are two basic methods of
Expanded 1:6 81 1400 450 0.06-0.12 “ producing aerations and appropriate name being given to each end
shale 1:9 73 800 400 0.12-0.18 ’’ product: (1) Gas concrete and (2) Foamed concrete.
Pumice 1:6 45-70 200-550 400-800 “ Gas Concrete: Gas concrete is obtained by a chemical reaction
1:4 92-56 3400 450 0.19-0.21 generating a gas in fresh mortar, so that when it sets it contains a large
Industrial Normal
number of gas bubbles. Finely divided aluminum power is most
cinder or 1:6 75.80 2700 450 commonly used, its proportion being the order of 0.2 percent of the
fly ash 1:9 70-75 1500 400 0.11-023 “ weight of the cement.
Cellular 1:1 45-76 900- 600-1200 The reaction of the active power with a hydroxide of calcium or alkali
1100
1:3 40-70 500-750 liberates hydrogen, which forms the bubbles Powdered zinc can also
No-lines 1:6 125 2100 be used. Sometimes hydrogen peroxide is used: this generates
concrete 1:8 118 1600 120-130 0.40.054 Vibration oxygen.
1:10 115 1000 Foamed Concrete: Foamed concrete is produced by adding to the mix
All concrete made with lightweight aggregate exhibit a higher moisture a foaming agent (soap and synthetic detergents) which introduces and
movement than is the case with normal weight concrete. They have high satirizes air bubbles during mixing at high speed.
initial drying shrinkage, about 5 to 40 percent higher than ordinary
concrete. The creep is of the same order as for ordinary concrete.
Lightweight concrete has
Concrete 234
8. High Density Concretes: Of recent years has found yet another
Cellular concrete may or may not contain aggregate, the latter
application of concrete: the consultation of biological shields for
generally being the case with non-structural concrete required for heat
atomic reactors. Since the ability of concrete to absorb gamma rays is
insulation when a density of 12 to 20 lb ft can be obtained. More usual
almost proportional to its density, the thickness of the shield can be
mixes have densities between 30 and 70 Ib/ft3 when mixture of cement
reduced if concrete with higher density than normal is used.
and very fine sand is used. Cellular concrete has a high shrinkage and
In order to increase the density of the concrete, some or all the
moisture movement and these may be reduced by high pressure steam
ordinary aggregates can be replaced by a material of very much higher
curing.
Cellular concretes are mostly used for partitions for heat insulations specific gravity, usually over 4.0 (compared with the specific gravity,
purposes because of its low thermal conductivity and for fire proofing. of ordinary aggregate of about 2.6). Natural and artificial heavy
No-Fines Concrete: This is a form of lightweight concrete obtained aggregates are used.
when fine aggregate is omitted, i.e., consisting of cement, water and One of the common natural aggregates is barytes (barium sulphate). It
coarse aggregate only. No fines concrete is thus and agglomeration of has specific gravity of 4.1 and occurs as a natural rock with a purity of
courses aggregates particles, each surrounded by a coating of cement about 95 percent Barote behaves rather like ordinary crushed stone
aggregate an does not present any special problem so far as
passed up to about 0.05 inch thick.
proportioning of mixes is concerned. Baryte concrete does not stand
The strength of no-fines concrete varies generally between 200 and
up well to weathering but for most applications of high-density
2.000 psi, depending mainly on its density. The density generality
concrete, this is of little importance. Shrinkage is reduced by 1/4 to 1/2
varies between 100 and 125 lb/ft3. Shrinkage of no-fines concrete is
of that of ordinary concrete. The co-efficient of thermal expansion is
considerably lower than that of normal concrete: a typical value is 120
about twice as the of ordinary concrete: the specific heat, thermal
x 10. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of no-fines concrete is
Conductivity and infusibility are all considerably lower.
between 0.40 and 0.54 Btu/ft2 h°F/ft.
The density of this concrete Vries between 225 and 245 Ib/ff using a
Sawdust Concrete: It is a lightweight concrete consisting of roughly
mix of 1.4:6 with water/cement ratio of 0.48. The strength measured
equal parts by volume of Portland cement, sand and sawdust with
on standard cylinders has been found to about 6,200 psi and with a
water to giver slump of 1 to 2 inch. Such a concrete bonds well to the
water/cement ratio of 0.90. about 3-500 psi.
ordinary concrete and is a good insulator. The sawdust should be
clean. The sawdust concrete has a density of between 40 and 100
Ib/ft3.
Artificial heavy aggregates are also used, mostly steel and Concrete pipes are made of either plain or reinforces. They are used
sometimes lead is also used. Steel shots make concrete with, a heavy for sewers, drains, culverts and water pipes.
high density up to 345 Ib/ft. Cast stones consist of precast concrete shapes for use as sills copings,
10.17 Architectural and Ornamental Concrete: Concrete with special facings, steps and other architectural and ornamental works.
aggregate in the surface may be polished by grinding stones to bring 10.19 Design of Concrete Mix: Desing of concrete mix may be defined as
out the colours and designs in order to produce a pleasing ornamental the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and
effect. Sometimes, coloured cement is used. The following are the determining their relatives’ quantities with the object of producing as
important varieties: (1) Art Marbles (2) Mosaic and (3) Terrazzo. economically as possible concrete of certain minimum properties,
Art marbles made of colured cements and crushed marbles notably consistency, strength and durability. This definition stresses
aggregates are used to imitate marble. Precast units of various shapes two points: (1) the concrete is to have certain specified minimum
and colour combinations may be moulded using only a thin layer of properties and (2) it is to be produced as economically a possible a
special materials. After hardening the concrete surface is ground to most common requirement in engineering.
bring out the aggregate. There are mainly four different methods of designing of concrete
Mosaic concrete is prepared with coloured cement and stone chips.
mixes. These are:
It may be precast or cast-in-situ. After happening the surface is
1. Fineness Modulus Method
polished with special polishing stones.
2. Minimum Voids Method
Terrazzo is art marble moulded in place in walls and particularly
3. Trial Mixes Method
floors of public buildings. Special aggregates are rolled into the
4. Arbitrary Method.
surface of the fresh concrete: after hardening the surface is ground
Fineness Modulus Method: In Figs. 10.25 and 10.26 are shown two
smooth, exposing the aggregates which may be arranged to produced
types of graphs to explain the relationship between four factors
design.
10.18 Concrete Products: Building units are made either plain, reinforced (water/cement ratio, slump, size of the coarse aggregates and fineness
or prestressed concrete. These are slabs, beams, columns, lintels modulus) with strength. To design a concrete mix by this method, the
walls etc. t
relationships shown in figs. 10.25 and 10.26 are very essential.
Concrete is used for the construction of bridges, roads, air fields, Example: Design a concrete mix for design compressive length of
dams and other hydraulic structures. 3500 psi after 28 days from the following data. Maximum size of the
Concrete masonry blocks are made of varying shapes and sizes to coarse aggregate = 3/4 inch
conform generally to the requirements of desire designs.
Concrete 238
Size of the fine aggregate 1/16 to 3/16 inch Engineering Materials
Fineness modulus of fine aggregate=2.85
Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate=6.27
Moisture content in the fine aggregate (sand)=5 precent.
FINENESS MODULUS OF COMBINED AGGREGATE
10.26 Relationship of strength of concrete with cement/total
aggregate
FINENESS MODULUS OF COMBINED Moisture content in coarse aggregate (brick khoa) = 3 P. C.

AGGREGATE OF CONCERETE
shrinkage factor = 0.75 ?
10.25 Relationship of strength with cement/total aggregate ration
size of coarse aggregate and combined fineness modulus Hand worked concrete with desired slump of 2-inch Ordinary
Portland cement is to be used •
Solution: Applying strength 3500 psi and the size of them coarse
aggregate ¼ inch in fig. 10.26, the combined
fineness modulus is 5.13 and the volume of the compacted
2. Minimum voids Method: The method of concrete mix design is
aggregate is 3.75 cu ft. for one cu ft. of cement.
Ratio of the fine aggregate to be mixed with 1 of coarse based on the assumption that the fine aggregate fills in the voids of the
coarse aggregate and that the cement fills in the voids of fine
aggregate, aggregate.
6.27-5.13 1.14
x = ------------ = ------- = 0.50 Example: Design a concrete mix by the minimum voids, method
5.13-2.85 2.28 from the following data:
If the coarse aggregate is 100 cu ft. then the quantity of fine aggregate Voids in the coarse aggregate = 45 percent
is 50 cu ft. or in every 100 cu. ft. of the combined aggregate. 33.34 cu Voids in the fine aggregate = 30 percent
ft. is fine aggregate and 66.66 cu ft. is coarse aggregate. Size of the coarse aggregate = 3/4 to 1 inch
3.75
Loose volume of the combined aggregate = ------- =50 cu ft Size of fine aggregate = 3/16 to 1/4 inch
0.75
33.34 Allow an excess of 10 percent for cement and 7 percent for fine
Quantity of fine aggregate = 5.0 x --------- = 1.67 cu ft. aggregate. Ordinary Portland cement is to be used.
100
Solutions: Coarse aggregate (Assumed) = 100 cu ft.
66.66
Quantity of coarse aggregate = 5.0+ -------- = 3.33 cu ft. Fine aggregate = 40 x 1.07 = 42.8 cu ft.
100 Cement=42.8 x 0.30 x l.10 = 14.32 cu ft.
Real mix ratio is:
This can be written as follows on the basis of 1 cu ft. of cement:
Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
Cement = 1
1 1.67 3.33
Fine aggregate = 3
Taking into consideration of the moisture contents in aggregates, the
Coarse aggregate = 7
bulking of fine aggregate for 5 percent, moisture is (from Fig. 8.1)
The mix shall have the portion 1:3:7
29.5 percent and that of the coarse aggregate for 3 percent moisture
The amount of water required will be determined from the slump test
(from Fig. 10.3) is 6 percent.
for desired workability. The strength has to be tested by making
Amount of fine aggregate = 1.67 x 1.295 = 2.16 cu ft.
cylindrical specimen and curing for 28 days.
Amount of coarse aggregate = 3.33 x 1.06 = 3.52 cu ft
3- Trial Mixes Method: In this method, fine and aggregates are mixed in
Field Mix Ratio is:
different proportions and the mixture « filled in a container of known
Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
volume. After it is
1 216 3.52
This falls in the category of 1: 2: 3.5
Concrete 242 A Text Book of Engineering Materials
243
thoroughly compacted, its weight is noted per cu ft. of each 11.25
proportion. Water/cement ratio = -------- = 0.75
15
The proportion which gives heaviest unit weight is taken for a dense From Table 10.4 number of waters = 8.40 gallons.
concrete. Test cylindrical specimens are then made with the concrete Out of four methods of concrete mix design, only two
of this proportion to determine the compressive strength after 7 and methods fineness modulus method and arbitrary method are
28 days. in practice nowadays.
4. Arbitrary Method: In this method of concrete mix design the With the recent development of concrete science and technology, new
proportion of cement is taken as 1 part to be mixed with 'x' parts of methods concrete mix design has been developed. The following
the fine aggregate and '2x' parts of the coarse aggregates. For methods are most widely used nowadays.
example, the common proportion are 1:1 — -; Absolute Volume Method (British Method): This method assumes that
the volume of the compacted concrete is equal to the sum of the
3, 1:2:4. 1:3:6. 1:8: etc. The quantity of water is not specified but it
is often taken to be 30 percent of the cement plus about 5 percent of absolute volumes of all ingredients.
the aggregates when all the quantities are measured by weight. It is usual to calculate the quantities of ingredients of produce 1 cubic
Generally, 100 cu ft. of wet concrete requires 150 cu ft. of dry. yard of concrete. Then, if W. C. Af and Ac are the required weights of
Example: 'Determine' the volume (in cu ft) of the different ingredients water, cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate respectively, then
of a cement concrete of the proportion 1:3:6 per cu ft. W C Af Ac
Solutions: Wet volume = 100 cu ft. ------- + ----------- + ------------- + -------------- = 27
64.4 62.4 Sc 62.4Sfag 62.4Scag
Dry volume = 150 cu ft.
150 where S with the appropriate suffix represents the specific gravity of
Cement = ----- x l =15cuft = 12 bags
10 each material since the density of water (62.4) is expressed in pounds
(1 bag= 1.25 cu ft) per cubic foot, the total value (1 cubic yard) has also to be expressed in
150 cubic ft. The mix design calculations give the values of whence the
Fine aggregate = ------ x 3 = 45 cu ft.
values W. C. Af
10 150 x 6
Coarse aggregate = -------- 90 cu ft W C Af
10 ------- ---------- . and --------
Water = 15 x 0.30 + (45 x 90) x 0.05 C Af + Ac Ac
= 4.5 + 6.75 Ac can be found. C represent the cement content Pounds per cubic yard
11.25 cu ft. of the concrete and W is the water content in the same units.
244 grading. According to British standard, 24 percent of the total aggregate

Concrete
When an additional ingredient, such as pozzolana, is present, should pass through 3/16-inch sieve (BS) and 50 percent through inch
additional term of similar form is to be added to the Eq 10.9. When sieve.
entrained air is present and its presence is, say p percent of the volume Table 10.9 Example of Combining Aggregates to obtain a Type Grading
of the concrete, the right-hand side of the Eq. 10.9 would read as 27
(1- p/100)
If the aggregate contains free moisture whose weight is say. B.S.
Giading of
Sieve cumulative percentage
M percent of the weight of the dry aggregate, then the weight omfainc d
size passing for
of the added water W and of (wet) aggregate must be Fine aggie
adjusted. The weight of free water in A pound of aggregate is aggr ¾ (l)xl aggree (4)
x such that 1
egat 1 /2 (5)
m x e 13/b 13/4n (2) xo.34
ch Inch (3)X2.59 (6)
----- = -------- 10.10 (7)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (8)
100 A-x (1)
1 100 100 100 100 94 259 453 100
1-
Whence, x = 2
m 3 100 99 13 100 93 34 227 50
A x ----------- 10.11
/4
1 100+m
3
weight is added to A to give the weight of wet aggregate per batch. /8 100 33 a 100 31 21 152 34
A {1+m/(10+m)} and is subtracted from W to give the weight of 3/16" 99 5 2 99 5 5 109 24
added water, W = Am/(100+m) No.7 76 0 0 76 0 0 76 17
No. 14 56 58 58 13
Generally, each size fraction of aggregate has a different moisture NO.25 40 40 40 40 9
NO.52 12 12 12 3
content and the correction should be applied to At Ac. etc. with an
No.100 2 2 2 1
appropriate value of M. /2
Combining Aggregates to Obtain Particular Type Grading: While
there is no ideal grading, it is desirable to proportion the available Let x, y and z be the proportions of fine, 3/16 to 3/4 inch and 3/4 to 1/2
materials in such a way that the grading of the combined aggregate is inch aggregates respectively. Then to satisfy the conditions that 50
properly achieved. Suppose the gradings of the fine aggregate and two percent of the combined aggregate should Pass through inch B.S sieve,
coarse aggregates (size fractions are listed in Table 10.9) are desired to we have
combine the materials so as to appropriate to the coarses 1.0x + 0.99y + 0.13z = 0.5 (x + y + z) 10.12
Concrete 246
The weights of the ingredients per cubic yard of concrete are:
The condition that 24 percent of the combined aggregate should pass
Cement = 462 lbs.
through 3/6-inch B.S. sieve can be written as Water= 0.48 x 462 = 222 lbs.
0.99x + 0.05y + 0.02z = 0.24 (x + y + z) 10.13 Fine aggregate = 1.59 x 562 = 735 lbs.
From these two equations (Eqs. 10-12 and 10.13), it is found
x: y: z=l: 0.94 :2: 59 10.14 Coarse aggregate (3/16 3 /4 inch) = 1.50 x 462 = 693 lbs.
i.e the aggregates are combined in the proportions 1: 0.94: 2.59. Coarse aggregate (3/4-inch) 4.16x462 = 1.900 lbs.
Example: A concrete mix with a mean compressive strength of 5,000
psi at 28 days is required for used in a road slab. Ordinary Portland Total =4,012 Ibs
cement will be used. Compactions will be affected by vibrations.
The aggregate/cement ratio is 7.2. The density of the concrete= 149 Ib/ft3
24. Percent and 50 percent of the total aggregate should pass A trial mix should now be made and the proportions adjusted as necessary.
through 3/16- and 2-inch B.S. sieves respectively. It is important to remember that if the workability is to be changed but the
strength is to remain unaffected, the water cement ratio must remain
unaltered. Changes can be made in the aggregates/cement ratio or, if
Assume the specific gravity of cement to be 3.15, that of
suitable aggregates are available in the grading of the aggregates.
coarse aggregate 2.50 and of fine aggregate 2.60.
American method of concrete Mix Design: The ACI method utilizes the fact
Water/cement ratio (Fig. 10.10) = 0,48
that for a given maximum size of aggregate the water content in pounds
Solution: Total parts of aggregate = 1 + 0.94 +2.52 = 4.53
per cubic year of concrete, determines the workability of the mix. It is thus
Cement = 1 part
7.2 possible to design a concrete mix by selecting the water content from the
Fine aggregate = 1 x ------- = 1.59 parts
4.53 7.2 Table 10.10 (by ACI).'A further assumption is made that the optimum
3
Coarse aggregate. (3/16- / 4 inch) = 0.94 x ------- = 1.5 parts ratio of the bulk volume of coarse aggregate to the total volume of the
4.53
concrete depends only one the maximum size.
3 1 7 .2
Coarse aggregate, (... 1 - inch) =2.59 x —— =4.11 parts
4 2 4.53
Cement content, C. in pounds per cubic yard of concrete
(Applying Eq. 10.9).
0.48C C 1.50 C (1.50+4.11)
-------- + ---------------- + ---------------- + ------------------
62.4 3.15 x 62.4 2.60 X 62.4 2.50 x 62.4
: C= 462 lb/cubic yard
Concrete 248
Table 10.10 Mixing Water Requirements (Approximate) f or Example: Design a concrete mix from the following data. Design
means compressive strengths 5,600 psi:
Different Slumps and Maximum Size of Aggregates.
Slump inch Water requirement lb per cubic yard of concrete inch Cement to be used: Ordinary Portland cement Slump desired=2 inch.
Size of the aggregate Maximum size of aggregate= 11/2-inch, its bulk density = 100 lb/ft3
3
/8 1/2 3/4 1 11/2 2
and its specific gravity=2.64
1 to 2 350 333 308 300 276 253
3 to 4 384 367' 342 326 300 384 Fineness modulus of fine aggregate 260 and its specific gravity= 2.58
5 to 7 408 384 358 242 317 300
Specific gravity of concrete -3.15
of aggregate and on the grading of the fine aggregate. Table Solution:
10. 11 gives values of optimum volume of coarse aggregate when From Table 10.10 water requirement -275 lb per cubic yard of
used with fine aggregates of different fineness concrete.
modulus. Water/cement ratio (from Fig 10.10) -0.48
Table 10. 11 Bulk Volume of coarse Aggregate per unit Volume of Quantity of cement - 275/0. 48-573 lb/yd3
concrete. From Table 10.11. the bulk volume of coarse aggregate per unit
Maximum size Bulk volume of rodded coarse aggregate unit volume of
volume of concrete (using the given fineness modulus of 2.60) is 0.74.
modulus concrete for fineness sand of per of sand of
aggregate inch Hence, the weight of coarse aggregate per cubic yard of concrete-
0.74x 1100x27-2,000 lbs.
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
3 The absolute volumes of the mix ingredients per cubic yard of
/8 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.40
concrete are:
1/
2 0.55 0.53 0.51 0.49
3 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.59 573
/4 Cement = --- ——----- -2.92 ft3
0.70 0.68 0.66 0.64 3.15x62.5
1 275
11/2 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.70 Water-= ----------- - 4.41 ft3
2 0.78 0.77 62.4
0.75 0.73
Concrete 250
Volumes of the in ingredients are:
2000
550
------------ - 1240 ft3 Cement = ----------------- 2.80 ft3
2.64 x 624 3.45x62.4
Coarse aggregate = --------------------
Total- 19x62 ft3 Volume of the aggregate= 27 = (2.80+7.78) = 16.42 ft
Hence, the volume of the fine aggregate=27-19.73 Therefore, volume of fine aggregate =8.21 fit3
= 7.27 ft3 Volume of course-aggregate =8.21 ft3 the water content is necessary.
The weight of fine aggregate-7.27 x 2.54 x 62.4 -1,170 Concluding Remarks: All the procedures of concrete mix design are
The weights of the materials per cubic yard of concrete are mostly empirical and give the impression of being nonscientific, but
Cement -573 lb the variability of the properties of both cement and aggregate as such
Water -275 lb
that our calculations are really only guesses. However, the better our
Fine aggregate 1.170 lb
knowledge of the various properties of the ingredients of concrete the
Coarse aggregate -2.000 lb
more accurate our guesses could be. With this knowledge and
Total- 4,018 lb
experience in the use of engineering materials involved satisfactory
4.018
Hence, the density of the concrete- /27 149 lb/ft3 27
mixes can be designed, although the procedure can never become
Design of Lightweight Concrete: Design a lightweight concrete mix automatic but is an art as much as science.
from the following data: Question
Dry lose density of fine a aggregate= 56 lb/ft3 1. What is concrete? State the various materials that go to from it,
Dry lose density of coarse aggregate= 44 lb/ft3 pointing our clearly the function played by each material.
Sum of the bulk volumes of the two aggregates in one cubic yard of 2. What is a lime concrete? Discuss briefly how it is made? / Enumerate
concrete 32ft3 (16 fit3 of each size to be used) Cement concrete=550 its uses in engineering constructions.
lb/yd3 water/cement ratio=0.88 3. What is cement concrete? Discuss its ingredients. What are the
Solution:
advantages and disadvantages of cement concrete over other materials
The weights of the material are:
of construction.
Cement = 550 lb 4. Critically examine the desirable properties of cement concrete.
Fine aggregate
= 16x56 = 195 1b 5. What is meant by the workability of concrete? Name and discuss the
Coarse aggregate
= 16x44 = 7051b
Water factors affecting workability of a concrete.
_______ = 550x0,88 _______ =315 lb
Total=2.635 lb 7. Discuss critically the factors controlling the quality of a concrete.
Density of the resulting concrete 2.635/ 27 =97.6 lb/ft3

+ 252
Concrete
7. (a) Critically examine the effects of the gradm6 of the aggregates in a A Text Book of Engineering Materials 253
good concrete. 13. (a) What special technique you will employ in concreting in cold
(b) The combined fineness modulus of a mixture of sand (fineness weather (temperature range; 35 to 40°)?
modulus = 2.90) and brick khoa (fineness modulus = 663) is 5.25. ft (b) What is the ideal temperature range for concreting and why?
5.50 cu ft of combined well compacted mixture is required,
(a) Segregation (b) Bleeding (c) Laitance (d) Efflorescence (e)
determine the volumes of sand and brick khoa in lose state Assume
Construction joints (0 shuttering or formworks (g) concrete surface
shrinkage factor to be 0.82 Ans. sand= 2.5 cu ft, brick khoa= 4.25cu
finishing (h) slump.
ft. 15. What do you mean by term ‘Shrinkage’ in concrete? Discuss the
8. (a) What are water/cement ratio and cement/aggregate ratio? Discuss various types of shrinkage and their respective effects on concrete
their importance on the properties of a good concrete. State the structures.
quality of water for mixing and curing of concrete.
16. What is meant by the term creep of concrete? Explain briefly the
(b) In designing a concrete mix, the water/cement ratio was taken to
factors influencing creep in concrete. What are the effects of creep on
be 0.8 Determine the amount of water required in gallons per bag of
concrete structures?
cement.
Ans. 8.96 gallons.
9. Discuss the various methods for proportioning a good concrete mix. 17. What is reinforced concrete? Explain the parts played by steel in
Which of the methods do you think best and why? reinforced concrete. Enumerate the merits and demerits of reinforced
10. What is meant by curing of concrete? Discuss its importance and the concrete over ordinary plain concrete.
various methods adopted for the same with specials reference to 18. Write short notes on: (a) Prepacked concrete (b) Vacuum concrete (c)
Bangladesh. State the influence of curing temperature of the strength Precast concrete (d) Effects of age on the strength of concrete (e)
Standard hook for reinforced steel (h) Air entrainment in concrete.
of concrete.
19. What is a lightweight concrete? Enumerate its advantages and
11. Describe any two important standard tests that you will perform to
ascertain the suitability of concrete to be used for structural purposes. disadvantages over ordinary plain concrete.
12. What are the special problems you will face in concerting in summer What are the different varieties of lightweight aggregates?
when temperature ranges between 85 and 100° F in Bangladesh. What What are their desirable properties?
necessary precaution you will adopt both in concreting and curing?

20. What are the different varieties of lightweight concrete.
Explain the properties and specific uses of each, what is high
density concrete? What are its specific uses?
21.What are the main varieties of concrete commonly used for
different types of concrete structures in Bangladesh?
Concrete 254
Explain their special characteristics and the specific use for which
they are employed.
22. Discuss the principles governing the design of a good concrete
mix. Name and explain the different methods that are commonly Hand worked concrete with ordinary Portland cement. Consult
employed for designing a concrete mix. necessary tables and diagrams.
23. (a) Explain the principle governing the design of a concrete mix by Assume standard values of data not supplied.
'Absolute Volume Method Ans. Field mix ratio 1:2.75:4
(b) Design a concrete mix by the above method from the following 25. Design a concrete mix with ordinary Portland cement to
data. compressive strength of 5,000 psi after 28 days by the AC1 method
Desired strength=6000 psi (at 28 days) from the following data:
Aggregate/Cement ratio=7.24 Maximum size of aggregated inch, its bulk density =
25 per cent and 52 per cent of total aggregates should pass through 110 lb/ft3 and its specific gravity=2,65
3
/16- and 3/4-inch B. S. sieves respectively. Fineness modulus of fine aggregated.80
Specific gravity of cement=3.15 and its specific gravity=2.60
Specific gravity of fine aggregate= 2.62 Specific gravity of concreted.5
Specific gravity of fine aggregate= 2.49 Slump desired=2 inch
Two types of coarse aggregate, 3.16 to /4 -inch and to /4 - inch
3 3
Consult necessary table and diagrams.
should be used. Normal Portland cement is to be used.
Assume reasonable values of data not supplied.
Assume standard value of date not supplied.
Consult necessary tables and diagrams. Ans: Density= 155/ft3
Ans. Density of the concrete= 136 lb ft3 26. Design a lightweight concrete mix with ordinary
24.Design a concrete mix by the fineness modules method from the Portland cement from the following data:
following data:
Dry loose density of fine aggregate= 44 Ib/ft3
Desired strength=3,000 psi-after 29 days
Dry loose density of fine aggregate = 56 1 b/ft3
1
Sum of the bulk volumes of the two aggregated in one cubic yard of
maximum size of stones= — inch
4 concrete =32.4 ft (mixed in equal volumes).
3 1 Cement content = 750 Ib/per cubic yard.
Size of sand = - to - inch
4 4 Water/cement ratio = 0.87
fineness modulus of sand=3.18 Ans. Density =101 Ib/ft3
Fineness modulus of stones=6.15 Cement = 3.12ft3
Moisture content in the sand=45 per cent Moisture content in stones=3
Water = 7.78 ft3
percent Shrinkage factor).82.
Coarse aggregates = 7.70 ft3 and
3
Concrete 256
_______________________________ CHAPTER-ELEVEN
27. Calculate the volume of different materials in 100 cu ft of following
concrete: IRON AND STEEL
(a) Plain cement concrete (1:2:4) and (b) Reinforced cement
concrete (1:2:3) with 0.5 percent reinforcement. 11.1 Introduction: In one of its many forms, iron is still the most widely
Ans. (a) Cements 21.5 cu ft= 17 bags (approx.) used engineering material in the world. This is because of its strength
Sand and strength/weight ratio together with such a degree of toughness as
= 43.0 cu ft.
Brick khoa may be required to make effective use of the strength available.
= 85.5 cu ft.
Cement The applications of iron are almost beyond count. Examples include
= 25 cu ft. = 20 bags.
Sand = 50 cu ft. the skeletal frame work for large multistoried building, the hulls and
Brick khoa Steel = 75 cu ft. superstructures of ships. Spans and trusses for bridges, rail road’s,
Steel = 0.5 cu ft = 245 lb supports for chemical processing equipment’s, ducts, flumes, overhead
(1 cu ft steel = 490) water tanks, storage tanks, pressure vessels, equipment’s and tools of
various types, reinforcement in concrete, etc.
Iron is obtained from iron ores. From iron ores, first and impure form
of iron is obtained called pig iron. Pig iron is not fit for any mechanical
use. So, it is concertedly into cast iron, wrought iron and steel which
are generally called Ferrous Metals.
11.2 Irons Ores: Iron ores consist essentially of compounds of iron,

usually oxides mixed with aluminum, silica, clay etc. These of commercial
importance contain 25 to 75 percent metallic iron. The following are the
chief iron ores from which pig iron is extracted.
(1) Hematite: This is red ferric oxide (F2O3) and contains 70 Percent
iron, but owing to the presence of earthy matter and other impurities
yield about 55 to 60 percent iron only. This
Iron and Steel ' 258 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 259
is generally found to be the most important are in the manufacture of The common impurities in the iron ores are silica and alumina. To
iron and steel. remove these impurities, limestone (CaCO3) is added to the iron orcs
2. Limonite: This is brown hematite (2Fe2O3, 3H2O) and is along with coke or charcoal as it is put in the blast furnace.
a
hydrated ferric oxide which yields 60 percent of iron. But this is Limestone acts as a flux. Lime (CaO) becomes chemically active at
reduced to about 45 percent due to impurities. about 2,000°F and forms silicates and aluminates of calcium. These
silicates and aluminates of calcium as formed from the impurities of
3. Magnetite: This is black oxide of iron (Fe3O4) containing 73 per
the iron ores are termed as slag and being lighter than iron collects
cent of iron. It contains less impurities. This is considered to be the
on the top of the molten metallic iron. The slag is allowed to flow out
richest and hardest iron ore.
into a separate container and then the heavier liquid is solidified in
4. Siderite: This is gray or brown carbonate of iron (Fe2CO3 and small lengths of 3 ft in the branches.
when pure yields 40 percent of iron. This is also known as spastic
The whole process described above by which iron ores are reduces
iron ore.
to form pig iron is known as smelting.
5. Iron Pyrites: This is yellow sulphide of iron (FeS2) containing
about 45 percent iron. It is not considered to be a good ore for the
extraction of iron because of its high sulphuric contents make the iron
brittle.
Table: 11.1 Composition of Pig Iron.
11.2 Pig Iron: Pig iron is obtained by heating and melting the first three
iron ores (which occur as oxides of iron) in a blast furnace at a
temperature of about 3,000°F. Two processes generally take place in Constituent Percentage composition_______
the blast-furnace; (1) de-oxidations of iron ores and (2) separation of
Iron 92-94 ___
iron ores from the impurities like clay, sand etc. Technically, the first
process is termed reduction and the second process is termed as 4-5
Carbon (both free and combined)
gangue.
For the process of reduction, carbon monoxide (CO) obtained from Silicon 1-2 ___________
coke or charcoal) is employed to liberated oxygen from iron oxides to Manganese 1-2 ___________
form carbon dioxide C02 at a temperature of about 3,000°F.
Sulphur and phosphorus_________ 1-2 _____________ ________
Iron and Steel 260 2. White Pig Iron: It contains 3 per cent or above of combined carbon
Table: 11.2 Composition of slag and less than I percent free carbon. The percentage of silicon is also
less than 1 percent. It is crystalline containing close grained crystals.
Constituent Percentage composition
It is very hard and strong and could be easily melted. This variety is
Lime 40-45
used for manufacturing wrought iron. I his is also known as forge pig
Silica 30-35 iron.
10-12
Magnesia, Calcium 3. Mottled Pig Iron: It contains equal amount of free and combined
6-8 carbon. It has mottled appearance and medium hardness. This is also
Sulphate. Manganese, Oxide etc. known as malleable pit iron. Malleable cast iron is manufactured
from the malleable pig iron.
Uses of Slag: Slag is used for various purposes. When cooled, it is
Pig iron is also classified according to the presence of phosphorus.
crushed to suitable sizes for uses for the following purposes: (1)
Such as high phosphorus pig iron (0.5 to 0.7 percent of phosphorus)
making of blast furnace cement (2) railway ballast (3) road metals (4)
and low phosphorus pig iron (0.3 to 0.5 percent of phosphorus).
coarse aggregate for concrete and (5) fertilizer as it contains sulphates
and phosphates. 11.4 Wrought Iron: Wrought iron is manufactured by melting the whiter
Classification of pig Iron: The classification of pig iron is mainly variety of pig iron in a pudding furnace. Wrought iron is the purest
based on the carbon content either free or combined. The free carbon form of iron containing less than 0.12 percent of carbon.
is known as graphite. Free carbon imparts softness and a coarse Table 11.3, Shows the different constituents of a typical high quality
crystalline structure to the metal while combined carbon makes the wrought Iron.
metal and gives a fine-grained crystalline structure. The following are Table 11.3: Different Constituent of Typical High Quality
the various types of pig iron.
Constituent Percentage composition ______

1. Gray Pig Iron: It contains 3 to 4 per cent of free carbon (graphite) Iron 96.00
and less than 1 percent combined carbon. the percentage of silicones
Carbon 0.10
is almost the same as that of free carbon. This is a soft variety of pig
iron containing bigger size crystals. It is suited for foundry casting. Silicon 0.20
This is why it also known as foundry pig iron. Cast iron is generally
manufactured from this variety of pig iron.
Iron and Steel 262
to the molten wrought iron. Addition of nickel increases the tensile
Phosphorus 0.25
strength by 25 to 30 per cent. Nickel alloy wrought iron gives a very
Sulphur 0.05 good resistance to impact repeated stress and corrosion.
Manganese 0.10 11.5 Cast Iron: Cast iron is manufactured by remolding gray pig iron
3.25 (foundry pig iron) in a cupola furnace and running it into moulds of
Slag
shape required. Cast iron differs considerably both in chemical
Properties of Wrought Iron: Wrought iron becomes Pasty and very
composition and in physical characteristics from wrought iron. The
plastic at red heat and could be easily forged about 1650°F. It melts
most important consideration affecting the character and properties
at2800°F.
of cast iron is the carbon content. Based on the different states in
Wrought iron is very malleable and ductile. The tensile strength which the carbon occurs cast iron is divided into their principal
varies from 48.000 to 50.000 psi. It is stronger in compression by 25 classes.
percent. The shearing strength varies from 20,000 to 35.000 psi on a
1. Gray Cast Iron: Gray cast iron is that in which the carbon
longitudinal plan and from 3,000 to 45,000 psi on a transverse plane.
occurs chiefly in the graphite state (free carbon).
Wrought iron shows good resistance to fatigue (repeated stress) and
corrosion. One of the valuable properties of wrought iron is the 2. White Cast Iron: White cast iron is that in which the carbon
comparative case with which it is welded. occur chiefly as the carbide of iron (carbon in chemical combination
Wrought iron as a Material of Engineering Constructions: with iron)
Wrought iron has certain properties, among which are resistances to 3. Mottled Cast Iron: It is a mixture of gray iron with particles
corrosion and repeated stress that will always class it as a material of of white iron.
importance in engineering construction. The principal uses of wrought Properties of Cast Iron: Cast iron is strong in compression but weak
iron are for standard pipes, bars, rods, wires, plates. Sheets, welding in tension. It is brittle and does not absorb shocks. It does not
fittings rivets etc. Wrought iron products are used in building possess the properties of ductility and malleability. Gray cast iron is
construction, bridge construction and for the rail road, marine and softer than white cast iron.
petroleum and chemical industries, corrugated sheets (C.J. sheets) & Shrinkage of cast iron is an important consideration for pattern
ornamental works. making, because the shrinkage, varies from 0.5 to percent depending
Nickel-Alloy Wrought Iron: This is a special variety of wrought iron upon the type of casting. Due allowance for shrinkage therefore,
manufactured by adding 1.5 to 3 percent nickel must be made in the dimension of the
Iron and Steel 264 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 265
pattern if the casting is to conform to the size called (or by the Among the more common applications of malleable cast iron may be
drawing. especially mentioned its use in automobile construction for rear axle
Cast iron has a very low cost of production and it can be cast to any housing. 5, brake supports, steering- gear housings hubs and pedals.
convenient shape easily. In railroad equipment manufacture, couplers, journal boxed, brake
fittings and many other small fittings for rolling stick are made of
Uses of Cast Iron: It is used for making C. I. pipes (used for water
malleable cast iron. Other used include many parts of agricultural
mains and sewers), covers (manhole covers, etc.) columns with their
machinery, pipe fittings elbows union sockets, valves, etc. and
caps and bases, struts, carriage wheels, parts of machinery and other
household hardwires such as parts of locks, hinges, rings, and
structured subject to compression, gates, railings, expanded metals,
window and door fittings. Another class of uses includes carpenter
window frames, strains and other ornamental works.
tools, such as hammers, saws, hatchets, chisels, etc.
Malleable Cast Iron: Malleable cast iron is of special compositions
11.6 Steel: Steel is an Iron-carbon alloy having carbon content less
which after having been as or rolled to its final form is rendered
than 2.0 percent and generally below 1.5 percent. It is usually
malleable by a process of annealing. Annealing is a process of heating
malleable as cast iron and exhibits properties of toughness as well as
metal above the critical temperature range, holding at that temperature
strength. Steel also may be defined as a malleable alloy of iron and
for a specific period of time and then slowly cooling. It is essential
carbon, usually containing substantial's quantities of manganese.
that the iron used be a white iron before malleablizing in order that
There are four grades of steel depending upon the percentages of
the carbon may be almost wholly in the combined form, the
malleablizing process will then result in the conversion of the carbon
combined carbon into free carbon in the crystalline from as graphite. 1. Soft, mild or low-carbon steel containing from 0.05 to 0.15 per
This amorphous carbon will exist as isolated particles in a continuous cent carbon:
mesh of metal. Through this process the casting is rendered very 2. Medium carbon steel or medium hard steel containing from 0.15
much tougher than white or gray cast iron and its ductility and to 0.30 percent carbon.
malleability are increased to such an extent that it may be bent or
3. Medium high carbon steel or half-hard steel containing from 0.30
twisted to a considerable degree even when cold. Malleable cast iron
to 0.60 percent carbon.
combines the advantages of ordinary cast iron with respect to the case
with which complicated forms may be cast with a considerable degree 4. High carbon steel or hard steel containing from 0.60 to 1.5
of toughness, ductility and strength. percent carbon.

Iron and Steel 266
Steel is manufactured from the pig iron by the processes shown in processes of different types of steel are beyond the scope of this book.
Table 11.4 with typical products. Physical Properties of Steels: The principal factors influencing the
physical properties of steel (Strength, ductility and elastic properties)
Table 11.4 Steel Making process with Typical Products are: (1) the carbon content (2) the percentage of silicon, guipure,
phosphorus, manganese and other alloying elements and (3) the heat
Process Typical products treatment and mechanical working. The factors are not necessarily
dependent and their effects are usually combined. The nature and
Basic Bessemer Pipes, tubes, wires, sheets, etc.
extent of the effect of heat treatment and mechanical working depend
Structural shapes, sheets, wires, inevitably upon the amounts of carbon and other elements present.
Acid Bessemer
tubes, etc.
Effects of Carbon upon Physical Properties: The distinctive properties
Basic open hearth of the different grades of plain carbon steel are due to variations in
Large castings and forgings, armor
plates, high-strength wires etc. carbon content more than to any other single factor. Carbon always
acts as a hardener and strengthener, but at the same time, it reduced
Acid open hearth
Special alloy steels, small castings of the ductility.
carbon and alloy steel. Elects of Silicon, Sulphur, Phosphorus and Manganese:
Acid Electric Special alloy steel, tool steels, high
Silicon: Then direct effect of silicon (usually not over 0.2 percent)
speed steel, high-grade carbon steels,
etc. upon strength and ductility is very slight. Increasing the silicon
content to 0.3 or 0.4 per cent has the effect of raising the elastic limit
Basic Electric
and ultimate strength of the steel considerably without reducing the
ductility greatly.
Different variety of steel are manufactured under carefully controlled
Sulphur: Sulphur within reasonable limits (0.02 to 0. 10 percent) has
conditions, their properties are determined in laboratory and
no appreciable effect upon the strength or ductility of steels. If the
described in a manufacture’s certificate. Thus, the design engineers
Sulphur content is more than 0.10 precent, it reduces both the strength
need only to specify the steels as complying with a relevant standard
and ductility.
and the site engineer s supervise on, is limited to the workman ship of
the connection between the individual steel members (in case of steel
structures) and placement, bending (in -case of reinforces concrete
structure). Therefore, the manufacturing
Iron and Steel A Text Book of Engineering Materials 269
Phosphorus: Phosphorus is the most undesirable oi all the elements Between A to B the graph is a straight line this is within the limit of
commonly found in steels. Its effects upon the properties of steel are proportionality between stress and strain. This part of the graph is
very capricious, hut it is always detrimental to toughness or shock very important from the point of view of design. Between B to C as
resistance, and often detrimental to ductility under static load. the stress reaches a value slightly higher than the elastic limit, a
definite yielding takes placed in the test specimen. The strain value
Manganese: Manganese has a tendency to improve the strength of
increases, without increasing the stress. The stress at the point is
plain carbon steel. With less than 0.3 percent manganese, the steel is
known as the yield point stress. Upon further stretching the specimen,
likely to be impregnated with oxides, the harmful effects of which
the material recovers its resistance and as seen from the diagram the
outweigh any beneficial effect due to the manganese. Between 0.3 to
tensile force increases with the elongation up to point C. where the
1.0 percent manganese the beneficial effects depend upon the
force attains it maximum value. The corresponding stress is called the
amount of carbon present. As the manganese content rises above 1.5 ultimate stress of the material.
or 2.0 percent however the steel becomes so brittle as to be
Between C to D beyond the point C. elongation of the specimen takes
worthless.
place with diminution of the load and fracture finally occur at a load
Effects of Heat Treatment: Heat treatment improves strength ductility corresponding to the point D of the diagram. But, cast iron breaks
and elastic properties of steel depending upon the various with very little elongation or lateral contraction (Fig. 11.2)
compositions. It cannot take greater tensile stress. It can be seen from the diagram
Important Physical Properties of Steel: The Important properties of that very little part of the curves is straight. The increase or extension
steel that concern the engineers are strength, elasticity, stiffness, with the increase of stress is greater at higher stress.
ductility, malleability and brittleness. The strength of steel in coordinal shear is about 68 percent of the true
tensile strength.
Strength: The strengths of steel are of various types: (1) tensile
Tensile properties of various steels are shown in Table 11.5 Magnetic
strength (2) compressive strength (3) flexural strength and (4)
Properties of Steel: Large quantities of steel are consumed in the
shearing strength. Steel is very strong in tension. So tensile strength
is considered to be the most important property of steel. The Fig.11.1 construction of electrical machine!}, motors, generators,
shows the tensile test diagram of a typical variety of structural steel transformers, etc. where the magnetic properties of steels used are of
(mild steel). The graph may be divided into three parts indicated supreme importance. The magnetic properties are (1) corrosive force,
respectively in the Fig 11.1 by AB, BC and CD. (2) hysteresis an (permeability.
The carbon percentage of steel should be less than 0.1 percent, Galvanized Iron and Steel: These consist of ordinary cast Iron and
because, the higher carbon percentage affects the magnetic properties ordinary steel coated with a layer or zinc formed by dipping the cast
of steel. The presence of silicon diminishes hysteresis loses iron and steel in molten zinc. This process is meant to make non and
steel more resistance to corrosion. They are used in manufacturing of
considerably. Manganese appears to be detrimental to magnetic
wires (G.I. wires), plain and corrugate sheets (GJ. Sheets), and pipes
properties if present in amounts exceeding about 0.3 percent. Both
(G.I pipes) etc.
Sulphur and phosphorus were found to be elements whose presence
Alloy Steel: Alloy steel may be defined as steel that owes its
in amounts exceeding about 0.3 percent (for both combined)
distinctive properties chiefly to some element or elements other than
constitutes a distinct injury to magnetic properties.
carbon. Very little of the Iron employed in engineering construction
purposes is pure. In fact, most of the iron used by engineers is
purposely alloyed with one or more elements in order that the
modification of inherent properties of iron will enhance the utilities of
Table 11.5 Steel for Various Structural Uses
the resultant alloy.
(ASTM Specification) _______________
All alloy steels bear the names that indicate the alloying elements
Kind and use of steel Tensile of strength Ultimate tensile present. The alloying elements are divided into two major classes: (1)
psi strength psi those like nickel, silicon and copper which do not combine with carbon
Structural steel for to form carbides, and (2) those like manganese, chromium, tungsten,
building and bridges: molybdenum & vanadium which do combine with carbon to form
carbides.
(a) Structural 60.000-72,000 1.350.090
Alloying elements such as a titanium, aluminum, and vanadium are
(b) River 52.000-62.000 1,400,000 sometime used to act as scavengers and otherwise facilitate
Concrete reinforcing rode manufacture. Alloy steels are also manufactured which contain more
____________ than two alloying elements such as nickel chrome steel.
In general, it may be said that the alloying elements influence the
(a) Structural grade 65,000-70.000 1.400.000
properties of steel through the changes which they affect (1) in
(b) Inter modal grade 70,000-90,000 1.300,000 constitution and structure (2) In shifting the position of the critical
(c) Hard grade 80,000-(minimum) 1.100,000 ranges on heating and cooling and (3) in promoting stability of
Structural steel for ships: structures in wide variations of loads and temperatures.
When distinctive properties are produced by them, additions of only
one element to carbon steel, the alloy is called ternary alloy. When two
(a) structural
58,000-71,000 1 360 000 such elements are added to the carbon stee the resulting alloy is called
(b) Rivet quaternary alloy.
55,000-65,000 1 400 000
Structural steel for The principal classes of alloy steels are those listed below
locomotives and cars 75,000-(minimum) 1,000,000
_
Iron and Steel 272 Minimum tensile strength of this group of alloy steels is 70,000 psi,
they are corrosion resistant.
Ternary Alloy Stends Quarter nary Alloy Steel These steels are used in large quantities for highway and railway
bridges, railroad freight and passenger cars trucks trailers,
Nickel steed Chrome-nickel steel
earthmoving equipment’s like bulldozers graders’ sheep foot rollers,
Silicon steel Chrome-vanadium steel
concrete mixers.
Copper steel Chrome-molybdenum steel
Manganese steel Manganese-silicon steel This group of steels is again divided under three trade names:
Chromium steel Nickel-molybdenum steel (1) AL decor, (2) Cor-ten and (3) Hi-steel.
Tungsten steel Table 11.6 shows the compositions of these steels.
Molybdenum steel
Vanadium steel
Other special alloy steel:
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel Table 11.6 Composition of Typical High Strength low Alloy
Chromium bearing steel Steels
Chrome-nickel stainless steel
Chromium stainless steel
High-nickel steel AL decor Cor-ten Hi-steel
Trade Name
High chromium steel percent
Elements Chemical composition,
High Manganese steel
All alloy steels are classified in three general groups 0. 12 max. 0.12max 0.12max
Carbon
1. High-strength low-alloy steels.
2. Standard alloy steels.
0.20-0.50 0.50-0.90
3. High alloy and special purpose steels Manganese 0.15-0.40
4. Structural steels for reinforcing and pre-stressing.
1. High Strength Low Alloy Steels: This group of structural and
0.05 max 0.05 max
equipment steels have improved mechanical properties and Sulphur 0.05 max
corrosion resistance as compared to carbon steel. Typical elements 0.07-0.15 0.05-0-12
Phosphorus 0.08-0.15
added comprise copper, chromium, molybdenum, Nickel, 0.15 max
Silicon 0.35-0.75 0.25-0.75
phosphorus and silicon. One or more elements m small percentages 0.95-1-30
are adding to low carbon steel which may contain varying amounts Copper 0.25-0.60
0.35-0.60
0.35-1.40
of manganese. Chromium 0.50-1.25
0.25-0.55
0.65 max 0.45-0.75
Nickel
0.65 max
Molybdenum 0.16-0.24 0.08-0.18
0.16-0.82
0.06-0.12 0.12-0J7
Aluminum 0.06-0.8
Iron and Steel 274
Chromium Steel: Steel containing 0.50 to 2 percent chromium and 0.20
2. Standard Alloy Steel: These, steels have medium percentage of alloying
to 1.5 percent carbon is extensively used for surfaces where great
elements and are generally heat treated to improve mechanical
hardness, high strength and fair degree of toughness arc required. The
properties. The following steels come under this group.
great hardness capacity of chromium steel (or simply chrome steel) is
Nickel Steels: The nickel content varies from 1.0 to 4.5 percent with
due to the combinations of chromium with cementite, thus forming
carbon contend ranging from 0.15 to 0.60 percent. double carbide with iron. Steels with about 0.50 percent chromium and
Nickel improves, the tensile strength and reduced brittleness also 0.60 to 0.90 percent of carbon are generally used for manufacturing
imparts hardness and ductility to the steel. Nickel steel and also chisels, drily, razors saw blades roller for bearing, crusher jaws etc.
imparts high resistance to corrosion and fatigue: Tungsten Steel: Tungsten steel is the oldest of the alloy steel, but with
Uses of this nickel steel include gun and tank parts, propellers shafts and modern development of different types of alloy steel. It is now of
aircraft engine parts. It is also used for the construction of large minor importance; Tungsten steels contain tungsten form 3 to 6
bridges. percent. This is used for manufacturing of permanent magnets, lathe
Silicon Steel: Silicon steel contains more than 5 percent of silicon. tools, springs, and high-speed tools.
Silicon imparts hardness to steel. It is used for the pole pieces of Molybdenum Steel: This steel has a composition of molybdenum
dynamos and transformer cores. ranging from 0.20 to 0.30 percent. Carbon ranging from 0.20.to 0.70
Copper Steel: Copper steel containing from about 0.15 to 0.25 percent and manganese ranging from 0.70 to 1.0 percent.
percent copper increases the resistance to atmospheric corrosion as High strength, good hardness and relatively high resistance to Impact
compared to ordinary carbon steel. It is used for culverts. are the characteristics, Uses are for hand tools scraper blades,
Manganese Steel: The manganese content ranges from 1.60 to 1.90 automobile gears, axles, springs drive pinions and bolts.
percent with carbon from about 0.30 to 0.50 percent. The effect of Vanadium Steel: Vanadium is a costly element and the percentage is
manganese is to strengthen and harden the steel. Manganese steel has generally kept below 0.1 Vanadium imparts strength toughness and
high tensile strength, fair ductility and excellent abrasion resistance. hardness of steel. It is commonly used for manufacturing automobile
This steel is used for shafts gears aircraft and locomotives railways parts and is alternating stresses and vibration.
points and crossings, parts of grinding, crushing and excavating
machinery.
Iron and Steel 276 Text BOOK of Engineering Materials 277
Chromium-Nickel Steel: 1 his steel has a composition chromium Nickel- Molybdenum Steel: I his steel contains 1 .65 to 3.75 percent
ranging 0.55 to 1.75 percent, nickel from 1.1 to 3.75 percent and nickels 0.20 to 0.30 percent molybdenum and 0.17 to 0.23 percent
carbon ranging from 0. 14 to 0.43 percent, this steel has a very high carbon. This steel has good toughness. It is used in petroleum
tensile strength, great toughness and considerable ductility. It is industry, for brake drums, sheaves and valves, in aircraft industry for
markedly resistant to repeated stress and impact. gears, pins and forgings, and in automobile Industry for transmission
and differential gears.
This steel is used for aircraft engine parts, heavy duty shafting trucks,
bearing and pneumatic tools. Nickel Chromium Molybdenum Steel: This steel has the
following composition
Chrome-Vanadium Steel: The composition is as follows Chromium.
0.70 to 0.90 percent; vanadium 0.10 to 0.15 percent: and carbon, 0.17 Nickel 0.40-2.00 percent
to 0.55 percent. This steel has high strength high ductility, good Chromium 0.40-0.90 percent
7
machinability and good weldability . Typical uses include aircraft Molybdenum 0.15-0.30 percent
propeller blades, locomotive spring bolts for high temperature service
Carbon 0.28-0.40 percent
in oil refineries automobile gears and springs, and marine engine
crankshafts. This steel has high tensile strength and high fatigue resistance. This
Chrome- Molybdenum Steel: Molybdenum is more effective as an steel is used for aircraft and automobile parts where usually high
alloying element when used in combination with chromium. The stresses are involved.
composition of this type of steel is follows: Chromium 0.40 to 1.10 5. High Alloy and Special Purpose Steels: The following types of
percent, molybdenum; 0.20 to 0.40 percent and carbon, 0.20 to 0.40 high alloy and special purpose steels are generally important
percent. This type of steel has great hardness as its outstanding feature A. Corrosion and Heat Resisting Steels: Chrome-nickel stainless
and it possesses great strength and toughness. It is used mainly for in steels chrome stainless steel, and high nickel steel.
manufacturing hydraulic machinery and aircraft parts.
B. Wear Resisting Steel: High manganese steel and high chromium
Manganese- Silicon Steel: This is a spring steel having the following
steel.
composition: manganese 0.55 to 0.65 percent. It is used for flat and
leaf spring and helical springs. C. Structural Steel: Structural silicon steels.
D. Tool and Die Steels: High carbon steels, high speed steels.
Chrome Nickel Stainless Steels: This steel is of first order importance.

Its corrosion resistance is its most important
Iron and Steel 278
outstanding properties are: extreme tough hardness and resistance to
characteristic; other characteristics such as tensile strength ductility,
wear by abrasion. I ensile strength is 130000 psi and proportional
hardness and resistance to creep are possessed to a varying decree by
individual steel of this group. limit is 35,000 psi, it is used in construction of those parts of machines
(crushing and grinding both) which are subjected to sever shock and
The composition of this steel is as follow: Chromium 11.5 to 2400
abrasion.
percent: nickel 8.00 to 1.400 percent: and carbon, 0.08 to 0.20
percent. High-Chromium Steel: It contains 12.0 to 14.0 percent of chromium. It
is highly resistant to both wear and corrosion. Applications are shear
This steel is highly resistant to corrosion and will not rust under
blades, dies and lathe centers.
ordinary atmospheric condition and will not be affected by common
acids. It is light in weight having high tensile strength. Resistance to Structural Silicon: Structural silicon steel is used for structural
corrosion makes it more durable and attractive as a surfacing purposes because of its high yield point, high tensile strength and
material. It can be manufactured in thin sheets. good ductility. It is used particularly in long span bridges in order to
This steel is used for external surfacing of aero planes, acid reduce heat weight. Its Composition is as follows: Silicon 0.57
containers, cooking and dining utensils, cutlery goods diary' percent, manganese 0.78 percent, carbon 0.35 pet-cent.
equipment’s, table tops, laboratory' equipment’s, hardware materials High Carbon Steel: It has a carbon content ranging from 0.6 to 1.4
etc. percent. This steel has great hardness and excellent toughness. It is
used to manufacture cutting tools and die sets like shear blades drills,
Chrome Stainless Steel: Chromium ranges from 10.0 to 40.0 percent.
This steel is suited for parts requiring high strength with moderate screw-cutting dies, mandrels, pneumatic chisels etc.
resistance to corrosion. It is mainly used for automobile fender guards High Speed Steel: The outstanding characteristic of high-speed steel is
and body trim heat-controlled valves and shafts. This is also used for its ability to retain cutting hardness up to temperature of a red heat. Its
manufacturing cooking utensils and cutlery goods. composition is as follows.
High- Nickel Steels: it contains 18.0 to 40.0 percent nickel. It is highly

Manganese 0.28 percent, silicon 0.28 percent. Chromium 4.0 percent;
Tungsten 18.Q percent, molybdenum 07.5 percent, vanadium 1.0
resistant to corrosion. High nickel steels are use where exposure of
percent and carbon 0.73-0.83 percent.
corrosion is very severe, as in Parts of pumps, salt-water connection
and sparking plugs.
Applications are for metal cutting tools, such as drills, taps and
High Manganese Steel: It contains generally to 14.0 percent manganese.
It is an important wear- resisting steel. The reamers.
Iron and Steel 280
6. Structural Steels for Reinforcing and Pre-stressing Concrete. pre-stressing Steel for Concrete: High tensile steel is almost the
Reinforcing and Steel for Concrete: Round steel bars are generally universal material for producing supplying the tensile force in pre-
used as reinforcement in concrete. 1 he allowable tensile stress in stressed concrete. Such steel can take any of three forms: wires
reinforcement is taken to be 18.000 psi or 20.000 psi. strands or bars. The most widely used at present are the wires, which
grouped parallel into cables. Strand is fabricated in the factory by
Table 11.7 shows the different sizes of reinforcing steel bars with
twisting wires together, thus decreasing the number of units to be
cross-sectional area, perimeter and weight per linear foot.
handled in the tensioning operation. Steel bars of high strength, has
also been developed and successfully applied to pre-stressed
concrete, resulting in Considerable economy at times.
Seize in
inch. Area in Sq. inch Perimeter in inch. Wt. per foot in lb The chemical composition of pre-stressing wires may vary with the
1/4 0.049 0.785 0.168 manufacturer, but a typical analysis is as follows:
Table 11.7: Reinforcing round steel bars.
5/16 0.077 0.982 0.261
3/8 0.110 1.178 0.376 Name of Elements Percentage composition

7/16 0.150 1.375 0.511 Carbon 0.60-0.85
1/2 0.196 1.570 0.668 Manganese 0.70-100
5/8 0.307 1.960 1.043 0.050 max
Phosphorus
3/4 0.442 2.360 1.500
Sulphur 0.055 max
7/8 0.601 2.750 2.040 ___
Some manufactures use a certain amount of silicon in the steel High
1 0.785 3.140 2.670 ___
strength bars up to 150.000 psi or more are made by cold-working
0.994 3.530 3.380 special alloy steels, by alloying high carbon steel with proper agents
11/8
such as silicon and manganese high strength is obtained. A sample
1.227 3.930 4.170
11/4 composition of high strength steel bars is as follows:
1 3/8 1.484 4.310 5.044

Percentage composition
Name of Elements
0.60
Carbon
2.00
Silicon
0.70-100
Manganese
Phosphorus 0.20 max
stress, and when steel is under low stress, the creep is negligible. Pre-
Sulphur 0.20 max stressed wires will have 2 to 3 percent creep when subject to 0.05 f ls
In order to get better bond between steel and concrete, especially in (where fis = ultimate unite stress in steel), but when stressed to 0.70 fls,
pre-stressing, where bond is critical at the ends corrugated or waved
the creep will still be not more than 5 percent.
wires are employed. Various forms of surface indentation afford
direct mechanical keys with the surrounding concrete. While creep in steel is a function of time, there is evidence to show that
under the ordinary working stress for high tensile steel, creep takes place
Physical Properties: The ultimate strength of steel wires, strands or
mostly during the first few days. Under constant strain, the creep ceases
bars varied with their manufacture so that it is frequently necessary
entirely after about 2 weeks. If the steel is stressed to a few percent
to obtain sample taste for each lot of products. However, the general
above its initial pre-stress and that overstrains is maintained for a few
ranges of values are listed below:
minutes, the eventual creep can greatly lessen, and it practically stops in
3 days.
Comparative physical properties of various types of steels:

Type of steel Ultimate strength psi.
Wirer of varying diameters and make 200.000-300.000
Strands of uncoated small wires 230.000-270.000

For comparative purposes, physical properties of various types of steels
Strands of 19 or more galvanized wires 200.000-220.000 are tabulated in table 11.8. 0
Table 11.18 Physical Properties of Various Types of Steel.
Strands of 19 or more uncoated wires 220,000-240,000
Bars 140.000-170.000 Specific Melting point
Types of steels Field strength
Typical stress-strain diagrams for high tensile wire and a high tensile Tensile gravity of steel
bar are shown in Fig. 11.3. strength psi gravity
Creep: One of the important characteristics required of pre-stressing 7.8-7.9

50,000- 30,000- 2750-
Steel is minimum creep under maximum stress. Creep in steel is the Low carbon
120,000 90,000 2800
loss of it’s when it is pre-stressed and maintained at a constant strain steel
for a period of time- Approximate creep characteristic, however are 2600-
7.8
known for most of the pre-stressed in steels now in the market. 100,000- 75,000-
2750
High carbon. 200,000 175,000
Speaking in general, the percentage of creep Increases with
steels
increasing
Iron and Steel ________________ 284 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 285
25,000- Upto 60.000 7.0 2100- 5 Discuss the physical properties of malleable cast Iron. Name typical
120.000 2400 articles manufactured from malleable cast Iron.
Cast iron ad 6. What is steel'? Classify the steel on the basis of carbon content?
malleable iron Name the different processes of manufacturing steel and their typical
Standard alloy products.
70.000- 50.000- 7.8-8.8 2500-
steels 250.000 210.000 2750 7. Discuses briefly the physical properties of steel.
8. Draw the stress-strain diagram for mild steel and explain. Compare
100.000- 50.000- 7.4-8.0 2500-
Stainless steels 250.000 the same with that of cast iron.
125.000 2800
Tool and die 9. Explain briefly the importance of steel as a material of construction.
110.000- 80.000- 7.5-10.0 2600-
steels Enumerate its various uses.
250.000 200.000 2800
7.6-8.2 10. What is an alloy steel? What is the purpose of alloying steel? Name
Prestressing 125,000- 85.000- 2750-
the most common elements that are used as alloying agents.
steels 275.000 220.000 2900
11. What are the special properties of nickel steel? Why the nickels steel
is valuable as a structural steel?
12. What are properties of chrome nickel steel? State its specific uses.
Question
1. Name the common iron ores, and state their chemical formula. What is 13. State composition of chromium-molybdenum steel. What are some
pig iron? Give its composition. Name and discuss different varieties of outstanding properties and uses of this type of steel.
pig Iron. 14. State the outstanding properties and special uses of nickel- stainless
2. What is flux? What materials are used as flux in reducing iron ores? steel.
What is slag? Give its composition and state its uses. 15. What is stainless steel? State the uses of chrome nickel stainless-
3. Distinguish between wrought iron and cast Iron. Give the properties of steel.
wrought iron. Discuss wrought Iron as a material of construction. 16. State types of steel or other ferrous metals that you would select as
4. What Is cast iron? Name the different varieties of cast Iron. Give its being the best suited for the following uses.
typical uses.
(a) Railway tracks, (b) multistoried building, (e) important structural
CHAPTER-TWELVE
members of long span bridge, (d) ball bearings (e) reinforced
concrete (f) pre-stressed concrete, (g) shear blades (h) parts of
NON-FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
aircrafts and (i) cutlery goods and cooking utensils.
12.1 Introduction: The non-ferrous metals of greatest engineering and
17. Write short notes on:
industrial importance comprise aluminum, copper, lead, magnesium,
(a) Smelting (b) Vanadium steel (c) High-nickel steel (d) High nickel, tin, and zinc. Those of secondary importance include
chromium steel (e) Creep (0 Galvanized iron and steel. antimony, bismuth, cadmium, mercury and titanium. A number of
the latter metals are chiefly important as alloy elements and others,
such as chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten and vanadium are
used largely as alloy metals.
The non-ferrous alloy of greatest importance are the alloys of copper
with tin, the bronzes: and the alloys of aluminum magnesium, nickel
and titanium. Many important special bronzes and brasses are made,
however, in which a third alloy element is included. For this purpose,
tin or zinc lead, phosphorus, aluminum, silicon, iron, titanium and
vanadium are most common.
A side from the bronzes and brasses, copper forms more or less
valuable alloys with practically all the metals listed above, aluminum
is the principal metal of a number of important alloys and the same is
true of magnesium titanium, zinc, lead, tin, nickel and a few others.
12.2 Copper: The greatest proportion of the world’s supply of copper is
derived from copper pyrites (CuFeF2). The ore is crushed to a fine
powder, washed and floated in oil tanks to eliminate impurities
(silica and iron). It is melted in reverberatory furnace where Sulphur
is removed in the form of slage which floats on the top. The molten
metal which also
Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys 288 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 289
contains iron in the form of oxide is removed lor Castings which are in the distillation of zinc and as zinc Pigments, such as zinc oxide,
again smelled and treated in a blast furnace. The metal thus obtained leaded zinc oxide and lithophone.
is called blister copper because of cavities formed by escaping gases. Zinc possesses moderate strength, good ductility and excellent
It is further relined in a reverberatory furnace which yields 95 corrosive resistance. Zinc is a plastic metal and it tensile strength
percent copper. varies between 5,000 to 10,000 psi. It becomes malleable when
Copper weight about 550 lb per cu ft. melts at l,085°C and is reddish heated to 1000-150°C and can be rolled into sheets. Zinc exhibits a
in colour. It is very ductile processes very high thermal and electrical certain amount of creep at ordinary temperature and consequently
conductivity and resists corrosion excellently. It also possesses seldom used to with, stand stresses in a structured or machine. It is
excellent hot-working and cold working properties. It is available in available in the form of wires, rods, strips, powder and pigments.
rods, tubes, pipes, structural shapes and wires. It is also used for It is mainly used for alloying with copper and for galvanizing
heat-exchanges tubes, plumbing and gas lines, gasoline and oil lines. battery poles etc. Zinc oxide is very commonly used for paints.
Owing to its high resistance to attack by many industrial chemicals, 12.4 Lead: Lead is extracted from the ore containing lead sulphide
copper is extensively used for pipes, tubes, stills, condensers, (PbS) known as 'galena' which contains 86.6 percent lead. The
evaporators, autoclaves and pumps. It is also used for making metallurgical processes involved in the extraction of lead from its
cooking and dining utensils, ornamental and decorative works. It is ores comprise the following operation rousing of sintering of the
also used as alloying agent. It takes a high polish but furnishes easily ore: smelting in the blast furnace and collecting the molten lead.
and requires frequent clearing to deep it bright.
The physical properties of lead commonly taken into account are its
12.3 Zinc: Zinc occurs usually as a sulphide (known as zinc blender or softness, plasticity, malleability, high density and excellent
black jack, ZnS), carbonate and silicate. But the main source is sulphide resistance to corrosion. It does not retain any good polish. It is
(ZnS) Which ordinarily carries 33 to 50 percent zinc. The ore is first bluish gray in and colour exhibits a dull metallic luster when freshly
finely grounded and slowly roasted in a reverberatory furnace until fractured. On exposure to the moist air, it becomes oxidized and
nearly all the Sulphur is expelled. Mixed with ground coal it is heated to loses its luster.
a high temperature which removes oxygen. It cooled in liquid form in It is available in the form of sheets, tubes, pipes, rods, wires, cast
condensers from which it is purred into moulds. The zinc thus obtained lead fittings, lead wool etc. It is mostly used in the forms of oxides,
is called speller. It is not only available as spelter (as metallic zinc) but such as white lead, red lead and litharge. It is used for plumbing
also zinc dust, which is formed works, solders, roof covering and damp roof
courses. It is also used in printing for making type metal. In general, Tin is used quite extensively in the form of sheet-tin and as tin foil it
lead is very resistant to corrosion by the atmosphere natural waters is an important constituent of many valuable alloys. A large amount
and most mineral acids. Steel pipes, tanks, etc. are coated with lead of tin is used as a coating on sheet iron and steel.
and many water pipes and conduits for electrical conductors are
11.6 Aluminum: Aluminum is derived from bauxite and cryolite.
made of lead.
Bauxite is a mixture of alumic and ferric hydrates containing widely
Lead is often used because of its high density (707 lb/ft3) Since the varying amounts of alumina, ferric oxide, titanium oxide, silica,
ability of materials to shield against gamma rays is directly related to calcium and magnesium carbonates, water etc. Most bauxites carry
density, lead is utilized as a shielding material in nuclear reactors from 55 to 56 percent alumina. Cryolite is a double fluoride of
against gamma rays so as, to provide safe condition for personnel. sodium and aluminum and containing when pure, 13 percent
Lead is used to manufacture chemicals, such as red lead for metal aluminum. Whatever be the original source of the materials, it is
protective paints, white lead as an ingredient in. exterior house paint, converted into alumina first before the metal is extracted.
litharge for glass manufacture, storage batteries, tetraethyl lead for The only method of extraction of aluminum of commercial
gasoline, various lead chemicals as stabilizers in plastics and in the importance consists tin the electrolysis of comparatively pure
ceramic industries. alumina dissolved in a bath of molten cryolite. Alumina for the
12. 5 Tin: Tin is obtained from the ore, tin-stone (black oxide of tin) purposes of electrolysis is usually made from bauxite, but is may be
known as Cassiterite (SnO2) containing 77 per cent tin. The prepared be treating silicon bauxite with sulphuric acid. Bauxite is
extraction of tin from its ore involves the mechanical or combined treated with a soda solution and the alumina is extracted as sodium
mechanical, thermal and chemical concentration of the ore. aluminate. The alumina may be precipitated from the solution as
Reduction by smelting with charcoal or coke in reverberatory furnace hydroxide by carbon dioxide and subsequently washed, filtered and
and refining of the crude tin derived by re-smelting. dehydrated by heating. The metal derived as the product of the
This is a silvery white, lustrous and extremely malleable metal as above operation is the commercial aluminum.
can be seen by its form in tin foils. Its specific gravity is 7.3 and The most important property of aluminum and alloy is lightness in
density, 450 Ib/ft3 and it melts at 235°C. It oxidizes very slowly. Its weight. It is highly ductile and malleable and possesses moderate
tensile strength and ductility are very low: it cracks easily when, bent strength and great resistance corrosion. Alumina is a white metal of
and is extremely brittle at high temperatures. high metallic lustier
and can be rolled into sheets. It weights 165/cu ft and melts 659°C. which may be eliminated by re-heating in vacuum or in contact with a
It is used in certain portion of automobile bodies for cylinders and flux to prevent oxidation.
pistons in aircraft engines and for kitchen utensils. The low electrical
Magnesium has tensile strength of 14,000 psi and compressive
resistance of aluminum is one of its most valuable properties, since a strength, 24,000 psi. It has a high thermal conductivity. Its melting
relatively high conductivity combined with its lightness and strength point is 651 °C.
makes it especially well adapted for long span transmission lines.
Magnesium is not used alone structurally, but alloys containing
Pure aluminum is being used extensively in electrical work both as
magnesium are' employed for structural parts principally because of
bus-bars and rods in power station and in large quantities for
their light weight,
transmission lines with high voltages.
12.8 Nickel: Nickel is extracted from (1) nickel-ferrous magnetic
A side from the electrical uses of metallic aluminum, large
pyrites containing about 3 percent nickel and (2) hydrated nickel
quantities are consumed in the manufactures of many articles of
magnesium silicate containing 6 to 8 percent nickel.
every day domestic uses and in many industries where tanks, cooking
vats etc. which must be heat-conductive, non- corrodible and non- Nickel ores (pyrites) are crushed, roasted and smelted in a blast
poisonous, are used. furnace which produces a crude matter of nickel iron and copper.
Iron is removed by the Bessemer's process and copper is removed
Pure aluminum is too soft to be used for many purposes, it is,
by-treatment with dilute sulphuric acid. The residue is partially
therefore, alloyed with copper manganese, zinc, silica, nickel and
reduced by hot producer gas and volatilized at a low temperature
magnesium for improvement in strength and hardness.
into nickel carbonyl, which is later passed through a vented
12.7 Magnesium: Magnesium is produced by the electrolysis of chamber where pure Nikel is deposited in granular form.
magnesium chloride which is obtained as a byproduct from the Nickel is a brilliant metal, silver in colour and takes good polish
processes of purifying sodium chloride derived from brine wells or from and does not varnish or corrode in dry weather. It is highly
sea water. A molten bath of magnesium chloride mixed with sodium and
resistance to atmospheric, fresh water and salt water corrosion. For
potassium chloride is electrolyzed at a temperature of about 700°C. The
this reason, it is used for plating iron, steel and other metals. It is
process is carried out in an airtight container. Chlorine gas is liberated at
quite ductile and fairly malleable. In hardness, it is soft like steel.
the anode and the magnesium at the cathode, where it rises to the surface
Unalloyed nickel is not used in building and other works.
and is powered off because of its lightness. This magnesium metal
contains some non-metallic impurities
Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys A Text Book of Engineering Materials 295
294
Pure nickel is used as an elect opiate. It is mostly Used for alloying It is mostly used with other metals to produce alloys such as
with other metals and for making coins. stainless steel and also many of her varieties of high strength steels.
12.9 Titanium: It is extracted from the chief commercial ores rutile and 12.13 Tungsten: It occurs mostly in the form of wolframite. It has a very
ilmenite, Rutile is essentially titanium dioxide. Titanium has a high melting point (2,800°C) and can be rendered perfectly ductile
silvery white colour and is extremely hard. Commercial titanium is by repeated heating and is, therefore, very much in filaments of
available in the form of plated, sheet, rod, tubing, wire and forgings. electric bulbs. It is specially used for alloying with steels to which
imparts strength, hardness, toughness and resistance to shocks.
Titanium has high specific tensile strength and has a melting 2.14 Manganese: Manganese is found in nature in the form of manganese
temperature of 31.35°F. If has excellent corrosion resistance. It is oxide (MnO2) and it usually associated with carbonate and silicates
used for rivers, marine parts subject to sea water and for corrosion of iron, calcium and magnesium. It is obtained by heating the
resistant chemical equipment. manganese oxide with carbon at a high temperature.
12.10 Vanadium: It occurs in combination with lead etc. It is a hard, It is grayish white metal like cast iron. It is brittle, hard and
silvery, very brittle and infusible metal. It is not oxidized either by crystallin. Its specific gravity is 8.0 and its melting point is 1245°C.
air water. Its specific gravity is 5.5 and melts at 1730°C. It is used It oxidizes very quickly and absorbs oxygen quickly.
for alloying with steel to produce high strength steel. Pure manganese does not have any important application. It is
12.11 Molybdenum: This occurs in the form of molybdenum which is a chiefly used with iron in the manufacture of steel alloys. It is also for
di-sulphide of molybdenum (M°S) and resembles graphite. alloying with metals and its higher oxides are used as driers for
Molybdenum is gray in colour. It has high tensile strength. It is paints a varnished.

brittle and has a high melting point. 12.15 Principal Non-Ferrous Alloys: The following are the principal
nonferrous alloys: Brass, Bronze, Duralumin, Alclad, Y-alloy,
It is generally used for alloying with nickel, manganese, etc.
especially for making tools and die steels. Magnalium, Monel, Inconel, Satellite, Corbology, Dow metal,
Electron metal, German silver and Solders.
12.12 Chromium: Chromium occurs as an oxide ore (Cr2C3) with earthy
12.16 Brass: This is essentially a copper alloyed with 10 to 45 percent of
impurities. It also occurs in the form of chrome iron (FeCr2O4) with zinc. It is strong and ductile and does not varnish
impurities like silica, alumina and magnesia.
Chromium is a hard metal of brilliant gray colour and can be easily

polished. It resists corrosion and retains its polish.
as rapidly as copper, although it needs regular cleaning if a bright Special Brasses: The following is the brief description of special
appearance is desired. Its colour depends upto the percentage of zinc brasses:
it contains. Muntz Metal: It is a brass containing 60 percent copper and 10 per
There are mainly two broad classes of brasses. (1) Ordinary brasses cent zinc. It can only be rolled hot. Sea water attacks it and forms
and (2) Special brasses. zinc salts which prevent the fouling of the bottoms of ships by
living or genism’s. It is used for condenser tube in fresh, non-
Ordinary Brasses: The following are the different type of ordinary7
corroding water.
brasses:
Naval Brass: This is also known as Tobin Bronze; it is made by
Commercial Brass: This brass contains 90 percent copper and 10
adding about 1 percent of tin to muntz metal. This addition of tin
percent zinc. It is used for grillwork’s and marine hardware.
markedly improves resistance to corrosion. It is used as condenser
Red Brass: It contains 85 percent and 15 percent zinc. This is the best tube materials. Pump parts, motor boat shafting and marine
corrosion resisting plain brass. It is utilized for heat exchanger tubes, hardware.
plumbing lines and electrical sockets.
Admiralty Metal (Admiralty Brass): It is manufactured by adding
Low Brass: It contains 80 percent copper and 20 percent zinc. It is about 1 percent of tin to cartridge brass (70 percent copper and 30
generally used for ornamental works. percent zinc). This addition of tin greatly increases corrosion
Cartridge Brass: It Contains 70 percent copper and 30 percent zinc. resistance. Admiralty brasses generally used as the best condenser
This type of brass is used for automobile radiator cores and tanks, tube metal.
lamp fixtured springs, ornamental goods and ammunitions Lead Brass: The addition of small percentage of lead softens brass
components. and renders it more easily cut by machine tools its free cutting
Yellow Brass: It (contains 65 percent copper and 35 percent of zinc) is properties being improved so that automatic may be employed, the
employed for grillwork’s, lamp fixtures, dining and cooking utensils, presence of lead lowers the strength and decreases the ductility
springs and plumbing accessories. It is strongest among the plain considerably.
brass. Aluminum Brass: Aluminum is added to brass in amounts upto
about 5 percent with beneficial effects on the tensile properties. The
Ordinary brasses in general have good resistance to industrial, rural
tensile strength and the elastic limit are considerable raised, the
and marine atmospheres and some resistance to weak acid and bases.
They all have excellent property of cold-working. hardness and ductility are increase , Aluminum brass is principally
used in making casting Machinery, marine works, forgings, rolled
bars, plates etc.
Iron Brasses: Two brass alloys containing iron have been commonly 89.5 percent iron. The addition of iron aluminum and 1.0 to
used. These are: (1) Stereo metal contain about 60 per cent copper 38 to 2.5 percent iron. The addition of iron in small percentage
38.5 percent of zinc, and 1.5 to 2.0 per cent of iron and (2) Delta metal improves the casting qualities.
varies in composition, but usually contains 55 percent of copper, 41 Aluminum bronze is heat resistant, retaining its strength and
percent of iron and 1 percent of manganese phosphorus and other hardness at high temperatures. It is highly resistant to corrosion.
element. These metals particularly the delta metals possess a
It is used for ship fittings, propeller blades, pickling apparatus,
considerable high strength and better working qualities than the brass
pumps for acids, pipes, vats machine and automobile constructions.
would possess without the iron addition. They are generally used for
marine constructions. Aluminum Manginess Bronze: This is the strongest and toughest
type of bronze with excellent hardness equaling nickel alloy
White Brass: It contains less than 10 percent of copper and j more than
structural steel in tensile strength. The composition is as follow:
90 percent of zinc. This brass possesses most of the characteristics of
copper, 60-68 percent: zinc. 20-24 percent: aluminum. 3-7 percent;
zinc but is somewhat hardened and strengthened by the small amount
manganese, 2.5-5 percent; and iron, 2-4 percent.
of copper. It is principally used in making ornaments which are plated
with bronze and solid under the name of French bronze. Aluminum-manganese bronze has good wear resistance under
heavy or shock loads is capable of withstanding high fluid
12.17 Bronze: Originally the term bronze was applied only to copper-tin
pressures and is resistant to corrosion. Its applications include
alloys, but common practice nowadays to designate as bronze of all
hydraulic valves for pressures upto 20.000 psi, pump and fan
copper-base alloys which have additions of any elements excepts zinc.
impellers, tracks and rollers for sluice gates, and bearings.
The influence of tin upon the properties of copper is that of a
Manganese Bronze: Manganese bronze is one of the hots valuable
pronounced hardener and strengthener, so long as the limiting
percentage of 20 or 25 percent is not exceeded. copper-zinc alloys. A typical composition of regular grade
manganese bronze is copper, 56-64 percent, manganese, 1.0 percent
The Brozes exhibiting the greatest tensile strength and bending
maximum, aluminum 0.05-1.0 percent lead 0.4 percent, maximum,
strength and the highest yield strength are those containing more than
iron, 0.4-1.15 percent, and me the remainder.
80 percent of copper.
The following are the different varieties of bronzes:
Aluminum Bronze: The principal commercial alloy copper and
aluminum is aluminum bronze. It contains 89 to
Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys 300
sea water and can be readily cast and freely machined. At one time,
It is one of the best copper alloys for hot working and makes
guns were commonly cast of it. Typical application includes pumps
excellent forgings and hot rolled rods. It is particularly resistant to
castings and impellers, water turbine runners, condenser heads and
corrosion by sea water and is resistant to attack by dilute acids.
cylinder linings.
It is very commonly used for steamship propellers and other ship
Nickel Bronze: Nickel bronze is a copper-tin-zinc red metal alloy to
fittings for piston rods, shafts, axles and for many kinds of castings
which from 1 to 10 percent nickel is added. Addition of nickel
and forgings employed in general machine, locomotives and
refines the grains and increases heat resisting, qualities. A typical
automobile construction. It is also used for large valves and castings
composition is copper, 88 percent, tin, 5 percent nickel 5 percent,
for water supply system and hydroelectric-power plants.
and zinc 2 percent. It had high tensile strength, 70,000 psi. It is used
Turbine Metal: It is a modified manganese bronze containing nickel. for pressure tight services.
It is highly resistant to pitting and corrosion. It is used for runners of
Cupro=nickel is a 70 percent copper and 30 percent nickel alloy
hydraulic turbines and high-speed pumps.
used for tubes of steel, condensers, evaporators and heat
Beryllium Bronze: This alloy contains a small percentage of
exchangers. It maintains its strength and hardness upto 800°F and is
beryllium alloyed with copper. This alloy contains beryllium. 1.90- resistant to corrosion by salt water.
2.15 percent, cobalt. 0.25-0.35 percent and the remainder, copper. It
Phosphor Bronze: The addition of very small percentage of
combines good electrical conductivity with the highest strength and
phosphorus to any bronze has a remarkable effect upon its
hardness of any copper alloy when heat treated. It is a stable light-
properties. There is an increase of tensile strength, yield strength
weight metal. It has good resistance to corrosion and wear. It is non-
and endurance under repetition of stress. The amount of phosphorus
magnetic. It is also highly resistance to pitting action. This alloy is a
varies from 0.5 to 1.2 percent Phosphor bronze is used for engine
good spring material and is utilized for burden tubes. Other
parts.
applications are for resistance-welding electrodes and heavy-duty
switches. Leaded phosphor bronze contains 10 to 30 percent lead in phosphor
bronze. ‘It is highly resistant to wear under severe conditions and in
Gun Metal: Gun metal contains 88 percent copper, 8-10 percent tin
addition, possesses a very low coefficient of friction. It is mainly
and 2-4 percent zinc. It is a general-purpose bronze of good average
used in railway services.
mechanical properties and fairly good wearing qualities. It is resistant
Silicon Bronze: It is a general-purpose corrosion-resisting alloy
to corrosive action of
contain 96 percent copper and 3 to 4 percent silicon with small
addition of tin, manganese, zinc or iron. Silicon bronze is a free-
flowing metal, having golden yellow colour.
It had excellent weldability and good machinability, it is available in and 1-5 percent copper, 2 percent magnesium. It is a very hard
forgings, rods, bars and sheets. Chief applications are for welded tough, light but costly alloy. It possesses great strength at high
tanks, springs, condenser tubes and chemical equipment’s. temperatures. It is mainly suitable for used in position heads, gear
Copper Tin-zinc Bronze: The copper-tin zinc alloy is among the most
boxes, propellers blades etc.
valuable and commonly used of all the bronzes. A very common 12.21 Magnalium: It contains about 2 to 6 percent magnesium alloyed
bronze of this type contains 88 percent copper, 10 percent tin and 2 with aluminum. It is lighter than pure aluminum, easy to work, very
percent zinc. It is used for boiler tubes in ships and bearings and strong and ductile. It is specially used as a deoxidizer in copper
wherever resistance is required against weather actions. smelting operations.
12.22 Monel: It is an alloy of nickel with about 30 percent copper. It is
Hydraulic Bronze: This bronze (also called red brass, composition
as strong as steel but it is highly resistant to corrosion and
brass or ounce metal) contains 85 percent copper, 5 percent zinc and
tarnishing. It is very costly alloys. It is chiefly available in the form
5 percent lead. It is a hard and corrosion resistant metal. It is used for
of sheet, stripes, wires, rods, tubes and castings and is mainly used
valves, condenser heads and pipe fittings.
for pipes, propeller shafts and pumps valves.
12.18 Duralumin: This is an alloy of aluminum with 3.5 to 5.5 percent
12.23 Inconel: This nickel chromium iron alloy (80 percent nickel, 13
magnesium and 0.5 to 0.8 percent manganese. It is light, having a
per cent chromium and 7 percent iron) is very strong and has
specific gravity of 2.85 and has a strength of 28,000 psi. It can be
corrosion resistance against tarnishing and is nonmagnetic. It is
easily heat-treated, which renders it highly resistant to corrosion. It is
generally used in food industries.
principally used for surgical instruments, aircraft and automobile
12.24 Bearing Metals: These are alloys of lead, tin. and antimony with
parts and for other instruments.
copper in varying proportions. It is mainly of two types: (1) White
12.19 Alclad: Duralumin when coated with a layer of pure aluminum to a
metal containing 86 percent tin and (2) Magnolia metal containing
thickness of about 3 to 7 percent of the core, is called alclad. This 80 percent lead. Bearing metals are used in bearings which are
process imparts high anticorrosive property to duralumin. It is subjected to excessive heat.
available only in rolled forms and is used in automobile and aircraft
12.25 Satellite: This is an alloy containing 45 percent of cobalt, 30
parts.
percent chromium and 15 percent tungsten with small amounts of
12.20 Y-Alloy: It is an important alloy which consists of aluminum manganese silica, carbon and iron. It is very hard and is used for the
alloyed with 4 percent copper, 2 percent nickel tips of the cutting tools and facings of dies. It does not tarnish,
therefore very suitable to make surgical instruments.
12.26 Corbology: Corbology is the trade name of an alloy of tungsten,
The following are the different important grades of solders
carbon and cobalt. It is very hard and durable and is better than steel
prescribed by the B.S. specifications:
in maintaining a cutting edge at red heat. It is manufacturing high-
Grade B: The tin-amith's solder containing 49 to 51 percent of tin, 3
speed cutting tools.
percent antimony and the reminder lead.
12.27 Dow Metal: Dow metal is the commercial name of a magnesium
Grade C: This is suitable for hard-soldering containing 39 to 41
aluminum alloy. It contains 85 to 98 percent magnesium, 4 to 12
percent aluminum, 0.1 to 0.4 percent manganese with little copper percent tin, upto 3 percent antimony and the rest is lead.
and other elements. It is very light, soft, strong and ductile. It can be Grade E: The solder for electric works containing lead alloyed with
cast forged rolled and drawn into wires. It is principally used in 94.5 percent tin and upto 0.5 percent antimony.
aircraft and automobile parts.
Flux: Flux is a material added to clean the surface of the metals be
14.28 Electron Metal: Electron metal is the commercial name applied to jointed. Table 12.1 shows the types of flux to be used for various
a magnesium alloy containing about 4 percent zinc and small metals to be soldered.
percentage of copper, iron and silicon. It has a good tensile strength
of 40.000 psi. Its application is similar to those of Dow metal. Table 2.1 Types of Flux Used for Soldering Various Metals
12.29 German-Silver: This is an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc. It is
Metal to be soldered Type of flux to be used _________
white in colour and resists tarnishing very well but needs regular
Iron and steel Zinc or ammonium chloride
cleaning to keep it bright. It is available in sheet, strips, tubes, wires
and rods. It is used for making resistance coils, as it has very low Wrought iron Zinc chloride
electric conductivity. It is commonly used as imitation silver. Zinc chloride
Gold and silver
12.30 Solders: Solder is an alloy of tin and lead with a little antimony. Copper, brass and gunmetal Zinc or ammonium chloride
Soldering is only possible when the melting point of the solder is
Aluminum or resin
lower than that of the metals to be jointed whose surface are wetted
by the melted solder, solders containing zinc only and not lead, are Lead Stearin
called hard solders and those which contain lead are called soft
Tin Tallow or resin
Solders. Soft solders are generally used in ordinary works.
Zinc and Galvanized steel Zinc chloride
Hypocaloric
Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys A Text Book of Engineering Materials 307
12.31 Some Important Terms: more thickness of the coating material. This is generally applied for
Galvanizing: This is zinc plating. The object or the article is first preventing external corrosion and (4) Cadmium platirg: this gives a
cleaned thoroughly, then it is dipped into a solution of hydrochloric better appearance than ordinary zinc coating.
acid and then into a bath of molten zinc. The zinc partly dissolves in Porcelain Enamel: This is a commercial name given to the
iron and farms an alloy and a coating of zinc is deposited on the nonmetallic coating materials of various types. The articles to be
surface. This process is cheap but not durable. This is principally enameled should be cleaned well first and then coating of cobalt oxide
applied when the material is exposed to sea water or other solutions is given to provide for adherence of enamel. The 2 to 3 coatings of
high in chlorides, it is mainly employed to coat submarine cables enamel are applied and the article is heated to a desired temperature
manned structures and naval crafts. and finally cooled down.
Tin Plating: This is a thin coating of materials with tin. The material This type of coating is used for refrigerators, kitchen utensils and in
to be coated is first washed in acid and then passed through a bath of chemical and industrial equipment’s.
molten tin.
Questions
If the plating or coating is of lead, or lead and then passed through a 1. What are the chief uses of copper, zinc, lead, tungsten nickel,
bath of molten tin.
vanadium and molybdenum.
If the plating or coating is of lead, or lead and tin alloy it is called 2. What are the important sources, properties and uses of magnesium
'Terme plating’. Sometimes a coating of aluminum is also done.
and titanium?
This is used in roofing materials, pipes, automobile gasoline tanks 3. Distinguish between brass and bronze with respect to composition.
and non-food containers.
properties and uses.
Electroplating: This is a process of deposition of the coating of a 4. A bridge bearing is to be installed to withstand slow moving heavy
required metal on the object. Electroplating consists of: (1) Electro- loads. The metal must be strong, hard and shock resistant. What
galvanizing (here the electrolyte) is zinc sulphate, ZnSO4) (2) Nickel- metal do you select? State your reasons.
plating (electrolyte is NiSO4): this is generally done after first plating 5. What is the composition, properties a use of (a) phosphor bronze (b)
the base metal with copper. This plating is mainly done for household silicon bronze (c) manganese bronze (d) aluminum bronze and (e)
articles and sometimes parts of machinery; (3) Chromic ' plating: This gun metal?
is applied over nickel-plating in order to get 6. Describe the constitution of brasses. What is the composition of
cartridge brass? How does its strength compare with that of copper?
Where might it be used?
7. Compare the compositions and uses of admiralty metal naval brass
CHAPT ER-THERTEEN
and muntaz metal. ______ _______________________ SOILS

8. Compare between the following with respect to composition, 13.1 Introduction: Soil is very important engineering materials.
properties and uses. Because any structure constructed by the civil engineering needs a
(a) Satellite and Corbology (b) Dow metal and Electron metal (c) stable foundation and all foundations constructed ultimately derive
Duralumin and Magnalium (d) Monel and Inconel (e) Alclad and their support from the underlying soil or rock. Hence, soil and rock
Bearing metals. constitute the principal structural materials with which the civil
engineers deal for the foundation of structures. Soil is not only
9. Distinguish between a solder and a flux. What type of flux do you
important as foundation material but also as a construction material,
recommend for the following metals to be welded?
as in the formation of an embankment, construction of dams, as a
(a) Iron and steel (b) Gold and silver (c) Zinc and Galvanized steel filling material or as a stabilized subgrade for roads, airports and
(d) Gum metal (e) Brass (f) Lead (g) Tin and (h) Copper. runways. Soil is also an important raw material for the manufacture
10. Write short notes on: of bricks, tiles refractories, cement, mortal, synthetic aggregates,
ceramics cooking and dining utensils glasses etc.
Soil is, therefore, of great importance to engineers as a material of
(a) Yellow brass (b) Chromium (c) Galvanging (d) Electroplating
foundation and also as materials of construction. A thorough
(Porcelain Enamel).
knowledge of the origin, manner of occurrence, characteristics and
the behavior under both static and dynamic loads (dead load and live
load) of soils is very essential for the civil engineers for the
successful practice of design and construction of foundations and
other engineering structures like dams, rods, embankments,
including cutting, filling and tunnelling.
13.2 Origin and Formation of Soils: Basically, the engineering
definition of the word "Soil" is very broad one. Soil might be
defined as all the earthy materials, both organic and inorganic which
covers the rock-crust of the earth practically, all soils
Soils 310 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 311
are the products of the disintegration and decomposition of the rocks Sand and gravel are coarse grained soil types possessing little or no
of the earth crust. This process usually termed as weathering, has been
cohesion. They are readily identified by visual inspection and are
brought about by the action of chemical and mechanical forces which
distinguished, generally speaking, by the relative stability under loads
have been exerted upon the parent rock-formations for countless
when confined, by their high permeability and by their failure to shrink
ages. Included among these forces are those of temperature, wind,
riming water, freezing and thawing, chemical decomposition, glacial or expand in detrimental amounts with change in moisture content.
action and many others. Sill is the term applied to line grained soils low to medium plasticity,
13.3 Soil Classification: The principal terms used by the civil engineers to intermediate in size between sand and clay. Silts generally possess little
describe soils are gravel, sand, silt and clay. Most of the natural soils cohesion, undergo considerable shrinkage and expansion with change
consist of mixture of two or more of these constituents. It is possible to in moisture and possess a variable amount of stability under loads. If
classify soils into several principal groups based on the grain size. By the silts contain mica and organic particles, they are likely to be highly
grain size is meant the average dimension (or diameter in a general compressible and unstable.
sense) of a soil particle contained within a soil mass. The table 13.1
Clays are principally composed of particles which are colloidal in size.
shows the universally accepted soil classification (by AASHO)
Clay generally processes medium to high plasticity, have considerable
strength when dry undergo extreme changes in volume with the change
in moisture content and are practically impervious to the flow of water.
Clay may be further distinguished by the fact that although they may
possess considerable strength in their natural state, this strength is
sharply reduced and sometimes completely destroyed when their
natural structure is disturbed i. e., when they are remolded.
In addition to the general soil types which have been described, there
are many other terms which are used to describe soils. Included among
these are the following: loam. loess, muck and pen.
Loam is a term used to describe soil which is general} well graded
from coarse to fine. This name frequently) appeals in soil engineering
in combination with other terms. Thus a
soil may be called a sandy loam or a clay loam depending the size of 1. Moisture Content: Water is extremely important constituent of
the predominating soil fraction. soils. The moisture content is defined as the weight of water
Loess is a fine-grained soil characterized by its nearly uniform grain contained in given soil mass compared with the oven dry weight
size, predominantly silt and by its low-density Highway cuts through of the soil and is usually expressed as a Percentage. The
loess deposits usually resemble those made in rock, in that this soil following expression is used to determine the moisture content in
will stand on a nearly vertical slope, while it is readily eroded by rain the laboratory:
water if flatter slopes are made. W-W
w (%) = —---- x 100 13.1
Muck is a soft silt of clay, very high in organic content, which is W2-Wc
usually found in swampy areas and river, lake or bell bottoms. Where w (%) = moisture content in percent
Peat is a soil composed principally of partially decomposed Vc = Weight of the contain in grams
vegetable matter. It’s extremely high-water content, woody nature W1 = Weight of the soil and the container in grams
and high compressibility make it and extremely undesirable
W2 = Weight of the oven dry soil and the container in grams.
foundation material.
In the void spaces in a soil are completely filled with water, the soil
13.4 Basic Soil properties: To have an understanding of the effects of is said to be saturated. The moisture content of a soil may then be
application of loads on soils, an engineer must be familiar with certain 100 percent or more as might be the case in a saturated clay muck or
basic properties of other engineering materials, such as stones, bricks, peat soil. The stability of soils under loads is dependent upon the
cement lime, sand, concrete iron and steels and timber. Engineers must moisture content to a great extent.
have similar knowledge relative to soils. The job of the civil engineer in 2. Specific Gravity: By the terms ‘specific gravity' as applied to soils, is
this respect is complicated by the fact that many soils are quite complex meant the specific gravity of the dry soil particles or "solids". Values
in nature, both physically and chemically and that soil deposits are likely for the specific gravity refer to the ratio of the unit weight of soil
to be extremely heterogenous in character. It must be remembered that particles to the unit weight of water at some known temperature
the properties of any given soil depend not only on its general type but (usually 4°C) and range numerically from 2.60 to 2.80. Within this
also upon its condition at the time at which it is being subjected to loads. range, the lower values for the specific gravity are typical of the
The following are the basic soil properties. coarse soils, while higher values are typical of the tine grained soil
types.
3. Unit Weight or Density: The unit weight of a soil is the weight of the
soil mass per unit of volume and is generally expressed in pounds per
cubic foot. As commonly used in
Soils 314
soil engineering, the term 'Wet unit weight' or wet density refers to The unit weight of soil may vary from 90 Ib/cu ft or less saturated
the unit weight of a soil mass having a moisture content which is
anything different from zero, while the 'dry unit weight' or ‘dry organic soils to 130 lb/cu compacted granular soils.
density' refers to the weight of the soil mass in an oven-dry
condition.
They are expressed as follow s: (√ read as gamma)
W
Wet Unit Weight √ = ------ 13.2 4. Void Ratio: Another term that is significance in describing the
V weight-volume relationship of soils is the void ration. “The void
ratio is defined as the ratio of the voids contained in a soil mass to
Ws the volume of the solids” Related terms are the "porosity", which is
Dry Unit Weight √d / = i ---- 13.3 defined as the ratio of the volume of the voids to the total volume of
V the soil mass being considered and the 'degree of saturation' which is
defined as the ratio of the volume of water contained in the voids to
√ the volume of the voids. Both porosity and degree of saturation are
-------------- normally expressed as percentages. These quantities are expressed
100+ w% follows:
Or √d = --------------------- 13.4 VV
100 Void Ratio e = — 13.7
Vs
VV
Where W = total weight of the soil mass including the moisture content Porosity = — x 100 13.8
in pounds or grams. Ws=Oven-dry weight of the soil mass in pounds or Vs
grams. V = total volume of the soil mass in cu ft or cu cm. Vw
Degree of Saturations Sr (%) = — x 100 13.9
If the soil is saturated its unit weight is termed as the situated unit Vv
weight and denoted by sat. It is sometimes desirable to have a
where in addition to the terms already explained.
knowledge of the unit weight and specific gravity of the solid
constituents. These quantities are defined as Unit Weight at the Soil Vv = volume of voids in cu ft or cu cm
Ws Vw = volume of water in cu ft or cu cm
Constitution √s = — 13.5 The void or porosity of a coarse-grained soil usually not itself
Vs
furnish a direct indication of the behavior of the soil under load or
Specific Gravity of the solid constituents in cu ft or cu cm
during excavation, because at the same void ratio one soil may be in
Weight √w = unite weight of water, taken as 62.5 Ib/cu ft in the
a dense state, when as another may
English system and I gm/cu cm in the metric system.
Soils 316
be loose. Much more significant is the relative density which is A Text Book of Engineering Materials
317
defined by the equation, Therefore, the volume of void is
emax-e Vv= 1,000-0.639 = 0.361 cu ft
Relative Density Dr = -------------- 13.10 Vv 0.361
emax - emin And e = ------ = ---------- = 0.56
Vs 0.639
in which emax is the void ratio of the soil in its looser possible state, e Vv 0.361
and n = -------- x 100 = -------- x 100 = 36.1 %
is the actual void ratio and emin is the void ratio in the densest VsVv 1000
In this volume is contained 120.0-105.7 = 14.3 lb of
possible state. Thus. Dr-1.0 for a very dense soil and 0 (zero) for a
water.
very loose soil.
Therefore, the volume of water
A simple example may serve to show the relationships existing
14 3
among these latter terms e.g., unit weight, specific gravity and Vw = ------- = 0.229 cu ft.
62.4
moisture content.
and the degree of saturation
Example: Given a soil mass which has a wet unit weight of 120 ib/cu
Vw 0 229
ft. a moisture content of 13.5 percent and a specific gravity of 2.65. Sr= ------ x 100 = ---------- x 100 = 63.4%
Vv 0.361
Calculate the dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity, degree of
and also, the relative density
saturation and the relative density. Assume, emax.0.86 and emin-050
emax-e 0.86-0.56
Solution: wet unit weight 120 Dr = -------------- = ------------------ = 0.84
-------------------- ------------------ emax – min 0.86-0.50
100-w% 100-13.5 Permeability: Permeability is the porosity of a soil mass which permits
Dry Unit Weight = -------------------- - --------------------
100 100 water to flow through it under the action of gravity or some other
120 applied force. In soil engineering or in soil mechanic, permeability is
= ------- = 105.7 lb/cu ft
expressed by the terms coefficient of permeability, (denoted by K)
1.135
Now consider one cu ft of soil having this dry weight. Since the which is frequently define as the velocity of flow (of water) through soil
specific gravity of the solid particles is 2.65, the volume of the solids mass under the action of a unit hydraulic gradient (slope). The co-
contained in this volume must be efficient of permeability of a soil mass is principally dependent upon its
105.7
Vs =------------------ = 0.639 cu ft void ratio, grain size and structure, as well as upon the density,
2.654 x 62.4
temperature and viscosity of the water flowing through the soil mass.
Coarse grained soils, such as sand gravel, have high co-efficient of
permeability and are said
Soils 318
to the detrimental effects of capillary action, as the light of capillary rise in
to be previous. Fine grained soils like clay and sill have much lower co-
soils of the type is usually so small as to be practically negligible. Exact
efficient of permanently and are said to be relatively impervious or
values of the height of capillary rise of water in any soil are not easily
simply impervious soils.
determined for any given set of field conditions, but this height may vary
5. Capillarity: By capillarity is meant that property which permits water to
from a few inches in fine sands to 8 to 10 ft in a silty or clayey soil.
be drawn into the soil from a free water surface through the action of 7. Shrinkage and Expansion: Many soils undergo very considerable
surface tension and in dependent of the force of gravity. Capillary flow reduction in volume as their moisture content is reduced from that existing
in soils is generally associated with and upwards movement of water
when they are partially saturated or fully saturated. The shrinkage which
from the water level. Through capillary action a zone of “Capillary
occurs is the greatest in clays and other fine-grained soils. Some of these
saturation" may exist at some considerable distance above a free water
show7 reduction in volume of 50 percent or more while passing from a
surface, especially in fine grained soils. The soil in this zone may not be
saturated to an oven-dry condition. The same soils may show considerable
completely saturated, as some air will probably remain in the void
expansion or swelling if they have been dried and their moisture content is
spaces and around the soil particles but it will probably attain a high
later increased. Sand and gravels generally show little or no change in
degree of saturation over a period of time. Above this zone the soil may
volume which change in moisture content.
be partially saturated by capillary action.
Excessive shrinkage or swelling is a matter of great concern to the civil
Capillary flow- of water in soils is a complex phenomenon. However, engineers for the construction of road, especially as related to the behavior
the height to which water will be raised by the capillary7 action is of a subgrade soils used as support for a flexible or rigid base or pavement
known to be primarily dependent upon the size of the void space and
and also for the construction of dams, embankment; etc.
therefore, upon the size of the soil particles. From the standpoint of
8. Compressibility: By compressibility is meant the property of a soil which
susceptibility to capillary flow of water in soils under certain
permits it to consolidate under the action of an applied compressive load or
conditions, the most critical condition is presumed to occur in fine silt.
force. Deformations caused by shearing failure are excluded from this
The eventual height of capillary rise of water may be greater in clays
definition. The terms "Consolidation" is applied to the compression of a
soils than silty soils but the upward flow of water in clays is much
saturated clay mass under a vertical load.
slower and the attainment of a high degree of saturation in a clay mass
situated some distance above a free water surface will require a much
longer time than which would be required for the same phenomenon to
occur in the silty soils. Coarse sands and gravels are not normally
subject
Soils 320
Elasticity: By elasticity is meant the property of a solid which will
In their normal condition, all soils are compressible. In a general sense
permit it to return to its original dimensions (or nearly so) after the
the compression of a saturated soil mass is assumed to be due to
removal of an applied load. Not soil is perfectly elastic but some soils
reduction in volume of the void spaces in the soil rather than to
compression of the soil particle or of water in the pores of the soil. The possess elasticity to a degree which may be detrimental when they are
amount of compression occurring in a given soil under a given set of used in the construction of subgrade for roads. Example of such soils
conditions depends upon a variety of factors including the magnitude are usually those silts and clays which contain a sizeable amount of a
and method of application of the load and the void ratio, structure and mica and higher percentage of colloids. Elastic silts and clays are
the history' of occurrence of the soil mass concerned. The rate of quite common while highly organic soils such as peats may contain
compression or consolidation in saturated soils is eventually a function organic colloids and being highly compressible and somewhat elastic.
of permeability. 10. Shearing Resistance: Failures which occur in soil masses as a result of
Compression of sand mass occurs very rapidly following the the action of loads in case of roads, embankments, dams etc. are
application of load, provided that the water can escape. Compression principally shear failures. Therefore, the factors which go to make up
of sand is rarely a matter of practical concern, since all compressive the shearing resistance of a soil masses is commonly attributed to the
deformation which is going to occur will take place during the period existence of internal friction and cohesion.
of load application. Deformation thus produced in sands are largely A simplified explanation of these properties is most easily
permanent deformation although sand massed in a compacted state accomplished at considering two extremely different type of soils
may eventually attain more degree of elasticity under repeated first, a cohesionless sand, and second, a highly cohesive clay in which
application of loads. the internal friction is assumed to be negligible. In a cohesionless
Consolidation of clay and other fine-grained soils is a different matter, sand, the force required to overcome shearing resistance on any plane
however, and may often be of practical concern. Such deformation is assumed to be given by the expression.
occurs very slowly transferred from the water phase of the soil system S = P tan ϕ (Fig: 13.1)
to the solid phase. In thick compressive clay deposit, consolidation or Where S = Shearing resistance
settlement may continue for many years under, for example, the P = normal force (stress) on the plane being considered
applied weight of a highway embankment. The settlement resulting
ϕ = angle of internal friction
from consolidation are rarely uniform and serious damage may result.
Soils
The relation between normal force and shearing resist dry sand is
For a dry. ϕ is primarily dependent upon density (void ratio), the
graphically represented in Fig. 13.1
lower the void ratio the higher the value of 0. The value of ϕ hither
for a rough, angular sand than for smooth, very important, with ϕ
being generally higher for sand which are well grades from coarse to
fine. The angle of internal friction is relatively independent of
moisture content for sand ϕ for a wet sand will be only slightly, if
any lower than 0 for a dry sand, other conditions being the same.
It shearing resistance of dry silty sand is also given by the Eq. 1311,
but the values of ϕ are somewhat smaller than those for sands. The
NORMAL PRESSURE, P
ranger between 27° and 30° for loose silt and between 30° and 35°
Fig. 13.1 for dense silt.
The value of the In a saturated clay mass, it may be assumed for practical purpose,
angle of internal friction is assumed to
include the factors of resistance to sliding (or rolling) of the that the angle of internal friction is equal to zero and that the
soil particles over one another and any interlocking that may
have to be overcome before a slip can occur, the value of 0 resistance to, sliding on any plane is equal to the cohesion, C
depends upon the relative density of the sand, on the grain (Usually expressed a lb per sq ft). The shearing strength of most
size distribution and on the shape of the grains. It may be
estimated with the aid of the Table 13.2 clays decreases when their moisture content is increased and is
frequently sharply reduced when their natural structure is destroyed.
Table 13.2 Representative Values of ϕ for Dry Sand Factors influencing the shearing strength of cohesive soils are
Type of Sand Values of ϕ in degrees density, water content, loss of strength with remolding, drainage
Round grains Angular grains condition of clay mass when subjected to stress, variation of cohesion
Uniform with pressure and variation in the angle of internal friction.

Well graded
For larger majority of soils normally encountered in the field,
28.5 34.0
shearing resistance is made up of both cohesion and internal friction.
35.0 46.0
Loose Sand For these soils, the shearing resistance on any plane is frequently,
Dense Sand although somewhat empirically, given by Coulomb's Law,
Soils
S = P tan ϕ+c 13.12
liquid, state thought a plastic state and finally into a solid state.
and is graphically in the Fig 13.2
Therefore, the limiting water content may serve as index properties
useful in the classification of clays for engineering constructions like
roads, levees, embankments., dams, etc.
The significance of the limiting water contents for each physical state
was first suggested by A. Atterberg in 1911. Hence, these limits are
commonly terms as Atterberg Limits and the tests required to
determine them are the Atterberg Limit Tests. These limits are liquid
limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit.
The liquid limit (denoted b Lw) may be defined as the minimum
moisture content at which the soil will flow under the application of a
Fig. 13.2 very mall shearing force. At this moisture contend the soil is assumed
to behave practically as a liquid. The plastic limit (denoted by Pw)
Shearing resistance may be evaluated in the laboratory by the use of the may be defined in general terms as the minimum moisture content at
unconfined compressive test, the direct shear test, or the triaxial
which the soil remains in a plastic condition. This limit may be
compressive test. Samples any be tested in an undisturbed condition or
further described as the lowest moisture content at which the soil can
under conditions which are similar those expected in the field. Direct
be rolled into a thread 1/8-inch diameter without crumbling.
measurement of the shearing resistance of the soil in its natural
The plasticity index of a soil is defined as the numerical difference
condition may be! made in the field through the use of loaded circular
plate ' known as plate bearing test. In addition, the most efficient ' test, between the liquid and plastic limits.
known as CBR (California Bearing Ratio) test had been enveloped to Plasticity Index. Lw = Lw = Pw 13.13
measure shearing resistance more or less directly in connected with the The plasticity thus indicated the range of moisture content over
design of flexible and rigid pavements roads. which the soil is in a plastic condition. Sandy soils and silts have
12. Soil-Moisture Relationships: characteristically low plasticity index while clay soils show higher
Index Properties: If the water content of a clayey soil mass is gradually values of the plasticity index. Generally speaking, soils which are
reduced, the clay-water mixture passes from a highly plastic, as indicated by
high value of the Iw. are also highly compressible. It is also evident
that the plasticity index is a measure of cohesiveness with a high value Table 13.3 Soil-Moisture Scale Showing Atterberg limits:
of the Iw indicating a high degree of cohesion. Soils which do not Corresponding Physical States of Remolded Soil and
have a plastic limit, such as cohesionless sands, are reported as being Consistency.
no plastic.
Physical State when
Soil-Mixture Scale Consistency
Shrinkage factors are determined by evaluating certain volume weight remolded
relationships at known moisture content. The shrinkage limit (denoted
Liquid Very soft
by Sw) is the most important of the shrinkage factors and is defined as
Lw Liquid limit Soft
the maximum calculated water content at which, upon continuous
Plastic Index
drying the soil will continue to lose weight but will not decrease in
Iw Semi Solid Stiff
volume. The same data may be used for calculating the shrinkage
ratio, volumetric shrinkage and linear shrinkage when required. Plastic range
Pw Plastic limit Very Stiff
One of the most important index properties of natural clay deposits
is the liquidity index, defined by the following equation (Eq, 13. 14). Sw Shrinkage limit
Air dry Solid Extremely Stiff
w-Pw w-Pw
Liquidity Index. If= ---------- --------- 13.14 Hygroscopic Moisture
Lw-Pw Iw
Oven dry Hard
It may be seen that it is negative for soils having water contest less 12. Moisture-Density Relationships: Practically all soils exhibit a similar
than the plastic limit. As the water content increase from the plastic relationship between moisture content and density (dry unit weight)
limit to the liquid limit the value of increase from 0 to 1.0. If the water when subjected to dynamic compaction. That is practically every
content is greater than the liquid limit, the liquidity index is greater soil has an optimum moisture content at which the soil attains
than 1.0- consistency of a clayey soil, at least in the remolded state, maximum density under a given comp active effort. This fact, which
may be estimated when the natural water content and the index was first state by R R. Proctor forms the basis modern construction
properties are known. The relationships are illustrated i11 table 13.3 process used in the formation of highway, airport and runway
subgrades, bases, and embankments, earthen dams, levees, landfills
and other similar structures. In the laboratory, a dynamic
compaction is achieved by the use of a freely falling weight impinge
upon a confined soil mass (by the
Proctor apparatus) : in the field, similar compactor is secured percent compaction) from the moisture density curve in the laboratory
through the use of rollers or vibratory compactors applied to on the same sample multiplied by 100 is defined as the percent
relatively thin layers of soil during the construction process |n the compaction.
Fig. 13.3 is shown the relationship between moisture and density for
a typical soil subjected to dynamic compactions The ordinate of the
peak of the moisture-density curve is the maximum optimum density
or 100 percent compaction and the abscissa is the moisture content,
The curve in the fig. 133 was obtained in the laboratory.
MOISTURE CONTENT-PER CENT
Fig. 13-4
MOISTURE CONTENT-PER CENT contents which are somewhat less than optimum
Fig. 13.3 Moisture-density relationship for seven different types of soils is
shown in the Fig 13.4. It is apparent that the different soils react
somewhat differently to compaction at moisture contents which are
In the field and attempt is usually made to maintain the soil at the somewhat less than optimum.
optimum moisture content and to bring the soil to the maximum 13. Bearing Capacity: The being capacity of a soil may be defined as its
density or some other specified percentage thereof. The degree of capacity to bear the load a structure constructed on it without
compaction of soil in the field is determined by measuring the weight yielding this capacity is very important in designing the foundation
of the soil sample, the volume occupied by the sample and the of structures. The factors influencing the bearing capacity of soil are
moisture content. From these data the dry density in the field can be the density, specific gravity, grain size distribution void ratio and
computed. The ratio between this value and that of the maximum Permeability. For designing a sound foundation of a structure.
density (at 100
the bearing capacity and the settlement of soils are very important.
_______________________ CHAPTER-FOURTEEN
The bearing capacity of soils ranges between 0 2 to 3.0 tons per sq
ft. Soils with bearing capacity less than 1/2 ton per sq ft are not
KOAI) MATERIALS
suitable for good foundation.
14.1 Introduction: Road materials are of various types depending upon
13.5 Remarks: To utilize soil as a successful engineering material for the
the nature of roads such as earth or gravel roads, macadam roads
construction of subgrade and bases of roads airports and runways, bituminous roads and concrete roads. Good and durable materials
earthen dams, embankments, landfills levees and other structures are required for the construction of good roads. The following are
and to design good foundations, should be determined very' the various types of road materials: soils, bricks, natural stones,
carefully in the laboratory. sands, cement, aggregates, steels, concrete and bituminous
Question materials.
1. Discuss soil as an engineering material. A road consists of two parts: (1) lower part called the subgrade or
2. Define soil and give its classification based on grain size formation and (2) upper part called the pavement or crust (Fig. 14.1)
3. What type of soil do you recommend for a highway subgrade? Why? The subgrade serves as the foundation for the pavement. Subgrade
Explain. is the natural earth surface in its final shape prepared for the
4. Explain the basic properties of soils that are looked for in designing pavement to be laid on it. The subgrade should be compact and
good foundation for a structure. strong enough to bear the entire traffic load which it receives
5. Write explanatory notes on any five of the following: (a) Loam (b) through the pavement. The only material required for the subgrade
Peat, (c) Porosity (d) Relative density (e) Capillarity of soil (f) Index is the suitable natural soil.
properties of soils (g) Bearing capacity of soils.
Fig. 141
Pavement is the hard crust placed on the subgrade and serves the
following purposes: (a) to distribute the traffic load uniformly over
the subgrade (b) to protect the subgrade from the adverse effects of
weather and (0 to prov.de a smooth riding surface.
Road Materials 332
14.2 Bituminous Materials: Bituminous material may be generally defined
Pavement again consists of the following: (i) Soling (lower most layer as substances consisting primary of bitumen or containing a large
of the pavement) (ii) Base (Mid-layer of the pavement) and (iii)
percentage of bitumen. Bitumen in turn, may be said to be a complex
Surfacing or carpeting Uppermost layer of the pavement.
organic material. This organic material may occur naturally or it may
Soling Materials: The main function of the soling materials is to be artificially made during the distillation of petroleum. Bituminous
distribute uniformly the total traffic load and the dead load of the base materials are frequently divided on the basis of their consistency into
and the surfacing materials over to subgrade. The materials used are liquid, semi liquid and solid materials.
well burnt bricks laid flat or on the edge in various forms of brick-
Bituminous materials are principally of value to the road engineers
bonds, big size stones rubbles and over-burnt brick bats (well
because of their binding power and their waterproofing properties.
rammed).
They are now widely used in the construction of large number of
Base Materials: The base materials should be sufficiently strong to different types of wearing surfaces & bases ranging in application
withstand the traffic load and to resist the adverse effects of the from low-cost light- traffic roads to high type bituminous pavement
weather. The common materials used are the natural stones (gravels, intended to carry extremely heavy volume of traffic.
pebbles etc.) artificial stones (brick khoa. machine made stones etc.) For the purpose of simplification, bituminous materials used in road
and synthetic aggregates. construction may be divided as follows:
Surfacing Materials: Surfacing materials are binding materials which
(1) Asphalts
act as binders for base materials to impart strength and stability to the
(2) Tars
road structure as a hole. The surfacing materials impart smooth and
Asphalts are classed again as (a) Natural Asphalts and (b) Petroleum
impervious coating which protects the main road structure from the
Asphalts.
abrasion due to traffic and from the action of rain water and other
destructive agents. Surfacing is of mainly two types: bituminous Natural Asphalts: These asphalts occur in a pure or nearly pure state
surfacing (in case of flexible pavement) and concrete surfacing (in in nature. If associated with higher percentage of mineral matter they
case of rigid pavement). are termed as rock asphalts or lake asphalts extensive asphalts occur
in nature.
Of these various types of roads materials, the properties of natural
Petroleum Asphalts: Petroleum asphalts are divided from the
stones, bricks, cement, steel, concrete and soils have been discussed in
the preceding chapters. Here only the properties of bituminous fractional distillation of asphaltic or semi asphaltic petroleum’s. These
materials and stone metal will he dealt with. are further subdivided into the following categories:
Road Materials 334 Text Book of Engineering Materials 335
(i) Steam Refined Asphalts: This is prepared by steam distillation of material and is often used for filling expansion joints in concrete works.
crude petroleum at 900°F, the more volatile constituents are distilled (vi)Cracked Residue Asphalt: It is obtained as residue from the cracking
off and asphalt is left as residue of desired consistency. of petroleum. Cracking is accomplished by heating crude petroleum
(ii) Straight, Run-Asphalt: When the crude petroleum is distilled of at to a high temperature of about 1100°F under a pressure of 50
about 700°F. instead of 900°F. as done in case of steam refined atmosphere. It is characterized by rapid fall in viscosity with
asphalt the residue contains a certain quantity of volatile oils. The increases in temperature. It is less weather resistant and durable.
residue becomes solid when cooled and the product is called straight- Trade name is Mexphalt Dh 70/75.
run asphalt Trade names are Mexphalt 80/100 and Spramex 180/200. (vii) Asphaltic Emulsions: Asphalt is mixed with water in the presence of
(iii) Air Blown Asphalt: It is prepared by refining of the steam certain emulsifying agents (emulsifiers or stabilizers) like soap etc. If
distillation residue by blowing air at a high temperature. The does not dissolve but its fine particles remain suspended in water in
characteristics of asphalt are changed due to the occurrence of certain the form of an emulsion, the principal objective of emulsification its
chemical changes. It is less susceptible to temperature change and to liquid asphalt to allow its application at normal temperature
claimed to be weather resistant that the steam refined asphalt. Air blown without applying heat. The emulsion breaks down when mixed with
asphalt is also called as Oxidized Asphalt. Trade name is Mexphalt aggregate the water evaporates and the asphalt remains as thin film
R115/15. on the surface of the aggregates. The water simply serves as a
(iv) Cut Back Asphalt: This is asphalt dissolved in a volatile liquid such as temporary transporting medium. Three principal classes of asphalt
naphtha, petroleum, benzo etc. Being in al liquid form it can be applied emulsions are used for road constructions. These are called Quick
cold to the road surface. On exposure, the volatile solvent evaporates, Setting. Medium Setting and Slow Setting, depending upon the speed
leaving the asphalt residue on the surface. Cut back asphalts also used at which the emulsion breaks down placed in contact with
to floors and other surface for the prevention of damp or for filling up aggregates, asphaltic emulsions offer certain advantages that it can be
cracks. used with moist aggregates or in wet weather.
(v) Asphaltic Cement: When air is blown through asphalt at high Tars: May be defined as a substance obtained by the condensation of
temperature the bitumen becomes partly oxidized and the thick plastic distillates resulting from the destructive distillation of organic
liquid thus formed is used as a cement paste. Asphaltic cement is highly materials. Many organic substances (coal, oil etc.) may be treated to
resistant to atmospheric variations and is also very elastic. It is also used in yield tars. However, those tar product which are of significance in the
the manufacture of certain paint enamels. This is also a very good road construction are the following:
waterproofing
Road Materials 336 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 337
(a) Gas-Works Coal Tar: This is a coal tar produced gas by product in the 14.4 Testing of Bituminous Materials: A large number of laboratory tests
manufacture of illuminating gas from bituminous coal. to determine specific gravity ductility, water content, viscosity. Hash
(b) Coke-Oven Coal Tar: This is a coal tar produced as a byproduct in the point, solubility loss on heating and deducibility arc carried out on
manufacturing process of coke from bituminous coal. bituminous materials for the purpose of ascertaining is the suitability
(c) Water Gas Tar: This is a tar produced by cracking oil vapor in the to use in road construction as per specifications. These tests are
manufacture of carbureted water gas. conducted in accordance with procedures established by the AASHO
These various tars are further refined and may then be used alone or and ASTM and hence beyond the scope of this.
in combination with one another to produce the various grades of 14.5 Stone Metal (Stone Aggregate): Stone metals are nothing but the
road tars which range in consistency from semi-liquid or very viscus building stones which have already been discussed in Chapter 2. here
liquid materials to very thin highly volatile liquids. only those properties which are essential with respect of use them as
Pitch: The common type of pitch is the black or dark brown residue road materials will be explained. In order to resist successfully
which is left behind during the distillation of tars. It is solid at weathering, abrasion and fracture due to stresses developed by the
ordinary^ temperatures and is used in roads as an inferior substitute vehicular traffic, the stone metals should be tough, strong, hard and
for asphalt. durable. They should also possess good cementation property7 so that
it may retain a well-locked surface lender the repeated shocks of
14.3 Comparison Between Asphalt and Tars: Asphalts and tars are
traffic loads, the various types of stone metals are stone chips,
somewhat similar in appearance and general composition they are
boulders, gravels and pebbles.
produced by greatly dissimilar processes and differ sharply in certain
14.6 Test on Stone Metals: Various laboratory tests are performed on
properties which are of importance in road works. Generally speaking,
tars are more susceptible to temperature change than asphalts of stone metals to determine their suitability' to use as road metals.
similar grade. Tars are toxic in nature and possess more free carbon These are abrasion test, attrition test, crushing test, absorption of
than do asphalts and they harden more rapidly when exposed to the air water, cementation test and voids test. All these tests are carried out
after being incorporated into a wearing surface or pavement. These and by following the standard procedures specified by the AASHO and
other differences in properties and behavior have lead the selective use ASTM. In addition to these laboratory tests, the following field tests
of tars and asphalts in road construction other purposes. are performed on stone metals.
Appearance Test: Good stone metals should be clean bright, angular
and crystalline in appearance. They should from earthy and organic
matter.
Road Materials
338
Hardness Test: Hardness in tested by scratching stones with CHAPTER-FEFTEEN
the sharp point of a pen-knife. If it produces a deep scratch, TIMBER
the stone is said to be soft and is not recommended to use it
as a road material. 15,1 Introduction: Any wood which is used in engineering construction
Brittleness Test: Brittleness is tested by strickling stones with a is termed as timber. Timber has been one of the primary materials of
hammer of about halt pound in weight. If the stone breaks readily engineering constructions since the earliest times. Despite of the fact
into several pieces, it is said to be brittle and is not suitable as a road that it has been largely superseded by steel and concrete in certain
material. classes of structures, the utilization of timber for structural and other
commercial purposes is very large.
Questions
A part from its fuel value, its use is almost indispensable in
1. Discuss briefly the various materials used for a road structure with
engineering construction of structures temporarily during their
special reference to the properties and functions played by each.
construction and as permanent component parts of the completed
2. What are bituminous materials? What purpose do they serve in road
structures.
construction? What purpose do they serve in road construction?
Timber has several distinctive advantages over other materials of
Name the various types of road materials.
constructions. They are as follows:
3. Compare between the following:
1. Timber can be easily worked with tools of any size and can take
a) Natural asphalt and cut back asphalt
good polish.
b) Steam-refined asphalt and Air blown asphalt
c) Asphaltic cements and Asphaltic emulsions 2. It is comparatively stronger than other materials common!}
d) Bitumen and Pitch used when considered in proportion to weight.
5. Compare between asphalt and tar as road materials. 3. It can be using both load bearing and non-load bearing members
is structures and structural connections can be made Very
Explain the various types of tars.
easily.
4. Timber construction is very economic because even a small
(a) Subgrade (b) Petroleum asphalt (c) Stone metals (d) Test on Piece can be utilized in one way or the other and therefore,
bituminous materials (e) Field tests on stone metals. minimizing waste.
5. Its use for making furniture, sport goods and other decorative
and attractive articles of artistic design is quite important an is
accepted universally without doubt.
Timber
340
6. the tree. Practically all classes of commercially important timbers are
Timber has low thermal conductivity, high electrical resistance and derived from trees of this group.
good sound proofing property. All these Timber have always
contributed to its Importance as a very useful building material. Endogenous trees or endogens grow both diametrically and
longitudinally, principally the latter by the addition of new wood fiber
7. Timber structures are unquestionably durable it properly treated and
carefully protected from direct exposure to weather and alternate wet intermingling with the old. Most endogens are small plants like
and dry conditions by applying preservatives. paddy, corn sugarcane, wheat, rye and Jute but others, like the
8. Various types of timber products, like plywood, veneers, laminated bamboo, cane and the palms have some value as a source of
boards and other reconstructed woods are mostly used nowadays for engineering materials.
their lightness and beauty. Exogenous Trees: They are mainly two types (a) Conifers (needle
leaved trees) and (b) Board leaved trees, conifers form a portion of
9. Another important feature of timber which is worth mentioning
important timber trees, comprising principally the pines, fur, kail,
is that it has a great resale value. The discarded timber can be
utilized as fuel. Even saw dust can be utilized to make reconstructed cedar, chirr and deodar, they are usually light and soft, and hence,
woods like hard boards, light weight planks, partex boards etc. often called 'softwoods' and are for the most part 'evergreens' (trees
which do not shed their leaves until new ones have grown). Timber
Engineers are the principal users of timbers for structural purposes from conifers (evergreen) is used mainly for sport goods, furniture,
and in order that they may use it in the best possible ways it is interior finishing and cabinet works.
necessary that the engineers should have some basic knowledge of the Broad leaved trees comprise many verities o teak (segun) sal. gorjan,
classes of their growth and structure in order to understand the shisham, mahogany, chambel. telsu nageshwar and many other
fundamentals of the physical and mechanical properties of timbers. species of lesser commercial importance. They are usually heavy and
Timber Trees. Growth and Structural Characteristics: -All trees are hard, strong flexible and capable or resisting tensile, compressive and
primarily divided into two botanical groups cording to their manner of shear stresses quite well, hence often called 'hardwoods'. As a rule,
growth. These are: (D Exogenous trees or Exogen’s and (b) they are deciduous (trees which shed their leaves each winter),
Endogenous trees or Endogens. Exogenous trees or exogen’s increase although some of the broad-leaved trees are evergreen in certain
in diameter by the annual formation between the old wood and the climates. Most of the timber used by engineers in engineering
bark of a layer of new wood which envelops the entire living portion constructions is derived from deciduous trees.
of Endogenous Trees: This group is confined largel) to tiopical and
semitropical regions like Bangladesh, India, Burma etc. The main
endogens are palms, coconut, betel nut, date,
Timber 342
bamboo and cane. The palms, coconut. betelnut and date trees are A Text Book of Engineering Materials 343
locally used for making piles, battens, posts etc. and also used as fuel between the wood slowly formed towards the end of one season
but have practically no other commercial uses. The bamboo grows and that rapidly formed in the succeeding spring. The outer most
with extreme rapidity but requires years to harden after its growth is portion or periphery of the section is formed by material of variable
attained. The bamboo grows abundantly all over Bangladesh and also and very complex structure, called the bark.
in Japan. Thailand and China. It is used structurally to a considerable Wood Structure: In the broadest interpretation, wood may be
extent. considered to be made up of two chief structural elements cells and

vessels. The elemental cells are technically sub-divided as
Timber tracheid’s, wood fibers, medullary rays and parenchyma. Although
there is considerable difference in form and functions between these
various subdivisions such distinctions are beyond the scope of this
BARI
discussion and all these elements will be here referred to simply as
CAMBIUM
cells. In cross
ANNUAL RING
MEDULLARY RAY section these cells are roughly polygonal and most commonly appear
SAPWOOD
to be rectangular with rounded corners. The cells are formed of
PITH
HEARTWOOD organic tissues with a cavity and a nucleus in it the nucleus forms the
SPRING WOOD
(WHITE PORTION) living part of cell and constitutes what is termed as protoplasm.
SUMMER WOOD
(DARK PORTION) The cells perform the following functions:
1. To conduct the liquid food material from the root of the tree to
the branches and leaves and vice-versa.
2. To store the materials and other substances like oils, Gus and
Fig. 15.1 resins.
3. To reproduce new cells in the living process, showing the

growth of a tree.
15.3 Exogenous Growth of Wood: The section of any exogenous tree
Exhibits a central portion called pith (Fig. 15.1). It is black, brown or gray 4. To impart structural characteristics to wood in general by their
in color, usually of small diameter and does not increase in size after the mutual binding and interlocking nature of growth. In most
first few years. timber a very large proportion of these cells will be formed with
Outside the pith the wood appears in concentric zones or rings of annual the longitudinal axes approximately parallel to the trunk of the
Growth. The demarcation between the rings, when evident, is because of tree. These are termed as vertical cells or fiber
The difference in structure
Timber 344
Animal Growth Rings: Spring and Summer Wood: The growth of all
cells. These vertical cells are crossed in a radial direction by a
exogenous trees is a process of formation of new wood fiber between
different class of cells called radial cells or medullary rays extending
the old wood add the inner bark This place of formation is a thin layer
from the center of the trunk to the outside. The medullar}' rays
called the cambium, which in invisible without a microscope and in
maintain communication between the interior and the outside in
which all growth in thickness of the bark and wood takes place. Owing
transmission and storage of food and other materials. In addition,
to the inability of trees to sustain their physiological activities
they bind the longitudinal fibers to gather and are mainly responsible
indefinitely and the effect of the alteration of seasons in all temperate
for their combined strength. If these cells are cut during sawing of
zones the growth is intermittent and the zones (rings) of growth in
wood, the strength of timber is seriously affected. The cells which
general correspond to the annual periods, known as annual rings. The
perform the functions of storage of food and other materials are
succeeding rings of growth may easily be distinguished from one
termed as parenchyma cells.
There are other types of cells also which act as storages for gums and another in most species because of the different structure of wood
resins. In a combination they act as intercellular canals and ducts in formed rapidly in the spring and that more slowly in the summer. No
which these substances are deposited. They run both vertically and wood is added during the winter months.
radially Certain trees have latex canals. Such intra-cellular canals or The rate of growth of trees is quite variable not only in different
ducts for gums resins and latex are principally present only in certain species, but even for different specimens of the same species. This
species of trees. Cell walls consist essentially of cellulose in the form means that the growth rings are of variable thickness of the ring is not
of fibrils which are long spiral strands, some lignin is also present. uniform circumferentially because of unequal acceleration of the
The walls are an isotropic but are cemented together by a layer of growth on different sides: thus, the section often becomes oval and
isotropic substance essentially lignin called the middle lamina. The even if circular, the pith is eccentric.
cell walls are perforated with recesses, called pits, whose function is Sapwood and Heartwood: As the process of formation of annual rings
to make possible the flow of sap between cells through the middle of new wood adds layer after layer of vigorous healthy tissue over that
lamina. Mans of the pits occur in pairs, the recesses being opposite previously formed, the old tissue gradually ceases to take, active part in
each other in adjacent cells.
the physiological activities of the trees, loses its protoplasmic contents
The vessel is formed by the fusion of member of cells are in the form
and dies. Decay does not usually follow immediately, however, and the
of open tubes often, extending the entire of tree. the vessels make the
dead wood continues sound and provides mechanical support for the
timber porous and hence reduce the strength.
tree.
Timber 346 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 347
The living elements of the tree are called sapwood and the dead In general, the heartwood is more highly valued than the sapwood of
elements, "heartwood”. There is usually a sharp |line of demarcation the same variety. This is because the heartwood offers greater
between the sapwood and heart wood, although the vigor of living resistance to decay than the sapwood.
wood decreases progressively from the cambium layer inward, the 15.4 Felling of Timber Trees: To get timber, a living tree is cut and
proportion of sapwood varies considerably in different species and subsequently treated to impart durability and strength to green wood.
also between individuals of the same species. All young trees show' a The cutting of a tree is done in a systematic manner and the process is
higher percentage of sap wood then old trees of the same species. The termed is termed as "Felling" Trees should be felled only' after they
proportion of sapwood in general varies from 20 to 60 percent of the are
fully' matured, so that maximum wood would be obtained from a tree.
total contents of wood.
Immature trees contain too large a proportion of sapwood which has
The distinction in colour between sapwood and heart-wood, which is
less commercial value. Different trees have different periods when
the characteristic of most woods, is due to the darkening of the dead
they attain their stage of maturity. Usually, it varies from 50 to 150
wood by the presence of infiltrated pigments, gums, resins, tasins latex
years depending upon the species of the tree. The proper season for
etc. Sap wood is iron in plant food material such as sugar, starch and
felling trees is an important consideration. It can be recalled that in
albumen which is in a putrescible (decomposable) form and sets up
spring and in late summer, the wood cells are very active and the
decay in wood by the process of fermentation. It attracts fungus and
sapwood contains great amount of moisture and sap. The starches,
insects which reduce the life of the timber. Sapwood contains
sugars and albumen contents of sap bring about the decay of wood
proportionately higher percentage of moisture than heartwood and has
very quickly with fungal growth. During winter and early part of
an effect in reducing its strength and durability. Sapwood is lighter in
summer, the growth of tree is dull and the cambium layer is inactive.
colour than heartwood. Generally, heartwood is darker in colour, has
The sap and the moisture content are also less. Therefore, this pail of
more compact annual rings and is denser and closer grained in texture the year from October to March is favorable for felling trees.
than sapwood. The cells of heartwood have stronger cell walls and In case of trees which contain a large proportion of water and in
contain substances like tannins. resins, gums and latex which are countries where there are no distinct climatic variations, sometimes
poisonous to fungus and other insects. These materials Impart natural the branches are cut and the bark is stiffed off one season earlier than
immunity and durability of heartwood. Heartwood is heavier and less actual felling operation. To avoid waste, trees should be felled as near
permeable to moisture than sapwood. as the ground as possible. They should be tied with the aid of anchor
ropes and carefully
‘
brought to the ground after cutting by axes or saws. Trees standing on
SCANTLINGS: Scantlings are miscellaneous cut pieces of
slopes should fall uphill. In case of trees like teak and other varieties oi the
same species having natural resistance to fungi, the common timber.
practice is to cut a groove round the trunk of the trees to be felled 2 to 3 9, POLES: Poles arc long round logs from any defects (knots etc.) and
inch in size and at about 6 to 9 inches from the ground. This is done about 2
greatest diameter not exceeding 8 inches.
to 3 years before felling the tree and is known as girdling. By this, the
moisture gradually evaporates and the shrinkage and warping at the time of 15,6 Water Soaking and Storage of Logs: The bark of a timber tree affords
seasoning is much less. natural protection. The felled trees after the removal of the bark (logs)
15.5 Conversion of Felled Timber Trees: The preparation of timber from
is particularly liable tube attached by fungi. The logs are therefore, stored
felled trees by stimming off branches, removing the bark, cutting and under water in log ponds (may be natural or artificial) out of contact with
sawing to convert it into marketable forms is called conversion. The air. Water soaking dilutes the sap and partly eliminates it in solution.
principal market forms into which timber is converted are as follow.

It can be recalled that only a particular part of the year is suitable or
1. LOG. A log is a trunk of a felled tree and the branches stimmed off. felling timber trees and since saw mill works and other conversion
processes are to run for all the year round, some sort of storage of the logs
2. LUMBER: Lumber is the general term applied to cut sections of a log in essential. There are mainly two types of storage: (I) wet storage and (2)
manufactured by sawing. dry storage. The method of wet storage in log ponds has already been
3. BALK OR SQUARED TIMBER: This is obtained by roughly sugaring mentioned. The dry storage of logs is generally done on a specially
prepared raised floor (well drained). Water is sprinkled with the aid of
the log.
sprays from a pipe system to keep the logs in a wet condition. For the
4. PLANK: A plank is a parallel sided piece of timber roughly 8 to 15 inch manufacture of matches and veneers, logs of uniform dryness are
wide. 1 to 3 inch thick and 8 to 20 ft long essential. They should be storied in wet conditions (in log ponds) for a
long period to facilitate the process of peeling and slicing.
5. DEAL: A deal is a plank 2 to 3 inch thick and less than 9 inch wide.
6. BATTEN: A batten is a plank 1 1/2 to 2 inch thick and over 9 inch wide 15.7 Sawing of Timber: The conversion of logs into various market forms
7. BOARD: A board is a plank less than 2 inch thick and over 6 inch wide of timber is generally done by sawing. The structure of wood gives
rise to variations in the characteristics °F timber depending upon the
angle which the plane sawing or cutting makes with the two systems
of cells (vertical cells
Timber 350
and medullary rays). The following are (he principal method of
sawing logs:
1. Ordinary Sawing or Cross Sawing: When the sawing is done
approximately perpendicular to the tree, it is said to be ordinary
sawing or cross sawing. The surface of the planks sawn by this
method is termed as end grain cut (sawn) surface (Fig. 15.2). This is
most common method of sawing used tin our county. This is most
economical and quickest method of swing logs. Planks sawn by this
method are liable to warping and twisting due to shrinkage because
the central portion of the plank is of heartwood and its ends are sap Fig. 15.3
woods and the two portions of the plank shrink unequally.
Usually, rift cut lumber is not sawn strictly parallel with the
medullary ras and often in slash sawn lumber, the material near the
edges is from being tangent to the annual rings. It is a commercial
practice to call lumber rift sawn with the annual rings from 45 to 90°
with the surface is called slash or tangential saw.
The rift sawn lumber has the following principal advantages as

compared with slash or tangential sawn lumber:
Fig. 15.2
(1) it shrinks and swells less in width (2) it twists and cups less; (3) it
2. Radial or Rift Sawing and Tangential or Slash Sawing: When the log
does not split so badly in seasoning and in use (4) it wears more
is sawn parallel to medullary rays and perpendicular to the annual
rings, the method is said to be radial or rift sawing. Radial or rift evenly (5) types of figures coming from pronounced rays,
sawn lumber is known as edge grain lumber (Fig. 15.3) interlocked grain, and wavy grains are brought out conspicuously (6)
When the log is sawn perpendicular to the medullary rays and more Width of sapwood in a plank or board depends on width of sapwood
or less tangential to the annual rings, the method is said to be in the log and (7) it holds paints, and varnishes better.
tangential or slash sawing tangential or slash sawn lumber is also
called flat grain Lumber (Fig. 15.3).
Timber 352
The slash or tangential sawn lumber, on the other hand, has the
following advantages (1) it is generally cheaper because it requires
less time and involves less waste in sawing (2) it does not collapse so
easily in drying (3) the figure resulting from the annual rings brought
out conspicuously (4) circular or oval knots occurring in slash sawn
planks affect the strength and surface appearance less than spike
knots which may occur in slash sawn planks (5) shakes and other
defects when present extend through fewer boards.
All planks subject to surface wear as flooring should be rift sawn.
Rift sawn boards may often be obtained most economically by Fig. 15.4
3. Combination Sawing: In this method the central portion is sawn at
resawing large dimension stock.
right angles by the ordinary7 sawing method to get the best
2. Quarter Sawing: Quarter sawing is the term generally applied to the
advantage of the method while the outer quadrants are again
method of sawing timber first sawing the logs in quadrants of circles.
sawn by the method of radial or rift sawing. Different types of
Quarter sawing are of the following types (a) simple or plain sawing combination sawing is shown in Fig. 15.5 The central slices
(b) Radial or rift sawing. yield timber of maximum strength because the medullary rays
In simple quarter sawing, the central portion is correctly radial sawn are not cut.
and the two side portions of the quarter piece are partly radial and
partly tangential (Fig 15.4). This is the easier method but the planks
sawn, except the central 2 to 3 planks are not very strong.
In radial or rift quarter sawing, the wood is sawn parallel the
medullary rays and perpendicular to annual rings. The timber thus
sawn shrinks and warps less. This is a costly method but produces
timber which is better suited for high class works- The various types
of rift quarter sawing are shown in 15.4. Wastage is greater in this
method of rift quarter sawing.
354 A Text Book oi Engineering Materials 355
15.Wastage of Timber is Sawing: In the Conversion of timber by 15.10 Weight and Measurement of Timber: The specific gravity of the
sawing there is a great wastage. In general, when a log is sawn actual wood fiber of all species is about 1.5. so, it is apparent that no
only 50to 65 percent of its contents are actually converted into wood would float in water. Two factors chiefly influence the weight
useful timber and the rest is waste. The waste of a lot due to
of wood formed a succeeding period of growth, first the proportion
sawing may approximately by estimated as follows:
of summer wood formed and second the size and the number of
pores present in the early wood. The first is the controlling factor in
Bark 5 percent most conifers. The weight of wood is itself an important quality in
Side slabs and trimmings 18 percent many of structural uses. Weight is also closely related to strength.
Saw dust 12 percent The timber usually is measured in volume. The following are the
Loss of moisture ______ 5 Percent various methods of measurement of timber:
Total 40 Per cent (1) If d1and d2 are the two-end diameter of the log in inch and
These figures vary to a great extent depending upon the types of 1 is the length of the same in ft. the volume of the log is given
sawing adopted and the quality of timber. by the following expression:
15.9 Moisture Content in Timber: Logs contain large amount of water in (d} 2 + d22+d1d2) ,
Volume in cu ft = 0.2618-------------------------- x 1 (15.2)
the form of moisture. As the strength, durability and other properties 144
of timber depend upon the moisture content in it, it is necessary to (2) The volume also can be determined by measuring the
know how much moisture is present in the timber. quarter girth in ft at the middle (g2) and at the two ends (g1
The moisture content of a wood sample is determined from thin and g3) of the log as follows:
pieces, whose broad surfaces are perpendicular to the grain of the
wood or from wood chips. After careful weighting, these are heated Volume in cu ft=1/3 (g1+g2+g3) x 1 (15.3)
in an oven at approximately 100 C (212°F) until there is no further
where I is the length of the log in ft.
loss of weight. The sample is taken out, cooled at room temperature
and weighted again. The loss of weight (moisture content) divided (3) The volume can also be determined by the following formula:
by the oven dry weight expressed as percentage is known as the Volume in cu ft = g2 x 1 (15.4)
moisture content. where, g is quarter girth at the mid-length of the login and is the
Moisture Content (percent = Loss of wt. of the sample length of the log in ft.
wt. of oven dry sample
x 100(15.1) All these measurements are approximate, because e crossection of
the log is not a regular geometrical figure.
4 Text Book of Engineering Materials 357
In case of conifers, majority of the limbs die after a certain time and
Timber 356
Equilibrium Moisture Content: This is a stage of equilibrium when the portion of the dead limb is subsequently encased by the growing
there is no interchange of moisture between the wood and the air, i.e., stem, there is no intimate connection between the new stem wood and
when the wood and the atmosphere become equally humid. 1 his is dead wood of the limb and a plank cut so as in erpet this portion of
very important in case of seasoning timber. Because in the process of the log will contain an encased knot. \ Pith knot is one which is
seasoning the wood is dried to a moisture content which is in located in the pith of the stem. A spike knot is one sawn in length
equilibrium with the local atmospheric conditions. wise direction. K rotten knot is one which has been decomposed.
15.11 Defects in Timber: A defect is any irregularity or imperfection in or Knots make sawing and planning more difficult. Timer generally
on wood which may lower its strength, durability and utility. Defects splits when a nail or a spike is driven through a knot and hence it is
are usually two types (1) Natural defects due to abnormal growth and considered to be a very serious defect in a railway sleeper, if found
rupture of tissues (2) Artificial defects arising due to conversion and
near rail seats where spikes are driven.
uses.
In structural beams the effect of knot on the bending strength largely
1. Natural Defects: Natural defects are (a) knots (b) twisted fibers (c)
depends upon their location. Knots in the tension side of the beam
shakes (d) upsets (e) rind galls (also known as burls or excrescences)
near the point of maximums tress will have a significant effect on the
(f) foxiness (g) compression wood (h) pitch pockets.
maximum load the beam will sustain, whereas knots on the
(a) Knots: Knots constitute one the most common natural defects in
compression side are somewhat less serious. Knots in any position
timber: they originate in timber cut from the stem or branches of tree
because of the encasement of a limb, either living or dead, by the have little effect on shear. Stiffness of beams is not greatly affected
successive annual layers of wood, hi most structural timber, limbs by knots.
originate at the pith of the stem and the knots found deep in a log are In long columns in which stiffness is the controlling factor knot are
therefore small, increasing in size towards the bark. Knots are of various not of importance. In short or intermediate columns, the reduction in
types. If the knot retains its place in the piece on cutting and if it is as
strength caused by knots is approximately proportional to the size of
hard as the wood itself, it is called a sound knot- An unsound knot is not
as hard as the wood in which it is situated the knot, although large knots hate a somewhat proportionately
greater effect than small ones. Sound knots actually increase hardness
A pin knot is a sound knot less than 1/2 inch in diameter. A
and strength in compression perpendicular to grain and are
stander knot is a sound knot not over 11/2-inch diameter. objectional le regard to these properties only to the extent that they
1
Large knot are those having diameter more than 1 /2-inch. cause non-uniform wear or a non- uniform distribution of pressure at
contact surfaces. Knots, however are harder to work will
than the surrounding wood, may project from the surface when (C) Shakes: Shakes arc splits, or cracks in timber which the
shrinkage occurs and arc a cause of twisting. separation of the wood tissues, shakes are caused by the action of
wind on trees and by the shrinkage when it dries, Shakes are of
Knots found in timber are illustrated in fig. 15.6 various types. When the separation occurs between the annual ring, it
is termed as ring shake. Cracks extending between the two faces of a
prece of a lumber are called through shakes. Shakes extending
radially from the periphery towards the Centre are known as radial
shakes. If the split is curved along annual rings, it is known as cup
shakes. If a crack of spilt radiates from the Centre (pith) and extends
in direction of the medullary rays it is called heart shake. If these are
more than one such crack of split, radiating from the pith it is called a
star shake. They are found mostly in trees past maturity but sometimes
they may be caused by quick drying of the central pail of the tree if a
ENCASED KNOT
Fig. 15.6 tree is nearing maturity is felled and left unbraked for a long time A
check is a lengthwise separation of the wood between two consecutive
annual rings.
(B) Twisted Fibers: This detect is developed in a living by the

STAR(HEART)SHAKE
prevailing wind which tend to turn the free constantly in a particular
direction causing its fibers to- get twisted longitudinally (fig. 15 7). In
sawing planks from such a tree, the fibers are cut through which reduces
the strength of the planks.
Fig. 15.8
Shakes found in wood are illustrated in Fig. 15.8

FIG. 15.7 TWISTED FIBRES
(D) Upsets: These defects are caused in limber trees in which the fibers gum veins, latex canals are also found in some species of trees.
have been injured by shock of crushing usually during their growth 2, Artificial Defects: Artificial defects arc: (a) Warping (b) Splitting and
(fig. 15.9) cracking (c) Defects due to fungal action and (d) Defects due to insects.
(a) Warping: Warping is a variation or distortion from a true or plane
surface of a plank due to unequal shrinkage and includes bow, crook, cup
and twist. Bow is distortion of a plank or a board in which the face is
convex of concave longitudinally: crook is similar distortion of the edge
of a plank or of a board caused by turning of the edge tostha the four-
Hg. 15.9 UPSETS
corner a of a board are not in the same plane.
(E) Rind Galls, Burs or Excrescence: Swellings are caused by the growth All these defects are mainly due to seasoning and drying of timbers. The
of layers over the remnant of an imperfectly cut branch which are Fig. 15.10 shows the various types of warping’s.
termed as rind galls, or burs or excrescence (Fig. 15.8) They are
particular} formed if a tree gets an injury when it is young. An injury
to a young growing tree upsets its growth and leaves behind a shock
which gradually swells and forms rind galls.
(F) Foxiness: This is a yellow or red stain which disfigures the wood. This
is generally caused by the decay of the timber. These stains are
usually found round the pith of the tree.
(G) Compression Wood: It is abnormal wood formed on the lower side of
branches and of leaning trunks of softwood tree mainly which has
relatively wide annual rings, a large amount of summer wood and a dark
reddish to brown color. This type of timber is very weak and less durable,
a) BOW b) CUP (c) CROOK (d) TWIS
because it ends to shrink excessively lengthwise.
Fig. 15.10
(H) Pitch Pockets: Pitch pockets are opening between the fibers of the
wood extending, along the grain usually containing pitch or bark. (b) Splitting and Cracking: if the reasoning of the freshly felled logs of
Other defects like resin and mineral streaks, wood is not properly carried out several defects occur due to non-
uniform drying of the exterior and interior section of the timber.
Exterior dries: more quickly than the
Timber 362 A Text Book of Engineering Materials
363
interior which remains comparative!) wet. Shakes of various types
(Discussed already) may result.
(c) Defects due to fungal action: Fungi are microscopic plans. They
attack and active on wood tissues and their cell contents. Rotting is the
general term applied to the disintegration and destruction of wood by
fungal action. The factors promoting fungal action arc moisture
content, enough air. suitable temperature and sufficient food material.
There are mainly two types of fungi, (i) Sap stain fungi and (ii) wood
rotting fungi. The sapwood of both soft wood and hard wood are
Fig. 15.11
attacked by sap stain fungi. Minute holes are caused in timber by this
group of fungal attack. lei mites and beetles attack timber by eating out the interior of the
Wood rotting fungi are again two types, namely, wet rot fungi and wood and leaven a shell of sound wood to conceal their activities,
dry rot fungi. Generally, 20 to 25 per cent moisture is essential for very few woods offer any marked degree of resistance to termite
fungal activity, wet rot fungi require a higher percentage of moisture attack.
for their activity. Dry rot fungi require comparatively a lower Damage to timber structures in sea water and even some times in
percentage of moisture and does not require pump conditions to bring fresh water may be caused by marine borers. Rapidly of attach
about disintegration and final decay of timbers reduced to almost depends on the local condition and the kinds of bores present, the
powdery state from which the term dry rot is used. It is worth principal marine borers and the teredo and limnoria. The fig. 15.11
mentioning that wet rot is commonly found in living trees through shows the section of a timber attached by teredo borer.
their wounded parts into which water gains access. 15.12 Seasoning of Timber: The seasoning or drying of timber frequently
(d) Defects due to insects and worms: Insects and worms which cause precedes its application to structural purposes. The main purpose of
defects in wood are mainly of two classes. One classes of insects are seasoning is dry sap and to reduce the moisture content of timber.
termites (white ants) and beetles and the other class is marine borers. The following are the main objectives of seasoning timber.
The action of insects is to make holes in wood in, various ways and 1. To bring timber to a state of equilibrium moisture content which is
then to reduce to powder and impart a honey-comb texture to it. essential for all subsequent conversion and use.
Timber is discolored and loses its strength and finally falls in decay 2. To reduce the weight of timber to facilitate transportation and
(Fig. 15.11) handling.

Timber 364
3. To make timber durable and more resistant to decay
due to fungal action. (a) Kiln Seasoning: Two types of kilns arc available for artificial
seasoning: (i) compartment kiln in which the conditions of temperature
4. To make timber strong, hard and stiff as unseasoned timber is weak
and soft and more vulnerable to decay. and humidity are changed as the drying progress, the timber being
5. To dry the sap and to reduce the moisture content to certain degree to stacked in the compartment and (ii) progressive kiln in which a low
apply preservatives on timber. temperature with high humidity condition is maintained at the entering
6. To make timber more suited for polishing and painting. end of the kiln and a high temperature with low humanity condition it the
Methods of seasoning of Timber: The following are the principal exit end. timber being moved periodically through the kiln. Both types of
methods of seasoning of timber: (1) Natural or Air Seasoning (2) kilns may have either natural of forced air circulation. The advantages of
Artificial Seasoning (kiln seasoning. Chemical Seasoning. Electrical forced circulation of air are accurate control of humidity and faster
seasoning, Esteeming, Boiling. Smoke seasoning) and (3) water drying without any danger to the timber.
Seasoning. In kiln seasoning temperatures 70 to 82°C (158 to 180cF) are usually
1. Natural or Air Seasoning: This process of seasoning is also known as employed soft woods generally require 4 to 6 days for 3 to 6 months to
air drying. The natural seasoning is done by a long outdoor exposure of allow the first shrinkage to take place more gradually and are then
timber to the action of the air. *The timbers are stacked in a dry elevated exposed to above temperatures in the kiln require 6 to 12 days for 1-to-
platform which is covered by a temporary' shed to protect timbers from 2%-inch boards. This method is used in Bangladesh.
the action of rain. Sometimes, permanent shed is also erected for the (b) Chemical Seasoning: This is also known as salt seasoning: In this
same. Timber is generally turned frequently to ensure equal drying all method, timber is first soaked in an aqueous solution of a suitable
round, because irregular drying causes splits and cracks. This is a very chemical salt (usually solution or urea) before it is passed through the
slow process and the time required from 2 to 3 years to remove the process of kiln seasoning. The vapor pressure of the salt solution is less
moisture by proration to the desired extent. This method is commonly and therefore, the interior moisture of the timber is drawn out. The
employed all over Bangladesh. drying of timber from the center to the surface is at a uniform rate. The
drying process is also accelerated. The most commonly used chemical is
official Seasoning: The drying of timber by exposure for a mited period to
high temperatures in a closed chamber or by applying chemicals, steam urea. It is a very good dehydrating agent and does not cause any harm to
and smoke is termed as artificial reasoning. The following are the various the seasoned timber. This method is not generally used in our country.
method of artificial seasoning.
Timber 366 A Text Book of' Engineering Materials 367
(c) Electrical Seasoning: In this process, high frequency alternating the possibilities of decay and increases the durability of timber. Water
currents arc passed through timber in a closed chamber and the seasoning timber also dries more quickly. This process of seasoning is
resistance caused by the passage of the currents produces heat which good for limber containing a lot of sap but it reduces the strength of
dries the limber. Electrical seasonings is generally preceded by air timber to some extent. This method is commonly used all over
dicing. Bangladesh.
This is a very quick process of seasoning but .is not used in this Remarks. I amber shrinks when seasoned. But seasoned (dried)
country. timber has the ability to reabsorb water from the atmosphere when in
(d) Steaming: This process, steam is passed through the stacked structure use. The amount of water than absorbed always exceeds the
timber in a closed chamber and thereafter timber is dried gradually in moisture content of the air but varies with the humanity. The
natural air. The steam is usually passed for 4 to 6 hours. consequent shrinking and swelling of the timber is a serious handicap
This is a quick method but it reduces the elasticity and strength of if exact is desired. This phenomenon may be reduced but not limited
timber. This method is used in certain parts of this country. entirely, by prolonged exposure to temperatures in the vicinity of
(e) Boiling: In this process the timber is immersed in boiling water 100°C (212°F). or by boiling, steaming, prolonged soaking and
for a certain period of time. Thereafter, the timber is dried slowly by painting and varnishing.
natural air. This is also a quick process but it also reduces elasticity 15.13 Mechanical Properties of Timber: The intelligent use of wood for
and strength of timber. This method is very rarely used in any structural purpose requires a general know ledge of the
Bangladesh. mechanical properties of different woods in order that the one
(f) Smoke Seasoning: This is a very old practice of drying timber in selected may conform in its structural qualities to the requirement
smoke heat over a fire of straw, sawdust and wood savings. This imposed and in order that a given purpose may be served at minimum
method is claimed to be efficient to make timber more durable and expense. The mechanical properties of timber are extremely variable,
resistant to decaying agents, heat is gradually applied to prevent not only between species and different trees of the same species but
splitting and wrapping. This method is very frequently used in also specimens from different portions of the same tree. The
Bangladesh in boat making industries. following are the principal mechanical properties of timber. (1)
3. Water Seasoning: In this process, timbers and logs are immersed and Durability (2) Strength, (3) Elasticity. (4) Stiffness. (5) Toughness,
allowed to remain in water for a couple of days, whereafter they are dried Hardness and (7) Workability.
by in natural air. In process, the sap is diluted and is partly removed. This (0 Durability: Durability is the property of tun u to of sound condition for
reduces a long time when expose to the forces of nature in an exposed or

underground condition. All timbers
must be durable. For this the timber should be free from natural grain is comparatively low; the intensity of longitudinal shear also
becomes a very vital factor. Flexural (bending) strength is tested on a
and artificial detects. The trunk of the tree should be thick long
rectangular beam section applying load at the center.
and straight. Timbers should be radially sawn; the annual rings
should be regular and uniform and as dense as possible. The
An attempt to predict the strength of a given piece of timber must take
colour should be uniform and or lustrous. The timber should be
into account the various factors which may exert an influence upon
well-seasoned. Hardness, density, specific gravity and strength
this strength. The most important of these are
seem to have direct influence on the durability of timber.
(i) species and variety (ii) locality from which content and defects
(2) Strength: Strength are of various types: (a) Tensile strength (b)
and their location.
Compressive strength (c) Flexural or Transverse strength.
Moisture and Strength: All woods gain in strength when thoroughly
(a) Tensile Strength: Timber in construction is practically never
seasoned. The relationship between the moisture content, compressive
subjected to pure tensile stress. The type of specimen to be used for
strength and modulus of elasticity of timber has been illustrated in Fig.
testing the tensile strength is rectangular piece, 2"x2"x8". The method
15.12
of application of load is two types: (i) parallel to the grains and (ii)
perpendicular to the gains.
(b) Compressive Strength: Timber in construction is mainly
subjected to compressive strength. The compressive strength of wood
in a direction normal to the grain is simply a matter of the resistance
offered by the wood elements to being crushed or flattened. The cells
with the thinnest walls collapse first and the action proceeds
gradually.
The compressive strength of timber along the grain depends upon the
anatomical structure and the moisture content of die timber.
A rectangular specimen. 2”x2”x8” is used for this purpose and the FIG. 15.12 EFFECT OF MOISTURE ON PROERTIES OF
load is applied along the grains. A TYPICAL TIMBER
(c) Flexural Strength: The flexural strength of timber is closely Weight and Strength: The relation between strength and
related to its tensile and compressive strength- r timber beams, whose true (dry) density of timber can be expressed as follows:
resistance to shear parallel with the Green timber: Modulus of Rupture= 18,500 (S) 1.25 (15.5)
Seasoned timber: Modulus of Rupture =26,200(s) 1.25 (15.6)
where S is the specific gravity.
Timber 370 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 37]
The above noted formulae have been derived from tests on small
hardness is necessary for timbers to be used for flooring mallets tool
clear, straight grained specimens. The actual data show that mean
hand less rollers, bearing shaft, spindles etc.
values for different species and variation in locality may deviate from
6. Fissility: It is the property of timber to spit in the direction of the
the calculated value by 30 percent.
fibers when a tensile force is exerted at right angles to the grain.
Rate of Growth and Strength: The average rate of growth of timber is
Resistance to fissility of timber is required when it is used for
readily computed by counting the annual rings along radial line and
spokes, shafts etc.
dividing by the length of the line. The indications are that for most
7. Workability: Timber should not offer any resistance when it is
species there is a rate of growth which, in a very general way. is
worked with tools for conversion, planning and polishing. A good
associated with the greatest, strength. For species tested, this appears
workable timber should not split or crack when nail or spike is driven
to be as tabulated as follows:
into it.
5.14 Elastic Properties of Timber: The ratio of compressive strength to
Name of the timber tree Rings per inch modulus of elasticity which is a ratio of strength to stiffness is much
Fir 24
greater for timber than for steel, iron, or concrete. Wood has no well-
Teak 30
defined yield point, but the proportional limit or yield strength is
Sal 32
determined as a measure of elastic strength. Timber has a high
Garjan 31
degree of resistance. Timber structural members have good
Deodar 22
resistance to shock. Timber can withstand a large deformation for
Chirr 20
comparatively low stress. A unit volume of steel has greater clastic
Jarul 28
resistance to shock than timber as measured by the area under the
stress strain curve but since a much greater volume of timber is
(3) Stiffness: Stiffness of timber largely depends upon the same
required to resist a given stress, timber members have better elastic
factors as strength. Stiffness of timber used structurally is often quite an
shock resistance than steel. Timber members are much better in this
important factor. All wood gain stiffness when properly seasoned.
respect than cast iron or concrete. Partly on account of these elastic
(4) Toughness: This is the property of timber to resist shocks. This
shock-resisting Properties, timber is extensively used for railroad
property is desirable where the timber is subjected to vibrations or
ties, fence posts, highway guardrail posts, wagon or cart wheels.
sudden blows.
Resistance to complete failure under shock is less tor Umber than
(5) Hardness: Structural timber should be very hard- Hardness of
steel but greater than for cast iron and concrete.
timber depends upon the weight, uniformity in texture, closely spaced
annual rings and freeness from defects
Timber 372
1. Permanent structural works: Timbers used in permanent structural
15.15. Characteristics of Good limber: The following are the
works are mainly of two types: (a) Light structural members and (b)
characteristics ‘of good timber:
1. It should be strong, stiff, tough and durable. Heavy structural members.
2. It should be free from both natural and artificial defects (a) Light structural members: Beams, posts, roof trusses floor
3. It should be radially sawn. boards, door and window frames and battens, railway sleepers bridge
4. The annual growth rings should be regular, uniform and closely Borings electric poles, fencing poles, poles for transmission lines,
spaced. gates, railings etc.
5. The colour should be uniform and lustrous. There should not be any
(b) Heavy structural members: Piles, bridge piers, trestles foundation
sudden change in colour as this would indicate a disease (defect) in
and superstructure, wood staves, stairs etc.
timber. Dark uniform colour usually indicate strength and durability of
2. Furniture works: cots, beds, etc.
timber.
3. Transportation works: For making country boats launches speed boats,
6. When struck with a hammer, timber should give a clear sound. A dull
sound usually indicates in timber. ships body frames of railway coaches, omnibuses and air crafts, for
7. It should be obtained from the heart to a fully grown tree with straight making jetties and landing platforms. Also used for making cart
and regular girth. wheels.
8. The density of the timber should be high because heavier timbers are 4. Temporary works during construction: Scaffolding and general
always stronger and durable: centering works (formworks) of all types in R.C.C. construction
9. It should have a good workability. works, for providing shearing and strutting to support the sides of soft
10.It should be elastic because this property is necessary in timber used for soil excavation. Timber is used or making packing boxes and pattern
carriage shafts, bows, sport goods etc.
making in foundry castings.
11.It should be resistant to compression because this property is needed
5.Commercial uses: Timber is used for manufacturing sport goods,
when timber is used as struts, piles wheel spokes, posts, props, etc.
toys, and for making veneers which are used in manufacturing
12. It should be fire resistant, i.e., it should have low combustibility. A
plywood batten boards, laminated boards, etc. and reconstructed
dense timber offers greater resistance to Inc than light and porous one.
wooden boards like insulating boards hardboard fiber boards particle
13. Timber should retain its shapes during the period of use. 15.16
Uses of Timber: The following are the various uses of timber:
boards, linoleum etc.
6. Industrial uses: Wood is used for the manufacture of matches, paper,
newsprint, card boards, wall-papers, artificial synthetic fibers, roofing
felt, preservatives etc.
Timber 374 presence of sap (3) A small amount of air (4) Suitable temperatures
7. Ornamental and Decorative Works: limber is used for ornamental and and (5) Sufficient moisture. If any one of these conditions does not
decorative purposes like table lamp holders, flower-vases, ashtrays, exist, attack by fungi will be eliminated. Thus, timber subjected to
cabinet partition, interior decorative works, etc. very high or low temperatures will not be attacked by fungi. Timber
8. Miscellaneous uses: For making utensils, bows wheel spokes immersed in water will not decay because of lack of air and timber
shafts mallets, tool handless rollers, spindles ploughs, tent pegs. weel, kept continuously in a dry condition below a critical moisture content
curbs, ladders. household fittings picture frames, combs, brushbacks. will decay. Insects and worms like beetles, termites (white ants) and
etc. borers also bring about decay in their own way.
15.17 Decay of Timber: The decay of timber is not an inorganic process 15.18 Preservation of Timber: By far the best method of preventing the
like rusting of iron or crumbling of stone but is mainly due to the growth of wood destroying fungi is poisoning their food supply by
action of wood destroying fungi. These wood-penetrating fungi consist injecting poisonous substance into the timber, so changing the organic
of hyphae, which are branched threads or filaments of microscopic
food materials in powerful fungicides.
size. The masses hyphae are known as micelle. These fungi are mainly
It is a widespread idea that the germs of decay are inherent in the
two types: Stain and mold. Blue stain is the most common in the stain
wood, needing only an opportunity for development to bring about its
group of fungi. These organisms depend on woody tissues for their
destruction. On the contrary, all wood destroying agencies start from
food. They spread from cell to cell through the pits in the cell walls or
the outside and may even be eliminated by certain paints which merely
bore through cell walls causing disintegration of mood which in
coat the surface of the timber but which are poisonous enough to
advanced stages is easily recognized by changes in texture, continuity
prevent the germination of fungal spores.
and colour. The wood becomes soft, friable, spongy and pitted
The deliberate attempts to preserve timber from decay date back may
depending upon the type of fungus. Mold is a wood staining fungus
which forms a cottony growth on the surface of the timber most and centuries, when wood was chaired to make it more resistant. Later came
worm conditions. Wood reduces the strength and durability of timber. the period when wood was coated with preservative paints; then came
Wood destroying fungi may be further classed as brown rot or white attempts to inject pre into the wood. .
rot. The former involves destruction principally of cellulose while the There are mainly three types of wood preservatives available in the
white rot destroys lignin gum, latex etc. market: (1) Preservative Tar oils (b) Water Soluble Preservative and (3)
Organic compounds.
Five conditions are necessary for the development of decay in timber:
(1) supply of food for wood destroying fungi (2)
Timber 376
Preservative treatments also prolong the life of timber and increases
The most important and widely used tar-oil preservatives is creosote.
its durability to a great extent. A good preservative should have the
Creosotes are of three types: (a) Coal-tar creosote (b) Water gas tar
following characteristics: (1) It should be safe in handling and safe
creosote and (c) Wood-tar creosote, depending upon their origin
to use (2) It should be non-injurious to the wood tissues and should
whether it is from coal petroleum or wood. Creosotes are obtained by
not act chemically with the wood fibers (3) It should not get washed
the process of destructive distillation these substances. Out of the
away and should preserve wood permanently (4) Its quality should
three creosotes. Coal tar creosote is the most important and efficient
be such that decorative colors and paints could be applied on timber
one Creosote has the advantage of insolubility in water so that it will
not wash out of timber. It is the best preservative for general outdoor very easily (5) It should be nonflammable and should penetrate the
exposures and is preferred for piling, poles and general structural wood thoroughly.
timbers. Creosoted timber, however, is discolored so that it cannot be 15.19 Processes of Applying Preservatives on Timber: The following
painted and it has an objectionable odor. are the various processes of applying preservatives on timber:
Among the water-soluble chemical salts, zinc chloride is most widely (1) Pressure Processes
used. Mercuric chloride, potassium dichromate copper sulphate, (2) Non-Pressure Processes
arsenic and sodium fluoride are the other types of water-soluble (3) Superficial processes
preservatives. Zinc chloride is soluble in water and hence it is utilized (4) Dipping Process.
In comparatively dry situations. Its advantages are that the treated (1) Pressure Processes: These are the most efficient processes of
timber can be painted and is odorless. treatment of timber with preservatives and give reliable results. The
Toxic organic compounds such as tetra chlorophenol, pressure processes in general provide tor some preliminary
pentachlorophenol, copper nap enate and zinc naphthenate dissolved treatment, after which the presentative introduced into the cellular
in non-aqueous, non -toxic volatile solvent such as naphtha, spirit, etc. spaces by pressure. According there are two types of pressure
have been recently developed for the treatment of door and window processes: (a) "Full cell’’ process and (b) "Empty cell" process.
frames battens and other types of furniture. The wood is soaked into
(a) Full Cell Process: In this process it is intended that the cells of
the preservative no heat being required. The volatile solvent escapes
the wood shall remain practically filled with Preservatives. The
rapidly after treatment. The toxic agent remaining does not discolor the
seasoned timber is loaded on trollies, (specially designed with ball
wood detrimentally nor cause swelling since the moisture content not
affected. Treated wood is paintable and odorless. bearings) and pushed them into long steel cylinders (known as
autoclaves), doors of which
Timber 378
can be closed completely airtight. After locking the door of the (2) Non-Pressure Process: I his process is also known as the hot and
autoclave, a preliminary vacuum is applied to remove the air as much cold hath treatment. The timber is immersed in the preservative in an
as possible from the wood cells. The preservative which is generally open tank and the temperature is raised to about 93.3°C (200°F). The
heated to about 210°f is then pumped into the autoclave and the heat of the preservative expands the air within the cells. The cooling
desired pressure usually ranging between 125 to 200 psi is applied for of the bath or the rapid removal of the wood to a cold bath causes a
a specified period of time. The pressure is then reduced to contraction of the air still remaining in the cells, which tends to
atmospheric and the preservative is then withdrawn from the produce an infiltration of the preservative. This process in not
autoclave. Then the cell cavities get filled up with preservative. After commonly used.
a short time, the door of the autoclave is opened and the trollies taken (3) Superficial Process: Less efficient but cheaper treatment can be
out. This method is most suitable to water soluble preservatives. secured by painting the surface of the timber with at least two coats
of hot creosote or zinc chloride or some other similar preservative.
(b) Empty Cell Process: In this process, it is desired that the preservative
shall merely form a thin film over the cells without filling the inside This process also known as the brush method. The preservative will
of the cells. The procedure is exactly same as that of the full cell not penetrate to any great extent but as long as there remains an
process, except that prior to filling the autoclave with the preservative,
an initial air pressure of about 50 to 75 psi is created in the autoclave unbroken antiseptic layer around the surface of the timber, the spores
which forces the air into the cells of the wood. The preservative is of fungi cannot enter. Through seasoning is necessary before
then admitted to the autoclave under a high pressure (about 200 psi) painting with preservatives, otherwise shakes may form and provide
and is thus forced into the cells. Upon the removal of the external
pressure, the imprisoned and compressed air within the cells expands a means of access to the interior of the timber for the spores of fungi
and forces out a considerable portion of the preservative, which may and also for termites and borers.
be further removed by application pf
Sometimes, instead of brushing, the preservative is sprayed on the
timber by machine. The spraying method is definitely better than the
a partial vacuum. This process requires only 1/3 to 1/2 of the
brush method and gives a uniformity of application. Superficial
preservative that is required by the full cell process. This process is
process is suitable when the preservative has to be applied at an
very economic and is often preferred for structural Timbers because
the treated timber is cleaner to handle and less apt to bleed. This interval of 2 to 3 years
method is most suited for oily type preservatives like creosote.
Timber
and also, when the timber is exposed to damp condition only for a short
time.
15.21 Effect of Preservative Treatments on the Strength of
Timber: Reduced strength timber after preservative treatment is due

(4) Dipping Process: A still less expensive treatment than the brush or
primary to the method of conditioning or process of impregnating rather
spray treatment is the method of dipping the timber in an open tank or
than to the effects of preserved timber. Strength of treated timber is a
vat of the preservative. Usually, the timbers are carried through the
function of the percentage of moisture remaining in the timber. Steaming
bath on chain conveyors and remain submerged only for a few
during preliminary treatment may cause considerable reduction in
minutes at most. Dipping is not only more economical of time and
strength a high degree of steaming is injurious since the amount of
labor but also gives better results than the superficial method.
moisture in the timber is increased with consequent weakening of the
fibers. Boiling under vacuum causes less weakening than steaming. High
Remarks: Timber members should be cut to final dimensions before temperatures maintained for long periods during impregnation in order
treatment, with a preservative. If cutting is necessary after treatment the to obtain penetration of the preservative may cause considerable loss in
cut surfaces should be brushed or sprayed or dipped with the original strength. The presence of creosote in itself will not weaken wood since it
preservative. does not reach chemically with wood and appear, not to enter the cell
15.20 Bleeding. After treatment of timber, sometimes the creosote

walls and fibers
but only to coat them the presence of zinc chloride will not weaken
(Preservative) oozes out and this phenomenon is termed as bleeding. wood except by the addition of water by the reason of the fact that it is itself
When the final vacuum is applied (in case of empty cell process) much a water solution. Subsequent seasoning will obviate this difficulty. A too
concentrated preservative solution may cause chemical dissolution of some
free creosote is drained out as well as a lot of air under pressure which was
of the Woodfibre’s but this danger can easily be avoided.
imprisoned in the cell. But due to the viscosity of the preservative
15.22 Protection of Timber Structures against Termites and Beetles: Very few
(creosote): a certain amount of air still remains blocked inside the
woods offer any marked degree of resistance to termites and beetles’
capillaries of the timber. Timber is day when comes out autoclaves, but as
attack. Impregnation with an effective preservative increase’s resistance.
the entrapped air gradually finds its j way out it pushes out the creosote
The best
and thus bleeding starts. Bleeding is found in the empty cell process of
wood treatment.
Timber 382
protection against subterranean termites is to build a barrier so as to infested walers. I he piles should be properly seasoned before the
prevent their access to the building. The foundation should be of concrete preservative treatment.
or other solid material through which the termites and beetles cannot protection against borers may also be provided by surrounding the
penetrate. Rich cement mortar should be used with bricks stones or treated piles by a jacket of concrete or by cast iron pipe sections.
concrete blocks because termites and beetles can work through wealk The pipe section should extend from above high tide to below the
mortars. Termites and beetles’ shields consisting of sheet of metals that mud line and space between the wood and the pipes should be filled
extent out from the foundation at a angle of 45° for a horizontal distance with clay or concrete.
of at least 2 inches should be placed between foundation add wood work Paints and batten method of pile protection vary' as to details but
in order to prevent termites and beetles. Metal shields should also be consist of substantially in: (1) coating the untreated pile and other
filled tightly around water and sewer pipes gas pipes and electrical timber structures in contact with water with a thick viscous paint
conduits along which termites could build their tubes and gain entrance which may not contain poisonous materials (2) applying burlap,
to wood work. Building infested with subterranean termites should have roofing felt or similar material over the paint
the infested timber replaced with treated once. The entrance galleries of (3) applying a second coat of paint (4) nailing in a lace of a close-
the termites should be destroyed and chemical such as ortho di- fitting layer of narrow battens, which are strips of sawn timber and
chlorobenzene may be poured into a trench near the nests and then (5) applying a final coat of paint of till the crevices between the
convert with earth so that the termites will be killed by fumes. battens and to coat the surface thoroughly.
Paint is a good protection against the entrance of dry wood termites 15.24 Fire Resistance of Timber: Timber can be never be mad fire proof,
therefore all exposed timber should be kept painted. but it can be treated to slow down the action of fire. Timber may be
15.23 Protection of Timber structure Against Borers: The best practical impregnated with chemicals to increase fire resistance. The most
protection for piling in sea water against marine borers is the heavy common preservatives are monoammonium phosphate,
treatment with creosote. The treatment should be through with deep diammonium phosphate, a Phosphoric acid arc effective in retarding
glowing and flaming and do not have objectionable properties.
penetration and high absorption of the creosote in order to obtain
satisfactory results in heavily
Timber A Text Book of Engineering Materials 385
384
Timber may be coated with fire resistant paints to retard baring and The veneers glued together as mentioned earlier are subjected io a
to restrain the spreading of flames. Sodium silicate is an effective hydraulic pressure is applied under temperatures ranging from 350
to 500°F.
fire-resistant coating
15.25 Veneers: Veneers are thin layers of wood of 1/16 to ¼ inch in
thickness. These are used in construction were lightness, durability,
stiffness. no shrinking, non-splitting and decorative properties are FACE PLY
ZCROSS PLY
E>CORE PLY
desired. Veneers are generally obtained only from those woods which CROSS PLY
FACE PLY
have well shaped grains and which are pleasing in appearance. Slicing of PLAYWOOO WITH THREE VEHEERS tb) PLYWOOD WITH FIVE VENEERS
veneers is done in the form of continuous sheets by rotating logs with the Fig. 15.13
aid of a circular rotary saw. In our country, generally shisham and teak
are considered to be suitable for making veneers. But in foreign Plywood is much stronger (roughly two to three times) than solid
countries, mahogany, walnut and waple are considered to be most boards of equivalent thickness and therefore, it is lighter than planks
suitable
for veneering. Veneers are principally used in the manufacture of of equivalent strength. It is available in all sizes and can be easily
plywood batten boards laminated boards and decorative facings. worked, especially when bending to a certain extent to suit the
15.26 Plywood: Plywood consists of number of thin sheets of wood required shape is desired. It does not generally crack or split like solid
(veneers) which are pressed and bonded together with some binding or boards due to the effect to atmospheric agents. Plywood is sometimes
cementing material like glue or synthetic alternately at right angles bonded with plastic sheets to provide a superior glossy appearance,
low or nil water absorption, excellent abrasion resistance and better
adhesives. The grains of each sheet (or ply) are laid
to the grains of adjoining sheet. Not less than three sheet are used, but
weathering properties.
more sheets can be added to increase the thickness. The inner sheet which
Plywood is extensively used to partitions and panel works, exterior
forms the core is usually of a cheaper quality, while the top surface sheet
and interior walls decorations, rail cars, ornamental and engineering
or ply is of much superior quality of wood (Fig. 15,13). Cross bonding
models. .
imports uniform strength in both direction and shrinkage is reduced to
By ordinary plywood it is commonly meant that it consists of three
minimum. It also prevents splitting.
plays or veneers. But if consists of 5 to 11 plays, it is
Timber
of laminated boards (15.15) Batten broads are used for decorative
known as multiply wood and its thickness ranges from 1/3 to 11/2 inch.
works, furniture making partitions etc.
15.29 Reconstructed Wood: Good quality wood converted into chips
(size about 1/2 to 1 inch) which are cooked in as autoclave with super-
151 15.27 Laminated Boards: these ate called Lamin boards. These are
also manufacture! similarly as plywood. They are of either three heated steam to make them soft. This causes separation of the fibers
ply’s or multiplies. These consist of a core of thick strips about ½- from the wood gum (lignin) and the whole mass reduced to a plastic
inch thick laid side by side with their grains reversed,
form. This cooked material is then transferred to a big steel cylindrical
glued and compressed. These laminated are covered with veneers
with their grains at right angles to the core (Fig.14, 15). The total autoclave where it is further heated at a pressure of 800 to 1000 psi for a
thickness of the laminated boards usually varies from 1/2 to 2 inch, few minutes. The value provided at the bottom of the great force when
but sometimes, thicker varieties are also made. Laminated boards are the wood pulp comes out of the value the pressure is released suddenly
used as partitions, decorative works, furniture, etc.
and the fibers of wood separate from the wood gum (lignin). These
fibers are collected, washed, refined and spread on wire screens to the
required thickness and pressed between steel plates with necessary
pressure to yield soft and hard broads as required (Fig: 15.16) The
texture of reconstructed wood is quite different from that of natural
Fig. 15.14 Laminated Board Fig. 15.15 Batten Coard wood and depends upon the size of the wood chips or particles.
Fig. 15.14 and 15.15 Sometimes, the surfaces are made corrugated or leather-grained for
decorative purposes. Fine particles like sawdust generally yield a

Fig. 15.14 Laminated Board Fig. 15.15 Batten Coard; Fig 15.14 and 15.15
product of good quality (hard boards). Sometimes, coloring ingredients
15.28 Batten Boards: These are just like lamina boards except the middle thick panel
is repl is replaced by (wood battens of ¾ to 1 inch thickness battens of board is are added to the wood pulp to improve the original shades or for
same same as that
production color boards. The main varieties of reconstructed wooden
boards are as follows; (1) insulating board (2) soft boards (3) hard
boards (4) super-hard boards (5) laminated fiber building boards and (6)
color boards.
Timber 388 Partex in plain and veneered forms is constantly being recommended
by good cabinet market for steam lined furniture in modem homes and
office.
In veneered partex there is a choice of various types of boards of Burma
(d) Fiber Board (d) Hard Board (Leather Gracing teak, afromoisa (golden teak) and sapele.
Fig. 15.16 Reconstructed wood
Fig. 15.16 Partex plain boards are ideal for surfacing with practically any material,
viz, laminated sheets, Formica, aluminum sheets, plywood, wood
Reconstructed wooden boards are now-a-days widely used because
veneers etc. Partex boards are available in wide range of densities and
they are strong durable, light and flexible, can be bent to any desired
thickness.
shapes. They do not crack or split. They can sawn drilled and
Cork and Cork Board: Cork is a thick spongy' bark of the species of
punched easily and take almost any paint.
Oak trees: Cork has cellular structure and when dried, it is light, porous,
The most common use of these boards is for insulation against
very plastic and easily compressible.
sounds and heat. The fiber boards are most suitable for insulting
It is one of the lightest solid materials having the specific gravity in the
purposes. The harder varieties of boards are generally given a good
range of 0.15 to 0.2. Since it has low thermal conductivity, it is used as
finish and are used for penciling. Other uses include internal partition
insulator in building, refrigerators and other machinery. It is also
walls, interior finish furniture, flush doors, table-tops, railway
widely used for bottle stoppers, vibration pads and floats. Cork boards
coaches, notice boards, ship building and packing industries.
are manufactured by compressing cork chips (granulated cork particles)
Reconstructed wooden boards are available in the market under
with some cementing material a subjecting them to high temperature so
different trade names such as Lino felt, Torf oleum, fibro felt,
that the particles get cemented together. Cork boards are principally
Celotex, insulate, Masonite etc.
used as insulator tor insulating of ceilings and walls against heat and
Partex: Partex is the trade name of the versatile chip boards
cold. They are also used as sound insulator.
manufactured from wood veneers, wood chips or jute sticks. Partex is
a Bangladesh product, manufactured by the star particle board mills.
15.30 Important Varieties of Timber available in Bangladesh house building flooring, rough furniture etc. It is found in Bhowal
1. Teak or Segun: It is a very strong and durable timber with a beautiful Garr in Dhaka District, Madhupur jungles in Tangail District,
golden yellow color. It is easy to season and easy to work. It takes Chittagong I fill and Sundarbans abundantly.
good polish and maintains its shape very well. It is considered to be a 5. Jarul: It is a light, hard and very durable timber. It can resist well the
very superior timber. It can resist fire attack to some extent. It is also actions by salt water. It seasons well and takes a good polish. It is
not easily attacked by termites. It is very commonly used for all sorts used for house construction, boat building, wheels of bullock carts
of house construction and structural works, high class furniture, ship etc.
building, railway sleepers, flooring veneers and decorative structural It is abundantly found in Chittagong Hill Tracts.
works. 6. Sundari: It is a very strong, tough, hard and heavy timber. It is
It is found in Chittagong Hills and is generally imported from Burma. difficult to season and works It is used for all sorts of building works
2. Sal: It is a very strong hard, heavy and durable timber but difficult to carts, wheel-spokes, furniture, well curbs tool handles, boat building
work with. It is an all-purpose timber. It is extensively used for house etc.
construction, generally structural works, boat building, railway sleepers, It is abundantly found in the Sundarbans.
rough furniture etc. 7. Shisham or Shisso: It is a very tough strong, hard and durable timber.
It is found in Chittagong Hills and Sundarbans. It seasons and works well. It is used to house building, high-class
3. Garjan: It is very strong and durable timber. It is difficult to work with furniture, cart-frames, boat building and making good veneers and
and does not take good polish. It is widely used for house building, railway also used for general constructional purposes.
sleepers and carriage floors, buildings general structural works rough It is found in small quantities all over Bangladesh.
furniture etc. It is liable to excessive shrinkage. It must be given a 8. Shiris: It is moderately strong hard and durable. It is a general-
preservative treatment as it easily attacked by fungi. purpose timber, used for house construction agricultural implements,
It is found in Chittagong Hills and Sundarbans.
cart-wheels, heavy furniture sugarcane crushers etc.
4. Gazari: It is a strong hard and durable timber. H is extensively used as
It is found in Chittagong Mills. Sylhet. Khulna Mymensingh and
piles, posts and other structural members,
Dhaka.
Timber 392
9. Simul: It is a light and soil wood it is used for the manufacture of match 14. Chambal: It is moderately strong, hard and not very durable. It is
boxes and sticks, packing boxes and as fuels. It is not generally used used lor furniture. door and window frames battens, posts etc. it is
for structural purposes. found in Chittagong Hill Tracts.
It is abundantly found throughout Bangladesh. 15. Telsu: It is strong and durable. It is generally used for furniture
10. Babul: It is a close grained, very durable, hard and tough wood. It is making, door and window framing, flooring etc.
difficult to work with but takes a fine polish. Its colour is pale red It is found throughout Bangladesh.
tending to brown. It is commonly used for agricultural tools (ploughs 16. Nageshwar: It is a strong, hard and heavy wood is very hard to work
etc.), car wheels, tent pegs, railway sleepers, boat building, well curbs with but very durable. It is not easily attacked by termites. It is
etc. It yields valuable gum and its bark is used tanning hides. requiring careful seasoning, otherwise liable to crack. It is used for
It is abundantly found In Northern parts of Bangladesh. furniture and cabinet making bridge posts and floors boat and
11. Debdaro: It is moderate hard wood, strongly scented and fairly launch, floors tent pegs etc.
durable. It is easy to season and work, takes good polish and retains its It is abundantly found in Sylhet, Mymensingh. Chittagong and
shape well. The strength of debadaro is considered to be 80 percent of Khulna.
good teak. It is one of the most important varieties of timber used in
17. Bailum: It is a strong, heavy and durable wood. It is generally used
Bangladesh. It is in fact an all-purpose timber. It is principally used for
for furniture, door and window frames, flooring, frameworks etc.
railway sleepers and carriages planking general structural work and
It is found throughout Bangladesh
cheap furniture.
18. Tonn: It is a light and soft wood. It takes a good polish. It is used for
It is found all over Bangladesh.
furniture, toys, models, musical instruments, packing boxes etc.
13. Gamhari: It is a strong, haul and moderately durable wood. It is
19. Arjun: Il is a dark brown, heavy and strong wood, it is used for
difficult to sea cult and work. It is used for making furniture, musical
instruments, form works and house building. masts, beams, rafters, purlins, furniture, scaffolding, frameworks etc.
It is abundantly found in Chittagong Hills. It is abundantly found in Chittagong Hill Tracks.

20. Bakul: It is a pink, heavy and close-grained wood. It is used for It is found all over Bangladesh.
cabinet and furniture making, agricultural implements, planks scaffolding 26. Mango: Il is a grey and moderately strong wood. It yields very fine
and frameworks. planks. It is used for rough furniture, packing boxes, shoe hells toys,
It is found throughout Bangladesh. boats, door panels and tonga bodies.
21 Banyan: It is a brown wood. It is neither strong nor durable. It is easily It is found abundantly all over Bangladesh.
attacked by fungi and termites. It is used for well curbs, tent poles, 27. Neem: It is a hard, fibrous and durable wood. It is difficult to work
yokes, planks etc. and easily attacked by various insects. It is mainly used for local
It is found all over Bangladesh. building purposes and as fuels.
22. Shilkarai: It is a strong, tough, hard and durable timber. It is easy to It is found all over Bangladesh.
work with and takes a good polish. It is used for furniture, general 28. Tamarind or Tetul: It is a brown, knotty, cross-grained, very hard,
strong and durable timber it is very difficult to work with and does
structural works, house building, boat building etc.
not take good polish. It is used for tool handless, shaft wheels, axles,
It found throughout Bangladesh.
sugarcane crushers, oil presses, well-curbs and as fuels for brick
23. Chaplash: It is yellowish brown, moderately hard and even grained
burning.
wood. It is used in ship building, canoes, masts, house building, well-
It is commonly found throughout Bangladesh.
curbs, furniture etc.
29. Barai: It is sufficiently strong and hardwood. It is used for making
It is found in Chittagong Hill Tracts.
agricultural implements, toys and as fuel.
24. Guava: It is a hard, tough, light, moderately strong and fine-grained
It is abundantly found all over Bangladesh.
wood. It is used for wood engraving, toys, tool handless, ornamental
30. Sandal or Chandan: It is a white or reddish wood. It is moderately
works etc.,
strong and durable. It gives very good agreeable smell. It is very
It is found all over Bangladesh costly. It is mainly used for making valuable furniture, decorative
e
25. Jackfruit (Kathal): It is a yellow darkening with ag compact hard and and ornamental works.
even-grained wood. It takes a good polish and can be easily seasoned. It is found (in small quantities) in Chittagong Hills and the
0
It is used for general puff such as furniture, kitchen utensils, door and Sundarbans.
window frames, battens, planks, boat building, well-curbs, cabinet

making etc.
Timber 396
31. Palms: Outside wood is reddish brown; hard and strong Central wood
sticks hand bags, ornamental and decorative works and furniture.
is soft. It is used locally as house building and furniture making
material. It is found almost all over Bangladesh. Muli bamboos are weak and softened principally used Fortezza
walls, mats, roofs, for paper pulp, fishing implements and as fuels.
32. Red Ceder: It is a brick red. soft and even grained wood. It is used for
Bamboo is an all-purpose engineering material in Bangladesh, it
planks, door Pannels. furniture etc.
grows abundantly all over Bangladesh. It is extremely useful and all-
Il is found (in small quantities) in Chittagong Hills.
purpose product used for all types of house construction and
33. Aini: It is yellowish brown, light, tough, closely grained elastic and
household utility purposes, verities of decorative articles,
durable wood. It is easy to work and takes good polish and also lasts
educational instruments like countian machines, side rules etc.
well under water. It is used for boat and ship building, ploughs, small
43. Cane: It is a species of endogenous tree. In fact, it is an elastic grass,
furniture and for general structural works.
having diameter ½ to 1½ inch and length exceeding 50 ft. It is a
It is found in small quantities in Chittagong Hills and the Sundarbans.
very useful product. It is used for making furniture, toys, ornamental
34. Gewa: It is light and soft wood. It is mainly used for manufacturing the
and decorative works, household utility goods, house constructions
pulp for newsprint, soft boards etc.
etc.
It is abundantly found in the Sundarbans.
It is found throughout Bangladesh hut abundantly in the District of
35. Bamboo or Bansh: It is an endogenous tree. In fact, it is not a tree but a Sylhet.
15.31. Important Foreign Timbers Imported in Bangladesh
strong gigantic grass. It very often grows up to 60 ft in length. There are
1. Burma Teak: It is superior in quality to Chittagong teak, properties and uses
mainly three varieties: (a) Borak Bamboo (b) Jawa Bamboo (c) Muli
have already been discussed. As the name indicates it is imported in large
Bamboo.
quantities from Bunna.
Borak bamboo is generally 5to 8inch in diameter, jawa inch in Iron Wood: It is reddish brown, extremely hard and very durable, not
diameter, Borak and jawa bamboos are very strong and extensively easily worked with and can resist nails and spikes. It is a costly timber. lt
used for scaffolding, posts, rafters, beams- purlins, battens, ladder and is imported mostly from
other local structural works toys.
Timber 398
and structural members where toughness and shock resisting
Burma. It is used for house connections (as beams, posts etc.) bridges,
properties are desired.
piles, posts, paving blocks, railway wagons, telegraph poles,
agricultural implements and other structural works like ship building, I. Oak: It is strong and durable wood, usually found in the U.S.A.
Jetty construction etc. Canada. New Zealand and Europe. It is mainly of two varieties red
3. Pyinkado: It is extremely strong, tough and hard wood. It is imported

and white. It is mainly used in making furniture and toys and for
from Burma. It is used for house building bridge construction, generally construction works.
15.32 Structural Properties of Some Bangladesh and Foreign Timber:
telegraph poles, floors and railway sleepers etc.
4. Mahogany: It is reddish brown, hard, strong and a durable timber. It

Maximum
can be easily worked with and takes a fine polish; it is imported from Unit
Weight in maximum shearing
Burma. U.S.A, and U.k. It is used mainly for furniture making. crushing compressive strength Modulus of
Type of lb per
Cu ft
strength parallel strength perpendi parallel to elastic city.
Timber
5. Douglas Fir: It is a conifer group of wood. It is moderately strong but to grain, psi cular to grain, psi grain, psi 1000 psi
very durable. It is found in the U.S.A, and Canada. Hardwood (Broakleaved)

Teak 45 9,000 1500 1480 1500
It is mainly used for dock works and for all constructional purposes 55 10,000 1800 1810 1800
Sal
sport goods, educational instruments etc. Sundari 60 7500 1400 1850 1600
Ash 48
60 7,280 860 1920 1,700
6. Pine: It is also a conifer wood. It has several varieties. It is found Oak 64 7,000 1260 1830 1,800
46
Garjan 46 8000 1500 1560 1600
abundantly in the U.S.A. Canada, Norway and U.K. It is light and soft
Walnut 58 7,580 1250 1370 1600
and mainly used for sport goods, light furniture, decorative works, toys Hickory 63 8.900 _ 2300
2300 2100 2200
etc. Softwoods (Conifers)

Pine 52 7,000 1,000 1300 1,700
7. Ash: It is a strong, tough and durable wood, found in the USA. and Kail 5,500 720 1100
850 1,600
1,500
Kali 32 5,500
5,800
European countries. It is mainly used for veneering, tool handles, and Debdaru 550
Debdaru 36 5,800 550 850 1,500
sport goods, toys and light furniture. Douglas 38 7,400 872 2,000
Fir 1,1160
8. Hickory: It is strong and tough wood found in the U.S.A it has a great
shock-resisting property. It is used for tool handles

Timber 400
9 Discuss the effect of shrinkage on deterioration of timber. Is shrinkage
Question
tangential to the annual rings greater or less than radial shrinkage?
1 What is timber? Explain the importance of timber in engineering Explain why?
constructions.
10. What is meant by felling of timber? What are the advantages of felling
2. Identify the following terms relating to the growth and structural timber in winter? What is girdling?
characteristics of timber with a neat sketch (a) Pith (b) Bark (c)
11.What are the objectives of seasoning of timber? Explain only one
Medullary Ray (cl) Cambium and (e) Annual Ring.
method of seasoning timber which is commonly used in Bangladesh.
3. Name at least eight varieties each of hardwoods and of softwoods.
12.What are mechanical properties of timber? Why are timber members
Distinguish between springwood and summerwood and heartwood.
ordinarily used in tension?
4. Distinguish between slash sawn and rift-sawn lumber and state the
13.Explain why stiffness of structural timber beams may be of
advantages of each. Should planks for flooring be rift sawn or slash-
importance? Why is the determination of longitudinal shear important
sawn?
in designing structural timber beams.
5. What is meant by conversion of timber? Discuss the various market
14.Compare the shock-resistance property of timber with that of steel, cast
forms of timber.
iron and concrete.
6. Explain, the various methods of sawing timber with neat sketches.
15. What are the characteristics of good timber?
7. Give an analysis of moisture content in green timber. How the quantity
16. Enumerate the uses of timber in engineering constructions.
of moisture content in a piece of green timber is determined? What is
17.What causes the decay of timber? Name four antiseptics used for
equilibrium moisture content? Explain the importance of moisture in its
preserving timber and describe the pressure proc injection of
effects on the properties of structural timber.
preservatives in timber.
8. What is meant by the defect in timber? Describe the following
defects in timber with neat sketches: 18. Discuss the effects of preservative treatments on the strength of timber.
19. Describe the action of termites in destroying timber in buildings.
(a) Encased knot (b) Shakes (c) Rind Galls (d) Foxiness
(e) Warping.
A Text book of Engineering Materials 403
Timber 402
PROTECTTIVE COATING MATERIALS
20. How would you protect a new timber building from the destructive
|16.1 Introduction: Many materials of construction need to be protected
action of termites? What corrective measures would you employ for a
front deterioration. A large number of organic compositions are
house infested with termites? available in the market for this purpose. Organic protective coating
21. What methods are employed to protect timber piles against attack by materials may conveniently be grouped as paints, enamels,
marine borers? varnishes and lacquers.
22. What is veneer? Explain the process of manufacture of plywood. 16.2 Paints: The purposes of paints are fourfold: (1) Preserve the
materials coated (2) Produce a pleasing appearance (3) Improve
Enumerate the engineering applications of plywood.
sanitary conditions and (4) Obtain better distribution of light.
23. Write explanatory notes on (with neat sketches wherever possible) of
Paints essentially consist of (1) a base (2) a vehicle (3) a pigment
the following: (4) a drier and (5) a thinner.
(a) Laminated Boards (b) Reconstructed Woods (c) Partex (d) Cork 1.Bases: The base of a paint is its principal constituent forming its
Boards (e) Kxugenous Tree (f) Ring Shake and heart shake (g) Water body. The materials commonly used to form the base of paints are
Seasoning of Timber (h) Facility and Workability of Timber (i) Empty white-lead, zinc white, lead, iron oxide, graphite, lithophone, antimony
Cell Method of application of preservatives in timber (j) Bleeding of white and titanium oxide. The base forms an opaque layer to obscure
timber. the surface of the materials to be painted. White lead is a carbonate of
24. Name the common timber tress of Bangladesh. Discuss any ten of lead. It is most commonly used base for building works. It is available
both as a powder and in the form of a stiff paste containing about per
them with respect to the following: Availability, properties and uses.
cent linseed oil. The great advantage of using white lead is that cheap
25. State typical values of maximum compressive and shearing strength
and can be easily applied and it has the property of obscuring the
parallel to the grain and density of the following dry timber:
surface to which it is applied it Produces an elastic film which reduces
Chittagong Teak, Sal, Garjan, Hickory, Fir, Pine, Kail, Debdarou. the possibility of cracks in the covering film applied to the surface. Its
disadvantages are that it darkens on contact with air
Protective Coating Materials 404
Antimony while and titanium dioxide are sold under the trade name
containing sulphuretted hydrogen and therefore, it cannot he used for
of Tumoonox and Titanox respectively. Antimony white becomes
the top coats. It is very poisonous and proper care should be taken in yellow while titanium paints remain unaffected due to weathering
mixing. actions.
Zinc white is an oxide zine. It is becoming now-a-days more commonly 2, Vehicles: The function of a vehicle is to contain ail the materials of a
used. Is non-poisonous and is unaffected by weathering actions but it is paint and to allow them to be applied on the surfaces to be painted.
very costly. It retains its colour well and takes a fine polish. It is more Linseed oil of various grades is the main vehicle used in our country
commonly used for interior decorations. in making of paints. It is obtained from flax-seed. Linseed oil
Red lead is a higher oxide of lead which is available as a rust-colored contains acids which react readily with oxygen and harden by
7
powder. It retains his colour permanently. It is very heavy and very forming a thin film. Raw linseed oil does not dry very quickly and
often used for the first coat on wood work and as a base coat to iron therefore is not fit for external works. Boiled linseed oil dries more
and steel works to prevent the information of rust. quickly than the raw linseed oil. It is also thicker, darker and more
Oxide of iron (this is the red oxide of iron) is used a base for paints to durable and is considered more suitable for external works.
be applied to iron and steel works. The use of white lead and zinc white
is considered to cause a certain amount of galvanic action between the For superior works, refined and double boiled linseed oils are used.
base of the paint and the metal covered and therefore, oxide of iron is Linseed oil becomes thicker on boiling and therefore the double
often preferred as it also prevents the formation of rust. It is boiled oil requires the addition of a thinning material which is
comparatively cheap. Graphite is also used as a base but it is rarely usually turpentine.
used in our country. For interior works, lithophone is largely used as a Other oils which can be used as vehicle are wood oil. nut oil.
white paint. Lithophone is an intimate compound of zinc sulphide and dehydrated castor oil, soyabean oil cotton seed oil. tung oil and fish oil.
barium sulphate. It is cheap, non-poisonous and has the same
8. Pigments: A pigment is a colouring in gradient which gives
appearance as zinc white. It is largely used as a white paint for interior desired colour to the paints. Pigments are available in the form of fine
works. It becomes yellow when exposed to bright daylight. It is inferior powders. The particles of pigments should be in completely wetted
condition and duly dispersed in the vehicle. The best pigments are those
to zinc white for exterior works and its film rapidly disintegrates. It is that do not change their colour when exposed to weathering actions. The
not used on iron surfaces or surfaces which come in contact with water. pigments are given in the Table.
Protective Coating Materials 406 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 407
5: Thinners: A thinner is a solvent added to paints to obtain a product
Table 16. 1 Various Pigments for Desired Colom s Colour desired Name of
of desired consistency. It helps the paints to be spread uniformly on
pigment
the surfaces. The thinner evaporates and dries die pa.nl consequently,
White : White lead, zinc oxide, lithophone, titanium oxide. Blue Iron
the common thinners are turpentine, solvent naphtha and various
blue, ultramarine, cobalt blue, sublimed blue lead, indigo, Prussian blue.
petroleum thinners of low boiling range.
Green : Chrome green. Paris green, copper sulphate emerald green.
cobalt green, hydrated chromium oxide. Various Types of paints:
Yellow : Chrome yellow (lead chromate) zinc yellow, cadmium (1) Oil Paints: These are not ready mixed paints. These paints are to be
yellow, ochre (Chinese yellow), raw sienna. prepared with all the ingredients discussed already. The base should
Orange : Mixture of chrome yellow and red pigments of basic lend
be thoroughly ground in oil and thinned by the addition of oil and
chromate.
turpentine. The pigments are separately ground with oil until
Brown : Umber, sienna, copper oxide.
Red :Red lead cadmium red. Iron oxides, mercuric oxide, hematite thoroughly mixed and tendered blind by the addition of turpentine.
ochres (Indian red and Venetian red), carmine, vermilion. The two mixtures of the base and pigments are then mixed together
Black Lamp black, carbon black, drop black, graphite, alimony. and full quantity of turpentine and oil is added to make the paint
sulphide, suit and charcoal, black, ivory black. workable.
4. Dryers: The function of a dryer is to absorb oxygen from the air and to (2) Water Paints: Water paints include those paints of which the
supply it to the vehicle to dry and harden through the process of oxidation. medium is water. They are prepared with a medium containing both oil
Therefore, all compounds used as iryers are such as can absorb oxygen from and paint to which a certain amount of glue is added to form the
emulsion of oil in water. They are used only for interior works or for the
the air and impart it to the vehicle which in turn sets hard on the surface it is decoration of exterior surfaces.
applied. Driers are generally of three types (a) Soluble dryers which are
(3) Aluminum Paints: These consists of very finely ground aluminum
dissolved in linseed oil (b) paste dryers, which are dryers mixed with certain suspended in a medium of slow, drying oil varnish or spirit varnish.
inert fillers (termed as extenders) such as barytes whiting etc. ground to a These are expensive white paints, usually- used for decorative works. It
paste in linseed oil, and (c) liquid dryers which are dryers dissolved either in protects iron and steel from corrosion far better than any other paints. It
can resist heat to great extent. It is, therefore, especially used for
tin seed oil or in turpentine or in both. painting marine piers, oil tanks, gas tanks radiations and hot water pipes.
(3)
Litharge is the commonest form of dryer. It is lead monoxide. It is used
generally for lead paints Lead acetate, manganese dioxide, zinc sulphate and
manganese sulphate are the other types of dryers.
(7) Miscellaneous Paints: In addition to those paints already discussed,
(4) Cellulose Paints: Cellulose paints differ from other paints in the process there are other paints available in the market. They are enamel paints,
of drying which is timely affected by evaporation of the solvent paints, lead paints etc. Their method of mixing and application are
without any chemical change being involved such paints are used clearly written on the manufacturer's instruction sheets.
16.3 Enamels: An enamel is made by suspending pigments in a
mainly Jpr motor cars, aero planes and also for the decoration of varnish. An enamel is characterized by and ability to form an especially
prefabricated fittings. They are commonly termed as spray paints. smooth film. The amount of pigment in enamels is usually much less
than in paints. A much higher degree of dispersion of the pigment in the
They are made from nitrocotton, celluloid sheets, photographic films,
vehicle is required in camels than is generally necessary with paints.
etc. These paints pose great hardness, smoothness and can stand The enamels contain the same ingredients as those of paints but in
extremes to temperature. They can be easily washed and cleaned. different proportions. Enamels and paints serve the same purposes.
(5) Water-Repellent Cement Paints: These paints are used for providing a 16.4 Varnishes: Varnishes do not contain any pigment. They are
water-proof coat to external as well as internal walls of buildings. Lique’s composition which may be converted to transparent or
They can be applied on any surface. They generally consist of white translucent solid film after application in a thin layer. Varnishes
cement incorporated with some water proofing agents (soaps, heavy consist of melted resin dissolved in hot linseed oil, turpentine or
mineral oils, fluosilicate- tea lime and petroleum jelly) antifungals alcohol. Varnishes give brilliance to which they are applied.
agents (mycol complex emulsions etc.) and some binding agents. They Varnishes dry quickly and tough coating or film which protects the
available in v.u ions colour. surface of materials to be protected. Varnishes are also used to
(6) Distempers: It is a form of water paint which contains water and oil as brighten painted surfaces and protected them from the atmospheric
its thinning agents. Glue, starch of resin is used as base together with a action. They are most commonly used for brightening the plain
pigment to suit the desired colour. Distempers arc used in all interior surfaces of timber in furniture and other building works.
surface of buildings for decorative purposes. Varnishes are two different types; (1) Oil Varnishes and (2) Spirit
Varnishes. Oil varnishes dry as the result of chemical reactions
Distempers are of two types mainly: (a) oil hound distempers which are
induced by oxidation (air drying). Spirit varnishes dry solely through
generally available in the form of pastes and they are thinned before use
the evaporation of volatile solvents from
by the addition of water (b) ordinary distempers (not containing oil)
which are available in the form of power and they are to be mixed with
water before use according to the instructions of the manufacturer.
Distempers arc easily washable.
the film. Oil varnishes contain resins, oils, dryers and thinners
necessary dryers. Turpentine and oil are added to bring it to a required
(Table 16.2). consistency. Oil varnishes are generally applied to exposed works.
Table 16.2 composition of Oil Varnishes Among the oil varnishes for common works, copal varnish is
Resins Oils Dryers Thinners considered to be the best. This varnish is suitable for protecting
Natural
exposed surface of timber, iron and steel works. It can made in
Congo copal Linseed Active dryers number of ways as follows:
Turpentine (I) Resin 2parts (2) Copal 3 parts

Kauri conpal Cobalt Linseed oil 2" Linseed oil 3 "
China wood
Turpentine I" Turpentine 5 "
Mineral spirits
Boea copal Tail Manganese Naphtha (3) Double boiled
Pontiana copal Dehydrated Auxiliary dryers linseed oil 3"

Copal 2"
Benzine
castor Lead, zinc Coal-tar Manila Turpentine 1"
copal calcium and Bees-wax 1"
Perilla
Higher alcohols Spirit varnishes are solutions of one or more resins in volatile liquids.
Oticicia iron These varnishes are commonly used in our country and are prepared
Dammar by dissolving gums and resins in methylated spirit. French polish or
Sandarac Soya bean shellac varnish are also classified under this category of spirit
Fish varnishes. Varnishes composed of alcohol are sometimes classed as
Rosin
alcoholic varnishes.
Shellac
Frenches Polish: This varnish is prepared by dissolving shellac in
Synthetic Resins
spirit. It is general used for brightening surface furniture articles. The
Alkyd, phenolic, following is the common recipe for.
urea formaldehyde, French polish in our country:
vinyl, acrylic, Methylated spirit 3 gal
polystyrene, maleic, silicone etc. Black-shellac 3 lb.
Oil varnishes are prepared by combining oil with resins. The resin is Copal ½ lb.
melted and beated oil is added to it together with
Gum ½ lb. from pine trees by cutting a vertical slice in the bark of the tree and
alloying the liquid to flow into containers Turpentine is removed
Types of Varnishes: A convenient method is to divide varnishes into from the liquid resin by distillation leaving resin as residue. Rosin is
two classes: (I) Architectural varnishes and translucent, inflammable and relatively cheap. Resin is soluble in
(2) Industrial varnishes. The first group includes cabinet or rubbing alcohol, turpentine and alkalis. It is used in varnishes and dryers.
varnishes, varnishes tor floors, doors and windows; exterior or interior Shellac is the only natural resin derived from animal life. Shellac is
varnishes, marine varnishes and decorative varnishes. The second derived from lac which is the term applied to the resinous products of
group comprises of an even wider variety of compositions which may the scale insect laccifer lacca kerr. Shellac is soluble in ethyl-alcohol
be applied to different surfaces by one of several methods, such as and methylated spirits and is partly soluble in turpentine, ether and
rushing, dipping, tumbling and spraying. Of interest is the term "oil chloroform. It is insoluble in oils and petroleum solvents. Shellac is
length’ which is defined as the number of gallons of drying sills to 100 used mainly in spirit varnishes and to some extent in cellulose nitrate
pounds of resin in the manufacture of varnish. In general, a greater lacquers. Commercial shellac is orange in colour. By bleaching with
flexibility of the films and more resistance to weathering whereas sodium hypochlorite, white shellac is produced which is called
arguer percentages of rising give finishes which are harder and capable bleached shellac.
of being sanded and polished. Synthetic Resins: Synthetic resins comprise a heterogenous group of
Resins: A resint is an amorphous, vitreous of semisolid organic materials that have been developed extensive!} during recent years.
substance, which is insoluble in water but soluble in organic liquid or Most of the advances in the technology of paint and varnish
manufacture have been in connection with synthetic resins. The
drying oils or after being heated gives a which is soluble in hot drying following are the various types of synthetic resin:
oils resins may be as natural resins or as synthetic resins.
Alkyd Resins: They are manufactured by condensation reactions
Natural Resins: Copals are natural resins obtained from the hardened sap
between glycerin and phthalic a hydride or modifications of these
of fossil deposit of trees. The congo copals are the hardest natural
materials. These are important resin for organic protective contains.
resins. Other copals are the kauri, Boea. Pontiansk and Manila copals.
Phenolic Resins: These resins are utilized where durable
All these copals require heating to produce and oil soluble gum,
Dammar and Sandarac are natural resins obtained from the sap to living protection is important, particularly in deleterious atmosphere and in
trees and are soluble in oil without the necessity of heating. Resin is a the presence of moisture. These resins are produced by condensation
natural resin that is obtained as a bye-product from the manufacture of when formaldehyde solution (formalin) and
turpentine. The liquid resin is obtained
phenol is heated together with a catalyst such as a trace of alkali or
Synthetic: Linseed oil Ampl, butyl and
acid.
Alkyd ethyl
Other synthetic resins are vinyl resins (harder, less soluble and less
alcohol’s
compatible with oils than other synthetic resins) acrylic resins (white
in colour even at higher temperatures resistant to acid alcohol, oils and
chemical fumes) silicon resins (highly resistant to heat-and chemical phenolic diluents:
Vinyl Toluene,
and moisture attack), ester gun (made from resin and glycerin, highly xylene
resistant to alkaline waters), chlorinated rubber (made by chlorination Acrylic- and
petroleum
of natural rubber used for painting concrete plaster and stucco surfaces
Silicon naphtha
and asbestos cement boards) maleic resin (made from natural resin and Ester gum Maleic
maleic acid, used to increase the hardness of the painted and varnished
surfaces), polystyrene resins urea formaldehyde resins and melamine- Resins are incorporated in lacquers to give gloss, hardness, brilliance,
formaldehyde resins. adhesion and polishing characteristics. Alkyd resins are extensively
used in lacquers: they contribute to durability.
16.5 Lacquers: Lacquer is the term used to designate an organic coating
Plasticizers are softeners that are added to lacquers to impart
dries by the evaporation of solvents and thinners, leaving a film of flexibility. They improve the flowing properties of wet lacquers and
material which was present originally in fully polymerized form. A retard the action of the solvents. Plasticizers also intensify the luster
of lacquer coatings.
lacquer is composed of nonvolatile portion which produce the form Thinners serve as solvents for the other ingredients and make
contains resin, film- former and plasticizer and in some cases pigment. possible the attainment of liquid lacquer of suitable viscosity for
The volatile materials or thinners comprise active solvents, latent application.
Lacquer coatings are durable, waterproof, tough, and quick drying.
solvents, diluents (See Table 16.3) They possess attributes of eye-appealing beauty easy touch up and
easy application. Lacquers are however, much more expensive than
oil (old resinous) varnishes.
Table 16.3 Composition of Lacquers

Resins Film-Formers Plasticizer Thinners
Natural Cellulose nitrate Solvent type: solvents:
Shellac Cellulose acetate Dibutyl phthalate Amyl, butyl
Dammar Cellulose acetate- Tricrsyl phosphate and ethyl
butyrate. Ethyl non-solvent Type: acetates,
cellulose Castor oil Latent solvents:
16.6 Special Coatings: The following arc a tew special coatings: surfaces for polishing, allowed to remain overnight and then wiped
(1) Fire Retardant Coatings: Ordinary paint films are highly off and finally rubbed with a smooth Hunnel It is superior to and
flammable. They give of toxic gases including carbon monoxide: more durable than French polish. It is mainly used for polishing
under confined conditions these gases may be given off in such wooden floors, rails etc.
quantities as to cause explosions, fire- retardant coatings can also be (4) Knotting; The term "knotting" is a process of killing. This is
applied to unpainted wood to reduce the rate of combustion. Chemicals done before the application of paint or varnishes. The material used
incorporated in flame-retardant paints include ammonium chloride, for knotting is a mixture or 1 pint of vegetable naphtha, I tea-
ammonium phosphate and borax. The coating of fire-retardant paint spoonful of red lead, 5 oz orange shellac and some size. The most
can be covered with applications of enamel of lacquers to produce a common material used for knotting is pure shellac dissolved in
surface of high glass. Fire retardant are also available for metal methylated spirit.
surfaces.
(5) Size: A size is a liquid-coating composition, usually transparent,
(2) Luminescent Coatings: Luminescent coatings contain pigments for sealing a porous surface preparatory7 to application of finishing
that emit light following the absorption of radiant energy and the coats. It is made from superior glues and is used with earthy
transmutation of this energy to a longer wave length. Generally, two types colouring matter to make it adhere to surfaces.
of pigments are used in luminescent coatings (a) fluorescent pigments,
such as synthetic dyes (eosin, flavin etc.), rhodamine dyes, zinc sulphide
Glue: Glue is made from waste pieces of skins, horns, hoofs and
or mixtures of zinc and cadmium sulphides, and (b) Phosphorescent other animal wastes. A good quality glue is transparent. It swells
pigments such as calcium sulphide and strontium sulphide. considerably when mixed with water, but does not dissolve into it.
Applications of fluorescent coatings are for aero plane and automobile Glue is used as a coating material.
instrument dials, radio and television dials and decorations in homes, (6) Putty- This is made with chalk (whiting reduced to fine powder
stores and heaters. Florescent coatings are used in safety installations in and mixed with a little linseed oil to make it a stiff paste. It is
generally applied after the priming coal of paint and not before, as
buildings such as exit lights and markers for alarm systems. otherwise the timber absorbs the oil present in the putty. Putty is also
used for fixing glass panes to doors windows. It can also be made
(3) Wax Polish: This is an inferior type of polish consisting of bees wax colored by adding some colouring ingredient io give the required
colour.
mixed with turpentine. Generally, 2 lbs. of wax are melted with 1 lb of
turpentine. The hot mixture is shirred and allowed to cool. It is rubbed
into the pores of wood
16.7 Preparation and Painting of Surfaces breeding into the paint. All glue spots should be removed. Wood
Preparation of Surfaces: Surfaces should be properly prepared before surfaces of cabinets and interior woodwork should be planned to
protective coatings are applied. Cleaning of metal surfaces prior to remove factory marks, scrapes with a hand scraper and sanded and
rubbed with sandpaper before finishing materials are applied.
paintings in fully as important as the selection and application of
protective coatings.
Plastered Surfaces: Plastered surface should be brushed with a
Structural Steel Members: Structural steel members should be cleaned
zinc sulphate solution before painting. Prior to repainting, grease
free from mill scale and rust while in the shop & given a prime coat
should be removed by benzine and the walls should be washed with
before shipping to the field. Weathering of unpainted structural steel
soap.
followed by wire brushing in field usually results in partial removal of
Concrete Surface: Cement and concrete surface should be treated
only mill scale & rust and old paint coats is accomplished by several
with benzine to remove grease and oil and then a zinc sulphate
methods including brushing with hand or power-driven wire brushes, solution should be applied to neutralize the lime in the concrete.
hand scraping, chipping by flat chisels, sand blasting and cleaning with
oxyacetylene flame. A priming coat should be applied to the surface 16.8 Method of Application: Protective coatings for structures and
promptly after cleaning. Second and third coats should be applied at houses are applied by brushing and spraying on both exterior and
interior works. Emulsion paints and water paints are applied to
intervals of several days.
interior walls by means of cloth or felt rollers. Spraying is used in
Sheet Steel: Sheet steel pressed into shapes for automobile bodies coating automobile bodies steel furniture etc. Manufactured, articles
should have loose, scale, rust, grease, oil and dirt removed before being are coated by roller coating is well adapted to flat metal sheets and
composition boards. In machine dip coating, objects are attached to a
given a protective coating. Treatments should produce a clean, stable and moving conveyor chain which dips them into tanks of paint, varnish
less reactive surface that provides good adhesion for coatings. Generally or enamel. Flow coating is used for large pieces that are suspended
over a tank of desired protective coating materials.
phosphoric acid is applied to remove grease and oil and acid pickling is
used to remove scale and rust and to each the metal surface, providing 16.9 Standard Tests: Numerous tests for determining physical and
roughened surface for mechanical bonding of the providing the metal. chemical properties of organic protective coating materials have
Phosphate coatings can be used to inhibit corrosion and improve the paint been standardized by the ASTM.
retention characteristics of the metal surfaces. Paints and Enamels: Tests For paints and enamels include
consistency of exterior house paints and enamel type paints,
Wood Surfaces: Wood should be thoroughly dry, before paint is
relative drying power and measurement of dry film thickness.
applied, Knots should be given an application of shellac before painting
so as to prevent resin in the knots from
A Text Book of Engineering Material
421
Varnishes: Tests tor varnishes include specific gravity appearance, CHAPTER-SEVENTEEN
colour viscosity, flash point, non-volatile matter elasticity (toughness), MISCELLANEOUS ENGINEERING MATERIALS
reactivity between paint liquids and zinc oxide and resistance of dried
films to water and to alkali. Lacquered: The tests include density,
17.1 Coal: Coal is the final stage reached by the decayed and
drying time, gloss, outdoor exposure, non-volatile matter and
compressed former forest and vegetation. Partly decomposed forest
consistency.
and vegetation is known as peat. Through countless ages, chemical
Questions
changes have taken place, so that the coal is now mines as a brittle,
1. List the different types of components of each of the following: (a)
Ordinary paint (b) Oil Varnish (c) Spirit Varnish (d) Enamel. black which may contain any thing between 70 percent and 90
2. What is meant by each of the following terms: (a) a resin (b) a pigment percent of carbon. A large proportion of the hydrogen and oxygen
(c) a thinner (d) a dryer (e) a plasticizer (f) a size. which present in the original wood has gone roughly speaking coal
3. For what purposes is paint? Give examples. can be divided into two kinds: (1) Soft of Bituminous Coal and (2)
4. What are the different general types of pigment several examples of Hard or Anthracite Coal.
each type. Bituminous coals burn easily with a flame and produce an amount of
5. Name the different types of vehicles. What are the principal drying oils? smoke which varies considerably with the various grades of coal.
6. Describe the properties of the following resins with respect to their use
Anthracite coal actually contain hardly bitumen and for this reason
in protective coatings: Shellac, Resin, Alkyd, Vinyl, Dammar.
gives off little smoke. The heating value of a coal depends on the
7. Distinguish between fluorescent and phosphorescent pigments. Give
examples of each. amount of carbon it contains and since anthracite coal has a high
8. How should a structural steel bridge (old) be prepared for repainting? proportion of carbon, it has a high heating value. For this reason, it is
9. Describe the process of preparation of surfaces and application of paints much used on ships and in boiler plants.
on timber furniture.
Coal is still the material best known and most used for fuel but making
in the search for materials from which energy can be obtained has used
(a) Litharge (b) Aluminum paints (c) Distemper (d) French polish (e)
Fire retardant coatings (f) Wax polish (g) Knotting (h) Putty (i) Oil wood, peat, coal, oil, even harnessed the power of wined, tide and
lengths. water.
There seems to be no end to the products made from coal.
Miscellaneous Engineering Materials 422
Silica is the principal raw material for all types of glasses. It fuses at
The Fig. 171 shows the coal, its bye-products and the irrespective
a very high temperature and requires the addition of an alkaline
uses.
material (sodium or potassium carbonate) to reduce its melting point
In Bangladesh coal of good quality was hit at a depth of over 3,600 ft
and to impart sufficient viscosity to make il workable. Soda causes
and the' drilling revealed a total thickness of 1,212 ft. The composite the glass to fuse but an excess is harmful. Potash imparts infusibility
thickness of 108 ft of Gondwana bituminous coal has been improved. and adds fire resisting properties to glass. Lime gives sparkling
The latest estimates place the reserves as high as 600 million tons in brightness. Sometimes, borax or boric acid is added to silica which
Bogra and Jamalgonj areas. The reserves of coal in Sylhet district are acts as flux and reduces the melting point and gives a physically
estimated to be about 3 million tons. stable product having a low thermal expansion.
17.2 Glass: The name 'glass' comes from the latin word glavcies meaning Manufacture of glass: The raw materials are properly ground mixed
ice. others from the Gallic word glassum meaning amber while some in required proportions and melted in furnace. Sometimes broken
glass or scrap glass (usually known as cullet) is added to the raw
authorities claim the word comes the Anglo-Saxon glisnian meaning to materials before meltine in the furnace. After the glass mixture has
shine. been melted in the furnace. It is given the required shapes and finish
by various process.
Glass has been defined as a hard, brittle, transparent, nanocrystalline solid
consisting of a mixture of silicates of metals. Roughly the composition of Properties of glasses: Glass is brittle, amorphous and very ductile at
different glasses most commonly used is as follows. high temperature. Glasse varies in weight, but generally is about
two and a half times as heavy as water, so that one cubic foot of
glass weight roughly 160 lbs, Glass has low thermal coefficient of
expansion (800x106 to 900x 106 per deg C). Glass is comparatively
Material Ordinary Window Plate Flint Fusible Infusible
chemically stable and resistant to acid attack Glass possesses very
or bottle glass glass or Cut glass for glass for
excellent optical properties. Ordinary glass rods (1/2-inch diameter)
f glass glass chemical cornbus- have an ultimate tensile strength of about 10.000 psi and the
apparatus tion tubes. strength varies inversely with the area. Glass fibers (0,00005 inch
Silica 60-70% 70-75%. 74-78% 50% 70% 73% Dia-meter) may have an ultimate tensile strength of about 3.500.000
Potash 2-3 - 17 12 2 10-12 psi.
Lime 15 13 6 - 8 10
Soda 5 13 - - 16 3
Lead oxide - - -
30 - -
Alumina 5-7 4 1 1 1 1
Miscellaneous Engineering Materials 424 A Text Book of Engineering Materials 425
Types of Glass: The following are the various types of glasses: Since it can resist high temperature (2760°C or 5000°F) it is now a
Sheet Glass: It is generally used for door and window glazing. days used in jet aircrafts and guided missiles The strength of fiber
Plate Glass: It is used mainly for glass curtain wall ring, long ranges of glass varies from 10 to 14 x 106psi.
windows and partitions. Glass wool: Glass can also be made into a fluffy material known as
Wired glass; This type of glass contains a wire mesh introduce into the glass wool and this has very good acoustical and insulating
center while casting. It is mainly used in skylights, windows etc. properties.
Safety glass (laminated Glass): This glass is manufactured by placing a Lead Glass: This type of glass has an average composition of 72%
sheet of transparent celluloid or resinoid bet - ween two sheets of plate silica. 17% soda and 12% lead oxide. Lead glass is very' heavy the
glass and the whole is moulded together. This is mainly used for car specific gravity being 45 to 6.33, Lead glass is used for cut
windshield and doors and windows. glassware, optical glasses and for ornamental purposes.
Soda-lime Glass: It is generally used for manufacturing hollow glasses, Foam Glass: It is a lightweight cellular glass used in cold storage
such as bottles, hurricane chimneys drinking glasses etc. chambers.
Pyro Ceram: This is a special type of glass which is lighter, stronger
Borosilicate Glass: This type of glass is very stable both physically and
and more heat resistant. It is mainly used in some functional pearls
chemically. Chemical apparatus, Pyrex dining wares and lenses are
of automobile engines:
manufactured from this type of glass.
Plastic Glass: This type of glass is manufactured from plastics which
Fiber Glass: This is a very important variety of glass. It is used mainly have a high transparency. Perspex is a special variety of plastic
glass. Perspex is used widely in making laboratory apparatus like
for sound and thermal insulation in walls floor, ceilings, covering of hot
flume, simulated channel, wind tunnel etc.
water pipes and cylinders and also in the form of cloth tape etc. for
Opaque Glass: Glass is rendered opaque by the following methods.
electrical insulation purposes, It is available in the form of sheets,
mattresses. (a) Frosting: In this process the glass surface is ground by the help
of sand blast giving frosted appearance. Sometimes acids are also
It weights approximately 3 lbs. per eft. The glass fibers are made in used for this purpose:
seven standard diameters varying from 0.0002 to 0.008 inch, resistant to
attack by fire, acid, oil and sea water.
(b) Grinding: The glass surface is subject to a grinding machine
Green Chromic oxide.
which while grinding produces waves and thus opaque surface is
obtained: Violet Manganese oxide.
(c) Ribbing: the glass surface is ribbed in triangular fashion thus
obstructing direct vision and Blue
Cobalt oxide, Cupric oxide.
(d) Using Colored Plastic Sheet: By placing colored plastic
Amber Sulphur and Iron oxide.
sheets between two sheets of glass.
Mirror: Mirrors are made by silvering one side of a sheet glass.
Opaque glass is generally used for wall linings and shelving.
Silvering is done by precepting a film of nitrate of silver on the
Coloured Glass: Glass wares can be given various-colours. The surface of the glass and protecting this film with shellac or with
colour may be of two types: some other suitable mirror paint.
(a)Pot Colour: With pot colour the shade is uniform throughout the 17.3 Rubber: Rubber is an important engineering material. It is used
thickness of the glass which may be rolled or drawn. This type of for the manufacture of tires and tubes for cars, trucks, buses,
coloured can be manufactured as both transparent and opaque with the tractors, cycles, aero planes, etc. Rubber absorbs shock and is
desired colours: elastic in nature. These qualities recommend the rubber to be
(b) Flash Colour: Flash colour is used only in case of blown glass used in engineering works, especially when it is associated with
and the colour consists of thin flash on the surface. asbestos and other such materials. Other uses of rubber include
belts, pipes, sheets, gaskets, toys etc.
The following substance are used for various colours in glasses:
Rubber is of two types: (1) Natural Rubber and (2) Synthetic
Rubber.
Colour Desired Colouring substances
Natural: The chief source of natural rubber is the milky juice
Black Cobalt, Nickel. Manganese.
known as latex which is obtained from the bark of rub grow
oxide, Ferric oxide abundantly in Bangladesh (Chittagong Hills). Ceylon. Malaya,
Singapore, Burma, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela and in North Africa.
Red Gold, Selenium sulphide. Latex is obtained from rubber trees by cutting vertical grooves,
Cuprous oxide. about 2 ft long in the bark in the cambium layer starting from a
point 2 to 3 ft from the ground upwards. Rubber in its crude form
Yellow Selenium, Cadmium sulphide.
is obtained by coagulating latex and washing it in hot water.
Carbon and Sulphates.
During the process of coagulation, the rubber settles down like
curd and water is liberated which
Miscellaneous Engineering Materials 428 Text Book of Engineering Materials 429
is drained off. The materials used coagulating latex are alcohol, acetic the rubber is to be used. A higher percentage of Sulphur is used for
acid, alum etc. The coagulated latex is torn into small pieces in a special rubber required for belt is etc. and a lower percentage is suitable for
machine through which water is constantly circulated and rubber pieces rubber to be used for rubber shoes and other ordinary rubber goods. As
thus obtained are dried, squeezed through rollers, flattened into thin the Sulphur content goes on increasing vulcanized rubber becomes hard
sheets. The next process consists of mixing the rubber with certain fillers and brittle. Rubber containing large percentages of Sulphur, about 35 to
which are cheaper substances used for hardening, colouring cheapening 40 per cent and vulcanized at high temperature is termed is termed as
its physical and chemical properties. Cheapening (also known as chonite.
compounding) is usually done by employing materials such as Sulphur, Physical Properties of Natural Rubber: It is very strong in tension
tar, oil, asphalt etc. Necessary pigments are added to give the desired Very clastic, insoluble in water and a bad conductor of heat. When
colour.
melted it becomes soft; when placed in boiling water, it loses most of
Vulcanization: Vulcanization is the process of manufacturing metrical its elasticity but on cooling it regains its elasticity and hardness. The
rubber. Almost all rubber to-day is vulcanized. Charles Goodyear melting point of natural rubber is about I2°C and after melting it does
developed this process of manufacturing rubber in 1839 which gave a real not harden again, rubber goods require protection against the deter
acceleration to the rubber industry. This process consists in mixing mental action of oils, grease and fats, so, they are kept dusted with
Sulphur with pure or crude rubber and heating the mixture to a French chalk. The specific gravity rubber varies between 0. 93 to 0. 97.
temperature (about 300°F) above the melting point of sulfur when it
Uses of Natural Rubbers: Rubber is a very important engineering
combines with rubber. The chemistry of vulcanization is not yet fully
material. It is used for the manufacture of types and tubes for cars,
understood. As the mixture of rubber and Sulphur is beated in a steel
trucks, buses, tractors cycles, aero planes etc. about 70 percent of the
vessel, the Sulphur first melts and combines chemically with rubber. The
world production of natural rubber is consumed by the automobile
effects of vulcanization are: (a) increase in tensile strength (b) increase in
tire and tube industries. Other uses include belts, pipes, rubber
resistance to weathering (less affected by temperature changes than pure
flooring, sheets, gaskets, toys etc.
rubber) (c) more elastic (d) good flexibility
Synthetic Rubber: Nowadays rubber is manufactured artificially
(e) improved resistance to solvents and (f) good dimensional stability
from acetylene gas. It is sold under the trade names buty, Neoprene,
for longer period. All these properties are entirely dependent on the
Chloroprene etc. Synthetic rubber possesses certain properties which
degree of vulcanizing temperature, curing period, and the Sulphur content.
are impossible with the
Sulphur is added in a proportion of about 2 to 5% depending on the work
for which
is drained off. The materials used coagulating latex arc alcohol, acetic The Rubber is to be used a higher percentage of Sulphur is used for
acid, alum etc. The coagulated latex is torn into small pieces in a rubber required or belt is etc. and a lower percentage is suitable lor
special machine through which water is constantly circulated and rubber to be used lor rubber shoes and other ordinary rubber goods.
rubber pieces thus obtained are dried, squeezed through rollers, As the Sulphur content goes on increasing vulcanized rubber
flattened into thin sheets. The next process consists of mixing the becomes hard and brittle Rubber containing large percentages of
rubber with certain fillers which are cheaper substances used for Sulphur, about 35 to 40 percent and vulcanized at high temperature
hardening, colouring cheapening its physical and chemical properties. is termed is termed as chonite.
Cheapening (also known as compounding) is usually done by Physical Properties of Natural Rubber: It is very strong in tension
employing materials such as Sulphur, tar. oil. asphalt etc. Necessary Very elastic, insoluble in water and a bad conductor of heat. When
pigments are added to give the desired colour. melted it becomes soft; when placed in boiling water, it loses most of
Vulcanization: Vulcanization is the process of manufacturing metrical its elasticity but on cooling it regains its elasticity and hardness. The
rubber. Almost all rubber to-day is vulcanized. Charles Goodyear melting point of natural rubber is about 12°C and after melting it
developed this process of manufacturing rubber in 1839 which gave a does not harden again, rubber goods require protection against the
7
real acceleration to the rubber industry . This process consists in mixing deter mental action of oils, grease and fats, so, they are kept dusted
Sulphur with pure or crude rubber and heating the mixture to a with French chalk. The specific gravity rubber varies between 0. 9 3
temperature (about 300°F) above the melting point of sulfur when it to 0. 97.
combines with rubber. The chemistry of vulcanization is not yet fully Uses of Natural Rubbers: Rubber is a very important engineering
understood. As the mixture of rubber and Sulphur is beated in a steel material. It is used for the manufacture of types and tubes for cars,
vessel, the Sulphur first melts and combines chemically with rubber. The
trucks, buses, tractors cycles, aero plane etc. about 70 percent of the
effects of vulcanization are: (a) increase in tensile strength (b) increase
world production of natural rubber is consumed by the automobile
in resistance to weathering (less affected by temperature changes than
tyre and industries. Other uses include belts, pipes, rubber flooring,
pure rubber) (c) more elastic (d) good flexibility (e) improved resistance
sheets, gaskets, toys etc. ,
to solvents and (f) good dimensional stability for longer period. All these
Synthetic Rubber: Nowadays rubber is manufactured artificially
properties are entirely dependent on the degree of vulcanizing
from acetylene gas. It is sold under the trade names buty, Neoprene,
temperature, curing period, and the Sulphur content. Sulphur is added in
Chloroprene etc. Synthetic rubber possesses certain properties which
a
proportion of about 2 to 5% depending on the work for which
are impossible with the
natural rubber. These properties are: (a) resistance to acids, grease, Due to special qualities, the synthetic rubbers are mainly used for
kerosene and petroleum, (b) highly resistant to sunlight, heat and petrol pumps, packing for oil-working machinery, gaskets, nose
deterioration by oils etc. pipes for carrying petrol and kerosene oil insulator tor high resin
wires, tyres, tubes, toys etc.
Synthetic rubbers are of the following types:
17.4 Plastics: Plastics include a wide range of organic materials
Butadiene: They resemble natural rubber in many respects. They are
manufactured from natural or synthetic resins. Accordingly.
highly resistant to oils and heat and can be used in combination with
Plastics are of two types; natural plastics and synthetic plastics.
natural rubber. They can also be vulcanized.
Natural plastics are manufactured from natural resins, such as
Polysulphides: They resemble less to natural rubber. Some of them shellac, wax, tar etc. The properties of natural resins cannot be
cannot be Vulcanized. They are best oil-resistant. controlled easily and therefore, natural plastics are not much
Polyacrylates: They are best heat-resistant some of them resemble less importance to the engineers. Synthetic plastics are manufactured
to natural rubber. They are used for high temperature gaskets in gas- from the synthetic resins. This type of plastics is most
turbines and jet aircrafts. commonly used by the engineers and therefore, in this text only
Silicone: Silicone rubber is produced by polymerizing silicone liquids. synthetic plastics will be dealt with.
Actually, plastics age started from 1909 when Dr. Bakland first
Its production cost is higher than the other synthetic rubbers. It shows
produced the phenol formaldehyde resin. The chemists developed
little change for a wide variation of temperature. It also possesses
the science of plastics and the engineers’ applied plastics in
excellent water and oxidation resistance. It is mainly used for electrical
engineering constructions for its many fold properties. The wide
insulation, wire and cable coverings, high temperature gaskets in gas
range of colours, simplicity in fabrication light weight, excellent
turbines and jet aircrafts etc.
insulating properties, resistance to wear, corrosive chemicals and
Buna-S: This is another variety of synthetic rubber made wholly from
oxidant agents and moderate strength properties make plastics an
petroleum. It is dark brown. It can resist heat, the action of petroleum, industry. The following are some of the uses of plastics: a) used to
grease and oils better than natural rubber. But it is not so elastic as make paints, varnishes and lacquers (b) used as resins, glues and
natural rubber and there manufacturing motor tyres. adhesives. (c) used as laminated safety glasses (d) used as
photographic films (e) used for paneling, gears, couplings and other
similar purposes (f) used in making
Miscellaneous Engineering Materials 432 Cellulose: Cellulose is substance which forms the cell walls in all
lenses & prisms (g) used as decorative articles, fabrics, packing and plants. Wood, cotton and other fibrous materials are the chief sources
lining materials. of cellulose. Paper pulp is also used for producing cellulose. It is a
raw material for manufacturing of paper, artificial silk, plastics
Basic Materials for Manufacturing Plastics: The following are some
(cellphone).
of the basic materials for manufacturing plastics:
Styrene: Styrene is constituent of essential oils and coal tars. It is
Formaldehydes: It is pungent gas produced by the oxidation of methyl
soluble in alcohol and other. Its boiling point is 145°C. It is largely
alcohol or by the oxidation of ethylene in the presence of a catalyst like used for the manufacture of synthetic rubber and polystyrene (a
copper, silver, etc. Its boiling point is 21 °C. It is a very important raw plastic product).
materials for manufacturing plastics. Plastics are manufactured by
Propylene: It is a colourless gas. Its boiling point is I85°C. It is
reacting formaldehyde with phenols, urea and melamine.
melting point is 48°C. It is mainly used for the manufacture of
Phenol: It is a colorless and hydroscopic organic acid (carbolic acid). It
acetone detergents, lubricating additives & plastics.
has strong disinfectant properties. Its melting and boiling points are
Ethylene: It is a colourless gas manufactured from ethane or
43°and 183°C respectively.
propane. Its boiling point is 170°C and milling point 104. It is mainly
It is mainly used for manufacturing phenol-formaldehyde resins, used for the manufacture or polyethylene plastics.
detergents, preservatives and food staffs. Melamine: It is the chief raw materials for manufacturing
Urea: It is soluble in water but insoluble in either. It is the main thermosetting plastics (Urea formaldehyde. Alkyd, Casein. Polyester
constituent of urine of both human beings and animals. It is mainly used etc.), Melamine is derived from calcium carbide.
for the manufacturer of urea-formaldehyde resins. Types of Plastics: Plastics are generally grouped into two classes:
Vinyl Chloride: It is a gas which can be liquidities in a freezing mixture. (a) thermoplastics and (b) thermosetting, depending upon their
When dry hydrogen chloride is reacted by passing over acetylene gas, behavior on heating.
the product is known as vinyl chloride from which polyvinyl chloride Thermo-plastics: These can be softened upon heating to a plastics
from which polyvinyl chloride is derived. mass and can be shaped as desire on cooling, they harden. If reheated
they will again soften and then harden on cooling as before will still
Vinyl Acetate; When acetylene gas is passed over acetic acid, vinyl
retain essentially all their original properties and the process can be
acetate is formed. This is a monomer from which polyvinyl acetate is
repeated any number of times. The softening is due to the loss of
derived. Vinyl acetate is liquid at room temperature.
strength of mechanical bond and thus the material becomes flexible
scrap
organic substance arc combined with to form a more complex
and discarded thermoplastic materials can reheated and moulded to
molecule without altering the original empirical formula of the
any desired shape. During the process of moulding the process of
simple molecule. Due to polymerization a large complex molecule is
moulding the materials must be kept in their moulds until hardened.
developed with higher molecular weight when the process is
The use of thermoplastics at temperatures over 150F and below 40 F
accompanied by the elimination of water, it is known as
is not generally recommended. The famous thermoplastics are:
condensation polymerization and when there is no loss of other
Nylone, Acrylics Polystyrene Polyvinyl chloride (P.V. C. Polytene,
materials, the process is said to be addition polymerization. A co-
Polyvinyl Formal Polyvinyl Butyral, Polytetrafluoroethylene
polymer is formed when two different substances (for example vinyl
Cellulose Acetate-Cellulose-Acetate-Butyrate, cellulose Nitrate).
chloride and vinyl acetate) are polymerized. For the manufacture of
Thermosetting Plastics: These consist of substances such as phenol plastics, the desired quantity of powdered resins is mixed with fillers,
formaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde phenol formaldehyde resins etc. plasticizers and solvent in different proportions.
which fuse or melt upon heating and then harden permanently which
Fillers: Fillers are used to increase in bulk and to reduce cost.
cannot be remelted. The behavior of thermosetting plastics is similar to
Common Fillers include wood powder, paper, asbestos, shredded
that of setting concrete. The chemical action which once harden, the
cloth, mica, graphite, iron filings etc. The choice of a particular type
material cannot be reversed. The material once broken or scrapped
depends upon the finished products. Fillers also impart greater
cannot be remitted of reshaped. This is the main disadvantage or all
tensile strength and shock resistance to thermosetting plastics.
thermosetting plastics. These plastic materials can be taken out from the
Plasticizers: They are non-volatile oily organic liquids.
moulds after hardening more quickly than thermoplastic materials.
Dibutyl phthalate and tricresol phosphate are the most widely used
Thermosetting plastics are more suitable for engineering applications.
plasticizers. Plasticizers are added to impart softness flexibility,
The well-known there, Mo setting plastics are: Phenol Formaldehyde,
toughness, elasticity, noninflammability and low temperature
Phenol-furfuraldehyde, Urea-Furaldehyde. Cast Phenolics, Epoxy resins
resistance. Plasticizers are also used to improve the flow property of
Polyester, Melamine Formaldehyde, Alkyd and Casein.
thermosetting plastics.
Manufacture of Plastics: AH plastics are manufactured by the Solvents: solvents are volatile materials. Common solvents are
n
chemical reaction known as polymerization: I polymerization several alcohols, petroleum and coal-tar spirits. Solvents give fluidity for
simple molecules (monomers) of an casting and forming.
In addition to the above materials, the following materials are also
used to serve specific purposes:
Miscellaneous Engineering Materials 436 high pressure). In case of thermosetting plastics, cooling of mould is
Dyes and pigments: To impart desired colours to the plastic dyes and not necessary but in thermoplastic moulding the moulds must be
pigments are used. These materials should not affect the desired cooled before removing the plastics.
properties of the finished products. In compression moulding usually two types of moulds are used:
Lubricants: Lubricants are used to assist removal of the product from Positive Mould and Hash Mould. In a positive mould the exact
the mould. These materials should be such that they should not react weight of the raw materials required for moulding is used but in
with plastics while forming, common lubricants are oils, waxes, soaps Hash mould an excess of raw materials than required for moulding is
and tatty acids. used and the excess material is finally squeezed out after casting.
Catalysts: Catalysts are used to accelerate the chemical reaction Injection Moulding: This is a much quicker process and is
(polymerization) of the ingredients of plastics. Catalysts are of various generally used for moulding thermoplastic materials. In this process
types: acid catalysts (sulphuric acid etc.) alkali catalysts (ammonia etc.), the raw materials are first softened by heating them in a chamber
metallic catalysts oxides of silver, copper zinc. etchant salt catalysts and then forced (injected) them by a ram through a nozzle into cold
(neutral salts, lead salts and ammonium salts etc.). moulds where plastics becomes hard. This is a fully automatic
Hardness: These materials impart hardness and help in solidification of process.
plastics. Extrusion Moulding: This process is adopted for the manufacture of
thermoplastic materials; this is not a very costly method. This is
Compression Moulding: It is simple and slow process of moulding similar to injection moulding. The raw materials are first softened by
heating and then forced out by a screw through a die of desired
plastics. In the method the moulds are made in the form of plates which
shape. It is a continuous process of manufacturing materials like
are heated first: the raw' materials are placed between them and the plastic sheets, reds. tubes etc.
required pressure is applied. The heat causes the resinous materials to be Plow Moulding: This process is adopted when articles like bottles,
in plastic state and the pressure forces them to fill up the moulds. The jars and similar hollow types are to be moulded. The principle of this
excess material is squeezed out and is removed. The moulding time process is same to that of glass blowing
various from 30 seconds to 1 hour. Lamination: The principle of this process is same to that of binding
Colour effects in layers easily be given by varying the temperature in veneers into plywood. Sheets of wood, asbestos paper, cotton, glass
the mould after purring in the differently coloured raw materials. Colour fabrics, metal foils etc. are spread with trendsetting materials which
effects can also be produced pouring in different coloured liquids in the are heated in the desired
moulds at the same time. The moulds of castings are usually made of
zinc blocks, wood plaster of Paris and steel (in case to withstand
Miscellaneous Engineering Materials 438 Main uses include pipes, acid containers, raincoats, shower curtains,
number of layers and subjected to heated plates under liydnillc pressure. fabrics, electrical insulations floor coverings recording tapes toys etc.
The sheets are pressed and the resin hardens joining the sheets Polyvinyl Formal Plastic: It is tough and hard. It is resistant to water
permanently. Due to lamination the strength of the finished products and abrasion. It has good electrical properties. It is used as waterproof
increases. These laminations are used in aero planes, automobiles, cloth, electrical insulating material, insulating enamel, surface,
railcars door and window glazing and for decorative and architectural coatings, interlayer in safety glass, adhesives and laquears.
purposes. Polyvinyl Butyral Plastic: It has good mechanical properties. It is
Thermoplastic Materials: The following are some important highly resistant to water. It is mainly used for upholstery adhesives
thermoplastic materials with their manufacturing process, properties and lacquers, waterproof cloth, insulating materials etc.
specific uses: Polythene: It is a tough, flexible waxy and lightest plastic material. It
Polystyrene Plastic: It is prepared by catalytic polymerization from is highly inert to solvents and corrosive chemicals.
styrene. It is highly resistant to chemicals and crystal clear like glass. It It has excellent electrical properties. It has low water absorption
is very light and transparent and is highly resistant to water penetration. capacity and good dimensional stability-'. It is widely used as
It has good dimensional stability and excellent electrical properties. insulating material, wire covering, corrosion proofing lining,
It is mainly used as electrical insulators, fancy decorative articles, chemical apparatus, food packages, bags, containers, cloth etc.
packaging, toys tank linings and making floats. Polyvinyl Chloride Acetate Plastic: It is strong, hard and durable
material. It is a rubber substitute and used mainly for manufacturing
Nylone: It is also known as Polyamide plastic. It is manufactured by
tyres, tubes, fabrics etc.
condensing acetic acid with hexamethylene diamine. It has excellent
Polytetrafluorethylene Plastic: It has very good chemical resistance
mechanical strength. It is highly resistant to abrasion, most corrosive
and electrical properties. It is resistant to high temperature. It is very
acids and solvents, it is primarily used for bearings, gears, and other
costly. It is mainly used as insulators
parts spectacle frames, door knobs packaging, bottles, pipes, fabric, cord
chemical equipment’s bearings, valve seats, etc.
belts, toys etc.
Polyvinyl Chloride Plastic: This derived through polymerization of
monomers (vinyl chloride etc.) It is hard, rigid but slightly flexible. It
has good chemical resistance, good insulating properties. It is highly
resistant to abrasion and corrosion.
Cellulose Acetate Plastic: For the preparation of cellulose acetate, Thermosetting Materials: I he following are some of the important
acetic acid is used. It is a tough, durable and strong.) It has high moisture thermosetting materials with their manufacturing process, properties
absorption capacity and phases high insulating properties. Its main uses and uses:
include photographic films, spools toys, costume jewelry. spectacle Phenol Formaldehyde Plastic: This type of plastic is manufactured
frames, packaging, handles, knobs etc. from phenol formaldehyde resins combined with various percentages
Cellulose Nitrate Plastic: Nitric acid is used for the preparation of different fillers. It is very heavy, hard rigid and resistant to heat,
cellulose nitrate. It is tough and highly inflammable. It has high impact organic solvents, weak acids and alkalis. It has low water absorption
strength and low water absorption. It is used for the manufacture of capacity and good electrical properties.
photographic films, tool handles. lacquers etc.
Cellulose Acetate Butyrate Plastic: It is tough, strong and durable. It is It is used as electrical fittings, mechanical and thermal appliances of
highly resistant to heat and weathering action. It is mainly used for tool all kinds, decorative articles housing for radios television, cameras
handles, knobs oil and gas lines Instrument housing signs and display. and electrical goods.
Acrylics: First hydrocyanic acid is added to acetone and the product is Phenol Furfuraldehyde Plastic: It is dark in colour. It can be
reacted with sulphuric acid, followed by a further series of chemical fabricated in a wide variety of ways including both hot and cold
processes until methyl methacrylate is produced, which is finally moulding. It is strong and durable. It is mainly used for making
polymerized by heat to produce polymethyl-methacrylate. They are more decorative articles, lighting fittings, toys, etc.
transparent than glass. They have got perfect clarity. They are highly Urea-Formaldehyde Plastic: It is a light-colored plastic. It has good
resistant to sunlight and weathering. They have good flexibility and mechanical and electrical properties. It is resistant to organic solvents
rigidity. They are semi brittle and have low water absorption •capacity. but has high water absorption capacity. It is mainly used for
They are used as decorative articles, large transparent sheets (used in decorative articles, electrical fitting. kitchen equipment, etc.
aircrafts, motor cars and other building industries), instrument cases, Melamine-Formaldehyde Plastic: It is highly resistant to heat, organic
lamp holders and shades window sheets and reflectors. solvents, greases, weak acids and alkalis and water. It is mainly used
for decorative articles, housing for radios, cameras etc., glass fabrics
and glass reinforced plastics.
Alkyd Plastic: It is resistant to water, heat and organic solvents. It

has good dimensional stability and electrical
Miscellaneous Engineering Materials 442 A Text Book of I Engineering Materials 443
properties. It is used as insulating material electrical fittings etc. manufacturing sheets, blocks etc. Pigments are added during
Casein Plastic: Casein is a product of skimmed milk which react with kneading lor desired colour add shade. Urea is added as a stabilizer
formaldehyde to produce a plastic material. It is resistant to weak acids lor making transparent plastic. Celluloid plastics possess high
but affected by weak alkalis and water. It is used for the manufacture of insulting properties, but they are inflammable.
buttons buckles decorative wears, furniture, handles, fountain pen. Celluloid has given the engineer materials for the construction of
barrels, umbrella handles etc. models which he can use for studying the distribution of stresses
Polyester Plastic: It is thermosetting and is available both as surface under different actual loadings. It is also used for the manufacture of
coatings and as moulded and cast products. It is highly resistant to heat laminated safety glasses, sheets and rolls of transparent films, toys,
and impact. It is unaffected by weak acids. It is used for making decorative articles etc.
laminated objects, reinforced plastics fiberglass etc.
Cast Phenolic Plastic: It has very good colour stability. It is available in Bakelite: It was first invented by Dr. L.H. Baekeland in 1908. It is
various shakes and colour. It is used for manufacturing costume jewelry, the trade name of plastic produced by a reaction of phenol and
decorative articles, hardwires, instrument handles etc. formaldehyde. Phenol-Formaldehyde is used as a base and is mixed
Epoxy Resin Plastic: It is highly resistant to chemicals thermal and with fillers along with colouring pigments in the proportion of 50%
mechanical shocks. It has excellent adhesive properties. Its uses include resin (Phenol-Formaldehyde resin). 40 to 45% filler and 5 to 10%
the production of reinforce plastic insulation material and lacquers for mineral matter.
electronic equipment. Bakelite is fixable and tough over a wide range of temperature. It is
In addition to those plastic products mentioned already, the following highly resistant to not water, chemicals and weathering. It was non-
are some of the well-known plastic products. toxic and has good dimensional stability and excelled electrical
properties.
Celluloid: It was invented in 1911 by W John and I.S. Hyatt. It is
Bakelite is mainly used for imitation jewelry, handles of domestic
manufactured by mixing nitrocellulose (40%) with powdered camphor
utensils, in electrical components, cable and wire coverings,
(20%), sprinkling alcohol on the mixture, kneading it at low temperature
insulation, and seats for paneling. Bakelite as also used in aircraft
(35°C) for couple of hours, then heating it and finally pressing it into the
industries for propeller hubs, tad where is, fairleads, cable pulleys and
form of desired bearings. It is further-used or safety insulated lamp holders, switches,
telephone handsets, car ignition and lighting equipment etc.
Synthetic Adhesives: Ordinary natural adhesives (glues) derived
from animal and plant sources are liable to be
affected by fungi, moisture and other climatic conditions. Synthetic 17.5 Asbestos: Asbestos is a fibrous mineral which is composed of the
adhesives (glues) are not affected by fungi and can very well resist the following: Silica-40%, magnesia-40%, alumina-l to 25%, Iron oxid-1
action of water. Moreover, synthetic adhesives set quicker!)' and to3% and water-12 to 15%. Its melting temperature is about 1300°C.
produce stronger joints. They are also comparatively cheap. Most of the Asbestos can resist combustion, retains its strength at high
synthetic resins used for manufacturing plastic are also used for making temperatures and has low thermal and electrical properties. It is
synthetic adhesive. Phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde resin commonly used as asbestos sheets (both plain and corrugated) and as
adhesives are commonly used in plywood industries. Resorcinol- heat insulator. For commercial purposes it is supplied in the form of
formaldehyde resin adhesives have characteristics similar to those of rope, wool and flakes.
phenol-formaldehyde resin adhesives but possess an advantage in that Asbestos is very important engineering material. It is used to
assembly and curing operations may be performed at room temperature. manufacture asbestos-cement. Asbestos fibers, (usually 15 to 20%)
These are well suited for structures for Prefabricated houses and for and ordinary Portland Cement (usually 80 to 85%) are mixed with
laminated timbers and boat construction. Acroleic and vinyl adhesives water to form a slurry which is so processed by machinery as to
are used in the manufacture of safety glasses as the interlayer. These form wet sheet of rubber-like consistency. The sheet is then molded
adhesives are more transparent than glass and no sealing of the edges of into desired shapes and when set. forms a homogeneous mass. It is
laminated glasses necessary because of the use of those glues. Melamine said that the asbestos fibers act in the same way as the steel in the
formaldehyde resin adhesives, cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate reinforced cement
adhesives and resistant to fungus growth. They adhere well to various concrete. Asbestos-cement products are strong, durable.
fireproof of good weight/strength ratio and have resistance to
materials including metals, glass rubber, plastics, leather, and paper.
transverse and tensile strength. Asbestos-cement products include
Perspex: It is a synthetic plastic product. It is highly resistant to heat,
plain and corrugated sheet pipes for carriage of water and sewage.
acids and alkalis, organic solvents and weathering actions. It has less Asbestos-cement pipes are comparatively cheap and also non-
water absorption capacity. It has very good dimensional stability it is corrodible and require no preservative coating.
tough, strong and durable. It is mainly used in research works for
17.6 Leather: Leather is an important engineering material. It is used
making chemical apparatus decorative articles, toys etc. in two forms in engineering constructions: as raw hides and us
tanned leather. Raw hide (suited hide) is tough, strong and durable
with little capacity for stretch. It is used for gears, belts and belt
lacing (when dried). Dried raw hides are also used for gaskets.
hand bags, linings, coverings etc.
Tanned leather is prepared by treating the salted raw hides with varnish. It can also be made in the forms of table covers felt carpets.
tanning chemicals. Colour pigments are added to impart desired colour It can he given beautiful colour and shades with desired colour
to the tanned leather. Leather weighs about 4000 psi (for a good quality pigments. When ground cork or sawdust and pressed upon canvas, it
leather). Tanned leather is used for belts, washers, non-friction lining forms good floor cloth
material, gaskets, shoes, suitcases, hand briefcases, moneybags, 17.9 Jutex: It is a special variety of board prepared from, powder jute-
decorative works, garments etc. sticks. It is mainly used for making light furniture, partition walls,
17.7 Gutta Percha: It resembles rubber in many of its properties but it is cabinet making, false ceiling etc.
stronger, more soluble and less elastic. It is greyish white. It is obtained 17.10 Silicones: Silicone resins, called silicones, introduced in 1945 have
by boiling the milky juice (sap) of certain tress (Palaqulum Gutta) an inorganic structure with an organic exterior. The basic materials are
grown in Malaya. Borneo. Java and other Islands of the same area. It is silicon, alkyl, silicon dichloride, methyl chlorides and water. The
not vulcanized with Sulphur like rubber but used alone in its pure state. materials are hydrolyzed in order to obtain silicones. Silicones are
But sometimes it is vulcanized with Sulphur to form hard substances. manufactured in the form of liquids, greases and solids. The liquids are
When pure it is brownish in colour and at low temperature it is as hard used for heat transfer media, damping fluids and high temperature
as wood and excessively tough. With the increase of heat, it becomes lubricants. The greases are employed as high-temperature lubricants for
more flexible until at about 120°, it becomes pasty, when it can be bearings and valves. The solids are used as gasketing materials for
molded into all varieties of forms which it retains on cooling. service at higher temperature. Silicones are resistant to water,
It is widely used for various purposes as a substitute for leather and weathering, acids, alkalis, ultraviolet rays, ozone and aging. They have
rubber, as an insulating coating for copper wire and submarine telegraph good bonding properties and fair dielectric properties. They show very
cables, as an ingredient in mastics and cement for the manufacture of little change in viscosity over a wide range of temperature. Usually,
flexible hoses, tubes, bottles etc. It is also used for impregnating driving silicones are chemically inert.
belts, washers, valve seats and in adhesives. It is further used for golf Silicones are also used as protective coatings, as bonding agent in
balls and dental fillings for its high resistant to water. laminates, as electrical insulation. They ar. also used in manufacturing
waterproof insulation products tor high frequency equipment and
17.8 Linoleum: It is manufactured from Sulphur chloride with linseed oil.
high-tension ignition systems and products which are used as rubber
When rolled into sheet, it is used as a substitute for rubber or gutta-
substitute.
percha. When dissolved, it is used as
17.11 Expanded Metal: This is a cast iron product. Expanded metal is the amethyst, ruby, sapphire etc., to a coarse variety known as emery. It is
term applied to a wide variety of lattice and diamond shaped mesh used for griding rough surfaces of stones marble mosaic and other such
structures. The cutting or stamping with dies and stretching out of the materials.
diagonal strands by machine are done operation. Expanded metal is made
Carborundum: This is made by mixing in proper proportions of coke,
in sheet of different sizes with various mashies which are distinguished by
sand, sawdust and a small quantity of salt and smelting the same at a very
the dimension across the short way of the mesh which is usually 1'/4".
instance heat for 36 to 40 hours in hours in an electric furnace and the
3" /8", 3'/4".11/2-3 ". or 6". mixture is converted into carborundum. It is the hardest possible synthetic
abrasive and has replaced corundum and emery to a great extent.
Expanded metal is used as partition walls, fencings and other engineering
Sandpaper: This is a common name given to various types of abrasive
works.
paper. It is generally consisting of a strong and stout paper coated with
17.12 Abrasives: This consist of both natural and artificial material used
sand embedded in glue. Sandpaper for hand use may use glass or garnet
for cutting and polishing wood, metals and stones. The most commonly
powder and depending on the nature of the abrasive material glued to
used natural abrasives are carborundum, emery, sand, garnets, pumice and
paper. It is called glass paper, flint paper or garnet paper.
other different types or grinding and polishing stones. Artificial abrasives
are carborundum, crushed, iron, steel and rouge. Crushed steel and steel 17.13 Diamond: This is the hardest possible natural substance known and
emery are made by heating a good grade of steel to a high temperature and one of the most precious gems, which is chemically the purest form of
cooling it. quickly in water then reducing the cold steel to a powder by carbon. It used for cutting, glasses mainly. Other engineering uses include
means of crushing machines of heavy hammers. This is then mixed with making of abrasive materials, wire drawing dies, rock drills etc.
glue and applied to belts and wheels in the same manner as emery or sand.
17.14 Felts: Felts are materials composed of wool alone, mainly to
Emery: It is chiefly consisting of alumina add quartz. It is a very ward eliminate noise and vibrations and to serve a covering for resisting
material which is not acted upon by heat or acids when ground to powder, heat. Felt washers and packings air used in automobiles for the
it is used for making emery wheels, emery cloth and emery paper for prevention of leakages from engine bearings, gearboxes etc.
polishing. All these are used for polishing purposes. In addition to those felts mentioned above the following are the other
Corundum: It is a compound of aluminum and oxygen. Hs hardness is next varieties of felts. air used in
to diamond. There are several varieties, the from engine
I hey have got wide applications in the various fields of engineering
Bituminous Felt: This is made by applying bitumen’s io paper, hides
constructions.
canvas woolen felt. Bitumen is either impregnated or is applied to the
17.18 Graphite: Graphite is the well-known crystalline form of Carbon.
surface sometimes sand and crushed stones are sprinkled on the surface
It is naturally found in marbles, gneisses, schists and granite with
of the tells before applying the bonding tar or asphalt. It is used as
impurities such as clay, iron oxide and other minerals. It has black to
damp-proof course
grey colour, greasy touch, very soft and is a good conductor of
Reinforced Bituminous Felts: These are impregnated sheets on which
electricity. Graphite is also manufactured artificially by heating a
bitumen is spread and then hessian or jute fabric is laid on top and the
mixture of powdered carbon and a suitable binder.
sheets rolled. Sometimes talc or mica powder is doted on to give the
Graphite is mainly used in mechanical chemical, electrical and
desired finish to the surface. These felts are more resistant to wearing
metallurgical fields as electrodes, lining for furnaces and crucibles. It
and have better insulating power.
is also used as a lubricant and in paint and pencil industries.
17.15 Ropes: Jute. hemp, coir and cotton are the plant fibers used for
17.19 water: Water is an important engineering material. Since we get it
making ropes. Cotton ropes are the strongest but very expensive and
free, we do not any importance to it. In any engineering connection,
therefore not used in engineering constructions. Coir ropes are cheaper
water is needed. The importance of water in concrete construction
and used in ordinary works where high strength is not required. Jute and
and its quality' have already been mentioned in the Concrete Chapter.
hemp ropes are very strong and used mainly in engineering purposes.
Industry uses large volumes of water in its manufacturing processes
There are other varieties of ropes also available in the market: Wire and in supporting operations. Indeed, the production of steam,
ropes are made of a large number of steels of any other metal twisted foodstuffs, metals, chemicals, synthetics, concretes and other basic
together. They are mainly used for cables and other purpose requiring commodities and engineering enterprises call for a tonnage of water
very high strength. Various synthetic ropes are used nowadays but they that far exceeds the combined tonnage of other raw materials.
are not very strong. Questions
1. What is coal and how is it formed? Enumerate the byproducts
17.16 Nails, Screws and Spikes: These are the products of cast iron, of coal and their specific uses.
wrought iron and steel. They are of various sizes and shapes for various
engineering purposes and the choice of a particular type depends entirely
upon the nature of works.
2. Name the places where s2eable deposits of coal are known to exist 14. What are silicones? What are their properties? Name several
in Bangladesh. applications of silicones.
15. Name the properties of natural rubber and compare them with those
3. What is glass? What materials are used for glass manufacturing?
of synthetic rubber.
Give the engineering applications of glasses.
16. Write short notes on any five of the following: Polystyrene plastic,
4. Distinguish between:
Polythene, Acrylics, Alkyd. Casein Plastic, Epoxy resin plastic, Cast
(a) Laminated glass and sheet glass (b) Lead glass and soda lime glass phenolic plastic.
(c) Pot Colour and Flash Colour.
17. Distinguish between:
5. What is safety glass? Why lead is used for glass making?
(a) Injection moulding and Extrusion moulding (b) Poly vinyl
6. Discuss rubber as and engineering material. What the different chloride and polyvinyl formal (c) Cellulose nitrate and cellulose
varieties of rubber and how are they manufactured? acetate (d) Phenol-formaldehyde and melamine formaldehyde
7. What is vulcanization? Why is vulcanization of rubber essential for plastics.
its use under industrial conditions? Name some physical properties 18. What is celluloid? Critically examine its properties and write some of
of rubber which are utilized in industries and engineering its uses.
constructions and state these uses. 19. What is Bakelite? Why is it so called? Give the engineering
8. Describe what is meant by plastics a filler, a plasticizer a applications of Bakelite?
thermoplastic, a thermosetting resin and polymerization. 20. What is asbestos? Why is it considered to be important engineering
9. What are the important properties of plastics which contribute material?
their use as materials for construction? 21. Distinguish between Gutta Percha and Perspex: Give the engineering
10. Name the important groups of plastics. What are some of their applications of leather.
advantages? 22. Write explanatory notes on any five of the following.

Linoleum, Jutex, Expanded metal. Abrasives, Felts, Ropes, synthetic
11. What are some of ten different types of phenolic plastics? How do
adhesives, Hardeners, Polyethylene, Silicon resins. Buna-s, Latex.
they differ?
12. Name and briefly describe five types of thermoplastics.
13. What is nylon? Name some of its properties and applications.

23. Name the basic raw materials for manufacturing plastics.
24. Do you consider water as an engineering material? Justify your

answer.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The End ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dr. M.A. Aziz was it Associate Professor of Civil
Engineering Department of Bangladesh University
Engineering and Technology, Dhaka Bangladesh,
lie was also Associate Professor of national
University of Singapore, Singapore. He is the
author of another A text Book of Surveying and A
text Book of Water Supply Engineering too.
M Mohamniod Iqbal is a Piofcssoi of indusial

B X . an^ Production Engineering Department
■ Shahajalal University of Science and
| Technology (SUST) Bangladesh Mobainmud
2b Iqbal is the founder lecturer of Industrial and
Production Engineering Departm nt He was
the Dean of the School ef A.pol. Science
and Teleology of SUST Sylhet from Decemte r ’ ’GIN to
December 24-2011 was the Head of Indan - - aI HIM - i i-
Engineering Department, Shahajalal Urm-vi .fran
(SUST) for about thirteen years and six • --'.f'ice
1996 to August 31-1991 Foundation stale oI
and June 06-2000 to October 06-2013 lb.
(In-charge of Department) of Petroleum .
Engineering. Shahajalal University of Sc.kfr. I'T)
(SUST) Sylhet from August 10-2005 t o De. >. *•
is the life fellow of the Institute Engineer H n
Mohammod Iqbal is the author of another u-xf
Industrial Safety Management Authorized h;-
Institution of Management, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
ISBN: 978-984-04240
^Inonto Bazarjifr.com
Visit Now: www.anontobazar.com
Mobile : 01777511133

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Materials MM

Thoroughly Revised and Extensively Modified By

Dr. M.A. Aziz

stiffness, ductility, malleability, hardness,

Stress: Stress is the intensity of internal force developed when an external

by the letter K. deformation in the elastic range. Stiffness of ductile material is

Direct stresses cussing a change in volumes measured by the modules of elasticity.

µ=\f(Lateral strain, Longitudinal strain strength in resisting repeated stress.

the proportional limit. 1.4 Engineering Materials commonly use In Bangladesh:

simultaneously with the load. As shown in the static stress-strain

engineering applications depends first upon their properties in

green to black color. refractory materials.

7. Gneiss: It is a metamorphic stone and has same composition as granites

etc. (c) Boulders and conglomerates.

(b) Cement = 25 cut = 20 bags

SLOPING FLOOR OVER ONE BRICK FLAT

compartments. Depending upon the output desired, continues kiln may

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HOFFMAN'S KILN:

Advantages: (1) Economy of fuel; (2) Uniform burning of bricks, (3)

6. The percentage of soluble salts (sulphates of calcium, magnesium,

class bricks. purposes.

1. Discuss the factors that are to be considered in selecting raw materials

following technical terms are to be understood thoroughly.

Quick Lime or Caustic lime: This is the lime immediately, after

Alkalies and Metallic oxides: They impart hydraulicity in lime. plastering.

Principal (CaCO3) (CaO) (CO2).

Percentage of quick lime = ⸨0.675x 56) / 44⸩ x 100= 86%

generally performed on limestone.

2.8 Silica +1.1 Alumina + 0.7 Oxides of Iron Magnesia = 1.5%

out to determine the strength of lime.

manufacturing of Portland Cement are:

8. Sodium Oxide Na2O 0.4-1.3

7.6 Properties of Cement: The most important properties of cement are:

(CaSO4 0.5H2O) or anhydrite (CaSO4) are formed and when 2

Ordinary, Rapid hardening. Low Heat, and Blast Furnace Portland

Chemical Composition Test: This test is generally carried out to

Minimum Compressive Strength in psi 7. Blast Furnace Type IS

Rapid Hardening Portland Cement: This cement is very similar to

disintegration under the action of sulphate is required. In certain

Pozzolana is a natural or artificial materials containing silica in a C2S 26

Pozzolana Portland cements gain strength very slowly and require,

Sand and Surki A Text Book of Engineering Materials 119

Fineness Modulus is an empirical formula obtained by taking the sum of

Where Ri is the ratio of one variety in the combined mix. Example:

Example: Two samples of sand, one from Kaliakari (Fineness

of a good cement mortar. Concrete = Binding materials + Inert materials + water.

Functions of Aggregates in Concrete: The aggregate give volume to

strength, psi Ratio of strengths Difference of

and S28 = 1.75S7 + 850 (10.3)

3/8 320 360 340 380 390 430.

The reason for the improvement of workability by the entrained air is

concrete in four layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times with a standard

that the actual a mound of water to be added to the concrete depends

Fig. 10.4 Bulking of coarse aggregates with different percentage of

Fig. 10.6 Effect of water/cement ratio on the strength of concrete.

WATER / CEMENT RATIO BY WEIGHT

0.1 1.12 1.3 14.55

5. Method of Mixing of Concrete: The object of mixing is to coat the

7. Curing of Concrete: In order to obtain good concrete, the placing of

Fig. 10.13 Ratio of strength of concrete cured at different

Granolithic Finishing: In this type of finishing, the concrete surface

Fig. 10.17 Relative Humidity percent influence of the sequence of the

Swelling is accompanied by an increase in weight of the order of 1

and muntaz metal. _________________ SOILS