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Turner
Richard L. West Lynn H. Turner

SEVENTH EDITION
Introducing Communication Theory
Richard L. West
Emerson College
Lynn H. Turner
Marquette University
INTRODUCING COMMUNICATION THEORY
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BRIEF CONTENTS iii
Brief Contents
Part One Foundations
COMMUNICATION, THEORY, AND RESEARCH
1. Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 1
2. Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts 23
3. Thinking About Theory and Research 42
Part Two Empirical/Post-Positivist Theory

Organization of “Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application” 65
INTRAPERSONAL: THE SELF AND MESSAGES
4. Expectancy Violations Theory 67
INTERPERSONAL: RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT

5. Uncertainty Reduction Theory 82
6. Social Exchange Theory 100
7. Social Penetration Theory 115
8. Social Information Processing Theory 131
GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS

9. Structuration Theory 147
10. Organizational Information Theory 162
THE MEDIA
11. Agenda Setting Theory 179
12. Spiral of Silence Theory 193
13. Uses and Gratifications Theory 211
CULTURE AND DIVERSITY

14. Face-Negotiation Theory 226
Part Three Interpretive Theories

INTRAPERSONAL: THE SELF AND MESSAGES
15. Symbolic Interaction Theory 242
16. Coordinated Management of Meaning 257

17. Communication Privacy Management Theory 276
iv BRIEF CONTENTS
GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS

18. Groupthink 291
19. Organizational Culture Theory 307
THE PUBLIC
20. The Rhetoric 322
21. Dramatism 339
22. The Narrative Paradigm 353
THE MEDIA
23. Media Ecology Theory 367

24. Communication Accommodation Theory 386
Part Four Critical Theories

25. Relational Dialectics Theory 402
THE MEDIA
26. Cultivation Theory 419
27. Cultural Studies 436

28. Muted Group Theory 451
29. Feminist Standpoint Theory 466
30. Co-Cultural Theory 482
Afterword ← ConnectingQuests 504

APPENDIX A: Theory Summaries 508
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-11
CONTENTS v
Contents
Preface xvii
About the Authors xxix
PART ONE Foundations
Communication, Theory, and Research

Chapter 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 1
Defining Communication 3
Models of Understanding: Communication as Action, Interaction, and Transaction 6
Communication as Action: The Linear Model 6
Communication as Interaction: The Interactional Model 8
Communication as Transaction: The Transactional Model 9
Communication Models of the Future 10
Ethics and Communication 12
Business and Industry 14
Religion and Faith 14
Entertainment 15
Higher Education 15
Medicine 16
Politics 17
Technology 17
Some Final Thoughts 17
The Value of Understanding Communication Theory 18
Understanding Communication Theory Cultivates Critical Thinking Skills 18
Understanding Communication Theory Helps You to Recognize the Breadth and Depth of
Research 19
Understanding Communication Theory Helps to Make Sense of Personal Life
Experiences 19
Communication Theory Fosters Self-Awareness 19
Conclusion 20
Discussion Starters 20
Key Terms 21
Chapter 2 Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts 23
A Historical Briefing 24
Seven Traditions in the Communication Field 26
The Rhetorical Tradition: Communication and the Art of Public Speaking 27
The Semiotic Tradition: Communication and the Co-Creation of Signs 28
The Phenomenological Tradition: Communication and the Analysis of the Everyday 28
The Cybernetic Tradition: Communication and the Processing of Information via Feedback 28
The Socio-Psychological Tradition: Communication and the Science of Human Behavior 29
The Socio-Cultural Tradition: Communication and Socially Constructed Reality 29
vi CONTENTS
The Critical Tradition: Communication and Questioning the Status Quo 30

Putting It All Together 30
Seven Contexts in the Communication Field 31
Intrapersonal Communication 32
Interpersonal Communication 32
Small Group and Team Communication 33
Organizational Communication 34
Public/Rhetorical Communication 36
Mass/Media Communication 37
Cultural Communication 38
Collating the Contexts 38
Conclusion 39
Key Terms 40
Chapter 3 Thinking About Theory and Research 42
Defining Theory: What’s in a Name? 43
Components 44
Goals 45
Approaches to Knowing: How Do You See (and Talk About) the World? 46
The Positivistic, or Empirical, Approach 46
The Interpretive Approach 46
The Critical Approach 46
Approaches to Knowing: What Questions Do You Ask About the World? 47
Approaches to Knowing: How Do We Go About Theory Building? 49
Covering Law Approach 50
Rules Approach 51
Systems Approach 52
Evaluating Theory: Determining Theory Effectiveness 54
Theory and Metaphor 56
The Research Process 57
Communication Research and the Scientific Method 57
Communication Research and the Qualitative Approach 59
Conclusion 61
Key Terms 62
PART TWO Empirical/Post-Positivist Theories
Organization of “Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application” 65

Intrapersonal: The Self and Messages
Chapter 4 Expectancy Violations Theory 67
Space Relations 69
Proxemic Zones 69
Territoriality 71
Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory 72
CONTENTS vii
Arousal 75
Threat Threshold 76
Violation Valence 76
Communicator Reward Valence 77
Integration and Critique 78
Integration 78
Critique 78
Scope 79
Utility 79
Testability 79
Heurism 79
Closing 80
Key Terms 80
Interpersonal: Relationship Development
Chapter 5 Uncertainty Reduction Theory 82
Assumptions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 84
Key Concepts of URT: The Axiom and Theorem 86
Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 86
Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 88
Expansions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 88
Antecedent Conditions 88
Strategies 89
Developed Relationships 90
Social Media and Computer-Mediated Communication 92
Context 94
Integration 96
Critique 96
Utility 97
Heurism 98
Closing 98
Key Terms 99
Chapter 6 Social Exchange Theory 100
Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory 103
Dimensions of Interdependence 106
Evaluation of a Relationship 107
Power and Exchange Patterns 109
Integration 111
Critique 111
Scope 111
Utility 111
viii CONTENTS
Testability 112
Heurism 112
Closing 113
Key Terms 114
Chapter 7 Social Penetration Theory 115
Assumptions of Social Penetration Theory 117
“Tearing Up” the Relationship: The Onion Analogy 120
A Social Exchange: Relational Costs and Rewards 122
Stages of the Social Penetration Process 123
Orientation: Revealing Bit by Bit 124
Exploratory Affective Exchange: The Self Emerges 125
Affective Exchange: Commitment and Comfortability 126
Stable Exchange: Raw Honesty and Intimacy 127
Integration 128
Critique 128
Scope 128
Heurism 129
Closing 129
Key Terms 130
Chapter 8 Social Information Processing Theory 131
Theoretical Turbulence: The Cues Filtered Out 134
Assumptions of Social Information Processing Theory 135
Hyperpersonal Perspective: “I Like What I Read and I Want More” 139
Sender: Selective Self-Presentation 139
Receiver: Idealization of the Sender 140
Channel Management 140
Feedback 141
Warranting: Gaining Confidence Online 142
Integration 143
Critique 143
Scope 144
Utility 144
Testability 144
Closing 145
Key Terms 146
Groups, Teams, and Organizations
Chapter 9 Structuration Theory 147
Assumptions of Structuration Theory 151
Central Concepts of Structuration Theory 153
CONTENTS ix
Agency and Reflexivity 153

Duality of Structure 154
Social Integration 157
Application of Time and Space 158
Integration 159
Critique 159
Scope 159
Parsimony 159
Closing 160
Key Terms 161
Chapter 10 Organizational Information Theory 162
The Only Constant Is Change (in Organizations) 165
General Systems Theory 165
Darwin’s Theory of Sociocultural Evolution 166
Assumptions of Organizational Information Theory 167
Key Concepts and Conceptualizing Information 168
Information Environment: The Sum Total 168
Rules: Guidelines to Analyze 169
Self-Governance in an Age of Rules 170
Cycles: Act, Respond, Adjust 171
The Principles Related to Equivocality 172
Reducing Equivocality: Trying to Use the Information 173
Enactment: Assigning Message Importance 173
Selection: Interpreting the Inputs 174
Retention: Remembering the Small Stuff 174
Integration 176
Critique 176
Logical Consistency 176
Utility 176
Heurism 177
Closing 177
Key Terms 178
The Media
Chapter 11 Agenda Setting Theory 179
History of Agenda Setting Research 181
Pretheoretical Conceptualizing 181
Establishing the Theory of Agenda Setting 182
Elaborating the Theory 183
Assumptions of Agenda Setting Theory 184
Three-Part Process of Agenda Setting 185
x CONTENTS
Three Levels of Agenda Setting 186

Integration 189
Critique 189
Scope 189
Utility 189
Heurism 191
Closing 191
Key Terms 192
Chapter 12 Spiral of Silence Theory 193
The Court of Public Opinion 195
Assumptions of Spiral of Silence Theory 197
The Media’s Influence 200
The Train Test 202
The Hard Core 203
Speaking Out About Various Issues 205
The Spiral of Silence and Social Media 205
Integration 208
Critique 208
Heurism 209
Closing 209
Key Terms 210
Chapter 13 Uses and Gratifications Theory 211
Assumptions of Uses and Gratifications Theory 213
History of Uses and Gratifications Research 215
Changing Positions on Media Effects 217
Key Concepts 218
Contemporary Applications of Uses and Gratifications Theory 220
Integration 222
Critique 222
Heurism 223
Closing 223
Key Terms 224
Culture and Diversity
Chapter 14 Face-Negotiation Theory 226
About Face 228
Face and Politeness Theory 229
CONTENTS xi
Facework 230
Assumptions of Face-Negotiation Theory 230
Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures 233
Face Management and Culture 236
Managing Conflict Across Cultures 237
Integration 239
Critique 239
Heurism 240
Closing 240
Key Terms 241
PART THREE Interpretive Theories
Intrapersonal: The Self and Messages

Chapter 15 Symbolic Interaction Theory 242
History of Symbolic Interaction Theory 244
Assumptions of Symbolic Interaction Theory 245
Individuals Construct Meaning via the Communication Process 245
Humans Act Toward Others on the Basis of the Meanings Those Others Have for
Them 246
Meaning Is Created in Interaction Between People 246
Meaning Is Modified Through an Interpretive Process 247
Self-Concept Is a Motivation for Behavior 247
Individuals Develop Self-Concepts Through Interactions with Others 248
Self-Concepts Provide an Important Motive for Behavior 248
A Unique Relationship Exists Between the Individual and Society 249
People and Groups Are Influenced by Cultural and Social Processes 250
Social Structure Is Worked Out Through Social Interaction 250
Key Concepts 251
Mind 251
Self 252
Society 253
Integration 254
Critique 254
Scope 254
Utility 254
Testability 255
Closing 255
Key Terms 256
xii CONTENTS
Chapter 16 Coordinated Management of Meaning 257

All the World’s a Stage 258
Assumptions of Coordinated Management of Meaning 259
The Hierarchy of Organized Meaning 261
Content 262
Speech Act 263
Episodes 263
Relationship 264
Life Scripts 265
Cultural Patterns 265
Charmed and Strange Loops 266
The Coordination of Meaning: Making Sense of the Sequence 268
Influences on the Coordination Process 269
Rules and Unwanted Repetitive Patterns 270
Integration 272
Critique 272
Scope 273
Parsimony 273
Utility 273
Heurism 273
Closing 274
Key Terms 275
Chapter 17 Communication Privacy Management Theory 276
Evolution of Communication Privacy Management Theory 278
Assumptions of CPM 280
Key Components and Axioms of CPM 281
Component 1: Privacy Ownership 283
Component 2: Privacy Control 284
Component 3: Privacy Turbulence 286
Integration 287
Critique 287
Utility 288
Heurism 288
Closing 289
Key Terms 289
Groups, Teams, and Organizations
Chapter 18 Groupthink 291
Assumptions of Groupthink 294
What Comes Before: Antecedent Conditions of Groupthink 296
CONTENTS xiii
Group Cohesiveness 296

Structural Factors 297
Group Stress 298
Symptoms of Groupthink 298
Overestimation of the Group 299
Closed-Mindedness 299
Pressures Toward Uniformity 300
Think Before You Act: Ways to Prevent Groupthink 301
Polythink: Moving Beyond the Groupthink Phenomenon 303
Integration 304
Critique 304
Scope 304
Testability 304
Heurism 304
Test of Time 305
Closing 305
Key Terms 306
Chapter 19 Organizational Culture Theory 307
The Cultural Metaphor: Of Spider Webs and Organizations 311
Assumptions of Organizational Cultural Theory 312
Ethnographic Understanding: Laying It On Thick 314
The Communicative Performance 316
Ritual Performances 317
Passion Performances 317
Social Performances 317
Political Performances 317
Enculturation Performances 318
Integration 319
Critique 319
Utility 319
Heurism 319
Closing 320
Key Terms 320
The Public
Chapter 20 The Rhetoric 322
The Rhetorical Tradition 324
Assumptions of the Rhetoric 325
The Syllogism: A Three-Tiered Argument 327
Canons of Rhetoric 328
xiv CONTENTS
Invention 329
Arrangement 329
Style 330
Memory 331
Delivery 331
Types of Rhetoric 331
Integration 335
Critique 335
Heurism 336
Test of Time 336
Closing 336
Key Terms 337
Chapter 21 Dramatism 339
Assumptions of Dramatism 341
Dramatism as New Rhetoric 342
Identification/Division and Substance 343
The Process of Guilt and Redemption 344
The Pentad 345
Integration 347
Critique 347
Scope 348
Parsimony 348
Utility 348
Heurism 349
Closing 350
Key Terms 351
Chapter 22 The Narrative Paradigm 353
Assumptions of the Narrative Paradigm 356
Key Concepts in the Narrative Approach 359
Narration (or Narratives) 359
Narrative Rationality 360
Integration 363
Critique 363
Scope 363
Utility 363
Heurism 364
CONTENTS xv
Closing 365
Key Terms 366
The Media
Chapter 23 Media Ecology Theory 367
Assumptions of Media Ecology Theory 370
Making Media History and Making “Sense” 372
The Tribal Era 373
The Literate Era 373
The Print Era 373
The Electronic Era 374
The Medium Is the Message 375
Gauging the Temperature: Hot and Cool Media 375
The Circle Is Complete: The Tetrad 377
Enhancement 378
Obsolescence 378
Retrieval 378
Reversal 379
Carrying the McLuhan Banner: Postman and Meyrowitz 380
Integration 382
Critique 382
Testability 382
Heurism 383
Closing 383
Key Terms 384
Chapter 24 Communication Accommodation Theory 386
Social Psychology and Social Identity 388
Assumptions of Communication Accommodation Theory 390
Ways to Adapt 392
Convergence: Merging Thoughts Ahead 393
Divergence: Vive la Différence 395
Overaccommodation: Miscommunicating with a Purpose 396
Integration 398
Critique 398
Scope 398
Heurism 399
Closing 399
Key Terms 400
xvi CONTENTS
PART FOUR Critical Theories

Chapter 25 Relational Dialectics Theory 402
Assumptions of Relational Dialectics Theory 405
Central Propositions of Relational Dialectics Theory 406
Interpretive Research in Relational Dialectics Theory 407
Basic Dialectic 1: Autonomy and Connection 407
Basic Dialectic 2: Openness and Protection 408
Basic Dialectic 3: Novelty and Predictability 408
Beyond Basic Dialectics 408
Contextual Dialectics 409
Responses to Dialectics 411
Relational Dialectics Theory 2.0: A Critical Turn 412
Integration 415
Critique 415
Parsimony 415
Utility 415
Heurism 416
Closing 416
Key Terms 417
The Media
Chapter 26 Cultivation Theory 419
Developing Cultivation Theory 422
Assumptions of Cultivation Theory 423
Processes and Products of Cultivation Theory 426
The Four-Step Process 426
Mainstreaming and Resonance 426
The Mean World Index 428
Cultivation Theory as Critical Theory 429
Integration 431
Critique 431
Utility 432
Heurism 433
Test of Time 433
Closing 434
Key Terms 434
Chapter 27 Cultural Studies 436
The Marxist Legacy: Power to the People 439
Assumptions of Cultural Studies 440
CONTENTS xvii
Hegemony: The Influence on the Masses 443

Counter-Hegemony: The Masses Start to Influence the Dominant Forces 445
Audience Decoding 446
Integration 448
Critique 448
Utility 448
Heurism 448
Closing 449
Key Terms 450
Chapter 28 Muted Group Theory 451
History of Muted Group Theory 453
Dominant and Non-dominant Groups 455
Assumptions of Muted Group Theory 456
The Process of Silencing 459
Ridicule 460
Ritual 460
Control 461
Harassment 461
Strategies of Resistance 461
Integration 463
Critique 463
Utility 463
Test of Time 464
Closing 464
Key Terms 465
Chapter 29 Feminist Standpoint Theory 466
Evolution of Feminist Standpoint Theory 468
Standpoint Theory 468
Feminist Standpoint Theory 468
Black Feminist Standpoint Theory 470
Feminist Standpoint Theory and Black Feminist Standpoint Theory in Communication
Studies 471
Assumptions of Feminist Standpoint Theory 472
Key Concepts of Feminist Standpoint Theory 503
Voice 476
Standpoint 476
Situated Knowledges 477
Sexual Division of Labor 477
xviii CONTENTS

Integration 478
Critique 478
Utility 478
Closing 480
Key Terms 480
Chapter 30 Co-Cultural Theory 482
Foundations of Co-Cultural Theory 483
Muted Group Theory 484
Standpoint Theory 484
Phenomenology 485
Assumptions of Co-Cultural Theory 486
Communication Orientations and Strategies 488
Goals/Preferred Outcomes 488
Approaches 489
Communication Orientations 490
Testing the Communication Orientations 491
Strategies 492
Other Factors Influencing NDGMs’ Communication Choices 497
Field-of-experience 497
Perceived Costs and Rewards 497
Capability 498
Situation 498
Integration 499
Critique 499
Scope 499
Parsimony 500
Heurism 500
Closing 501
Key Terms 502
Afterword ← ConnectingQuests 504
APPENDIX A: Theory Summaries 508
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-11
Preface
As we present the seventh edition of Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application, we remain
excited by its enormous success. The previous six editions demonstrate that communication theory courses
are vibrant, that teachers of communication understand the importance of theoretical thinking, and that both
instructors and students appreciate the consistent and organized template we employ throughout. This text
explores the practical, engaging, and relevant ways in which theory operates in our lives. It is written primarily
for students who have little or no background in communication theory.
We originally wrote the book because we thought that students need to know how theorizing helps us under-
stand ourselves, as well as our experiences, relationships, media, environment, and culture. We also wrote
this book because we believe that students should have a text that relates theory directly to their lives. We felt
that some books insulted the student and trivialized theory while other books were written at a level that was
far too advanced for an undergraduate. In this book, we take great care to achieve the following additional
objectives:
• Familiarize students with the principles and central ideas of important theories they are likely to
encounter in the communication discipline.
• Demystify the notion of theory by discussing it in concrete and unequivocal ways.
• Provide students with an understanding of the interplay among theory, communication, and application.
• Introduce students to the research process and the role of theory within this process.
• Assist students in becoming more systematic and thoughtful critical thinkers.
The seventh edition of this book maintains its original focus of introducing communication theory to students
in an accessible, appealing, and consistent way. We believe that students understand material best when it
is explained in a clear, direct way through a number of realistic and applicable examples. Our hope is that
students will take away a basic knowledge of, and appreciation for, communication theory from reading our
text.
The theories in communication studies have roots in both communication and in other fields of study. This
interdisciplinary orientation is reflected in the selection of the various theories presented in the text. We not
only include the unique contributions of communication theorists, but also theories with origins in other
fields of study, including psychology, sociology, biology, education, business, and philosophy. Communica-
tion theorists have embraced the integration of ideas and principles forged by their colleagues across many
disciplines. Yet, the application, influence, and inherent value of communication are all sustained by the the-
orists in this text. In other words, although theories cut across various academic disciplines, their relevance
to communication remains paramount and we articulate this relevancy in each theory chapter. We do not
presume to speak for the theorists; we have distilled their scholarship in a way that we hope represents and
honors their hard work. Our overall goal is to frame their words and illustrate their theories with practical
examples and instances so that their explication of communication behaviors becomes accessible for stu-
dents.
Together, we have over 60 years of experience in teaching communication theory. During this time, we have
learned a great deal. Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application utilizes and applies all that
we as teachers have learned from our students. We continue to be indebted to both students and colleagues
whose suggestions and comments have greatly influenced this newest edition. In fact, many of these observa-
tions are found throughout the book!
xx PREFACE
The Challenges of Teaching and Learning Communication Theory

The instructor in a communication theory course may face several challenges that are not shared by other
courses. First, because many students think of theory as distant, abstract, and obscure, teachers must over-
come these potentially negative connotations. Negative feelings toward the subject can be magnified in class-
rooms where students represent a variety of ages and socioeconomic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds.
Introducing Communication Theory addresses this challenge by offering a readable and pragmatic guide that
integrates content with examples, capturing the essence and elegance of theory in a straightforward manner.
In addition, the book takes an incremental approach to learning about theory, resulting in a thoughtful and
appropriate learning pace. In our decades of teaching this course, we have found that students cannot be
overwhelmed with too much information at once. Therefore, we unpack theory in reasonable and digestible
ways.
A second challenge associated with teaching and learning communication theory relates to preconceived
notions of research: Students may view scholarship as difficult or remote. This book demonstrates to students
that they already possess many of the characteristics of researchers, such as curiosity and ambition. Students
will be pleasantly surprised to know that they operate according to many personal theories every day. Once
students begin to revise their misconceptions about research and theory, they are in a position to understand
the principles, concepts, and theories contained in this book.
A third challenge of teaching and learning communication theory is capturing the complexity of a theory
in an approachable way without oversimplifying the theoretical process. To address this problem, instructors
often present a skeletal version of a theory and then fill in the missing pieces with personal materials. By pro-
viding a variety of engaging examples and applications reflecting a wide range of classroom demographics,
Introducing Communication Theory facilitates such an approach.
A final challenge relates to a theory’s genesis and today’s students. Clearly, in this technological age, students
look for and usually crave a desire to find a “tech angle” to communication theory. Although many theories
were conceptualized decades ago, in each chapter, we have provided the most recent research that represents
a theory–technology framework. Further we have added student comments in each chapter that speak to how
the theory can be applied to technology, such as social media, texting, and so forth.
Major Changes in Content in the New Edition

As we do in every new edition, we have edited and modified each and every chapter to reflect our continued
emphasis on making theory more approachable.
Most importantly, the entire book has been reorganized to reflect the template most useful to students.
In the past, we relied on an approach that was context-specific. Yet, after reflecting on how students learn,
looking at the foundational information, and reviewing comments by colleagues across the country, we were
struck by the narrowness of this approach. We found ourselves “forcing” a complex theory into a particular
context, sometimes neglecting the fact that many of the theories fall across several contexts.
Therefore, the reorganization of the book adheres to a commonly-accepted division found in the field:
Approaches to Knowing, or better known as Empirical, Interpretive, and Critical-Cultural approaches. Each
“Approach to Knowing” is elaborated in Chapter 3, allowing students to see the relationship of a foundational
chapter with the theory chapters.
In this seventh edition, we strengthened and streamlined each chapter and in many cases, reorganized the
chapter to make the material more accessible. Further, we’ve updated many of our opening vignettes to make
PREFACE xxi
them aligned with the communication challenges that students face in their lives. And, of course, we’ve rigor-
ously updated each theory in keeping with the current research and changes in the theorists’ thinking.
Representative Chapter Changes
Responding to the need to articulate further theories related to cultural diversity, we have added a new chap-
ter (Chapter 30, Co-Cultural Theory). To keep the book a manageable length, Cognitive Dissonance Theory
has been archived for the seventh edition. In addition, each foundational and subsequent theory chapter has
undergone revision to make the content more recent, examples more compelling, material more organized,
and critiques more balanced. Here’s a sample of specific changes made in various chapters:
Chapter 1 (Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics) adds the new holistic model
of communication as students consider the value of context and technology in communication theory
Chapter 2 (Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts) now includes an historical understanding of
the communication field, from Classical origins to contemporary thinking
Chapter 3 (Thinking about Theory and Research) includes new information on “Theory as Metaphor,”
providing students further clarification of how theory functions in their lives
Chapter 5 (Uncertainty Reduction Theory) extends discussion of the expansions to the theory including
context and technology.
Chapter 6 (Social Exchange Theory) expands section on power, exchange patterns, and matrices.
Chapter 8 (Social Information Processing Theory) contains new information on social media and the
hyperpersonal effect
Chapter 9 (Structuration Theory) reconfigured in tone to make it more practical
Chapter 10 (Organizational Information Theory) presents new clarification on the relationship between
sensemaking and storytelling
Chapter 11 (Agenda Setting Theory) has been significantly reorganized and also highlights the history of the
theory and the 3-part process of agenda setting.
Chapter 12 (Spiral of Silence Theory) provides more information on the effects of social isolation and the
“outing” process of GLBT individuals
Chapter 13 (Uses and Gratifications Theory) is now comprised of an expanded section on the history of the
theory with additional attention paid to media effects
Chapter 14 (Face Negotiation Theory) adds a reconceptualization of the theory as representing the empirical,
interpretive, and critical approaches
Chapter 16 (Coordinated Management of Meaning) includes refinement, through example, of conversational
coordination
Chapter 17 (Communication Privacy Management Theory) now consists of a new section on the key
components and axioms of the theory, keeping up with how Petronio revised the theory in 2013
Chapter 18 (Groupthink) presents new information on “polythink” and its consequences in group and team
communication
Chapter 25 (Relational Dialectics Theory) now presents a section on RDT 2.0 and RDT as a critical theory
Chapter 27 (Cultural Studies) contains new information on the continued dominance of television as a
source of information for older citizens
Features of the Book

To accomplish our goals and address the challenges of teaching communication theory, we have incorporated
a structure that includes number of special features and learning aids into the seventh edition:
xxii PREFACE
• Part One, Foundations. The first three chapters of the book continue to provide students a solid
foundation for studying the theories that follow. This groundwork is essential in order to understand
how theorists conceptualize and test their theories. Chapters 1 and 2 define communication and provide
a framework for examining the theories. We present several traditions and contexts in which theory is
customarily categorized and considered. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the intersection of theory
and research. This discussion is essential in a theory course and also serves as a springboard for students
as they enroll in other courses. In addition, we present students with a template of various evaluative
components that we apply in each of the subsequent theory chapters.
• Theories and Theoretical Thinking. Updated coverage of all theories. Separate chapters on each of the
theories provide accessible, thorough coverage for students and offer flexibility to instructors. Because of
the feedback we received from the previous edition, we retained the original theories from the sixth
edition and added one NEW theory, Co-Cultural Theory by Mark Orbe. This updating results in a more
thoughtful, current, and applicable presentation of each theory. As noted earlier, in many cases, we have
provided the most recent information of the influences of culture and/or technology upon a particular
theory, resulting in some very compelling discussions and examples.
• Chapter-opening vignettes. Each chapter begins with an extended vignette, which is then integrated
throughout the chapter, providing examples to illustrate the theoretical concepts and claims. We have
been pleased that instructors and students point to these vignettes as important applications of
sometimes complex material. These stories/case studies help students understand how communication
theory plays out in the everyday lives of ordinary people. These opening stories help drive home the
important points of the theory. In addition, the real-life tone of each vignette entices students to
understand the practicality of a particular theory.
• A structured approach to each theory. Every theory chapter is self-contained and includes a consistent
format that begins with a story, followed by an introduction, a summary of theoretical assumptions, a
description of core concepts, and a critique (using the criteria established in Part One). This
consistency provides continuity for students, ensures a balanced presentation of the theories, and helps
ease the retrieval of information for future learning experiences. Instructors and students have found
this template to be quite valuable because it focuses their attention on the key elements of each theory.
• Student Voices boxes. These boxes, featured in every chapter, present both new and returning student
comments on a particular concept or theoretical issue. The comments, extracted from journals in
classes we have taught, illustrate the practicality of the topic under discussion and also show how
theoretical issues relate to students’ lives. This feature illustrates how practical theories are and how
much their tenets apply to our everyday lived experiences. It also allows readers to see how other
students taking this course have thought about the material in each chapter.
• Visual template for theory evaluation. At the conclusion of each theory chapter, a criteria for theory
evaluation (presented in Chapter 3) is employed. In addition, the theory’s context, scholarly tradition
(based on Robert Craig’s typology), and approach to knowing are presented on charts.
• Theory at a Glance boxes. In order for students to have an immediate and concise understanding of a
particular theory, we incorporate this feature at the beginning of each theory chapter. Students will have
these brief explanations and short summaries before reading the rest of the chapter, thereby allowing
them to have a general sense of what they are about to encounter.
• Theory-Into-Practice (TIP) inserts. We include this feature to provide further application of the
information contained in the chapter. We identify a conclusion or two from the theory and then provide
a real-world application of the particular claim. This feature sustains our commitment to enhancing the
pragmatic value of a theory.
PREFACE xxiii
• Afterword: ConnectingQuests. This final section of the book provides students with an integration of the
various theories in order to see the interrelationships between theories. We believe that theories cut
across multiple contexts. To this end, students are asked questions that address the intersection of
theories. For instance, to understand “decision making” from two theoretical threads, students are asked
to compare the concept and its usage in both Groupthink and Structuration Theory.
• Tables and figures. To increase conceptual organization and enhance the visual presentation of content,
we have provided several tables and figures throughout the text. Further, we have provided cartoons to
provide another engaging reading option. Many chapters have visual aids for students to consider,
helping them to understand the material. These visuals provide a clearer sense of the conceptual
organization of the theories, and they support those students who best retain information visually.
• Running glossary. Throughout each chapter, a running glossary provides students immediate access to
unfamiliar terms and their meanings.
• Appendix. At the end of the book all of the theories are listed with a short paragraph summarizing their
main points.
In addition to the aforementioned features, several new additions exist in the new edition of Introducing Com-
munication Theory:
• NEW CHAPTER ON CO-CULTURAL THEORY. We removed a chapter profiling an older theory from a
discipline other than communication (Cognitive Dissonance) and replaced that with a newer theory
centered in communication. Co-Cultural Theory has myriad applications for the diverse, multi-cultural
world in which we live.
• NEW THEORY INTO ACTION. Students will be introduced to further applications of the various
theories and theoretical concepts by examining popular press stories. Stories and articles exemplifying
various parts of a theory are provided, extrapolated from media headlines around the world.
• NEW STUDENTS TALKING TECH. The feature has been added to reflect students’ comments about
social media and technology pertaining to various theoretical issues. Dialogue applications related to
Snapchat, Facebook, LinkedIn, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Weibo, Instagram, among others are spliced
throughout the book to demonstrate students’ understanding and application of the theories to
contemporary communication contexts.
• NEW “ORIGINS THEORY” RECOGNITION. Because numerous theories have their origins in other
theoretical frameworks, we present students a list of “subordinate” theories that were inspirational and
influential upon a current theoretical discussion.
• NEW TIMELY EXAMPLES. To ensure that communication theory remains relevant to all generations
of students, the book includes relevant and contemporary topics, including many hashtag activism
movements such as #MeToo, #TakeAKnee, #BlackLivesMatter, among others. In addition, examples
related to immigration, Title IX, impeachment, minimum wage, Wikipedia, hate speech, school
shootings, and many more are integrated for students to consider as they unpack the complexity of each
theory.
• NEW INTEGRATION OF NEARLY 200 NEW REFERENCES. The explosion in communication
research, in particular, is reflected in the incorporation of dozens of new studies, essays, and books that
help students understand the theory or theoretical issue. We also provide students with easy access to a
citation by integrating an APA format (the accepted writing style in the communication field) so that
they can see the relevancy and currency of a theory. When appropriate, we also have provided URLs for
useful websites.
xxiv PREFACE
New Organization of the Material

Part One, Foundations, provides a conceptual base for the discrete theory chapters in Part Two. Chapter 1
begins by introducing the discipline and describing the process of communication. Chapter 2 provides the
prevailing traditions and contexts that frame the communication field. In this chapter, we focus on Robert
Craig’s guide to the ways in which communication theory can be considered. The chapter then turns to
primary contexts of communication, which frame the study of communication in most academic settings
across the country. Chapter 3 explores the intersection of theory and research. In this chapter, we provide
students an understanding of the nature of theory and the characteristics of theory. The research process is
also discussed, as are perspectives that guide communication research. Our goal in this chapter is to show
that research and theory are interrelated and that the two should be considered in tandem as students read
the individual chapters. Chapter 3 also provides a list of evaluative criteria for judging theories as well as for
guiding students toward assessment of each subsequent theory chapter.
With Part One establishing a foundation, Part Two, Theories and Theoretical Thinking, introduces students
to 27 different theories, each in a discrete, concise chapter and discussed within a particular Approach
to Knowing (Post-Positive, Interpretive, and Critical) identified in Chapter 3 and emphasized in an insert
between the Foundational and Theory chapters. In addition, many of these theories cut across communica-
tion contexts.
The 7th edition of Introducing Communications Theory: Analysis and Application is now available online with
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sample syllabi for quarter and semester courses, chapter outlines, and classroom activities.
• A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central concepts and ideas in each
chapter.
• Lecture Slides for instructor use in class.
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Acknowledgments
Our book owes its existence to efforts made by others in addition to the listed authors, and some people who
have helped with this book may not even realize the debt we acknowledge here. We would like to thank all
those who have helped us as we worked our way through this large project. First, many professors and stu-
dents have written to us, providing important clarification and examples.
In addition, our work rests on the shoulders of the theorists whose creations we profile in this book. We are
grateful for their creative thinking, which allows us to understand and begin to predict the complexities of the
communication process. We worked hard to try to capture their insights and conclusions and convert these
thoughts for introductory students in theory.
Further, our insights represent the discussions that we have had with our communication theory students and
colleagues over the years. Several parts of this book are based on student input at both of our institutions.
Students have contributed to this book in both direct and indirect ways.
Textbook writers understand that no book is possible without the talents and commitment of both an edi-
torial and production team. We extend our deep appreciation and admiration to those who have made our
words come to life in various ways:
Jamie Laferrera, Brand Manager
Alexander Preiss, Product Developer
Danielle Clement, Senior Content Project Manager
Sarah Flynn, Content Licensing Specialist
Finally, the development editing was handled by Erin Guendelsberger and Sowmya B. We thank both of them
and the entire ansrsource development team.
As is customary in each book he writes, Rich would like to acknowledge his mother for her continual focus
on what matters in life: being patient, helping others, and staying appreciative. He remains grateful for her
continued positive influence. Rich would also like to thank his husband, Chris, who knows precisely when to
make things less intense and more relaxing. Chris and his mom: two lights who shine bright in his life!
In addition, Mike, Steph, Victoria and the welcoming staff at C-Salt in Cape Elizabeth were great sources of
real-life examples that are woven throughout this book. The team also provided some well-timed breaks with
coffee, desserts, and conversation!
Lynn would like to thank her entire family for invaluable lessons in communication theory and practice. And
always, Lynn is grateful for the memory of her loving parents whose steadfast support and encouragement of
her scholarship, and all of her interests, sustain her in every project she undertakes. Friends and colleagues
provided great support and have taught her many valuable lessons about scholarship and communication the-
ory. She also wishes to thank Marquette University and her research assistant, Yin Yang, who was really a
research partner during the writing of the 7th Edition. Yin was an invaluable contributor to the work.
Finally, both Rich and Lynn give a special shout out to Holly Allen. Holly, a senior editor at Wiley, was the
first to believe in us in 1994. She persuaded us to think about writing a textbook, the first of which was Per-
spectives on Family Communication (now in its seventh edition/McGraw-Hill). We began this writing enter-
prise because of Holly and, to this day, she remains an inspiration as we celebrate the various successes we’ve
had in textbook writing. Thanks Holly! Always.
xxviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Finally, we thank the manuscript reviewers who gave their time and expertise to keep us on track in our inter-
pretation of the ideas of others. We are grateful for their careful reading and insightful suggestions, which
expanded and clarified our thinking in many ways. Our text is a much more useful product because of the
comments and suggestions of the following reviewers who have shaped this book over the past few editions:
Dr. Javette Hayes, Cal State Fullerton

Jon Conlogue, Westfield State University
Melanie Laliker, Bridgewater College of Virginia
Kate Joeckel, Bellevue University
Dr. Lisa Hanasono, Bowling Green State University
Christine Armstrong, Northampton Community College - Monroe
James D. Robinson, University of Dayton
Nora Madison, Chestnut Hill College
Christine North, Ohio Northern University
Emily Cripe, Kutztown University
Greg G. Armfield, New Mexico State University
Christine Armstrong, Northampton Community College
Shaun Cashman, Pfeiffer University
J. Dean Farmer, Campbell University
Javette Grace Hayes, California State University, Fullerton
Lisa Hebert, Louisiana State University
Juan Liu, Wayne State University
Jimmie Manning, Northern Illinois University
Libby McGlone, Columbus State Community College
Robert William Wawee, University of Houston Downtown
Michael Barberich, University at Albany, SUNY
Martha J. Haun, University of Houston
Bryan Horikami, Salisbury University
Anna Laura Jansma, University of California, Santa Barbara
Susan Jarboe, San Diego State University
Kelly Jones, Pitt Community College
Rebecca Dumlao, East Carolina University
Edward T. Funkhouser, North Carolina State University
Scott Guest, Bowling Green State University
Anna Laura Jansma, University of California, Santa Barbara
Anne M. Nicotera, University of Maryland
Mark Zeigler, Florida State University
Randall S. Chase, Salt Lake Community College
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxix
Kathleen Galvin, Northwestern University

Reed Markham, Salt Lake Community College
Chrys Egan, Salisbury University
Rita L. Rahoi-Gilchrest, Winona State University
Sue Barnes, Fordham University
Jack Baseheart, University of Kentucky
Jamie Byrne, Millersville University
Thomas Feeley, State University of New York, Geneseo
Amy Hubbard, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Matthew McAllister, Virginia Tech
Janet Skupien, University of Pittsburgh
Jon Smith, Southern Utah University
Katy Wiss, Western Connecticut State University
Kevin Wright, University of Memphis
John R. Baldwin, Illinois State University
Holly H. Bognar, Cleveland State University
Sheryl Bowen, Villanova University
Cam Brammer, Marshall University
Jeffrey D. Brand, North Dakota State University
Randy K. Dillon, Southwest Missouri State University
Kent Drummond, University of Wyoming
James Gilchrist, Western Michigan University
Laura Jansma, University of California–Santa Barbara
Madeline M. Keaveney, California State University–Chico
Joann Keyton, University of Kansas
Debra Mazloff, University of St. Thomas
Elizabeth M. Perse, University of Delaware
Linda M. Pledger, University of Arkansas
Mary Ann Renz, Central Michigan University
Patricia Rockwell, University of Southwestern Louisiana
Deborah Smith-Howell, University of Nebraska
Denise Solomon, University of Wisconsin
Tami Spry, St. Cloud State University
Rebecca W. Tardy, University of Louisville
Ralph Thompson, Cornell University
About the Authors
Richard West is a Professor in the Department of Communication Studies at Emer-
son College in Boston. Rich received his BA and MA from Illinois State University
and his PhD from Ohio University. Rich has been teaching since 1984, and his teach-
ing and research interests range from family diversity to teacher–student communica-
tion. He began teaching communication theory as a graduate student and has taught
the class in lecture format to more than 200 students. Rich is a past recipient of the
Outstanding Alumni Award in Communication at Illinois State University and Ohio
University. He is a member of several editorial boards in communication journals and
co-editor of the Routledge Handbook of Communication and Bullying. Rich is also the
recipient of the Distinguished Service of the Eastern Communication Association
(ECA), he also serves as a Research Fellow. Where he also received recognition as a
Teaching Fellow and Research Fellow. In 2008, Rich assumed the ECA Presidency.
Lynn H. Turner is a Professor in Communication Studies at Marquette University in
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Lynn received her BA from the University of Illinois and her
MA from the University of Iowa, and she received her PhD from Northwestern Uni-
versity. She has taught communication theory and research methods to undergradu-
ates and graduates in the Diederich College of Communication at Marquette since
1985. Prior to coming to Marquette, Lynn taught at Iowa State University and in two
high schools in Iowa. Her research interests include interpersonal communication,
family communication, and gendered communication. She is the recipient of several
awards, including Marquette’s College of Communication Research Excellence
Award, and the Book of the Year award from the Organization for the Study of Com-
munication, Language, and Gender for her book with Patricia Sullivan, From the Mar-
gins to the Center: Contemporary Women and Political Communication. Lynn is a past president of the Central
States Communication Association and was recognized for her contributions in service and research by
CSCA as a member of their Hall of Fame.
Rich and Lynn, together, are coauthors of dozens of essays and articles in the communication field. In
addition, the two have served as guest coeditors of the Journal of Family Communication a few times,
focusing on diversity and the family. In addition, they have coauthored several books, including Gender and
Communication, Perspectives on Family Communication, IPC, and Understanding Interpersonal Communication,
and an Introduction to Communication. The two have coedited the Family Communication Sourcebook (Sage,
2006; Winner of the Outstanding Book Award by the National Communication Association), and The
Handbook of Family Communication. Further, both are the recipients of the Bernard J. Brommel Award
for Outstanding Scholarship and Service in Family Communication. Finally, both recognize the uniqueness
and the honor to have served as president of the National Communication Association (Lynn in 2011;
Rich in 2012), “the oldest and largest organization in the world promoting communication scholarship and
education” (www.natcom.org).
CHAPTER 1
Thinking About Communication:
Definitions, Models, and Ethics
I suppose all of us get accustomed to look at what we are doing in a certain way and after a
while have a kind of “trained incapacity” for looking at things in any other way.
—Marie Hochmuth Nichols
The Hernandez Family

José and Angie Hernandez have been married Eddy’s parents thought about communicating
for almost 30 years, and they are the parents of their frustration and disappointment, they quickly
three children who have been out of the house recalled the difficulty of their son’s situation.
for years. But, a recent layoff at the company They didn’t want to upset him any further. The
where their son Eddy worked has forced the Hernandezes tried to figure out a way to commu-
24-year-old to return home until he can get nicate to their son that although they love him,
another job. The job market after the recession they wished that he would get a job and leave
was still not moving along fast enough. the house. They simply wanted some peace, pri-
vacy, and freedom, and their son was getting in
At first, Eddy’s parents were glad that he was
the way. It wasn’t a feeling either one of them
home. His father was proud of the fact that his
liked, but it was their reality.
son wasn’t embarrassed about returning home,
and his mom was happy to have him help her with They considered a number of different
some of the mundane tasks at home. In fact, Eddy approaches. In order to get the conversation
showed both José and Angie how to instant mes- going, they even thought about giving Eddy a
sage their friends and also put together a family few website links related to local apartment
website. His parents were especially happy about rentals. Recently, the couple’s frustration with the
having a family member who was “tech-savvy” situation took a turn for the worse. Returning
hanging around the house. from one of their long walks, they discovered
Eddy on the couch, hung over from a party held
But the good times surrounding Eddy’s return
the night before at his friend’s house. When José
soon ended. Eddy brought his cell phone to the
and Angie confronted him about his demeanor,
table each morning, marring the Hernandezes’
Eddy shouted, “Don’t start lecturing me now. Is
once-serene breakfasts. The clicking sound of
it any wonder that none of your other kids call
texting and his incessant looking down under-
you? It’s because you don’t know when to stop!
mined an otherwise calm beginning to the day.
Look, I got a headache and I really don’t need to
In addition, José and Angie’s walks each morn-
hear it right now!” José snapped, “Get out of my
ing were complicated because their son often
house. Now!” Eddy left the home, slamming the
wanted to join them. At night, when they went
front door behind him. Angie stared out of the
to bed, the parents could hear Eddy Skyping
window, wondering when or if they would ever
with his friends, sometimes until 1:00 A.M. When
hear from their son again.
2 CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics
The value of communication has been lauded by philosophers (“Be silent or say something better than
silence”—Pythagoras), writers (“The difference between the right word and the almost right word is the dif-
ference between lightning and a lightning bug”—Mark Twain), performing artists (“Any problem, big or small,
in a family usually starts with bad communication”—Emma Thompson), business leaders (“Writing is great
for keeping records and putting down details, but talk generates ideas”—T. Boone Pickens), motivational
speakers (“The quality of your communication is the quality of your life”—Tony Robbins), talk show hosts
(“Great communication begins with connection”—Oprah), and even reality TV superstars (“Why not share
my story?”—Kim Kardashian). Perhaps one of the most lasting of all words came from a 1967 film (Cool Hand
Luke): “What we got here is a failure to communicate”—a quotation that has subsequently been stated in such
diverse settings as in the movie Madagascar, the song “Civil War” by Guns N’ Roses, and television shows
NCIS, Modern Family, Law and Order: SVU, and Frasier. It’s clear that nearly all cross sections of a Western
society view communication as instrumental in human relationships. And clearly, regardless of where we live
around the globe, we can't go through a day without communication.
In the most fundamental way, communication depends on our ability to understand one another. Although
our communication can be ambiguous (“I never thought I’d get this gift from you”), as we suggested above,
one primary and essential goal in communicating is understanding. Our daily activities are wrapped in con-
versations with others. Yet, as we see with the Hernandez family, even those in close relationships can have
difficulty expressing their thoughts.
Being able to communicate effectively is highly valued in the United States. Corporations have recognized the
importance of communication. In 2019, in an agreement establishing an alliance between the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration and the National Safety Management Society (https://www.osha.gov/dcsp/
alliance/nsms/nsms_20031001_final.html) communication is identified as instrumental in establishing a
national dialogue on safety and health. Indeed, the entire safety profession supports this claim
(http://www.com.edu/gcsi/): “First and foremost, risk managers must be good communicators.” Health care,
too, is focusing more on the value of communication. Interestingly, as early as the late 1960s, doctor–patient
communication has been a topic of concern in research (Korsch, Gozzi, & Francis, 1968). More recent lit-
erature shows that effective doctor–patient communication is essential for the recovery of patients. Finally,
in the classroom, researchers have concluded that affirming feedback/student confirmation positively affects
student learning (Titsworth, Mazer, Goodboy, Bolkan, & Myers, 2015), and in athletics, this confirming com-
munication influences athlete motivation and competitiveness (Cranmer, Gagnon, & Mazer, 2019). And, with
respect to cross-platform messaging sites such as WhatsApp, individuals in intergenerational families report
its use helps to make communicating to various family members both realistic and practical (Taipale, 2019).
Make no mistake about it: Abundant evidence underscores the fact that communication is an essential, per-
vasive, and consequential behavior in our society.
As a student of communication, you are uniquely positioned to determine your potential for effective com-
munication. To do so, however, you must have a basic understanding of the communication process and of
how communication theory, in particular, functions in your life. We need to be able to talk effectively, for
instance, to a number of very different types of people during an average day: roommates, teachers, ministers,
salespeople, family members, friends, automobile mechanics, and health care providers, among many others.
Communication opportunities fill our lives each day. However, we need to understand the whys and hows of
our conversations with others. For instance, why do two people in a relationship feel a simultaneous need for
togetherness and independence? Why do some women feel ignored or devalued in conversations with men?
Why does language often influence the thoughts of others? How do media influence people’s behavior? To
what extent can social media affect the communication among people? These and many other questions are
at the root of why communication theory is so important in our society and so critical to understand.
CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 3
Defining Communication
Our first task is to create a common understanding for the term communication. Defining communication
can be challenging because it’s a term that has been used by a wide assortment of people—from politicians
to evangelical preachers to our parents. It is also an all-encompassing term and invoked with different moti-
vations in mind. A friend might think everything is communication, while you might think that it occurs
only with mutual understanding. Sarah Trenholm (2014) notes that although the study of communication
has been around for centuries, it does not mean communication is well understood. In fact, Trenholm inter-
estingly illustrates the dilemma when defining the term. She states, “Communication has become a sort of
‘portmanteau’ term. Like a piece of luggage, it is overstuffed with all manner of odd ideas and meanings. The
fact that some of these do fit, resulting in a conceptual suitcase much too heavy for anyone to carry, is often
overlooked” (p. 4).
We should note that there are many ways to interpret and define communication—a result of the complexity
and richness of the communication discipline. Imagine, for instance, taking this course from two different
professors. Each would have their own way of presenting the material, and each classroom of students would
likely approach communication theory in a unique manner. Ideally, the result would be two exciting and dis-
tinctive approaches to studying the same topic.
Students Talking Tech

Maddy
My own way of defining communication would have to include how I met my current boyfriend.
I would never be with him if it wasn’t for social media and Bumble. The site let me—as a
woman—make the first move. When I heard about this app, I thought, “Finally!” I was sick of guys
who were looking for “now” rather than “now and later!” My boyfriend and I talked online and then
over the phone, and then we met. The whole process was something I controlled, which made it
easier and more comfortable for me. I can’t imagine that I would’ve had any chance to even meet
this guy, let alone communicate with him, if Bumble didn’t help me start that process.
This uniqueness holds true with defining communication. Scholars tend to see human phenomena from their
own perspectives, something we delve into further in the next chapter. In some ways, researchers establish
boundaries when they try to explain phenomena to others. Communication scholars may approach the inter-
pretation of communication differently because of differences in scholarly values. With these caveats in mind,
we offer the following definition of communication to get us pointed in the same direction. Communication is
a social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish, interpret, and co-create meaning in their
environment(s). We necessarily draw in elements of mediated communication as well in our discussion, given
the importance that communication technology plays in contemporary society. With that in mind, let’s define
five key terms in our perspective: social, process, symbols, meaning, and environment (Figure 1.1).
Communication First, we believe that communication is a social

process. When interpreting communication as
social, we mean to suggest that it involves people
Environment and interactions, whether face-to-face or online.
This necessarily includes two people, who act as
Meaning Social
senders and receivers. Both play an integral role in
the communication process. When communication
is social, it involves people who come to an interac-
tion with various intentions, motivations, and abili-
Symbols Process
ties. To suggest that communication is a process
means that it is ongoing and unending. Communi-
cation is also dynamic, complex, and continually
Figure 1.1 Key Terms in Defining Communication changing. With this view of communication, we
emphasize the dynamics of making meaning. There-
fore, communication has no definable beginning and ending. For example, although José and Angie Hernan-
dez may tell their son that he must leave the house, their discussions with him and about him will definitely
continue well after he leaves (e.g., “What do we do now?”). In fact, the conversation they have with Eddy
today will most likely affect their communication with him tomorrow. Similarly, our past communications
with people have been stored in their minds and have affected their conversations with us.
The process nature of communication also means that much can happen from the beginning of a conversa-
tion to the end. People may end up at a very different place once a discussion begins. This is exemplified by
the frequent conflicts that roommates, spouses, and siblings experience. Although a conversation may begin
with absolute and inflexible language, the conflict may be resolved with compromise. All of this can occur in
a matter of minutes.
Individual and cultural changes affect communication. Conversations between siblings, for example, have
shifted from the 1950s to today. Years ago, siblings rarely discussed the impending death of a parent or the
need to take care of an aging parent. Today, it’s not uncommon to listen to even young people talking about
senior care, home health care, and even cremation arrangements. Perceptions and feelings can change and
may remain in flux for quite some time.
Some of you may be thinking that because the communication process is dynamic and unique it is virtually
impossible to study. However, C. Arthur VanLear (1996) argues that because the communication process is
so dynamic, researchers and theorists can look for patterns over time. He concludes that “if we recognize a
pattern across a large number of cases, it permits us to ‘generalize’ to other unobserved cases” (p. 36). Or, as
communication pioneers Paul Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and Don Jackson (1967) suggest, the interconnect-
edness of communication events is critical and pervasive. Thus, it is possible to study the dynamic communi-
cation process.
To help you visualize this process, imagine a continuum where the points are unrepeatable and irreversible.
The communication field employed the historical spiral or helix to explain this process (Figure 1.2). In doing
so, two conclusions emerged: (1) communication experiences are cumulative and are influenced by the past,
and (2) because present experiences inevitably influence a person’s future, communication is nonlinear. Com-
munication, therefore, can be considered a process that changes over time and among interactants.
Figure 1.2 Communication Process as a Helix

Reprinted by permission of Frank E. X. Dance.
A third term associated with our definition of communication is symbols. A symbol is an arbitrary label or
representation of phenomena. Words are symbols for concepts and things—for example, the word love repre-
sents the idea of love; the word chair represents a thing we sit on. Labels may be ambiguous, may be both ver-
bal and nonverbal, and may occur in face-to-face and mediated communication. Symbols are usually agreed
on within a group but may not be understood outside of the group. In this way, their use is often arbitrary.
For instance, most college students understand the phrase “preregistration is closed”; those outside of college
may not understand its meaning. Further, there are both concrete symbols (the symbol represents an object)
and abstract symbols (the symbol stands for a thought or idea).
Even the innocuous Twitter symbol—the hashtag—resonates in a number of fields, particularly in politics.
Think, for instance, of the thousands of tweets that President Trump sent before and during his presidency,
even though most of his posts represented the “politics of debasement” (Ott, 2017, p. 58). Further, in-depth
political reporting and discussion are fast becoming rare in politics, and “the more candidates used Twitter
to broadcast their thoughts, the more people retweeted them, spreading their messages and journalists men-
tioned tweets in their election coverage (Buccoliero, Bellio, Crestini, & Arkoudas, 2018, p. 88). The search
for a condensed, 140-character tweet has supplanted efforts to investigate and interrogate, sometimes called
“viral politics” (Penney, 2014, p. 80). So, the hashtag symbol effectively has become a representation of a
story that used to be several hundred words found in newspapers and magazines.
In addition to process and symbols, meaning is central to our definition of communication. Meaning is what
people extract from a message. In communication episodes, messages can have more than one meaning and
even multiple layers of meaning. Without sharing some meanings, we would all have a difficult time speaking
the same language or interpreting the same event. Judith Martin and Tom Nakayama (2017) point out that
meaning has cultural consequences:
[W]hen President George W. Bush was about to go to war in Iraq, he referred to this war as a “crusade.”
The use of this term evoked strong negative reactions in the Islamic world, due to the history of the Cru-
sades nearly 1,000 years ago …. While President Bush may not have knowingly wanted to frame the Iraq
invasion as a religious war against Muslims, the history of the Crusades may make others feel that it is.
(p. 70)
Clearly, not all meaning is shared, and people do not always know what others mean. In these situations,
we must be able to explain, repeat, and clarify. For example, if the Hernandezes want to tell Eddy to move
out, they will probably need to go beyond telling him that they just need their “space.” Eddy may perceive
“needing space” as simply staying out of the house two nights a week. Furthermore, his parents will have
to figure out what communication “approach” is best. They might believe that being direct may be best to
get their son out of the house. Or they might fear that such clear communication is not the most effective
strategy to change Eddy’s behavior. Regardless of how José and Angie Hernandez communicate their wishes,
without sharing the same meaning, the family will have a challenging time getting their messages across to
one another.
The final key term in our definition of communication refers to the multiple environments related to com-
munication. An environment is the situation or context in which communication occurs. The environment
includes a number of elements, including time, place, historical period, relationship, and a speaker’s and
listener’s cultural backgrounds. You can understand the influence of environments by thinking about your
beliefs and values pertaining to socially significant topics such as marriage equality, physician-assisted suicide,
and immigration into the United States. If you have had personal experience with any of these topics, it’s
likely your views are affected by your perceptions.
The environment can also be mediated. By that, we mean that communication takes place with technological
assistance. At one point or another, all of us have communicated in a mediated environment, namely through
email, chat rooms, or social networking sites. These mediated environments influence the communication
between two people in that people in electronic relationships are (usually) not able to observe each other’s
eye behavior, listen to vocal characteristics, or watch body movement (Skype and Snapchat are exceptions
to this, however). Clearly, the mediated environment has received a great deal of attention over the years as
communication theory continues to develop.
Models of Understanding: Communication as Action,

Interaction, and Transaction
Communication theorists create models, or simplified representations of complex interrelationships among
elements in the communication process, which allow us to visually understand a sometimes complex process.
Models help us weave together the basic elements of the communication process. Although there are many
communication models, we discuss the three most prominent ones here (linear, interactional, and transac-
tional). In discussing these models and their underlying approaches, we wish to demonstrate the manner in
which communication has been conceptualized over the years. We conclude our discussion by proposing a
fourth model that infuses technology and other elements into our discussion. We term this the holistic model.
Communication as Action: The Linear Model

In 1949, Claude Shannon, a Bell Laboratories scientist and professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, and Warren Weaver, a consultant on projects at the Sloan Foundation, described communication as
a linear process. They were concerned with radio and telephone technology and wanted to develop a model
that could explain how information passed through various channels. The result was the conceptualization of
the linear model of communication.
This approach to human communication comprises several key elements, as Figure 1.3 demonstrates. A
source, or transmitter of a message, sends a message to a receiver, the recipient of the message. The receiver is
the person who makes sense out of the message. All of this communication takes place in a channel, which is
the pathway to communication. Channels frequently correspond to the visual, tactile, olfactory, and auditory
senses. Thus, you use the visual channel when you see your roommate, and you use the tactile channel when
you hug your parent.
Psychological
Physiological
Semantic
Physical
Noise
Sender/Source Message Target/Receiver
Noise
Semantic
Physical
Psychological
Physiological
Figure 1.3 Linear Model of Communication
Communication also involves noise, which is anything

not intended by the informational source. There are four
types of noise. First, semantic noise pertains to the slang,
jargon, or specialized language used by individuals or
groups. For instance, when Jennifer received a medical
report from her ophthalmologist, the physician’s words
included phrases such as “ocular neuritis,” “dilated fun-
duscopic examination,” and “papillary conjunctival
changes.” This is an example of semantic noise because
outside of the medical community, these words have lim-
ited (or no) meaning. Psychological noise refers to a com-
municator’s prejudices, biases, and predispositions
toward another or the message. Physical, or external,
noise exists outside of the receiver. To exemplify these
two types, imagine listening to participants at a political
rally. You may experience psychological noise listening to
the views of a politician whom you do not support, and
you may also experience physical noise from the people
nearby who may be protesting the politician’s presence.
Finally, physiological noise refers to the biological influ-
ences on the communication process. Physiological
noise, exists if you or a speaker is ill, fatigued, or hungry.
Although this view of the communication process was
Dan Reynolds/CartoonStock Ltd
highly respected many years ago, the approach is very
limited for several reasons. First, the model presumes that there is only one message in the communication
process. Yet we all can point to a number of circumstances in which we send several messages at once. Sec-
ond, as we have previously noted, communication does not have a definable beginning and ending. Shannon
and Weaver’s model adopts this mechanistic orientation. Furthermore, to suggest that communication is sim-
ply one person speaking to another oversimplifies the complex communication process. Listeners are not so
passive, as we can all confirm when we are in heated arguments with others. Clearly, communication is more
than a one-way effort and has no definable middle or end.
Noise
Nachricht
ce
Fie
d of experien
Noise Noise
ld of
experienc
Sender Receiver
Fiel
Feedback Feedback
e
Channel
Noise
Figure 1.4 Interactional Model of Communication
Communication as Interaction: The Interactional Model

The linear model suggests that a person is only a sender or a receiver. That is a particularly narrow view of
the participants in the communication process. Wilbur Schramm (1954), therefore, proposed that we also
examine the relationship between a sender and a receiver. He conceptualized the interactional model of com-
munication, which emphasizes the two-way communication process between communicators (Figure 1.4). In
other words, communication goes in two directions: from sender to receiver and from receiver to sender. This
circular process suggests that communication is ongoing. The interactional view illustrates that a person can
perform the role of either sender or receiver during an interaction, but not both roles simultaneously.
One element essential to the interactional model of communication is feedback, or the response to a message.
Feedback may be verbal or nonverbal, intentional or unintentional. Feedback helps communicators to know
whether or not their message is being received and the extent to which meaning is achieved. In the interac-
tional model, feedback takes place after a message is received, not during the message itself.
To illustrate the critical nature of feedback and the interactional model of communication, consider our open-
ing example of the Hernandez family. When Eddy’s parents find him on the couch drunk, they proceed to tell
Eddy how they feel about his behavior. Their outcry prompts Eddy to argue with his parents, who in turn, tell
him to leave their house immediately. This interactional sequence shows that there is an alternating nature
in the communication between Eddy and his parents. They see his behavior and provide their feedback on it,
Eddy listens to their message and responds, then his father sends the final message telling his son to leave.
We can take this even further by noting the door slam as one additional feedback behavior in the interaction.
A final feature of the interactional model is a person’s field of experience, or how a person’s culture and expe-
riences influence their ability to communicate with another. Each person brings a unique field of experience
to each communication episode, and these experiences frequently influence the communication between peo-
ple. For instance, when two people come together and begin dating, the two inevitably bring their fields of
experience into the relationship. One person in this couple may have been raised in a large family with several
siblings, while the other may be an only child. These experiences (and others) will necessarily influence how
the two come together and will most likely affect how they maintain their relationship.
Like the linear view, the interactional model has been criticized. The interactional model suggests that one
person acts as sender while the other acts as receiver in a communication encounter. As you have experi-
enced, however, people communicate as both senders and receivers in a single encounter. But the prevailing
criticism of the interactional model pertains to the issue of feedback. The interactional view assumes two
people speaking and listening, but not at the same time. But what occurs when a person sends a nonverbal
message during an interaction? Smiling, frowning, or simply moving away from the conversation during an
interaction between two people happens all the time. For example, in an interaction between a mother and
her daughter, the mother may be reprimanding her child while simultaneously “reading” the child’s nonverbal
behavior. Is the girl laughing? Is she upset? Is she even listening to her mother? Each of these behaviors will
inevitably prompt the mother to modify her message. These criticisms and contradictions inspired develop-
ment of a third model of communication.
Communication as Transaction: The Transactional Model

The transactional model of communication (Barnlund, 1970; Frymier, 2005; Wilmot, 1987) underscores the
simultaneous sending and receiving of messages in a communication episode, as Figure 1.5 shows. To say
that communication is transactional means that the process is cooperative; the sender and the receiver are
mutually responsible for the effect and the effectiveness of communication. In the linear model of communi-
cation, meaning is sent from one person to another. In the interactional model, meaning is achieved through
the feedback of a sender and a receiver. In the transactional model, people build shared meaning. Further-
more, what people say during a transaction is greatly influenced by their past experience. So, for instance, at
a college fair, it is likely that a college student will have a great deal to say to a high school senior because of
the college student’s experiences in class and around campus. A college senior will, no doubt, have a different
view of college than, say, a college sophomore, due in large part to their past college experiences.
Transactional communication requires us to recognize the influence of one message on another. One message
builds on the previous message; therefore, there is an interdependency between and among the components
of communication. A change in one causes a change in others. Furthermore, the transactional model pre-
sumes that as we simultaneously send and receive messages, we attend to both verbal and nonverbal elements
of a message. In a sense, communicators negotiate meaning. For instance, if a friend asks you about your
family background, you may use some private language that your friend doesn’t understand. Your friend may
make a face while you are presenting your message, indicating some sort of confusion with what you’ve said.
As a result, you will most likely back up and define your terms and then continue with the conversation. This
Noise
Psychological Semantic Physical Physiological
Message/Feedback
Communicator Communicator
Shared
Field of experience field of Field of experience
experience
Figure 1.5 Transactional Model of Communication

example highlights the degree to which two people are actively involved in a communication encounter. The
nonverbal communication is just as important as the verbal message in such a transactional process.
Earlier we noted that the field of experience functions in the interactional model. In the transactional model,
the fields of experience exist, but overlap occurs. That is, rather than person A and person B having sepa-
rate fields of experience, eventually the two fields merge (see Figure 1.5). This was an important addition to
the understanding of the communication process because it demonstrates an active process of understand-
ing. That is, for communication to take place, individuals must build shared meaning. For instance, in our
earlier example of two people with different childhoods, the interactional model suggests that they would
come together with an understanding of their backgrounds. The transactional model, however, requires each
of them to understand and incorporate the other’s field of experience into their life. For example, it’s not
enough for Julianna to know that Paul has a prior prison record; the transactional view holds that she must
figure out a way to put his past into perspective. Will it affect their current relationship? How? If not, how will
Julianna discuss it with Paul? The transactional model takes the meaning-making process one step further
than the interactional model. It assumes reciprocity, or shared meaning.
Communication Models of the Future

As we move further into the 21st century, we have to ask the question: Are these models sufficient as we
examine human communication? We already know that communication models are usually incomplete and
unsuitable for all purposes (Perse & Lambe, 2017). The answer is fairly complex. First, the proliferation of
new social networking sites (SNS), for example, and their influence upon communication demand that com-
munication models integrate technological discussions. Second, this integration must necessarily be thought-
ful, given the plethora of SNS. Traffic to SNS has grown exponentially over the past few years with about
75 percent of online adults using social networking (http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets/social-networking-
fact-sheet)—up from 7 percent in 2005. The diversity of these sites—from Facebook to LinkedIn to Instagram
to Snapchat—suggests that no simple model will be possible.
To this end, we suggest that the holistic model of communication might be on the horizon (Turner & West,
2019). This approach emphasizes some of the foundational elements found in our definition and the other
models. The holistic model of communication underscores communication as a coherent combination of
environment, shared technology experience, and communication effect. We address these elements below
(Figure 1.6).
First, we believe that all communication occurs in a context, or an environment in which a message is sent.
Context is complex and includes more than the tangible; it can be cultural, historical, and/or situational. We
briefly address each type of context below.
The cultural context pertains to the various patterns of communication that are unique to a particular culture.
Whether we’re addressing its rules, roles, or norms, cultures both in the United States and across the globe
are idiosyncratic, and we cannot ignore this distinctness when talking about the communication process.
Imagine, for instance, talking to a colleague. Culture always influences the communication that takes place
between and among people. We return to a more comprehensive discussion of the impact of culture on com-
munication in Chapter 2. For now, it’s simply important to note that the cultural context influences people’s
communication.
In the historical context, messages are understood in relationship to the historical period in which they are
exchanged, underscoring the process-centered nature of communication, which we identified earlier. For each
of you, for instance, sending a text or an email is second nature (first nature for many of you!). But, think
about the sci-fi nature of such a message if you lived in the 1940s! The notion of what it meant to be “unem-
ployed” during the Great Depression is vastly different from the interpretation of “unemployment” today. In
fact, the word “underemployed” is often used more frequently to avoid the negative meaning related to not
having sufficient income to live (Barnichon & Zylberberg, 2019). The word was never fully understood in the
early 1900s!
The situational context is the tangible environment in which communication occurs—the train on the way to
your job, the breakfast bar, and the inside of a mosque are examples of situational contexts. Environmental
conditions such as overhead lighting, room temperature, and room size are components of this context. Fur-
ther, the social and emotional climates are also associated with this context. For example, to what degree are
the communicators friendly/unfriendly or supportive/unsupportive? Think also about the consequences of
talking about marriage equality to an audience of GLBT families and to a group of Orthodox Jews.
When you examine Figure 1.6, you will note that the holistic model shows each communicator carries with
them a technological field of experience, expanding upon a concept identified in the interactional model.
The technological field of experience refers to a person’s use of technology as it influences or is influenced by
their culture, past experiences, personal history, and/or heredity. The infusion of technology in this model
distinguishes it from the other three. First, communicators employ technology with a variety of goals in mind,
namely, to stay in touch, to stay up to date, to network, to meet new people, to share opinions, and so forth.
Contemporary models of communication must include technology, as we noted earlier, to understand the
nuances of SNS, in particular, and their value to the communication process.
Moreover, the holistic model shows a common technological field of experience between communicator A
and communicator B. This overlap between fields of experience is where messages are exchanged. Thus, the
model suggests more than sending a Facebook post; for communication to be achieved, someone must com-
ment. That communication can either be direct (“I love your post!”) or indirect (“Will someone tell this per-
son that they’re nuts?!”). So, to co-create meaning, a comment-response dynamic must take place.
Finally, the holistic model shows that all communication generates some type of effect, or a result, coming
from the communication encounter. Effect suggests that something evolved from the conversation. For exam-
ple, if you hear a commercial for an Amazon product and go out and buy that product, you experienced an
effect. If you are a member of a task group at work and you have a really productive meeting, you might feel
more confident that you can get the job finished on time than you did before the meeting. That is an effect.
Context
Cultural Historical Situational

are gy
te Sha
ch re
Sh nolo
d
n olo d
h
tec
gy
Co-Creation
Communicator Communicator
of Meaning
ed y
Sh nol
ar log
te
h
ch
ar og
S no
ed y
ch
te
Cultural Historical Situational
Context
Figure 1.6 Holistic Model of Communication

Effects range in their magnitude; some are large (you and a friend stop speaking to each other), while others
are more minor (you feel better about the choice of car you recently purchased), but they always exist in any
communication encounter.
Thinking about the holistic model and its relationship to platforms such as Snapchat will be an ongoing
process for years to come. Clearly, Shannon, Weaver, Schramm, and Barnlund could never have envisioned
such technology. We’re sure that in the not-so-distant future, we will have an abundance of research on the
influences of these technological influences on the communication process.
You now have a basic understanding of how we define communication, and we have outlined the basic ele-
ments and a few communication models. Recall this interpretation as you read the book and examine the
various theories. It is probable that you will interpret communication differently from one theory to another.
Remember that theorists set boundaries in their discussions about human behavior, and, consequently, they
often define communication according to their own view. One of our goals in this book is to enable you to
articulate the role that communication plays in a number of different theories.
Thus far, we have examined the communication process and unpacked the complexity associated with it. We
have identified the primary models of communication, trying to demonstrate the evolution and maturation
of the communication field. We now explore a component that is a necessary and vital part of every commu-
nication episode: ethics.
Ethics and Communication

In the movie The Insider, which was based on a true story, the lead character’s name is Jeffrey Wigand, a
former tobacco scientist who violated a contractual agreement and exposed a cigarette maker’s efforts to
include addictive ingredients in all cigarettes. The movie shows Wigand as a man of good conscience with the
intention of telling the public about the company and its immoral undertakings. Wigand clearly believed that
saving lives was the right and only thing to do, and he made his actions fit his beliefs: He acted on his ethics.
In this section, we examine ethics, or the perceived rightness or wrongness of action or behavior. Ethics is a
type of moral decision making (Carter, 2020), and determining what is right or wrong is influenced by soci-
ety’s rules and laws. For example, although some may believe Wigand’s efforts were laudable, others may note
that Wigand apparently knew what was going on when he signed a contract prohibiting him from disclosing
company secrets. Furthermore, the murkiness of ethics is evidenced when one considers that Wigand made
a lot of money before disclosing what was occurring.
The United States is built on standards of moral conduct, and these standards are central to a number of
institutions and relationships. Because ethical standards tend to shift according to historical period, the envi-
ronment, the conversation, and the people involved, ethics can be difficult to understand. Let’s briefly dis-
cuss ethical issues as they pertain to cultural institutions; a more comprehensive explanation of ethics can be
found elsewhere (see Roger, 2018).
To begin, George Cheney, Debashish Munshi, Steve May, and Erin Ortiz (2010) posit the following: “Com-
munication, as both a discipline and an ‘interdiscipline’ or field, is poised to play a unique role in advancing
discussions of ethics because the field offers an array of concepts and principles attuned to the examination
of ethics” (p. 1). Their words resonate throughout this discussion.
Let’s start here by asking why we should understand ethics, next explain ethics as it relates to society, and
finally, explain the intersection of ethics and communication theory. As you think about this information,
keep in mind that ethical decision making is culturally based. That is, what we consider to be ethical and
appropriate in one society is not necessarily a shared value in another society. For instance, though many
in the United States can identify with the plight of the Hernandez family, you should know that in many
cultures, having a son return to his family-of-origin is revered and would not pose the problems that the Her-
nandezes are experiencing.
Why study ethics? The response to this question could easily be another question: Why not study it? Ethics
permeates all walks of life and cuts across gender, race, class, sexual identity, and spiritual/religious affilia-
tion, among others. In other words, we cannot (and should not) escape ethical principles that guide our lives.
Ethics is part of virtually every decision we make, regardless of our cultural heritage. Moral development is
part of human development, and as we grow older, our moral code undergoes changes well into adulthood.
Ethics is also what prompts a society toward higher levels of integrity and truth. Elaine Englehardt (2001)
observes that “we don’t get to ‘invent’ our own system of ethics” (p. 2), which means that we generally follow
a given cultural code of morality. And, Ken Andersen (2003) argues that without an understanding and an
expression of ethical values, society will be disadvantaged: “Violating the norms of ethical communication is,
I believe, a major factor in the malaise that has led many people to withdraw from the civic culture whether
of their profession, their associations, their political arena” (p. 14).
From a communication perspective, ethical issues surface whenever messages potentially influence others.
Consider, for instance, the ethics associated with telling your professor that you couldn’t turn in a paper
on time because a member of your family is ill, when such an illness doesn’t exist. Think about the ethics
involved if you take an idea of a coworker and present it to your boss as if it were your own. Consider the
ethical consequences of going out on several dates with someone and choosing not to disclose a past felony
for assault, or of posing as someone other than yourself on Tinder.com or Tweeting events that are decep-
tive. Television, too, carries ethical implications. For example, can television promote racial tolerance and
harmony and simultaneously present portrayals of cultural groups in stereotypic and offensive ways? We con-
tinue our discussion of ethics by identifying some of the institutions whose ethical standards have been the
subject of much conversation. Business and industry, religion, entertainment, education, medicine, politics,
and technology are just a few of the many fields that have been prone to ethical lapses and have been chal-
lenged in communicating messages of integrity (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Examples of Ethical Decision Making in the United States
INSTITUTION EXAMPLES OF ETHICAL ISSUES
Business and Should CEOs be given pay raises in companies that are not profitable?
industry
Religion Should the church allow priests to counsel couples who are about to be married?
Entertainment Does viewing violence in movies prompt violence in society?
Higher education Should student fees go to political activist groups on campus?
Medicine Can pharmaceutical companies be held responsible for sample medicines?
Politics Should political candidates make promises to citizens?
Technology Should Facebook be prohibited from sharing any of your personal data with
advertisers?
Students Talking: Caitlyn
I could go on and on about how my high school dealt with unethical situations. We had one kid smok-
ing in the bathroom, but nothing happened to him because he was the son of a school board mem-
ber. We had a girl who had a cheat sheet for her math midterm, but because she admitted to it, the
teacher did nothing about it. Even our principal was caught with another married parent. The school
board just asked him to leave. It’s like there are no ethics anymore.
Business and Industry

Perhaps no cultural institution has been under more ethical suspicions of late than “corporate America.”
Unethical behavior in corporations has reached proportions never before seen. In fact, many of these scan-
dals prompted the Occupy Wall Street protest movements in 2011 and 2012, and in 2016, the rise of (then)
two little-known U.S. Senators from New England: Elizabeth Warren and Bernie Sanders. Further, ongoing
websites dedicated to discovering and revealing how companies violate ethical standards exist (https://global
exchange.org/campaigns/corporatecriminals2017/).
Because a corporation is usually obsessed about its reputation, companies have tried to hide costs, use cre-
ative accounting practices, commit accounting fraud, and a plethora of other ethical breaches. In fact, in the
movie The Big Short, an ex-physician invests more than $1 billion of investors’ money into credit defaults
in the home mortgage industry. While some argued this was legal, the decision to take advantage of an
impending mortgage crisis was clearly an unethical business practice. Other examples are not Hollywood-
based but found around the globe: The former head of the World Bank engineers a job promotion and salary
increase for his longtime companion; WorldCom declares bankruptcy after the discovery of an $11 billion
accounting “error”; Trump University in New York, a defunct for-profit education company, was sued by for-
mer students who claimed that they were duped by the organization because it did nothing to educate them
about real estate; Volkswagen, the world’s biggest automaker, admits to rigging diesel emissions tests in the
United States and Europe; Enron inflates earnings reports and hides billions in debt, while increasing salaries
of its executives; the founder of Adelphia Communications and his two sons commit bank and securities
fraud, leading to the company’s demise; and Boeing ignores safety upgrades to its 737 to cut costs. Finally,
the Bernie Madoff investment securities scandal included Madoff bilking nearly $64 billion from over 4,500
clients. The list of business scandals has been especially prominent. But with the advent of Corporate Ethics
Statements, congressional legislation requiring public accountability, improved transparent accounting prac-
tices, and increased accountability to stockholders, most businesses have begun to improve their ethical stand-
ing. Of course, much, much more needs to be done to eliminate lingering levels of distrust.
Religion and Faith

Both Eastern and Western civilizations have stressed ethics in their moral traditions. For instance, according
to Taoism, no one exists in isolation, and, therefore, empathy and insight will lead to truth. For the Buddhist,
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ornament; but the main figures and general design have perished.
The walls of the opposite chamber were never cased with marble, so
that the pilgrims were able to leave here the same tokens of their
visits as they left at St. Sixtus’. The graffiti are of the same general
character, but of a somewhat later date; the old forms of prayer have
disappeared; most of the names and inscriptions are in Latin; and
among the few that are Greek, there are symptoms of Byzantine
peculiarities.
The chief object of interest, however, now remaining in these
chambers is the epitaph which stands in the middle of the smaller
room. Of course, this was not its original position; but it has been so
placed, in order that we may see both sides of the stone without
difficulty, for both are inscribed. The stone was originally used for an
inscription in honour of Caracalla, belonging to the year 214. The
Christian inscription on the other side professes to have been set up
by “Damasus, Bishop, to Eusebius, Bishop and Martyr,” and to have
been written by Furius Dionysius Filocalus, “a worshipper (cultor)
and lover of Pope Damasus.” But it is easy to see at a glance that it
never was really executed by the same hand to which we are
indebted for so many other beautiful productions of that Pope. At
first, therefore, and whilst only a few fragments of this inscription had
been recovered, De Rossi was tempted to conjecture that it might be
one of the earliest efforts of the artist who subsequently attained
such perfection. At length, however, the difficulty was solved in a
more sure and satisfactory way. A diligent search in the earth with
which the chamber was filled brought to light several fragments of
the original stone, on which the letters are executed with the same
faultlessness as on the other specimens of its class. The visitor to
the Catacombs may see them painted, in a different colour from the
rest, in the copy of the epitaph which De Rossi has caused to be
affixed to the wall; and he will observe that amongst them are some
letters which are wanting in the more ancient copy transcribed on the
reverse of Caracalla’s monument. It is clear that the original must
have been broken in pieces, by the Lombards or other ancient
plunderers of the Catacombs, and that the copy which we now see is
one of the restorations by Pope Vigilus or some other Pontiff about
that time (page 47). The copyist was so ignorant that he could only
transcribe the letters which were on the spot before his eyes, and,
even when he was conscious that a letter was missing, he could only
leave a vacant space, being doubtful how it should be supplied.
Witness the space left for the first letter of Domino in the penultimate
line of the inscription, and the word in altogether omitted in the third
line.
“Heraclius forbad those who had fallen away [in times of

persecution] to grieve for their sins.
But Eusebius taught those unhappy men to weep for their crimes.
The people are divided into parties; fury increases;
Sedition, murder, fighting, quarrelling, and strife.
Presently both [the Pope and the heretic] are exiled by the cruelty
of the tyrant,
Although the Pope was preserving the bonds of peace inviolate.
He bore his exile with joy, looking to the Lord as his Judge.
And on the shore of Sicily gave up the world and his life.”
Having sufficiently considered the form of the inscription, let us

now say a few words about its substance, which is important,
because it restores to us a lost chapter of Church history. Every
student knows how keenly contested in the early ages of the Church
was the question as to the discipline to be observed towards those
Christians who relapsed into an outward profession of Paganism
under the pressure of persecution. There were some who would fain
close the door of reconciliation altogether against these unhappy
men (miseri), whilst others claimed for them restitution of all
Christian privileges before they had brought forth worthy fruits of
penance.
The question arose whenever a persecution followed after a long
term of peace; for during such a time men’s minds were specially apt
to decline from primitive fervour, and the number of the lapsed to
increase. We are not surprised, therefore, to find the question
agitated during the persecution of Decius in the middle of the third
century. There is still extant a touching letter, written to St. Cyprian
by the clergy of Rome at a time when the Holy See was vacant after
the martyrdom of St. Fabian, which clearly defines the tradition and
practice of the Church. In it they say that absolution was freely given
to those of the lapsed who are in danger of death, but to others only
when wholesome penance has been exacted; and they declare that
“they have left nothing undone that the perverse may not boast of
their being too easy, nor the true penitents accuse them of inflexible
cruelty.” The same question arose under the same circumstances in
the persecution of Diocletian. Pope Marcellus was firm in upholding
the Church’s discipline, but he was resisted with such violence that
public order was disturbed in the city by the strife of contending
factions, and the Pope was banished by order of the Emperor
Maxentius. This we learn from another inscription of Pope Damasus,
who says that he wrote it in order that the faithful might not be
ignorant of the merit of the holy Pontiff. Eusebius was the immediate
successor of Marcellus, and the epitaph now before us is clearly a
continuation of the same history, ending in the same punishment of
the Pope, as the reward of his contention for the liberties of the
Church. For it should be remembered that these Popes were driven
from their see and died in exile, not because they refused to
apostatize, but because they insisted on maintaining the integrity of
ecclesiastical discipline. They may justly be reckoned, therefore,
among the earliest of that noble army of martyrs, who, from those
days even to our own, have braved every danger rather than
consent to govern the Church in accordance with other than the
Church’s rules.
It yet remains to make two further remarks upon the epitaph of
Pope Eusebius before we leave it. The first is, that he is called a
martyr, though it nowhere appears that he really shed his blood; but
this is by no means the only instance in which the title of martyr is
given in ancient documents to men who have suffered for the faith
and died whilst those sufferings continued. And secondly, it is to be
observed that although we have no record of the translation of the
body of St. Eusebius from Sicily to Rome, there is no reason to
doubt the fact. All the earliest monuments speak of him as buried in
a crypt of the Cemetery of St. Callixtus, and although the law forbad
the translation of the bodies of those who had died in exile unless
the emperor’s permission had been previously obtained, the old
lawyers tell us that this permission was freely given. Numerous
examples teach us the great anxiety of the ancient churches to have
their bishops buried in the midst of them; no doubt, therefore, the
necessary permission was asked for, as soon as a change in the
imperial policy towards the Church made it possible; and the body of
St. Eusebius was recovered and brought to Rome soon after his
death, just as that of one of his predecessors, St. Pontian, had been
brought from Sardinia by St. Fabian.
CHAPTER IV.
THE TOMB OF ST. CORNELIUS.
We have not promised to conduct the visitor to everything that is

worth seeing in this cemetery, but only to enumerate and explain the
principal monuments of historical importance which every stranger
usually sees. And the only specimen of this class which remains to
be spoken of is the tomb of St. Cornelius, which lies some way off. In
order to reach it we must traverse a vast network of galleries, narrow
and irregular, connecting what were once independent cemeteries,
or at least were areæ added at various times to the Cemetery of
Callixtus. If our guide is not in too great haste, he may allow us to
step aside into two or three chambers by the way, in which are
certain objects of interest worth looking at. The first is a long
inscription belonging to the last decade of the third century, in which
the Deacon Severus records that he has obtained leave from the
Pope Marcellinus to make a double chamber, with arcosolia and a
luminare, in which himself and his family may have quiet graves
(mansionem in pace quietam). This is in the third area of the
cemetery, next to the area in which we visited the crypt of St.
Eusebius.
In the adjoining area, and belonging probably to the same date, is
a very curious fresco, much damaged by having been cut through for
the sake of making a grave behind it, yet still easily distinguishable in
all its main features. The Good Shepherd occupies the centre of the
painting. On either side is an apostle, probably SS. Peter and Paul,
hastening away from Christ, Who has sent them to go and teach all
nations. These are represented by two sheep standing before each
of the apostles; and over their heads hangs a rock, whence pour
down streams of water, which the apostles are receiving in their
hands and turning on the heads of the sheep. We need no special
explanation of this; we have already learnt that the Rock is Christ,
and that the waters represent all Christian graces and sacraments.
But what is worth noticing in this picture is the various attitudes of the
sheep, and the corresponding distribution of the water. A perfect
torrent is falling on the animal that stands with outstretched neck and
head uplifted, drinking in all he hears with simplicity and eagerness;
whilst another, which has turned its back upon the apostle, is left
without any water at all. Of the other two, one is standing with head
downcast, as if in doubt and perplexity, and upon him too grace is
still being poured out more abundantly than upon the fourth, which is
eating grass, i.e., occupied with the affairs of this world.
On the right hand side of this arcosolium are two representations
of Moses; in the one he is striking the rock, and one of the Jews is
catching some of the water which gushes forth; in the other he is
taking off his shoes, preparing to obey the summons of God, who is
represented by a hand coming forth from the cloud. The painting on
the other side of the arcosolium is even more defaced than that in
the centre. A large semi-circular recess has been cut through it, and
then the smoke of the lamp which burnt in this recess during the
fourth and fifth centuries has almost obliterated the little that
remained of the figure of our Lord. He stood between two of His
apostles, who are offering Him bread and fish, and six baskets of
loaves stand on the ground before them.
And now we will not linger any more upon the road, but follow our
guide, who hurries forward along the intricate passages until he
lands us at last in an irregularly shaped space, illuminated by a
luminare, decorated with paintings, and bearing manifest tokens of
having been once a great centre of devotion. There is the pillar to
support the usual vessel of oil or more precious unguents to be burnt
before the tomb of the martyr; and hard by is a gravestone let into
the wall with the words Cornelius Martyr, Ep.
The stone does not close one of the common graves such as are
seen in the walls of the galleries or of the cubicula, neither is the
grave an ordinary arcosolium. The lower part of it, indeed, resembles
an arcosolium inasmuch as it is large enough to contain three or four
bodies, but there is no arch over it. The opening is rectangular, not
circular, and yet there is no trace of any slab having been let into the
wall to cover the top of the grave. It is probable, therefore, that a
sarcophagus once filled the vacant space, and that the top of this
sarcophagus served as the mensa or altar, an arrangement of which
other examples have been found.
But how came Pope Cornelius to be buried here, and not with his
predecessors in the Papal Crypt? He was Pope, a.d. 250, between
Fabian and Lucius, both of whom were buried, as we have seen, in
that crypt. It is to be observed, however, that Cornelius is the only
Pope, during the first three centuries, who bore the name of a noble
Roman family; and many ancient epitaphs have been found in the
area round this tomb, of persons who belonged to the same family. It
is obvious, therefore, to conjecture that this sepulchre was the
private property of some branch of the Gens Cornelia. The public
Cemetery of St. Callixtus may have been closed at this time by order
of the Government; but even without such a reason, it may have
been the wish of the family that the Pope should not be separated in
burial from the rest of his race. The same circumstance would
account for the epitaph being written in Latin, not in Greek, for many
of the old patrician families clung to the language of their forefathers
long after the use of Greek had come into fashion; and this departure
from the official language of the Church (for such, in fact, Greek
really was at that time) is quite of a piece with the preference of the
domestic to the official burial-place.
But whatever may be the true explanation of these circumstances,
the fact is at least certain that Cornelius was buried here; and above
and below the opening of his tomb are fragments, still adhering to
the wall, of large slabs of marble, containing a few letters of what
were once important inscriptions. The upper inscription was
unquestionably the work of Damasus. The letters of the lower,
though closely resembling the Damasine type, yet present a few
points of difference—sufficient to warrant the conjecture of De Rossi
that they were executed by the same hand, but with slight variations,
in order to mark that it belonged to another series of monuments. We
subjoin a copy of both inscriptions, in the form in which De Rossi
believes them to have been originally written. In the first inscription
the difference of type will distinguish the earlier half of each line,
which is a conjectural restoration, from the latter half which still
remains in situ; and in estimating the degree of probability of the
restorations, the reader should bear in mind two things: first, that the
Damasine inscriptions were engraved with such mathematical
precision that no emendations are admissible which would materially
increase or diminish the number of letters in each line; and secondly,
that whereas Damasus was in the habit of repeating himself very
frequently in his epitaphs, several of De Rossi’s restorations are
mere literal reproductions of some of his favourite forms of speech.
Had the following epitaph been found in some ancient MS., and
there attributed to Pope Damasus, we are confident that no critic
would have seen reason to doubt its genuineness:—
ASPICE, DESCENSU EXSTRUCTO TENEBRISQUE FUGATIS,

CORNELI MONUMENTA VIDES TUMULUMQUE SACRATUM.
HOC OPUS ÆGROTI DAMASI PRÆSTANTIA FECIT,
ESSET UT ACCESSUS MELIOR, POPULISQUE PARATUM
AUXILIUM SANCTI, ET VALEAS SI FUNDERE PURO
CORDE PRECES, DAMASUS MELIOR CONSURGERE
POSSET,
QUEM NON LUCIS AMOR, TENUIT MAGE CURA LABORIS.
“Behold, a new staircase having been made, and the darkness

put to flight,
You see the monuments of Cornelius and his sacred tomb.
This work the zeal of Damasus has accomplished, at a time when
he was sick;
That so the means of approach might be better, and the aid of the
saint
Put more within the reach of the people; and that if you pour forth
prayers
From a pure heart, Damasus may rise up in better health;
Though it has not been love of life, but rather anxiety for work,
that has retained him in this life.”
The second inscription De Rossi would restore as follows:—

SIRICIUS PERFECIT OPUS,
CONCLUSIT ET ARCAM
MARMORE, CORNELI QUONIAM
PIA MEMBRA RETENTAT
—that is to say, he supposes that, Damasus having died, his
successor Siricius completed the work that had been begun, and,
furthermore, strengthened the wall which enclosed the tomb of St.
Cornelius with this very thick slab of marble—a work which may
have been rendered necessary by the alterations already made by
Damasus. Of course, these restorations of the mutilated inscriptions
must always remain more or less doubtful, for we fear there is no
chance of any other fragments of the original ever coming to light.
We publish them under the same reserve with which he himself
proposes them, as at least approximations to the truth. He says that,
without daring to affirm their literal correctness, there are certainly
strong reasons for believing that they exactly reproduce the sense of
the original.
This same tomb of St. Cornelius will supply us with an example of
De Rossi’s power of happy conjecture, confirmed with absolute
certainty by subsequent discoveries. He had often publicly
expressed his confident expectation of finding at this tomb of St.
Cornelius some memorial of his cotemporary, St. Cyprian. These two
saints were martyred on the same day, though in different years; and
their feasts were, therefore, always celebrated together, just as they
are now, on the 16th of September, all the liturgical prayers for the
day being common to both. Now, De Rossi had found in one of the
old Itineraries, to whose accuracy of detail he had been greatly
indebted, an extraordinary misstatement, viz., that the bodies of both
these saints rested together in the same catacomb, whereas
everybody knows that St. Cyprian was buried in Africa. He
conjectured, therefore, that the pilgrim had been led into this blunder
by something he had seen at the tomb of St. Cornelius. On its
rediscovery, the cause of the error stands at once revealed.
Immediately on the right hand side of the grave are two large figures
of bishops painted on the wall, with a legend by the side of each,
declaring them to be St. Cornelius and St. Cyprian.
On the other side of the tomb is another painting, executed in the
same style, on the wall at the end of the gallery: two figures of
bishops, again designated by their proper names and titles. Only one
of these can now be deciphered, s̅c̅s̅ xustus p̅p̅ r̅o̅m̅, i.e., Pope
Sixtus II., of whose connection with this cemetery we have already
heard so often. The other name began with an O, and was probably
St. Optatus, an African bishop and martyr, whose body had been
brought to Rome and buried in this cemetery.
These paintings are manifestly a late work: perhaps they were
executed in the days of Leo III., a.d. 795-815, of whom it is recorded
in the Liber Pontificalis, that “he renewed the Cemetery of Sts. Sixtus
and Cornelius on the Appian Way;” and the legend which runs round
them would have a special significance as the motto of one who had
been almost miraculously delivered out of the hands of his enemies
by the Emperor Charlemagne. It is taken from the 17th verse of the
58th Psalm: “Ego autem cantabo virtutem Tuam et exaltabo
misericordiam Tuam quia factus es et susceptor meus.”... “I will sing
Thy strength, and will extol Thy mercy, for Thou art become my
support.” Of course, this had not been the earliest ornamentation of
these walls. Even now, we can detect traces of a more ancient
painting, and of graffiti upon it, underlying this later work. The graffiti
are only the names of priests and deacons, who either came here to
offer the holy sacrifice, or perhaps to take part in the translation of
the relics: “Leo prb., Theodorus prb., Kiprianus Diaconus,” &c.
We are drawing very near to the end of our subterranean walk:
indeed, the staircase which is to restore us to the upper air close to
the very entrance of the vineyard is immediately behind us, as we
stand contemplating the tomb of St. Cornelius. Nevertheless, if we
are not too weary, nor our guide too impatient, we should do well to
resist the temptation to escape, until we have first visited two small
chambers which are in the immediate neighbourhood. They contain
some of the most ancient specimens of painting to be found in the
whole range of the Catacombs. The ceilings are divided into circles
and other geometrical figures, and then the spaces are filled up with
graceful arabesques, birds, and flowers, peacocks, and dancing
genii. It was the sight of such paintings as these which led the
Protestant writer quoted in a former chapter to express an opinion
that, on first entering some of the decorated chambers in the
Catacombs, it is not easy to determine whether the work is Christian
or Pagan. Here, indeed, the Good Shepherd in one centre and
Daniel between two lions in the other soon solve the doubt; but all
the other details and the excellence of their execution may well have
suggested it. No one can doubt that the paintings belong to the very
earliest period of Christian art, when the forms and traditions of the
classical age had not yet died away.
In the first of the two chambers we are speaking of, there is
nothing special to be seen besides the ceiling; but the second and
more distant is more richly decorated. Here, two sepulchral
chambers open one into the other: over the doorway which admits to
the inner vault is represented the Baptism of our Lord by St. John:
He is coming up out of the water and the dove is descending upon
Him. On the wall opposite to the entrance is that fish carrying the
basket of bread and wine that has been already described (page 81).
On the wall to the left is a pail of milk standing on a kind of altar
between two sheep, and we know from St. Irenæus and from some
of the earliest and most authentic acts of the martyrs that milk was
an accepted symbol of the Holy Eucharist. Opposite to this are
doves and trees, which are often used as types of the souls of the
blessed in Paradise. Thus, on one side we have the faithful on earth
standing around the Divine food which prepares for heaven; and on
the other, souls released from the prison of the body have flown
away and are at rest, reposing amid the joys of another world; so
that it would almost seem as though the same sequence of ideas
presided over the decoration of these chambers, as was certainly
present to the minds of those who designed the ornamentation of the
sacramental chambers in the Cemetery of St. Callixtus (page 84).
And now at length we must conclude our visit to St. Callixtus. We
fear that we have already enumerated more than can be seen with
advantage during the course of a single visit; yet it is worth an effort
to see it all, because it includes monuments which illustrate nearly
every century of the period during which the Catacombs were used.
It is for this reason that a visit to St. Callixtus is so singularly
valuable, whether it be intended to take this cemetery as a sample of
all, or only to use it as an introduction to others. Those who propose
to pursue the subject further would do well to visit next the Catacomb
of SS. Nereus and Achilles, which lies at no great distance, off the
Via Ardeatina; then the Cemetery of Pretextatus on the other side of
the Via Appia; and finally, the Cœmeterium Ostrianum on the Via
Nomentana. When these have been carefully examined, there will
still remain many interesting monuments, of considerable historical
importance, in other less famous cemeteries; but enough will have
been seen to give an excellent general acquaintance with the main
characteristics of Roma Sotterranea.
PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO.

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Introducing Communication Theory Analysis and Application 7Th International Student Edition Edition Richard West Full Chapter

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Introducing Communication Theory:

Analysis and Application 7th

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Analysis and Application

Richard L. West Lynn H. Turner

Introducing Communication Theory

Analysis and Application

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Part Two Empirical/Post-Positivist Theory

INTERPERSONAL: RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT

GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS

CULTURE AND DIVERSITY

Part Three Interpretive Theories

INTERPERSONAL: RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT

GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS

CULTURE AND DIVERSITY

Part Four Critical Theories

CULTURE AND DIVERSITY

Afterword ← ConnectingQuests 504

PART ONE Foundations

Communication, Theory, and Research

The Critical Tradition: Communication and Questioning the Status Quo 30

PART TWO Empirical/Post-Positivist Theories

Organization of “Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application” 65

Agency and Reflexivity 153

Three Levels of Agenda Setting 186

PART THREE Interpretive Theories

Intrapersonal: The Self and Messages

Chapter 16 Coordinated Management of Meaning 257

Group Cohesiveness 296

PART FOUR Critical Theories

Interpersonal: Relationship Development

Hegemony: The Influence on the Masses 443

Integration and Critique 478

The Challenges of Teaching and Learning Communication Theory

Major Changes in Content in the New Edition

Features of the Book

New Organization of the Material

You’re in the driver’s seat.

They’ll thank you for it.

Make it simple, Solutions for your

Effective, efficient studying.

Study anytime, anywhere. “I really liked this

Calendar: owattaphotos/Getty Images

Learning for everyone.

Dr. Javette Hayes, Cal State Fullerton

Kathleen Galvin, Northwestern University

The Hernandez Family

Students Talking Tech

Communication First, we believe that communication is a social

Figure 1.2 Communication Process as a Helix

Models of Understanding: Communication as Action,

Communication as Action: The Linear Model

Sender/Source Message Target/Receiver

Communication also involves noise, which is anything

Figure 1.4 Interactional Model of Communication

Communication as Interaction: The Interactional Model

Communication as Transaction: The Transactional Model

Psychological Semantic Physical Physiological

Figure 1.5 Transactional Model of Communication

Communication Models of the Future

Cultural Historical Situational

Figure 1.6 Holistic Model of Communication