BIOLOGY SCHEME OF WORK

SS2 THIRD TERM

WEEK TOPIC

1. Revision of last term’s work

2. Conservation of natural resources :(a)What it means (b)Ways of ensuring (c)Benefits
of conservation .
3. Conservation Pest and diseases of crops:(a)Pest (i)Definition of pest(ii) Classification
of pest by the part they attack, their animal type and vertebrate pests .
4. Pest and diseases of crops :(a)Life cycles of pests (b)Control of pests(c)Diseases
caused by pest and their agents (i)fungal diseases(ii)viral diseases(iii)bacterial
diseases (d)Control of pest.
5. Reproductive systems in vertebrates :(a) Reproductive systems in fish and reptile
(i)Structures of the male and female reproductive systems (ii)Parts of the
reproductive systems and their functions (iv)Structures of the male and female
gamete(sperm and ovum)(v)Differences between male and female reproductive
organs.
6. Reproductive systems in vertebrates :(a) Reproductive systems in bird and mammals
(i)Structures of the male and female reproductive systems (ii)Parts of the
reproductive systems and their functions (iv)Structures of the male and female
gamete(sperm and ovum)(v)Differences between male and female reproductive
organs.
7. Reproduction systems in vertebrates (a) Structural differences in the eggs of
vertebrates (b) Comparison of reproduction in fish, reptiles and mammals.
8. Reproductive systems in plants (a)Structures and functions of the reproductive
organs of plants (b)Arrangement of reproductive organs in different plants(c)Types of
flowers:(i)hypogenous (ii)perigynous(d)Kinds of placentation.
9. Pollination in plants (a)Pollination in plants(i)Types of pollination m(ii)Features of self
and cross pollinated flowers(iv)Agents of pollination.
10. Revision.
11. Examination.

Recommended text books

1.
TERM:THIRD TERM

WEEK 2

CLASS: SS2 DATE----------------------------

TOPIC: CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

CONTENT:

(a)What it means

(b)Ways of ensuring

(c)Benefits of conservation.

SUB-TOPIC 1: MEANING OF CONSERVATION

Meaning of conservation of national resources.

Conservation is the diligent and wise use of the earth’s resources to achieve the highest
quality of living for all mankind on sustainable basis. Natural resources simply mean the
endorsement of nature from which man satisfies his basic needs.

Conservation of natural resources can therefore be referred to as “the controlled

exploitation and diligent use of available natural resources in such a way as to sustain their
availability”. It is the preservation of the amount of nature of the environment.

Recycling Aluminum Cans

The Alcoa Recycling Company in New Jersey processes aluminum cans into large bales at a collection point. In an effort to conserve
nonrenewable natural resources, many industries and individuals recycle waste aluminum.

Natural resources can be classified as a:

a. Abiotic natural resources which are non-living or non-replaceable. E.g. ores and
materials extracted from the ground.

b. Biotic natural resources which are living or replaceable e.g. wildlife, forest, water,
air, sunlight etc.

IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.

There is the urgent need for the effective conservation of natural resources if mankind is to
get maximum and lasting benefit from nature. The following reasons necessitate the
conservation of natural resources:

1. Fast depletion of natural forest through overlogging and over grazing.

2. Risk of extinction of indigenous wildlife and fish species through uncontrolled

hunting and fishing.

3. Rapid soil degradation through poor land use and obsolete agricultural practices.

4. Pollution of surface and ground water resources through indiscriminate disposal of

all kinds of wastes.

5. Desert encroachment.

6. Bad mining practice.

7. High population growth.

Resources that need to be conserved are:

a. Non-renewable resources like fossil fuels (crude oil), minerals.

b. Renewable resources like water, wildlife, forest.

EVALUATION

1. Waht is meant by conservation of natural resources?

2. What are the divisions of natural resources?

3. State 4 reasons why conservation of natural resources is important to a nation.

4. Mention 5 natural resources that need urgent conservation in your area.

SUB-TOPIC 2:WAYS OF ENSURING CONSERVATION.

The responsibility of conservation of natural resources should be the collective effort of

both government and individuals.

These efforts should include the following:

- Government agencies: the primary task of these bodies is to see to the protection and
conservation of specific areas of concern. Examples are Ministry of Agriculture and
Natural Resources, Forest Reserved Authority, Conservation Foundations etc.

- Legislation: these are usually law and treaties put in place by National and
international governments and organization to protect undue exploitation of
endangered species and other forms of resources. Examples are Anti-whaling law,
prohibition of bush burning and tree felling and law against gas flaring.

Tanzania Game Reserves

Tanzania devotes a substantial portion of its land to conservation areas in order to preserve its indigenous east African wildlife.
These reserves, which include Serengeti National Park, Selous Game Reserve, and Ngorongoro National Park, provide a home to
animals such as elephants, baboons, zebras, and giraffes. This picture shows a migration of gnu at Ngorongoro.

- Conservation Education: this effort aims at bringing awareness and public

enlightenment to the general public on the essence of conservation. Special
programmes aimed at involving all and sundry in the practical activities of conservation
are also effective.
- Erection of parks and reserves: this strategy involves the identifying of unique areas
and setting them aside for the protection and conservation of plants and animals. E.g.
Yankari, Kainji, Olokemeji forest.

Some problems militating against the above efforts at conservation are:

1. Over population which leads to increase demand on limited resources thereby

causing undue exploitation of resources.

2. Inadequate awareness due in part to the failure of governments in conservation

education and ineffective public awareness campaign.

3. Poor funding resulting in the poor or non-implementation of government policies

and programmes on conservation.

4. Limited land for the establishment and maintenance of games and forest reserves
and other related conservation projects.

EVALUATION

1. Who should bear the responsibility of conserving natural resources in a nation?

2. Mention and explain 3 ways of ensuring conservation of natural resources.

3. Why is it difficult to achieve effective conservation of natural resources.

4. In what practical ways can you contribute to the national effort of conservation.

SUB-TOPIC 3: BENEFITS OF CONSERVATION

Apart from ensuring sustained availability of high quality resources for mankind basic needs,
conservation of natural resources will afford the following benefits:

1. Improvement of the quality of human life in a clean and healthy environment.

2. Preservation of the beauty of the natural environment of scenery such as lakes,

waterfalls, mountains etc.

3. Boost of tourism to national parks and reserves.

4. Great scientific benefits as living organisms are studied in their natural habitats.

5. Protection of rare and/or endangered species of organisms.

6. Prevention and control of erosion and desert encroachment.

7. Prevention of exploitation of mineral resources.

EVALUATION
 1. State the benefits of the conservation of natural resources.

2. In what ways do the conservation of resources in our environment improve the

quality of life.

3. How does the conservation of natural resources enhances the economy of a nation?

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objectives

1. Effective control of natural resources by man is described as (a) Utilization (b)

Evaluation (c) Conservation (d) Integration (e) Development

2. The following natural resources are renewable except (a) water (b) Crude oil (c) Air
(d) Soil (e) Plants.

3. One of the methods of ensuring conservation of natural resources may be by (a)

bush burning (b) felling of tree (b) mechanised farming (d) establishment of forest
reserves (e) continuous cropping.

4. The need for preserving and conserving natural resources is most urgent these days
due to _____ (a) fast depletion of natural forest resources (b) high rate of corruption
(c) low prices of materials from the forest (d) bad government policies (e) slow rate
of desert encroachment.

5. One of these is not a benefit of conservation of natural resources (a) poor patronage
by tourists to waterfalls (b) great scientific value (c) preservation of natural beauty
(d) sustained availability of resources (e) conservation of endangered species.

ESSAY

1a. Define conservation of natural resources.

1b. with two examples each distinguish between abiotic and biotic natural resources.

2a. State three reasons why conservation of natural resources is important to a nation.

2b. Explain the reasons why water as a resource need to be given special attention to
conservation.

3a. In what practical way can conservation education be used as an effective tool in
government’s hand to control natural resources.

4a. Discuss any four challenges facing the nation in her effort to effectively conserve
essential natural resources.
5a. In what ways has conservation of resources benefited the nation? Give practical
examples.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read “Exam Focus Biology” for WAEC and SSCE, by A. Egunyomi et al; Pages 126-131.

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about “Conservation Pest and Diseases of Crops”

WEEKEND ACTIVITY: List 5 challenges facing conservation of natural resources in Nigeria

and suggest possible solutions to them.

REFERENCES

EXAM FOCUS: Biology for WASSCE/SSCE by:

1. A. Egunyomi et al, University Press Plc, Ibadan.

2. Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini T. Ramalingam, Africana first Publishers Ltd.

WEEK 3.

CLASS: SS2 DATE:...................................

TOPIC: CONSERVATION, PEST AND DISEASES OF CROPS

CONTENT:

(a)Life cycles of pests

(b)Control of pests

(c)Diseases caused by pest and their agents (i)fungal diseases(ii)viral diseases(iii)bacterial

diseases

(d)Control of pest.

SUB-TOPIC 1: DEFINITION OF PESTS

Pests are organisms that carry disease or cause damage to other organisms. Pests may be
plants or animals. Plant pests are usually called weeds. Pests are very important to man
because of their detrimental effects to humans and other organisms of concern to man e.g.
agriculture or livestock production.

Crop pests are those that affect agricultural produce important to man, e.g. insects, birds
etc. Livestock pests attack livestock useful to man e.g. Mites, Lice, Tapeworms.
Pests usually decrease the quantity and quality of agricultural production, especially when
present in large numbers.

Crop-Destroying Weevils
Weevils are among the most destructive of pests that attack agricultural crops. Adult weevils lay their eggs in stalks or seeds of crops such
as cotton, wheat, rice, and alfalfa. As larvae, weevils then feed on these plant tissues, extensively damaging the plant in the process.

EVALUATION

1. What are pests?

2. What make pest so important to man?

3. Mention 3 common pests you know.

SUB-TOPIC 2: CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS

 Classification based on part attached:

Pests can be classified on the various parts of a crop plant they attack:

1. Stem borers: these are usually larvae of certain moths that bore into the stems of
maize and feed on it. This result in the weakening and breaking of the stem.

2. Root feeders: these are insect larvae or adults found in the soil. They burrow into
the ground and feed on yam tubers.

3. Leaf feeders: snails, bettles, grasshoppers eat up leaves of crops.

 Damaged Crops in North Korea
A North Korean farmer assesses the damage done to his corn crop by poor growing conditions. In the mid-1990s severe
flooding followed by droughts devastated the country's agricultural output and led to serious food shortages. By the late
1990s North Korea was experiencing widespread famine.

4. Young shoot feeders: aphids, mealy bugs and scale insects usually pierce and suck
out juices from young shoots. Many sucking pests also transmit disease-causing
orgainsns to the plants e.g. Cassava leaf mosaic virus is transmitted by white flies.
Such pests are known as vectors.

5. Fruits and seed feeders: these are moths, fruit flies, cotton strainers and some
beetles eat their way into fruits and seeds causing great damage.

 Classification by their type and vertebrate pests. Pests can also be classified by their
types. Most animal pests are:

- Insects like flies.

- Mites and ticks.

- Snails

- Flatworms

- Tapeworms

- Protozoa

- Birds

- Rodents

Animal Pests consists of invertebrates and vertebrates.

EVALUATION
 1. Mention 2 ways pests are classified.

2. Briefly describe how pests affect root tubers.

3. Name 3 crops usually attached by pests.

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objectives

1. Pests are important to man because (a) they are rich source of protein (b) they
contribute greatly to soil fertilizer (c) they affect valuable agricultural produce (d)
they reproduce profusely (e) they are lower than man.

2. Plant parts usually attached by pests do not include this (a) flowers (b) stems (c)
leaves (d) roots (e) fruits.

3. Which of the following crops is attached by stem-boring pests. (a) mango (b) cassava
(c) maize (d) yam (e) groundnut.

4. An example of an invertebrate pest is ______ (a) adult housefly (b) aphids (c)
Mosquito (d) Butterfly (e) amoeba

5. Which of the following vertebrate is not a known pest (a) Dog (b) birds (c) Squirrel
(d) rabbit (e) Monkey

ESSAY

1. Explain the term Pests. What make them so important to man?

2. In what ways do Pests affect the quality and quantity of agricultural livestock
produce?

3. Discuss the different types of pests that attack crops.

4. Mention 5 pests and describe the ways they attack crops and their effect on crops.

5. In what way has mono-cultural practice in commercial agriculture contributed to the

emergence of pests as a production factor?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Nelson Functional Biology Bk 2. Pages 86-91.

PRE-READING ASSINGMENT

Read about pests and diseases of croups.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Make a table showing named pests and crops they attached and their effects on the crops.

REFERNCES
 1. A. Egunyomi et al, University Press Plc, Ibadan.

2. Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini T. Ramalingam, Africana first Publishers Ltd.

3. Nelson functional Biology for SSS by Kola Soyibo et al Bk II

WEEK 4.

CLASS: SS2 DATE:...................................

TOPIC: PEST AND DISEASES OF CROPS

CONTENT:

(a)Life cycles of pests

(b)Control of pests
(c)Diseases caused by pest and their agents (i)fungal diseases(ii)viral diseases(iii)bacterial
diseases
(d) Control of pest.

SUB-TOPIC 1: LIFE CYCLES OF PESTS

Most insect pests have the following stages in their life cycle i.e. egg- larva- pupa- adult.

The adult pests usually feed on leaves and fruit of crops. Larva that has come out from the
eggs laid by the adults usually chew the bark of stems and feed on the phloem thereby
damaging the crop. The larvae develop into the pupa stage and eventually into an adult.

Ticks more from egg stage to the larval stage. The larva gets attached to a nymph which
then get attached to a second host begore eventually developing into an adult.

Insect pests go through either complete or incomplete life cycles but the larval and adult
stages have been seen as causing most serious damages to crops.

Some examples of life cycles of pests are:

1. Yam beatle.

Egg- Larva- Pupa- Adult

The adult feed on yam tubers in the ground.

2. Colton Stainer

Egg-nymphs- Adult

The adults attack and damage cotton toll.

EVALUATION

1. What Is Meant By Life Cycle?

2. Explain the two types of life cycles.

3. Drraw the life cycle of a named pest.

SUB-TOPIC 2: CONTROL OF PESTS

Control of pest refers to the management and prevention of pestswith the sole aim of
minimizing their effect on crops and livestock thereby maximising food production.

Pest control focuses on:

- Reduction in pest population.

- Protection of crops.

Nutria or Coypu
It is an irony of conservation biology that a species might be in need of protection in its native lands while it is persecuted
as a rampant pest in places where it has been introduced. That is the case of the nutria, or coypu, Myocastor coypus, an
aquatic rodent that hails originally from the marshes, streamsides, and lakeshores of southern South America. Overtrapping
and wetlands destruction have caused many South American nutria populations to decline to the point that they have been
granted official protection. Yet populations of nutrias introduced as furbearers to parts of North America and Eurasia have
proved so successful that vigorous control measures must be applied to keep the numbers of these destructive rodents in
check.

For effective control of pests, a good knowledge of pests’ habits and life cycles is vital.
Careful study of the above will reveal the following for good use in control:

 Stage and peak period of attack.

 Resting stage after attack.

 Most vulnerable stage for control.

Various methods have used to good effect in controlling pests.

 Physical methods: these methods involve collection of pest by hand or traps are
killing them. Burning, flooding and the use of scare-crows are ll methods controlling
pests physically. This could be carried out in a limited are involving large-sized pests
as snails, beetles, birds etc. Physical experiences are usually tedious and strenuous.

 Cultural Methods: these involve modified farm practices like bush fallowing, crop
rotation, mixed cropping, closed-season practice and changing planting time. The
aim is make environmental condition unfavourable for the development of pests.
Such methods are most effective because most pests are plant specific.

 Biological methods: this involves the use of natural predators and parasites on the
pests. Extracts from sources can also be used in pest control. Such are inexpensive
and long lasting.

 Chemical methods: this involves the use of pesticides such as insecticides, fungicides,
herbicides, and rodenticide. The aim is to kill or reduce pest population thereby
protecting the crops from attack. Though effective the numerous negative side
effects of chemical pest control have posed serious concern.

Apart from the specified methods discussed above, there are modern developments in pest
control. Sterile mode technique and use of chemicals attract and repel pests are in use. The
combination of control practices and knowledge of life cycle of pests has also proved
effective.

EVALUATION

1. What is pest control?

2. For an effective control of pests, what should be the focus?

3. List 3 methods of pests’ control.

4. Mention 3 pests and indicate the chemical agent used in their control.

Fungal Diseases of Plants

Most types of plant-related diseases are caused by fungi. The leaves of this plant have been infected by tar-spot fungus.
Fungi can infect all parts of the plant including leaves, stems, flowers, roots, and fruit. The physical manifestations of
fungal diseases of plants include wilting, club root, root rot, wood rot, cankers, various types of mildews, blights, lesions,
and leaf spots. The effects of fungal diseases can be devastating as evidenced by the potato blight that destroyed the Irish
potato harvest of 1845 and caused a widespread famine in Ireland.
SUB-TOPIC 3: DISEASES CAUSED BY PESTS AND AGENTS.
- Fungal diseases: Fungi diseases in crops are caused by Fungi which are usually
microscopic and parasitic. Fungal diseases attack the leaves, roots and stem of
plants. Smut, rust, blight, root rot, and downy mildew are fungal diseases.

- Viral diseases: these are diseases which are parasites. Common symptoms include
Mosaic motting, lesions, chlorosis, stunting and recrosis. Many plant viral infections
are spread by insect vectors like aphids, beetles and hoppers. Crops affected by viral
diseases are Tobacco, Cassava, and garden egg.

- Bacterial diseases: these are caused by bacteria which tend to form spotting of
leaves, stems and fruits. Bacteria also cause soft rots, bacterial blight, bacterial wilt
and bacteria galls.

EVALUATION

1. What are the causative agents of pest diseases in crops?

2. List 3 symptoms of viral diseases.

3. Which plant parts are usually affected by fungal diseases?

SUB-TOPIC 4: CONTROL OF DISEASES CAUSED BY PESTS

Control of diseases caused by pests involves:

Prevention of crops from being infected by disease-causing agents.

Destruction of disease-causing agents and their respective vectors.

Prevention of disease plants or animals from entering into country by government.

Distribution disease-free planting materials.

Other methods are:

a. Physical methods: this involves removal of diseased plants. Weed hosts are also
removed. Bush burning and soil flooding are other methods.

b. Cultural methods: this involves the modification of farming practices to destroy

disease-causing agents. Early planting and use of balanced fertilizers enable plants to
be well established before the peak period of infection. Planting resistant varieties
also help control diseases.

c. Chemical methods: this involves the use of chemical agents to either eradicate the
crops from such agents. These are best methods of diseases control.

EVALUATION
 1. Mention 3 targets in the control of diseases caused by pests.

2. How are fungal diseases by pests controlled in crops?

3. What is usually involved in the cultural methods of the control of plant diseases
caused by pest?

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objectives

1. Which of the following sequence is true for (a) egg-adult- Nymph- Pupa (b)egg-pupa-
larva-adult (c)egg-larva-pupa-adult (d)egg-nymph-adult (e)egg-larva-nymph-pupa-
adult.

2. Which stages of the life cycle of pests causes the least damage to crops (a) Nymph
and Adult (b) Pupa and Larva (c) Larvae and Adult (d) Adult and Pupa (e) egg and
Nymphs.

3. Pest control involves the following except (a) reduction of pest population (b)
protection of crops (c) good knowledge of life cycle of pests (d) good knowledge of
pest habits (e) good study of the structure of the pests.

4. One of these is a common vector of plant diseases (a)Tsetse fly (b) Butterfly (c)
Agama lizard (d) Bees (e) Squirrel/

5. The use of sterile melee technique is relevant in the _______ (a) study of the sex of
insects (b) study of the population of insect (c) study of economic importance of
insects (d) chemical method of pest control (e) modern means of pest control

ESSAY

1. With the aid of a diagram, describe the life cycles of pest indicating the stages most
destructive in their attack.

2. In a tabular form, outlines 5 common pests of crops, their symptoms and their
control.

3. Explain 4 pest control methods applicable to crops.

4. Discuss the benefits and disadvantages of the use of Biological and chemical
methods of pest control.

5. What is crop rotation? Explain its benefits to pest control.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Modern Biology for SSS by S.T. Ramalingam; Pages 70-77.

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about “Reproductive System in vertebrates”.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

List two pests of livestock and how they affect their quality of production.

REFERENCES

1. Exam Focus: Biology for SSCE & WAEC by A. Egunyomi et al, University Press Plc,
Ibadan.

2. Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini T. Ramalingam, Africana first Publishers Ltd.

3. Nelson functional Biology for SSS by Kola Soyibo et al Bk II

WEEK 5.

CLASS: SS2 DATE:...................................

TOPIC: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS IN VERTEBRATES

CONTENT:

(a) Reproductive systems in fish and reptile

(i)Structures of the male and female reproductive systems

(ii)Parts of the reproductive systems and their functions

(iii)Structures of the male and female gamete (sperm and ovum)

(iv)Differences between male and female reproductive organs.

SUB-TOPIC 1: STRUCTURES OF THE MALE AND FEMALE

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS OF FISH AND REPTILE.
The reproductive system plays a vital role in the reproduction of organisms. Vertebrates like
the fish and reptile have distinctive systems that are involved in the process of their
reproductive reproduction.

In bony fishes like Tilapia, the male reproductive system is made up of two elongated testes
that are surrounded from the abdomen. The testes join a simple duct which opens at a
genital opening known as Cloaca. In the females, the ovaries are contained in sac-like
structures also suspended from the abdomen. The ovaries are connected in a simple duct
which leads to the genital opening.
Generalized Anatomy of a Shark
A shark typically has a streamlined body and five different kinds of fins that help it swim. Swimming movements push water over the gills,
enabling sharks to breathe. Sharks lack a swim bladder, the gas-filled organ that helps bony fish stay afloat and change depth in the water.
Instead, large amounts of fats and oils stored in the liver provide sharks with buoyancy.

In cartilaginous fish like shark the male reproductive system consists of the testes, vasa
efferentia, vas deferens urino genital papilla, clasper and other inclusion that enhance
reproduction. The testes are long cylindrical organs. The female reproductive system is
made up of two ovaries.

In reptiles e.g. lizard, the male has two testes located in the abdominal region. Tiny vessels
emerge from the testes where sperm cells led to the epididyms. These vessels are known as
vasa efferentia. Each epididymis opens into two protusitle penes.

In the female lizard the ovaries are found at the two sides of the abdomen.the oviducts
open into the cloaca. During mating, the male penis penetrated through the female cloaca
into the opening of the oviduct while the seminal fluid that contains sperm is released into
the oviduct.

EVALUATION

1. What is reproduction?

2. Mention any parts of the reproductive system of a bony fish (male)

3. Mention any parts of the reproductive system of a reptile (female).

SUB-TOPIC 2: PARTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Some parts of the reproductive system of fish and their functions are as follows:

 Testis – Production of sperms.

 Ovary – production of ovaries

  Seminal vesicle – storage of sperms

 Cloaca – genital opening.

Draw the diagram of reproductive system of a male and female sketch fish

Some parts of the reproductive system of reptile and their functions are:

 Ovoid testes: produces sperm cells.

 Vasca efferentia: tiny vessels that carry sperms to the epididymis.

 Ovaries: produce eggs.

 Male penis: releases sperm into the oviduct

EVALUATION

1. What are functions of the following parts of a fish reproductive system:

- Testes

- Vas deferens

- Seminal vesicle

- Epididymus

2. In what way are the functions of the testes related to that of the ovary.

Shark Egg Case with Embryos

These two dogfish egg cases show the developing embryos inside. Each egg case contains enough yolk to sustain the
nutritional needs of the embryo until it hatches. The outer covering of the egg case is a tough, horny material. Each of the
corners of the egg case is drawn out into a long coiled filament, or tendril, that wraps around rocks, kelps, or other materials on
the sea floor, preventing the egg case from being carried away by currents and exposed to possible predation.

SUB-TOPIC 3:STRUCTURES OF THE MALE AND FEMALE GAMATES.

The male gamates of both fish and reptile are the sperm cells which are unicellular and
mobile.

The female gametes on the other hand are the ova (ovum; singular) which are also
unicellular but larger in size than the sperms, they are also called Eggs. They are produces by
the ovary.

In reptiles the eggs have hair-like structures surrounding it which enable it to move into the
oviduct.

EVALUATION

1. Briefly describe the male gamete of a fish.

2. Name the structures that produce the male and female gametes in reptiles.

SUB-TOPIC 3: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.
There are significant differences between the male and female reproductive organs of fish
and the reptile.

For the fish, the basic differences are as indicated in the table below:

Male Reproductive Organ Female Reproductive Organ

Gameted produced by testes Gametes produced by ovary

Presence of a pair of claspers Absence of claspers

Absence of oviduct Presence of oviduct.

In reptiles the basic differences in their reproductive organs are as follows:

Male Reproductive Organ Female Reproductive Organ

Ovoid testes produce gametes Ovaries produce gametes

Vasa efferentia present Vasa efferentia absent

Penis present Penis absent

Oviduct absent Oviduct present

EVALUATION
 1. State two differences between the male and female reproductive organs of a named
fish.

2. Mention two differences between the male and female reproductive organs of
agama lizard.

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objectives

1. Which of the foolowing structures is absent in the reproductive system of a fish? (a)
Claspers (b) Epididymis (c) Bile duct (d) testis (e) vas deferens

2. Mature male gametes in a fish are stored in the ________ (a) Gall bledder (b)
Urethra (c) Semanal vesicle (d) Urethra (e) Claspers

3. The female gamates in the lizards are (a) overy (b) ovules (c) Organelles (d) Ova (e)
Sperms.

4. The genital opening in reptiles is also called ______ (a) Epididymis (b) Vas deferens
(c) Follide (d) Penis (e) Cloaca.

5. One similarity between the male and the female reproductive system is the presence
of _________ (a) Oviduct (b) Cloaca (c) Epididymis (d) Vas deferens (e) Eggs.

ESSAY

1. State 4 differences between the reproductive systems of a male and a female fish.

2. By means of a labelled diagram, describe the structures of the male reproductive

system of a bony fish.

3. Briefly describe the mating process of a lizard.

4. State the functions of the following structures in the reproductive organs in reptiles.

a. Seminal vessecle (b) Epididymis (c) Testis (d) Cloaca.

5. Tabulate the differences in the fish male and female reproductive organs.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Modern Biology for SSS by S.T. Ramalingam; Pages 438-440.

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about “reproductive systems in birds and mammals”.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

Draw and label the male and female reproductive systems of the lizard.

REFERENCES
1. Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini T. Ramalingam, Africana first Publishers Ltd.

2. Nelson functional Biology for SSS by Kola Soyibo et al Bk II

WEEK 6.

CLASS: SS2 DATE:...................................

TOPIC:REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS IN VERTEBRATES

CONTENT:

(a) Reproductive systems in bird and mammals

(i)Structures of the male and female reproductive systems

(ii)Parts of the reproductive systems and their functions

(iii)Structures of the male and female gamete (sperm and ovum)

(iv)Differences between male and female reproductive organs.

Internal Fertilization
Terrestrial vertebrates clasp each other tightly during copulation, the act by which the male deposits his sperm into the female’s reproductive
tract. For the giant Galápagos tortoises pictured here, mating may take hours and is initiated by the male, who bashes his shell into that of
the female to get her attention. These animals mate in the spring.

SUB-TOPIC 1:REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS IN VERTEBRATES.

The male reproductive system of birds (cock) consists of a pair of testis found near the
kidneys. A sperm duct runs down from each testis and opens into the cloaca. Sperms cells
accumulate at the end of the sperm duct.

As the male cloaca gets in contact in the female during mating, sperm cells are transferred
into the female.

A typical female bird (pigeon) has only the left ovary which is located anterior to the kidney.
Different sizes of follicles are found in the ovary. The left oviduct is large and wide-mouthed
funnel with thick wall and a coiled duct leads into the uvodeum.

Hatchlings
A torrent of food—the result of as many as 1000 daily foraging trips by the parents—helps the chicks of many tree-dwelling birds grow
from featherless, blind, helpless nestlings into self-sufficient animals within three weeks. A brood of blue tit chicks is shown here at 3 and
13 days of age, at which time they are fully capable of flight.

The male reproductive system in mammals consists of the following:

The male sex organs are the testis. These are in pairs and are contained in the scrotal sacs,
outside the body in order to keep them under a temperature lower than 37 0C for optimum
production of sperms. Sperms are produced in the semimiferous tubules of the testis and
are stored in the tubes of the epididymis. The sperms then travel through the sperm duct
(vas deferens) to the urethra. Liquid nutrient is added to the sperm from the semind vesicles
and the prostate gland to form the semen. During mating (intercourse), the semen is
discharged into the female vagina through the penis.

The female sex organs are called ovaries which are inside the abdomen. These produce eggs
which are released into the opening of the oviduct and moved in to the opening of the
oviduct and move down the funnel with the aid of the cilia in the oviducal funnel. The
oviduct leads to the uterus or the womb. Humans have a single uterus while rats have a
double uterus. A fertilized egg is retained in the uterus where it becomes embedded in the
wall. The vagina leads from the uterus to the outside of the body. The cervix lies at the end
of the uterus and this closes after fertilization to avoid further entrance of sperms and
foreign bodies.

EVALUATION
 1. What is significant about the testis and ovaries in the reproductive system of
mammals?

2. Mention 3 parts of the female reproductive system in birds.

SUB-TOPIC 2: Parts of the reproductive systems and their functions. Reproductive system of
birds and functions of the parts:

Male and Female Birds:

PART FUNCTION
1. Testes Production of sperm cells. It carries and accumulates sperms, point
of transfer of sperms. Point of transfer of sperms.
2. Ovary, Follicle, Production of eggs. Contains the immature ovum, and coiled duct
and Oviduct that leads into the urodeum.

Some parts of the reproductive systems of mammal and their functions.

Male reproductive system of mammals.

Male Reproductive System

The organs of the male reproductive system enable a man to have sexual intercourse and to fertilize female sex cells (eggs) with sperm. The
gonads, called testicles, produce sperm. Sperm pass through a long duct called the vas deferens to the seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that
lies behind the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to produce semen. Semen leaves the seminal vesicles and
travels through the prostate gland, which produces additional secretions that are added to semen. During male orgasm the penis ejaculates
semen.

The Testes: this contains coiled tubules called seminiferous tubules in which actively
dividing cells produce the male gametes-sperm cells. The testes also
stores the sperm produced in addition to the production of sex
hormones- testosterone. This hormone is responsible for the
development of male secondary sexual characteristics.
Vas deferens: this is the sperm duct which continues from the epididymis. It serves as the
pathway through which the sperm run from the epididymis to the
urethra.

Penis: this is made up of spongy erectile tissue which is a sensitive urinogenital organ. The
penis, when erected, discharges semen through the female vagina
into the oviduct.

Prostate gland: secretes substances that help to energise and transport the sperms

Cowper’s gland: secretion from this gland help to normalise the alkaline concentration of
the sperm.

PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTIONS.

Assisted Reproductive Technologies

In these methods used to treat infertility, three methods (IVF, ZIFT, and ICSI) artificially induce the union of sperm and egg in the
laboratory before implanting the fertilized egg inside the female reproductive system. The fourth method (GIFT) mixes unfertilized eggs and
sperm in the laboratory before transferring them to the fallopian tube, where fertilization takes place naturally.

Ovary: the ovaries contain several thousands of potential eggs called primary Ooccytes. The ovaries
produce the female gametes.

Oviduct: released eggs are received by a funnel like structure known as the fallopian tube or
the oviduct which serves as a pathway for the passage of ovum fertilisation occurs in the oviduct.
Oviduct opens to the uterus.
Female Reproductive System
The bones of the human female pelvis form a bowl-shaped cavity that supports the weight of a developing fetus and encloses the organs of
the female reproductive tract. Two ovaries, the female gonads, produce mature eggs. Leading away from the ovaries are the fallopian tubes,
or oviducts, the site of fertilization. The uterus, a muscular organ with an expandable neck called the cervix, houses the developing fetus,
which leaves the woman's body through the vagina, or birth canal.

Uterus: this is a muscular structure connected to the outside or exterior through the vagina.
Its glandular lining serves to nourish the embryo in the early stages of development. Its smooth
muscles in the walls greatly increase in number during pregnancy. Contraction of the uterus
eventually expels the foetus and its placenta during birth.

Cervix: this lies at the ventral and of the uterus. It usually closes after fertilization to avoid
further entrance of sperms and other foreign bodies.

Vagina: this serves as the receptor of sperm cells ejaculated by the male.

SUB-TOPIC 3: STRUCTURES OF THE MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES

The basic structures of the male and female gametes in mammals are as follows:

Male gamete: the human (mammalian) gamete is shaped like tadpole made up of a head
with a nucleus and a tail (flagellum) the sperm is about 60 micrometers long, is microscopic and
usually smaller than the female gamete.
Two Human Sperm Cells
The small capsule-shaped head of the sperm cell contains the chromosome contribution from the male. The whiplike tail helps to propel the
sperm cell toward the egg, where fertilization takes place.

EVALUATION

1. What is the function of the sperm duct in male birds?

2. Why is the mammalian male penis described as a urine genital organ?
3. By what means are sperms transformed from the male bird to the female.

FEMALE GAMETE:

The human (mammalian) female gamete is also microscopic but is larger than the sperm. The ovum
as it is called is about 0.1mm in diameter. It consists of the cytoplasm, a central nucleus, granules
and yolk droplets. The yolk serves as a source of nourishment for the embryo in its early
developmental stages. The cytoplasm of the ovum is surrounded by a double membrane. The inner
membrane is the plasma membrane while the outer one is viteline membrane. The ovum is bounded
on the outside by a jelly coat of variable thickness made up of glycoprotein. The nuclei of both the
male and female gametes contain chromosomes that carry the genes which are responsible for
passing on parent’s characteristics to the offspring.
Ovary Releasing an Ovum
The ovary is the female organ that produces the reproductive cells called eggs, or ova. This false-color electron micrograph shows the
release of a mature ovum at ovulation. The ovum (red) is surrounded by cells and liquid from the ruptured ovarian follicle.

EVALUATION

1. Draw and label the male gamete of a mammal.

2. What is the function of the Nucleus in the male and female gametes?
3. Describe the structure of the female gamete in mammals.

SUB-TOPIC 4: Differences between male and female reproductive organs

There are differences and similarities when the male and female reproductive organs are compared.

The table below displays the significant differences in the male and female reproductive organs.

SN MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

1. Testes are in scrotal sacs located outside Ovaries are located inside the body
the body.
2. Epididymis present Epididymis absent
3. Sperm produced by testes Egg produced by ovaries
4. Sperm cells pass out through the urethra Ova pass into the oviduct where they are
fertilised
5. Sperm duct present Sperm duct absent
6. Seminal vesicle present Seminal vesicle absent
7. Prostate gland present Prostate gland absent
8. Cowper’s gland present Cowper’s gland absent
9. Penis present Penis absent
10. Oviduct absent Oviduct present
11. Uterus absent Uterus present
12. Vagina absent Vagina present
13. Cervix absent Cervix present
Vulva absent Vulva present
Structure of Human Gonads
Gonads—in the male, the testes (singular, testis), and in the female, the ovaries—are the organs that produce gametes and sex hormones.
The male gamete is the spermatozoan, produced by cell division in the seminiferous tubules of the adult testes. Typically, several hundred
million sperm reach maturity in the epididymis and are stored in the vas deferens each day. Whatever is not released in ejaculation is
reabsorbed, part of a continuous cycle. In the female, the ovaries produce eggs, or ova. At birth, about 2 million oocytes, or immature eggs,
are present in the ovaries. Once the female reaches puberty, one egg matures approximately every 28 days inside a saclike Graafian follicle.
Ovulation occurs when the mature egg bursts from the follicle and the ovary, beginning its journey down the fallopian tube toward the
uterus.

For similarities: Both reproductive organs have;

1. Gonads or sex organs (testes and ovaries).

2. Gametes are produced by gonads.
3. Have external opening.
4. Have gonads acting as ductless (endocrine) glands.

EVALUATION

1. Mention three (3) differences between the male and the female reproductive organs.
2. Mention three (3) similarities found in the comparison of male and female reproductive
organs.
3. In what way does male reproductive organ function as an endocrine gland?

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. The part Cloaca is present in the reproductive system of (a) protozoa (b) Mammal (c)
Mollusca (d) Insects (e) Birds.
2. Gametes are not produced in this structure in the reproductive system (a) Ovary (b)
Cowper’s gland (c) Seminal vessicle (d) Vas differens (e) Epididymis.
3. This is not a part in the structure of the female gamete in mammals (a) Nucleus (b) Plasma
membrane (c) Mitochondria (d) Polar bodies (e) Jell.
4. The function of the prostate gland in the male reproductive system of mammals is (a)
Storage of sperm (b) Pathway for sperm (c) Secretion of chemicals to energise cells (d)
produce sperm cells (e) Neutralize semen.
5. The male gametes are produced and stored in the testes which are found in the scrotal sacs
outside the body due to the consideration of: (a) Light (b) Humility (c) Pressure (d)
Temperature (e) Sound.

ESSAY TEST

1. State the functions of the following parts of the reproductive systems of birds, mammals,
fish (a) Claspers (b) Uterus (c) Cloaca (d) Oviduct (e) Seminal vessicle (e) Ovum.
2. Briefly discuss the structural differences in the male and female gametes of mammals.
3. By means of labelled diagrams, describe the structures of the ovum.
4. State four similarities and eight (8) differences between the reproductive organs of male and
female mammals.
5. Outside the pathway of a single sperm cell from the testes to the uterus of a female
mammal.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Nelson Functional Biology for SSS Book 2: by Kola Soyibo et-al (pages 96-103)

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about the reproductive system of in vertebrate (fish, reptiles and Mammals).

WEEK END ACTIVITY

Draw and label the male and female reproductive system in mammals.

REFERENCE TEXTS

1. Nelson Functional Biology for SSS Book 2; by Kola Soyibo etal.

2. Modern Biology for SSS; by S. T. Ramalingam.

WEEK 7

BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS2 DATE------------------------------------

TOPIC: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN VERTEBRATES

CONTENT: Structural differences in Eggs of vertebrates. Comparison of reproduction in fish, reptiles

and mammals.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Structural differences in Eggs of vertebrates.

The fish eggs are very small and appear like mass of sand grains. The egg contains the young fish and
is enclosed in and egg case or membrane. In amphibians- toad or frog, the eggs are small and
spherical. An egg consists of semi liquid cytoplasm containing a nucleus surrounded by a tough black
egg membrane. The toads egg is black on the under surface because the protoplasm of the egg is full
of yolk granules abundant in the lower part of the eggs.

The egg has a thin coat which absorbs water and swells to form the jelly or albumen. This jelly
protects the egg and separates them from one another in a bead-like manner.

In reptiles, e.g., Agama lizard. The egg is cream coloured. It has a soft but tough leathery shell. It
absorbs water from the surrounding soil and increase in size or volume.

The egg of the bird is the largest single animal cell. Its porous shell allows for the exchange of gases
with the egg and its environment. The egg possesses two membranes enclosing the albumen. The
albumen contains the yolk in which the germinal disc or embryo occupies the inner most core.
The mammalian egg is microscopic and is about 0.1mm in diameter. It consists of the cytoplasm, a
nucleus in the centre, granules and yolk droplets. The yolk provides a source of nourishment for
developing embryo. The ovum (egg) is surrounded by two membranes. The inner one is the plasma
membrane while the outer one is the viteline membrane.

Life Cycle of a Jellyfish

In the reproductive life cycle of a typical jellyfish, males release sperm and females release eggs into the water. When an egg and sperm fuse
to form a fertilized egg during sexual reproduction, a larva develops that attaches to a rock or other object and develops into a polyp. In a
type of asexual reproduction, the polyp transforms into a colony of polyps that resembles a stack of saucers. Each saucer in the stack
detaches itself from the colony as a new medusa, and the reproductive cycle repeats.

EVALUATION

1. Mention two structural differences between the eggs of a fish and a reptile.
2. In what ways are the eggs of a mammal different from that of reptile?

SUB-TOPIC 2: Comparison of reproduction in fish, reptiles and mammals.

All vertebrates start life as a result of the fusion of a male and female gamete, a process known as
fertilization. In fish, fertilization is external of the animal body.

In reptiles, bird and mammal, fertilization is internal. Consequently, there is always some type of
coition or mating before fertilization can occur. In all vertebrates, some courtship behaviour always
precedes mating prior to fertilization.

Most fishes lay their eggs (with shells) in water (oviparity) where they are fertilized. Most reptiles
also lay eggs (oviparity), which have shells that may be soft and leathery or hard. All reptiles lay their
eggs on land. However, some fishes, reptiles, and most mammals are viviparous (they give birth to
well –developed young ones alive).

Many fishes lay large number of eggs every breeding season. This is to compensate for high
mortality rate from their eggs to the young ones.
Reptiles on the other hand lay fewer eggs, about 20-70 eggs at a time.

The number of eggs laid by birds varies from species to species. Most fishes and reptiles do not show
parental care for their eggs or young ones. In the case of mammals, parental care is most highly
developed. The young ones are protected and fed until they can fend for themselves.

Generally, vertebrates that show external fertilization (fishes). Produce more eggs and experience
higher mortality rates among their eggs and young ones than reptiles and mammals which show
internal fertilization.

COMPARISON OF REPRODUCTION IN SOME VERTEBRATES

TYPE OF TIME OF MODE OF NO OF EGG MODE OF PARENTAL

VERTEBRATE BREEDING FERTILIZATION LAID GROWTH CARE
Fishes seasonal external millions Mostly Most none
oviparous
Reptiles seasonal internal many Mostly None, except
oviparous Nile Crocodile
Mammals Seasonal internal None, except Mostly Occurs for a
except in in vivaparous long time.
human monotremes

EVALUATION

1. Briefly describe the mode of fertilization in fishes and reptiles.

2. Give two reasons for vast difference in the number of eggs laid by fishes and reptiles.
3. What do you understand by vivaparity.

GENERAL EVLUATION

1. The egg of birds is reckoned of (a) Largest single organ (b) Hardest single animal cell (c)
Strongest animal cell (d) Largest single animal cell (e) whitest single animal cell.
2. The porous nature of the shell of a bird’s egg allows for: (a) Absorption of nutrients (b)
Elimination of toxic wastes (c) Penetration of light (d) Expansion of embryo (e) Exchange of
gases.
3. Fertilization involves--- (a) the development of female gamete (b) The fusion of male and
female gametes (c) The integration of single cell (d) The division of active cell (e) The
movement of sperm cell.
4. In internal fertilization, mating or coition is preceded by—(a) Courtship (b) Fighting (c)
Warning (d) Feeding (e) Flying.
5. Which of thy following vertebrates is mostly viviparous? (a) Amphibians (b) Mammals (c)
Fishes (d) Reptiles (e) Insects.

ESSAY TEST

1. Discuss the structural differences in the eggs of the fish, reptile and mammal.
2. Describe the mode of fertilization of the fish, reptile and mammal.
 3. In which way does parental care by some vertebrates account for the number of eggs laid at
a time? Use two typical examples.
4. Distinguish between oviparity and vivaparity in vertebrates.
5. Briefly describe the reproduction process in (i) fishes (ii) reptiles.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Nelson Functional Biology for SSS Book 2: by Kola Soyibo et-al (pages 101-102)

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about reproductive systems in plants.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

List five (5) problems associated with external fertilization and show how the organism concerned
adapt to the problems.

REFERENCE TEXTS

Nelson Functional Biology for SSS Book 2, by Kola Soyibo et-al

Modern Biology for SSS Book 2, by S. T. Ramalingam.

WEEK 8

BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS2 DATE-----------------------------

TOPIC: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS IN PLANTS

CONTENT: Structures and functions of the reproductive organs in plants.

Arrangement of reproductive organs in different plants.

Types of flowers (i) Hypogenous and (ii) Perigynous.

Kinds of placentation.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Structures and functions of the reproductive organs of plants.

The flower is the major reproductive organ of the flowering plant. Flowers exist in different sizes,
shapes, colours and patterns of arrangements.

A typical flower is dicotyledonous flower; is a cluster of modified leaves carried on a reduced stem
called flower stalk or pedicel. The structures and their functions are as listed below:

1. Pedicel: this is the part attaches the entire flower to the stem or branch of the plant. It is also
called the flower stalk. It is described as a reduced stem bearing the parts of the flower
(modified leaves).
2. Receptacle: this is the enlarged end of the pedicle to which all the other floral parts are
attached. It also encloses the ovary.
3. Calyx: this consists of a circular outermost layer of leaf-like structures called sepals which are
fixed to the receptacles. Sepals protect the flower during the bud stage. They are mostly
greenish are also photosynthetic. Some sepals are brightly coloured and look like petals
(petaloids). These serve to attract pollinators.

Hibiscus: The hibiscus is the common and scientific name for a genus of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs grown
primarily for their large, showy, colorful flowers. The hibiscus is cultivated throughout warm, temperate regions of the northern
hemisphere and grows best in sunny locations in very fertile, well-drained soils.

Sepals may be free or separated (polysepalous) as in Pride of Barbados. Others are fused or partly
joined together to form a cup-like structure called Pappus (Tridax).

Corolla: these are large brightly coloured modified leaf like structure called petals. They arise within
the calyx. They are most conspicuous and prominent part of the flower which attract pollinators to
the flower.

Petals could be separated as in Hibiscus and Pride of Barbados (Polypetalous) or fused to form a
tube are in Allamanda and Milk Bush (Gamopetalous). Petals are usually brightly coloured or scented
thereby attracting pollinators. Petals also serve to protect the stamen and the carpals. In a few
cases, petals appear greenish (Perianth).

Androecium: this consists of the whorls or group of the male reproductive organs of the flower
called stamens. These lie inside the corolla. Each stamen is made up of a lobed or swollen head
called Anther and a long slender stalk called the filament which bears the Anther. Each anther is
composed of four pollen grains (the male gametes) flowers may be free or united. The filament
may also be united while the anthers are free. The fused filaments from a stamina tube as in
hibiscus. In sunflower, the anthers are fused while the filaments are attached like petals
(epipetalous).
Flame Tree
The flame tree is named for its brilliant scarlet blossoms that cover long, spreading branches. It is a native of the island of Madagascar,
where its dangling seed pods are often gathered and used as fuel. It is now cultivated as an ornamental in tropical and subtropical areas
around the world.

4. Gynoecium: this is the female reproductive organ of the flower. It is the innermost whorl of the
floral parts of a flower. It consists of the carpels also known as the pistil. The carpel is made up of
three parts, namely:
 Stigma: this receives the pollen grains during pollination.
 Style: this is the tube that join the stigma to the ovary
 Ovary: this contains the ovules which form fertile seeds after fertilization.

A pistil which has only one carpel of crotalaria is said to be monocarpous. If there are more than one
carpel it is known as apocarpous.

Diagram of a flower.

EVALUATION

1. What is a flower?
2. Name the parts of a typical dicotyledonous flower.
3. List three (3) parts of a flower stalking their functions.

SUB-TOPIC 2: Arrangement of reproductive organs in different plants.

The rattle box (crotalaria retusa) which is a short dicotyledonous shrub flowers are found clustered
together (inflorescences) at the end of the branches. Each bisexual flower is butterfly-shaped. The
flowers are complete (has all the floral parts) and zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry)
Acanthus
The acanthus, commonly called bear’s breech, is cultivated for its ornamental leaves and bright flowers. The plant is native to southern
Europe, preferring rich, well-drained soils and full sunlight.
In the Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) the flowers are wind pollinated unlike crotalaria which is
insect pollinated. It is also inflorescence made up of long slender branches with a pair of flowers at
intervals along each branch. The flowers are smell and inconspicuous. They are enclosed within a
tract to form a spikelet about 4mm long.

Within the spikelet, the lower of the two flowers is made up of three yellow stamen. The upper
flower has three stamens and an ovary with two feathery purple-red stigma. Each flower has two
tiny structures called lodicules which represent a perianth. Some of the spikelets have protruding
stamens whereas others have stigma. The flower is thus protandrous. The flowers with ripe stigma
are therefore slightly older than those with ripe stamen. When ripened, the anther burst open
releasing lots of tiny blown about by the wind.

Hibiscus Flower
The large, showy flowers of the hibiscus have five petals that range in color from red, orange, and pink to yellow and white. The many
varieties of hibiscus grow in warm climates.

EVALUATION

1. Draw to show the arrangement of flower of a named insect pollinated plant.

2. State three (3) differences between the floral arrangements of and insect pollinated and a
wind pollinated plants.

SUB-TOPIC 3: TYPE OF FLOWERS

Flowers can be classified based on the shape of the receptacle and the mode of arrangement of the
floral parts on it.

1. Hypogynous flower: in this type of flower, the receptacle is in a conical shape. The other
floral parts (whorls) are then arranged in concentric rings below the position of the ovary.
Such an ovary is said to be superior. An example is Hibiscus.
2. Perigynous flower: in this type of flower, the receptacle is cup shaped with the ovary
situated in the centre of the cup. The whorls then emerge from the edges of the cup. The
ovary is then said to be half inferior. Example is Rose.
Evaluation

Draw and describe a Hypogynous flower.

Mention 2 structural differences noticeable in Hypogynous and Perigynous flowers.

Sub-Topic: 4: kinds of Plancentation

Inside the ovaries of flowering plants, the ovules are attached in various ways to the ridges
of fleshy tissues, called plancentae, by short stalks called funicles. The arrangement of
ovules within the ovary is called plancentation.

Plancentations are of various types i.e.

1. Axile: The ovule s here are attached to the centre of the ovary e.g. Tomato and
cannas lily.
2. Marginal: The ovules are attached along one edge of a monocarpous ovary. E.g.
pride of Barbados, flamboyant and crotaria
3. Parietal: The ovules are arranged along many lines on the ovary wall. E.g. pawpaw.
4. Free-central: The ovules are attached to projections from the base of the ovary. E.g
water leaf.
5. Basal: The ovules are attached to the base of the ovary. E.g. sunflower.

After fertilization, the ovary develops into a fruit, whereas the ovules in most flowers
develop into seeds.

Marginal plancentation Axile plancentation

Parietal plancentation

Free central plancentation Basal plancentation.

Evaluation:
What is placentation?

Mention ad describe 3 types of plancentation.

General Evaluation

Objective test

1. Which of these is not a part of carpel?

a. Stigma
b. Ovary
c. Pedicle
d. Style
e. Ovule
2. All are types of ovary except
a. Superior
b. Half superior
c. Inferior
d. Half inferior
e. None of the above
 3. Which if the following parts of the flower holds the anther?
a. Style
b. Petals
c. Filament’
d. Receptacle
e. Ovary
4. The type of plancentation found in the ovary of a Tomato flower is
a. Marginal
b. Axile
c. Parietal
d. Free-central
e. Basal
5. Inflorescence usually refers to
a. A solitary flower
b. A cluster of flower
c. An immature flower
d. A mature flower

Essay test

1. Draw and label a longitudinal section of a named insect pollinated flower.

2. List 5 parts of a flower and state their functions.
3. With the aid of diagrams describe 5 types of plancentation in named plants.
4. Mention five differences between the flowers of a wind pollinated and an insect-
pollinated plants.
5. State 4 differences between the Androecium and Gynoecium of a flower

Weekend assignment

Read modern Biology for SSS by S.T. Ramalingam, pages (450-456)

PRE-READING ASSIGMENT:

Read about Pollination in Plants

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

Collect flowers of pride of Barbados, Hibiscus, Flamboyant and other flowers around the
compound. Examine each flower and state the types of ovary.

REFERENCE TEXTS:
 1. Nelson functional Biology for SSS Bk 2, Kola Soyebo et al, Nelson publishers Ltd.
2. Modern Biology for SSS; S.T Ramalingam, Africana first publishers Ltd.

WEEK 9

BIOLOGY
CLASS: SS2 DATE---------------------------------
TOPIC: POLLINATION IN PLANTS
CONTENT:
1. Types of pollination.
2. Features of self and cross pollinated flowers
3. Features of wind and insect pollinated
4. Agents of pollination
SUB-TOPIC 1: TYPES OF POLLINATION
Pollination is the process by which pollen grains from an anther of a flower are transferred to the
stigma of the flower or another flower of the same species. In most species of fowering plant,
external agent brings about the pollination. Flowers have evolved special structured and
mechanisms to ensure successful pollination. The proce enables fertilisation and sexual reproduction
to occur.
There are two types of pollination: self pollination and cross pollination.

Self pollination: this is the process by which mature pollen grains are transferred from the anthers
of a flower to the stigma of the same flower (autogamy) or other flowers on the same plant
(cleistogamy). It is common in short-lived annual species. This process has a high successful rate. Self
pollination brings the male and female gametes of the same plant together. The offspring show very
little genetic variation.

Cross pollination: this is the transfer of mature pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of a different flower of the same or closely related species. This process is risky and wasteful
as most pollen grains fail to reach receptive stigma. Cross pollination brings the male and female
gametes of two different parent plants together. There are great genetic variations among the
offspring which tend to be healthy and well adapted.

Evaluation:
1. What is pollination?
2. Describe the process of self pollination.
3. Mention two advantages of cross pollination.

SUB-TOPIC 2: FEATURES OF SELF AND CROSS POLLINATION

Self-pollination can occur only in bisexual flowers and in unisexual flowers of monoecious plants. The
following are the adaptive features that favour self pollination:
1. Cleistogamy: this occurs among closed flowers. The ripe pollen grains are deposited on the
stigma which ripens later.
 2. Homogamy: the carpels and stamens in the bisexual flowers mature at the same time. This
homogamous condition promotes self-pollination through one of these ways:
 Pollination agents readily carry pollen grains from mature anthers to the receptive stigma.
 A slight wind may blow ripened pollen grains from a mature anther onto any receptive
stigma.
 Mature stigma pushing out of the corolla tube may brush against the anther and collect
pollen grains on the longest filaments.
 Filaments longer than the sigma may recoil and touch the mature stigmas.
 Styles longer than the filaments may bend to make the stigma touch the anther.
Evolution has favoured the development of plants flowers that promoted cross-pollination. Many
flowers therefore exhibit various features that enhance cross-pollination and hinder self-pollination.
These features include the following:
Xenogamy: this is the transfer of pollen grains of a flower to the stigma of another flower situated
on different plants of the same species.
Hydrisation: this is the transfer of pollen grains of a flower of one species to the stigma of a flower
of a flower of a different species.
Unisexuality: this occurs when female and male flowers are borne on separate plants. (Dioecious
plants) of pawpaw.
Dichogamy: this is a condition in which the male and female reproductive organs of a flower mature
of different times. Self pollination is usually impossible in this situation.
Self-incompatibility: the bisexual flowers of some species may bear mature stamens and carpels at
the same time. However pollen grains falling on the stigma of the same flower of flower on the same
plant fail to fertilise e.g. tea and passion flower.
Evaluation
1. Mention 3 features that enhance self pollination in flowers.
2. List and briefly describe 3 features that make flowers adopt cross pollination

SUB-TOPIC 3: FEATURES OF WINFD AND INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS

Wind-pollinated flowers are regarded as Anemophilous flowers. Examples are maize, rice, millet,
grasses and sugarcane. They have the following features:
1. The flowers are dull in colour. The perianth is usually tiny, pale green and inconspicuous.
2. Flowers are usually small in size and inconspicuous but are often borne in large
inflorescences e.g. coconut and cereals.
3. They have neither nectar nor scent.
4. They are not bilaterally symmetrical but are radially symmetrical.
5. The stamens have pendulous and long filaments with loosely attached or versatile on others,
which can swing easily in the wind. Each explosive anther contains smooth pollen grains.
6. The stigma is usually large branched and leathery. This feature provides a large surface area
on which pollen grains may be caught.
 Australian Honey Possum
The Australian honey possum is one of the only mammal species, other than bats, known to eat nectar and pollen as the
mainstay of its diet.

Insect pollinated flowers are also known as Entomophilous flowers. They exhibit certain
characteristics features as follows:
 Petals parts like the tracts and sepals may also be coloured e.g. Bougainvillea.
 Flowers are usually large and conspicuous. They also consist of small florets which are
grouped into a heed as in the composites of sunflower or large and conspicuous.
 Many flowers have sweet scent or scents. Flowers usually pollinated by nocturnal insects are
strongly scented to attract.
 Insect pollinated flowers like hibiscus and flamboyant have a sweet and sugary juice known
as Nectar. Nectar is a liquid food for many insect pollinators. Like Bees and butterfly.
 Each has a peculiar shape or a complex arrangement of flora pants. This feature creates a
mechanism specially suited for their associated insect pollinator. E.g. crotalaric and salvic
 The stamens are conspicuous and occur in definite numbers. The anthal are small, compact,
and firmly attached to the filament. Pollen grains produced are few in number, heavy; rough
edged and spiky or sticky. This feature reduces wastage and ensures attachment to a visiting
insect pollinator.

Evaluation
1. State 3 features of wind pollinated flowers.
2. List all the features that may attract insects to a particular flower.
 Wind Pollination
Wind-pollinated plants such as corn typically produce inconspicuous flowers, rather than the brightly colored flowers
designed to attract insects. In corn, the male and female parts of the flower are found on different parts of the plant.
Shown here are the light green stamens (also called tassles), the pollen-bearing, structures located at the top of the
plant. The female structures, which contain very long styles called silks, are growing laterally from the stalk below the
stamens.

SUB-TOPIC 4: AGENTS OF POLLINATION

Pollination in most flowering plant depends on external pollinators. These include:
 Wind
 Water
 Insects
 Other animals such as birds, squirrels, rats and snails. Wind and insects are the commonest
pollinators. Insects visit flowers for nectar and pollen on which they feed. Features like
colour and scent serve to attract and guide insects to their food source. In the process of
reaching their food source, insects bring about pollination. Common insect pollinators are
bees, wasps, beetles, butterflies, moths and ants.
Insect pollinators, by their high mobility, can pollinate individual flowers of a species that are widely
spaced apart.

Butterfly Pollinating a Flower

Many species of butterflies eat plant nectar. When these butterflies land on a series of flowers in search of food, they brush their bodies
against both male and female floral organs, inadvertently transferring pollen from one flower to another.

Many flowering plants are wind pollinated. Wind pollination is however s highly wasteful process of
the mollions of pollen grains produced only a small proportion land on receptive shima. In
monocropping culture, pollination by wind is highly successful.
Flower pollinated by birds are usually red coloured with no scent. They rsther produce more nectar
than other flowers. Humming birds are well known pollinators.
EVALUATION
1. Name 4 agents of pollination in flower.
2. Explain why insects are considered relatively more successful as pollinators than the wind.
GENERAL EVALUATION
Objectives
1. Pollination that involves two separate flowers located on the same plant is called (a)
Hybridisation (b) Xerogamy (c) Autogamy (d) Geitonogamy (e) Polygamy
2. All the following features enhance cross fertilization except. (a) Homogamy (b) Protandry (c)
Protogyny (d) Universality (e) Xerogamy
3. One of these is not a pollinator (a) Squirrel (b) Ants (c) Water (d) Sunlight (e) wind
4. Which of the following statements is not a feature of anemophilone flowers (a) there are no
scent and nector (b) flowers are small and conspicuous (c) flowers are borne on large
inflorescence (d) pollen grains are heavy, rough-edged and sticky (e) petals are not coloured.
5. This floral part plays the least role on pollination (a) anther (b) filaments (c) stigma (d) petels
(e) Calyx.

ESSAY
1. With reference to a named example in each case, show how flowers are adapted for (a)
wind pollination (b) insect pollination
2. A. Define pollination B. State 5 features that aid self pollination. C. State 5 features that aid
cross-pollination.
3. In a tabular form bring out the major differences in the characteristics of wind and insect
pollinated flower.
4. Briefly describe the mechanism of pollination in a named insect pollination
5. Describe pollination in a named wind-pollinated flower.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Modern Biology for SSS y S.T. Ramalingam; Africana First Publisher ltd (page 463-468)

PRE READING ASSIGNMENT

General revision

REFERENCE TEXTS
1. NELSON FUNCTIONAL BIOLOGY FOR SSS BK2. KOLA SOYIBO et al: Nelson Publishers ltd.
2. Modern Biology for SSS y S.T. Ramalingam; Africana First Publisher ltd.