NAME:…………………………..………………………… CLASS:…..

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DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL

www.dlhsschools.org, www.dlhsschools.com,
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FIRST TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY CLASS: SS 3

WEEKS TOPICS
1. Revision of Summer school’s work.
2. Balance in Nature: (a) Factors affecting a population (i) Abiotic –light,space,heat,water
etc.(ii)Biotic –food, competition (inter specific and intra specific), mortality, parasites,
predators etc. (c) Dynamic equilibrium in nature and factors that maintain it (i)
Density independent factors like availability of food (ii) Density dependent factor e.g.
natural disasters (d) Family planning: natural and artificial method used by man to control
his population.
3. Reproductive Systems and Reproduction in Humans : (a) Reproductive systems in male
and female (human) (i) Functions of various parts (ii) The structure of a male sperm cell
and structure of ovum (b) Fertilization (i) Fusion of gametes (ii)Implantation (c)
Development of embryo (i) Selective exchange between mother and child (ii) Removal of
excretory products from foetus (iii) Survival conditions like food, oxygen, amniotic fluid,
placenta and umbilical cord.
4. Development of New Seeds :(a) Progress of development of zygote in the flowering plant
(i) pistil (ii)stem (iii) germplasm (iv) Fertilization (b)Germination of seeds (i) Types of
germination (ii) Conditions necessary for germination.
5. Fruits: (a) Structure of fruits (b) Types of fruits (c) Dispersal of fruits and seeds (c) Agents
of dispersal.
6. Reproductive Behaviors: (a) Courtship behaviors in animals (i) Pairing (ii) Territoriality
(iii) Display of colours and body parts (iv) Seasonal migration.
7. Biology of Heredity (Genetics): (a) Transmission and expression of characters in
organisms (i) Hereditary variations (ii) Characters that can be transmitted and how they
are transmitted (iii) How characters manifest from generation to generation (b)
Chromosomes, the basis of hereditary (i) Location (ii) Structure (iii) Role in and processes
of transmission of hereditary characters from parents to offspring (c) Probability in
genetics (d) Application of the principles of heredity (i) In agriculture (ii) In medicine (e)
Explanations on cross and self fertilization –out and in – breeding using Mendelian crosses.
8. Variation and Evolution: (a) Morphological Variation (b) Physiological Variations (c)
Application of variation.
9. Evolution : (a) The progressive change in structures and anatomy of organism using
examples of features of organisms from water to land (b) Structural adaptation: Adaptive
coloration and their function e.g. camouflage in chameleons, Green snakes in green grasses,
bright colours of flowers to attract pollination (c) Structural adaptation (i) for obtaining
food e.g. proboscis for sucking sap in insects (ii)Protection and defense e.g. tortoise in shell
(iii) Mimicry colours for securing mates for regulating body temperature etc. (d) Different
castes of termites and their roles (e) Different castes of bees and the roles they play in their
social life.
 10. Evolution: (f) Theories of Evolution (i) The theories of evolution according to Charles
Darwin, Jean Baptist de Lamark (g) Evidence of evolution (h) Forces responsible for
evolution : mutation, gene flow, genetic drift.
11. Revision.
12. Examination.

REFERENCE TEXTS
1. Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini T. Ramalingam; African First Publishers PLC
2. New System Biology for SSS by Lam Peng Kwan et al; African First Publishers PLC
3. Nelson Functional Biology for SSS by Kola soyibo et al;
4. New Biology for SSS by R.H. Stone et al; Longman
5. Biology for SSS by STAN; HEBN Publishers Plc
6. Comprehensive certificate Biology for SSS by Ambuno Sunday et al; University Press Plc
7. Senior Secondary Certificate Practical Biology by S.O Iloeje

WEEK 1: REVISION OF SUMMER SCHOOL’S WORK

WEEK 2

TOPIC: BALANCE IN NATURE

CONENT:

1. Factors affecting a population

2. Dynamic population
3. Family planning

SUB-TOPIC ONE: FACTORS AFFECTING A POPULATION

In ecology, the interaction between plant and animals in an environment produces a stable and a
balance system. A population is referred to as stable if the population size remains relatively
constant.

There are many factors that contribute to the balance in nature; these factors are either abiotic or
biotic

I. Abiotic factors these factors are:

(a) Availability of space
(b) Light
(c) Heat
(d) Oxygen (air)
(e) Water
(f) Food

II. Biotic factors: these factors are

(a) Predation
 (b) Competition
(c) Parasitism
(d) Diseases
(e) Natality
(f) Mortality
(g) Territorial behaviour
(h) Dispersal

EVALUATION

1. List five factors (abiotic ) that contribute to the balance in nature

2. List five factors (biotic) that contribute to the balance in nature.

Gaza, Gaza Strip

Palestinian fishers celebrate the Israeli withdrawal from the city of Gaza (background) and the
Gaza Strip in 2005. Decades of political instability and a massive influx of Palestinian refugees
have produced extreme overcrowding, large-scale unemployment, and poor living conditions in
Gaza and the Gaza Strip. The Palestinian National Authority is headquartered in Gaza.

SUB-TOPIC 2: DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

The biotic community in each ecosystem is composed of population of many species. An

ecosystem with a stable climax community, the population sizes of the various species are
constant. For each species the population size fluctuates around the carrying capacity of the
habitat for that particular species. The various populations in a climax community are said to be
in balance or in dynamic equilibrium. The equilibrium is said to be dynamic because though the
population remain constant, new individuals are being added while the existing ones are removed
all the time. Rate of addition is equal to the rate of removal.
Dynamic equilibrium is maintained by two major factors that relate to density

I. Density –independent factors: some factors affecting growth of a population irrespective of

its population density.

Examples of such factors are:

(a) Sudden changes in weather conditions

(b) Natural disaster like flood, fire, drought, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, storm,
presence of pollutants, etc.

These events may wipe out large number of individuals in a population and are independent of
the number of individuals in a population

II. Density dependent factors: these are factors that affect the growth of a population and are
dependent on the number of individual in a population.

Examples Of density dependent factors are

(a) Diseases
(b) Predation
(c) Competition
(d) Parasitism

These factors have a greater effect on densely populated areas than sparsely populated area

For instance, as population increases food availability decreases and disease outbreak occur more
frequently. These may lead to low birth rate and high mortality rate thereby reducing the
population.

Therefore as population size increases, density dependent factors cause population growth to
slow down and help check definite population growth

Response of population to factors affecting them There can be fluctuations in population size.
This can be due to seasonal changes in the environment such as rainfall and temperature.

Seasonal population fluctuations

During favourable condition like dry seasons or extreme temperatures, the population size of a
particular species usually decreases while favourable conditions like plenty of food supply
during raining season lead to increase in population size,
During wet seasons in grassland, shrubs and grasses start to grow. The population of herbivores
in the community also increases rapidly due to mating and return f migrated individuals. With
the arrival if the dry season many plant wither and die off. This leads to the decrease in the
population size of the herbivores that feed on the plants. Some of the herbivores migrate to other
greener pastures. Low birth rate, high death rate and migration tend to reduce the population of
the herbivores.

Fluctuation of predator – prey populations:

In nature the interactions between predators and preys may lead to regular cyclical fluctuation in
population size. When predators feed on prey, the prey population decreases. This result in
greater competition among the predators. Death rate of the weaker predators increases leading to
the decline in the predators’ population with less predator, the birth rate of the prey population
increases leading to increases in the size of the prey population. The cycle is then repeated.

EVALUATION

1. What is meant by dynamic equilibrium in ecosystem?

2. Outline what happens in the situation of predator-prey population fluctuation.

SUB-TOPIC 3: FAMILY PLANNING.

In nature, population of living things grows exponentially until they meet with environmental
resistance. Each population stabilizes at a certain size which can be supported by its habitats. The
human population is however an exception to this usual situation. Through the effort of humans,
the human population can be controlled through birth control and family planning. A couple can
plan when to have children and when not to have children even if they have sexual intercourse.

Family planning is therefore the use of birth control methods to determine the number and
timing of children born in the family.

Birth control methods are in four main groups.

i. Natural method
ii. Mechanical Method
iii. Chemical Method
iv. Surgical Method

i. Natural method:

(a) Rhythm methods: This is also known as safe-period method. It based on the fact that in
every menstrual cycle, there is a fertile period when ovulation is most likely to occur. For
pregnancy to be prevented, sexual intercourse is to be avoided during the period. The
fertile period may be from the 12th to the 16th day from the beginning of menstruation. This
method however is most unreliable as many other factors such as emotional stress and
illness may alter the length of the menstrual cycle.
(b) Withdrawal method: this is also known as coitus interruptus. It involves the withdrawal
of the penis from the vaginal just before ejaculation. This method is unreliable as some
viable semen may enter the vagina before ejaculation.
 Family Planning Class
A volunteer working for the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) gives a class in family planning to women in New
Delhi, India. Family planning provides reproductive health services,
contraception, and counseling on fertility control choices and is the principal
method used for stabilizing population growth.

ii. Mechanical methods:

(a) Condom: this is also known as a sheath. It is a thin rubber tube that is used to cover the
erect penis before intercourse. A small teat at the end of the sheath collects the semen. If
used properly, this method is quite reliable. It also helps to protect the user against diseases.
The condom is impermeable and prevents germs from semen to set in contact with the
vaginal wall and likewise germs from the vaginal wall of an infected female from entering
the urethra of the male.
(b) Diaphragm: this is dome –shaped rubber cap with an elastic rim. It is inserted into the top
of the vaginal and placed over the cervix, thus preventing sperms from getting into the
uterus. A spermicidal cream may be used together with the cap to kill the sperms.
(c) Intra-uterine device (IUD): this is a coil or loop of plastic inserted into the uterus to
prevent the implantation of the fertilised egg into the uterine wall.
 Tubal Sterilization
Tubal sterilization, or female sterilization, is an operation to prevent
pregnancy in which the fallopian tubes in the female reproductive system are
closed off so that the eggs produced by the ovaries cannot be fertilized by
sperm after sexual intercourse. Surgeons typically use a laparascope, a thin,
hollow tube inserted via a tiny incision in the abdominal wall, in this
procedure. The tubes may be closed off by a variety of methods including
cauterization, searing the tubes closed with burning heat; clamping using
plastic clips that remain in the body; constriction using a plastic band; or
cutting away a section of the tube and tying off the severed ends.

iii. Chemical methods:

(a) Spermicides: these are chemical agents which are used to kill sperms. They may be in the
form of a cream, jelly, foam or tablet. The spermicides are placed high into the vagina
before intercourse. When used in conjunction with the diaphragm or condom, it offer
greater protection
(b) Contraceptive pills: these pills contain female sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone
like hormone) that prevent ovulation. One pill must be taken every 24 hours from the 5 th to
the 25th day from onset of menstruation. She then stops taking the pill for menstruation to
occur. She repeats the cycle again from the 5th day. This methods is very reliable if
instruction are duly followed
(c) Depo-provera: this contraceptive is injected into the body of the female to prevent
ovulation. The injection is effective in preventing pregnancy for three month.
 Family Planning in The Gambia
A health worker gives family planning advice to a group of women in The
Gambia, in western Africa. The country has a high birth rate, and large
families are the norm.

iv. Surgical methods:

(a) Vasectomy: this sterilization procedure is carried out on males through a minor surgical
operation. The sperm duct is tied and cut thus preventing sperms from reaching the penis so
that no sperms are discharged during sexual intercourse. His sexual characteristics are not
affected by this procedure.
(b) Tubal ligation: in the female, both oviducts (fallopian tubes are cut and tied back. This
prevents the sperms in the uterus from reaching the egg. The above sterilization procedure is
most the most reliable contraceptive methods but it is irreversible.

EVALUATION
1. What is family planning? Why do humans plan their families
2. Mention the four major groups of human birth control. Give one example each from the
groups.

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Which of the following contribute to an increase in population size?(a) increased

mortality rate(b) increased emigration (c) increased competition (d) increased natality
rate (e) decreased reproductive capacity
2. Which one of these is a density -independent factor? (a) competition (b) predation (c)
chemical pollution (d) spread of disease (e) parasitism
3. The following are examples of temporary forms of contraception except --- (a) condom
(b) rhythm method (c) ligation (d) diaphragm (e) contraceptive pills
 4. Abiotic factors that affect population include these --- (a) temperature and water (b) light
and food (c) space and predation (d) competition and parasitism (e) air and food
5. Droughts, fires, floods and earthquakes are all ---- (a) population increasing factors (b)
density-independent factors (c) population decreasing factors (d) density-dependent
factors (e) population fluctuation factors

ESSAY TESTS

1. (a) What are the factors that affect the size of a population
(b) Give an example of a density-dependent factor and explain how it affects population
growth
2. With typical examples predict the response of population fluctuation due to population
fluctuations due to
i. Seasonal changes
ii. Predator-prey relationship
3. Outline the major advantages and disadvantages of various methods employed in family
planning
4. (a) What is birth control?
(b) Describe any 2 major groups of birth control methods
5. (a) Distinguish between population and community
(b) Explain the terms (with named examples): intra-specific competition and inter-
specific competition
(c) What is meant by dynamic equilibrium?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
List 4 biotic factors that contribute to balance in nature and show how they affect population in
your locality

WEEK 3

TOPIC: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS AND REPRODUCTION INHUMANS

CONTENTSS

1. Reproductive system in males and female

i. Function of various parts
ii. Structure of a male sperm and ovum
2. Fertilization
i. Fusion of gametes
ii. Implantation
3. Development of embryo
i. Selective exchange between mother and child and removal of excretory
product from foetus; survival conditions like food, oxygen, ammotic fluid,
placenta and umbilical cord
 SUB-TOPIC 1: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMANS

The reproductive system in human are the most highly developed among the animals. Basically,
the male and the female reproductive system consist of the gonad where the sex cell or gametes,
as well as glands that are involved in secretion of hormones and fluids essential for development
and sexual process.

The reproductive system consist of the internal genitalia which are contained within the
abdominal cavity and the external genitalia which is found outside the body in the groin region

1. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN A MALE HUMAN

The male reproductive system consists of the following organs

i. The testes: these are two ovoid structure situated in the scrotal sac. They are external and
suspended in the posterior end of the abdominal cavity. They have descended into the scrotum at
birth. They require temperature range of below 350C to function effectively. The testes contain
coiled tubules called seminiferous tubes. This contains actively dividing cells that produce sperm
cells. The seminiferous tubes continue and emerge into a spongy structure called epididymis atop
the testes. This structure stores sperms produced in the testes. The cells of these tubules divide
repeatedly to form sperm cells in a process called spermatogenesis. The testes produce the
sperm-the male gametes. It also secretes the hormones testosterone, which is responsible for
producing secondary sex characteristics in males as well as stimulating sperm production

ii. Vas deferens: this is called the sperm duct. It is a continuation of the epididymis. It serves as
the pathway through which sperm cell run from the epididymis and opens into the urethra. e

Male Reproductive System

The organs of the male reproductive system enable a man to have sexual intercourse and to
fertilize female sex cells (eggs) with sperm. The gonads, called testicles, produce sperm. Sperm
pass through a long duct called the vas deferens to the seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that lies
behind the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to produce
semen. Semen leaves the seminal vesicles and travels through the prostate gland, which produces
additional secretions that are added to semen. During male orgasm the penis ejaculates semen.
iii. Penis: this is a sensitive organ of copulation transverse by urethra. The urethra is a common
duct for sperms and urine in the male, thus the penis is described as a urinogenital organ. It
consists of spongy erectile tissue. Blood flows into the dilated erectile tissue when stimulated.
The flow of blood into the tissue contributes to its turgidity; hence the erection of the penis is no
stimulation.

The penis is covered with a sensitive skin called glans penis and retractable foreskin called the
prepuce. This can be surgically removed during circumcision,

iv. Epididymis: A set of profusely coiled tubule known as epididymis connects each testis to the
vas deferens, which conveys the sperm cells to the seminal vesicle for storage until there is the
need for ejaculation.

v. Other accessories and glands: the male reproductive system also consists of certain other
accessories and glands whose secretions play important roles in reproduction. This includes the
prostate gland whose secretion helps to energise and transport the sperm; the concentration of
the sperm so as to normalise acidic matters along the wall of the urethra. The mixture of sperm
and those secretions is known as semen. Seminal fluid secreted by the prostate gland provides a
medium for sperm cells to swim and be nourished. On ejaculation, the sperms are discharged to
the outside through the urethra.

2. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN FEMALE HUMAN

The female reproductive system consists of the following:

i. Ovary: the female human has two ovaries each located below the kidneys on both sides. The
ovaries which are supported by ligaments contain several thousands of potential eggs called
primary oocytes. They are covered by a layer called germinal epithelium: the ovaries produces
the female gamete i.e ovum (plural Ova) matured ovum is secreted approximately once in every
28days. The shedding of mature ovum is called ovulation.

ii. Oviduct: it has a funnel shaped structure known as the fallopian funnel which opens to each
ovary. The opening is lined with ciliated musculat finger-like structures. The egg released by the
ovary is received by the fallopian funnel. This is made possible by the beating of cilia to create a
gentle current wafting the released ova into the oviduct or fallopian tube, a pathway for the
 passage of ovum fertilization occurs in the oviduct which opens to the uterus

Female Reproductive System

A component of the female reproductive system, the uterus is a muscular organ with an
expandable neck called the cervix. Two main types of cancer arise in the uterus—endometrial
cancer orignates in the lining of the uterus, while cervical cancer begins in the epithelial cells of
the cervix.

iii. Uterus (womb): it is a pear –shaped structure (muscular organ) widest at the upper end and
narrow at the lower end. Each of the left and right side of the widest end of the uterus is
connected to a fallopian tube (oviduct). It opens to the vaginal through muscular ring called
cervix. It has a glandular lining membrane for nourishing the embryo in the early stage of
development. It also has smooth muscles in it concentration ultimately expels the foetus and its
placenta.

iv. Cervix: this lies the ventral ends of the uterus. It closes after fertilisation to avoid further
entrance of sperm and foreign bodies.

v. Vagina: this part serves as the receptor of sperm cells ejaculated by male. It opens posteriorly
to the vulva. There is a film of connective tissue called hymen that cover the vagina opening.
This tissue can be easily removed by sexual activities or physical exercises.

vi. Clitoris; this is a rod-like rudimentary structure analogous to the penis in the male. It is
sensitive and erectile. It does not play any serious role in reproduction other than arousal.

The urinary and the reproductive passage of human female are separate and they open separately
to the exterior through external genitalia called vulva. Hence urino-genital organ are present in
all mammals except in human female.
The structure of a male sperm cell (spermatozoon)

The male gametes, the spermatozoon is shaped like tadpole. It consists of a head with a nucleus
having an apical acrosome, a middle piece containing mitochondria and a tail or flagellum. The
whole sperm including the tail with which it moves inside the seminal –fluid is about 60µm long.
A sperm cell is microscopic and is usually smaller than an egg (Ovum).

See diagram of the human sperm in page 451 of your Modern Biology text book.

Structure of Human Gonads

Gonads—in the male, the testes (singular, testis), and in the female, the ovaries—are the organs
that produce gametes and sex hormones. The male gamete is the spermatozoan, produced by cell
division in the seminiferous tubules of the adult testes. Typically, several hundred million sperm
reach maturity in the epididymis and are stored in the vas deferens each day. Whatever is not
released in ejaculation is reabsorbed, part of a continuous cycle. In the female, the ovaries
produce eggs, or ova. At birth, about 2 million oocytes, or immature eggs, are present in the
ovaries. Once the female reaches puberty, one egg matures approximately every 28 days inside a
saclike Graafian follicle. Ovulation occurs when the mature egg bursts from the follicle and the
ovary, beginning its journey down the fallopian tube toward the uterus.

Structure of a human egg (ovum)

The human female gametes (egg) are also microscopic but are larger than the sperm cell. Each
ovum is about 0.1mm. in diameter. It consist of a cytoplasm, a nucleus I the centre, granules and
yolk droplets. The yolk provide sources of nourishment for the embryo at least in its early stage
of development

The ovum’s cytoplasm is surrounded by two membranes. The inner one is the plasma membrane,
while the out one is the vitelline membrane. The ovum is bounded on the outside by a jelly coat
of variable thickness made up of glycoprotein.
See diagram of the human ovum in page 452 of your Modern Biology text book.

The nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum contain chromosome which are treated like the
material that carry genes. The genes are responsible for passing on the parents’ characteristics to
the offspring. Each of the two gametes (sperm and ovum) is haploid.

EVALUATION

1. State the function of the various parts of

1a. Male reproductive organ
1b. Female reproductive system
2. Draw and label the structure of male and female gametes
3. State ten differences between the male and the female reproductive organs

SUB-TOPIC 2: FERTILISATION

Fertilization is the fusion of the spermatozoon and an ovum. It takes place in the fallopian tube.
In human, fertilisation is preceded by the process of sexual intercourse or coition, where a man
discharges semen into te vagina. The semen of about 2cm3 containing about 100million sperms
is deposited in the vagina near the cervix of the uterus.

FUSION OF GAMETES
Spermatozoa discharged into the vagina during copulation swim up to the cervix into the uterus
and up the fallopian tube where fertilization takes place.
When the sperm encounters the ovum, it usually digests the jelly covering of the egg by means of
the enzyme contained in the acrosome. The sperm itself to the layer of follicle cells outside the
secondary oocyte as corona radiate. There is a fusion of egg plasma and sperm plasma
membrane. The yolk at the point where the sperm penetrate the egg bulges out to form a cone.
Once the sperm penetrate the egg, the yoke change to a membrane known as vitelline membrane.
One other very important event is that the tail of the sperm is lost and the middle piece
disintegrates. The egg now travels down the fallopian tubes and the second meiotic division
takes place consequently upon fusion of sperm with egg. It is noteworthy that once a sperm has
entered the ovum, another sperm cannot enter it because of the development of a protective
cortical layer.

IMPLANTATION
The zygote resulting from the fusion of the sperm cell and the egg contains the characteristic
features of both the man and the woman involved in the sexual intercourse. The zygote under a
number of cell division into two cells, four cells, eight cells, etc. until a ball of cell known as
blastocyst is obtained as it passed further down the fallopian tube on it way to the uterus. On
reaching the uterus, it becomes embedded in the uterus wall which is thick and highly
vascularised. This process is known as implantation and as a result the woman is pregnant
Implantation is the process by which the fertilised egg or zygote enter into an intimate
relationship which leads to its embedment in the uterine wall such that it cannot be flushed out. It
is the first stage of development of placenta. It involves the adhesion of the embryonic
trophoblast (mitotically divided mass of cell at the early stage of embryonic development) and
micorvilli of the mother and embryonic cells.
EVALUATION

1. Define fertilization and implantation

2. Explain the process involved in fusion of gametes

SUB-TOPIC 3: DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO

The cells of the embryo grow and divide constantly. At first, they appear similar but later
develop differing structures and functions. They eventually form various specialise tissue of a
new individual. These tissues grow and extend in relation to each other, thus giving rise to the
body organs which becomes easily recognizable in pregnancy. For example, the blood, blood
vessel and the heart develop within a month in the developing embryo.

Conditions necessary for the development of embryo include

i. The Placenta,
ii. The Amniotic fluid and
iii. The Umbilical cord.

Selective exchange of the materials between the mother and the child takes place in the placenta.
In the course of the development of the embryo in pregnancy, an organ called placenta in
formed. T is a disc of tissue with projections adhering to the living of the uterus. It is formed
between the embryo and the uterine wall. Through the placenta, nourishment and oxygen are
obtained by the embryo from the mother and waste products such as carbon (IV) oxide and urea
are removed.

Primate Gestation

Gestation is the period that elapses between the time a baby is conceived and when it is born.
Compared to other mammals, primates have unusually long gestation periods and primate babies
are born in a more mature state than other mammals. For example, nearly all primates are born
with their eyes open, while most mammals do not open their eyes for days, or even weeks, after
birth. Human gestation, which lasts about nine months, is divided into three trimesters. The
developing baby is called an embryo for the first eight weeks, after which it is called a fetus. All
of its major organs develop in the first trimester. The second trimester fetus shows obvious
human features and grows quickly. In the third trimester, the fetal organs mature.

All the exchanges between the embryo and the blood circulation of the mother take place by
diffusion through the placenta

Functions of the placenta include the following:

i. It anchors the embryo in the uterus

ii. It serves as the converyor of water, dissolved oxygen, nutrient, hormone and salt from the
blood of the mother to that of the embryo
iii. Excretory product such as urea, salt and carbon (IV) oxide from the embryo’s blood diffuse
into the mother’s blood through it.
iv. It also produces hormones which help the mother to adapt to pregnancy.

Although there is exchange of materials between the embryo and the maternal blood streams, the
blood of the mother and that of the embryo never mix, otherwise the blood pressure of the
mother would kill the embryo. Also the blood group of the embryo may not be the same as the
mother and agglutination of the embryo blood could occur.

The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube known as umbilical and which contain the
blood vessel of the embryo. It contains two umbilical arteries that carry deoxygenated blood
from the foetus to the placenta. it also contains the umbilical vein that transport oxygenated
blood and food substances from the placenta to the foetus.

The foetus has a system of membrane and fluids which help to protect and cushion it against
shock.

These membrane system include

(a) The amnion: it is the innermost membrane that is filled with amniotic fluid which serve
the following functions.
i. Protects the embryo from rocking, shock and desiccation
ii. it helps to maintain the internal temperature
(b) The chorion: it is the outermost membrane. It absorb oxygen through it porous walls.
(c) The alantois: it is involved in respiration, nutrition and excretion through the placenta.
The foetus continues to grow in the uterus. At the end of the nine month of pregnancy,
the baby is fully formed and is ready to be born. The period between fertilization and
birth is called gestation or pregnancy. At the end of the gestation (nine months) the foetus
comes to lie with its head downward just above the cervix of the uterus.
 Day One

The first cell of a new human being, called a zygote, is formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg. In
the egg cell shown here, the nuclei of the sperm and egg appear as two yellow-brown, irregular
shapes. When these two nuclei fuse, fertilization is accomplished.

EVALUATION
1. State three function of the placenta
2. State the function of the umbilical cord

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following structure is absent in the reproductive system of human female?
(a) ovary (b) uterus (c) fallopian tubes (d) prostate gland
2. The sperm cells in human male are stored in the --- (a) seminal vessels (b) scrotum (c)
testes (d) epididymis
3. fertilisation of the gametes takes place in the (a) Ovary (b) testes (c) oviduct (d) vagina
4. Which of the following statement bellow is not true? (a) fertilisation of humans occurs in
the oviduct (b) fertilisation in humans occur in the uterus (c) fertilisation results in
formation of a zygote (d) fertilisation of the egg can only be effected by a sperm cell
5. Exchange of materials between the embryo and the mother occurs by diffusion through
which of the structure below? (a) umbilical cord (b) amnion (c) placenta (d) oviduct
ESSAY TEST
State the function of the following reproductive organs (a) testes (b) fallopian tube (c) prostate
gland (d) uterus
1. State five similarities and seven differences between the reproductive organ of male and
female. Human
2. Name the structure that offer survival condition for the embryo during pregnancy

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read about fertilization in plants and draw the sexual life cycle of a flowering plant.

WEEK 4
TOPIC: DEVELOPMENT OF NEW SEEDS
CONTENT:
1. Progress of development of zygote in the flowering plant
2. Germination of seeds

SUB-TOPIC I: PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE IN THE FLOWERING

PLANT

Meaning of seed
Seeds are plant parts containing embryo and this embryo give rise to new individual.
Pollination is the first step in the process of sexual reproduction in flowering plants. It is
followed by fertilization and development of zygote. These steps change the flower into a fruit
enclosing seeds, the potential next plant

Pollination: this is the process whereby mature pollen grains are transferred from the anthers to
the mature stigmas or pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the mature
stigma of a flower.

There are two types of pollination, They are:

i. Cross pollination
ii. Self pollination
 Bumblebee Pollinating
When a bee such as this bumblebee visits a flower, tiny grains called pollen stick to the bee. The
bee then carries the pollen to another flower. This process, known as pollination, is necessary for
many plants to make seeds and fruit.

i. Cross Pollination
Cross pollination occurs when the pollen grains from one flower are transferred to the mature
stigma of another plant of the same species.

Features Of Cross Pollination

i. Male and female reproductive parts occur in different flowers i.e. the flowers are
unisexual
ii. If the plant is dioecious, then the male and the female flower occur on different plants of
the same species.
iii. In monoecious plants, where male and female flowers occur on the same plants, self
pollination is prevented by:
(a) The stamens ripening before the stigmas (flower is described as being protandrous
e.g. sunflower, sativa)
(b) The stigmas ripening before the stamen (protogynous e.g. grasses)
iv. Self sterility which may occur in some flowers. This means that the pollen will not
fertilize the ovary of the same flower or another flower of the same plant because the
pollen cannot grow or grows slowly on the stigma. The flower eventually dies before
fertilization occurs. Examples of this are the flowers of many leguminous plants and
Ixora
v. Some upright cross pollinated flowers have their stamen arranged below the stigmas.
This will prevent pollination and may ensure that the visiting insect touches the stigmas
before the stamens.

ii. Self Pollination

Self pollination occurs when the pollen grains from a flower are transferred to the mature stigma
of the same plant of the same species.

Features of Self Pollinated Flowers

1. In composite plants e.g. sunflower, the flowers first have a chance of cross pollination hence
they are protandrous. If cross pollination fails, the self pollination occurs by the stigmas growing
and curling backward to pick up pollen grains remaining in their styles.
 Sunflower Cosmos

2. Some flowers do not open, so that self pollination occurs in them. Such cleistogamous flowers
are often small and inconspicuous in some normal flowers e.g. cowpea, self pollination occurs
before the flower opens.
3. The structure of some flowers e.g. caladium (ornamental cocoyam) enables them to trap
insects which brings about self pollination.

Agents of Pollination
These include:
i. Insects, birds, bats, and other animals
ii. Wind
iii. Water

Characteristics of insect pollinated flowers

i. they have brightly coloured parts e.g. corolla, bracts
ii. The pollen grains are often rough and stick to the insect’s body easily.
iii. They are often scented
iv. They often have broad or rounded sticky stigmas for the visit of particular kinds of
insects
v. The flowers have structural modifications suited for the visit of particular kinds of
insects.
vi. They contain nectar, sugary liquid which serves as food for many insect pollinators.
vii. Some flowers have nectar guides (lines or patches) leading the insects to the position of
the nectary gland.

Characteristics of wind pollinated flowers

i. They are often unisexual e.g. grasses.
ii. Pollen grains are produced abundantly to make up for the loss of many in transit
iii. Pollen grains are light and smooth to float easily in the wind.
iv. Anthers are often large and hinged on flexible filament. This arrangement makes it easy
for pollen grain to be easily shaken off.
v. Styles and stamen are long extending beyond the flower.
vi. Stigmas are often feathery for easy trapping of pollen in the air.
vii. Flowers are dull, without scent and nectar.
viii. Perianth is often absent but becomes reduced if present.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SELF POLLINATION AND CROSS POLLINATION
SELF POLLINATION CROSS POLLINATION
1. Transfer of pollen grains from the anther 1. Transfer of pollen grain from the anther
to a stigma of the same flower or another to the stigma of another plant but of the
flower of the same plant. same species.
2. Only one parent is involved 2. two parents are involved
3. it does not result in new varieties 3. It results in new varieties.

EVALUATION:
1. Define the following terms;
(a) Seed
(b) Pollination
2. State three features each of:
(a) Self pollination
(b) Cross pollination
3. State three differences between self pollination and cross pollination in a tabular form.
4. Mention two agents of pollination

SUB-TOPIC 2: FERTILIZATION AND ZYGOTE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS IN

FLOWERING PLANT
Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes. After pollination, a pollen grain sends out
a pollen tube through the stigma and style into the ovary, finally reaching the ovule. Within the
pollen tube are two nuclei and a pollen tube nucleus which is responsible for the development of
the pollen tube.
The moment the pollen tube reaches the ovule through the micropyle, the pollen tube nucleus
disappears.

Each ovule consists of a large oval shaped cell called embryo sac which is surrounded by two
protective coats called integuments. Integuments later give rise to seed coat.
The mature embryo sac contains eight nuclei, two called secondary nuclei.
 Flower Pollination and Fertilization
Flowers contain the structures necessary for sexual reproduction. The male component, or
stamen, consists of a thin stalk called the filament, capped by the anther. The female component,
the pistil, includes the stigma, a sticky surface that catches pollen; the ovary, which contains the
ovule and embryo sac with its egg; and the style, a tube that connects the stigma and ovary (A).
Pollen is produced in the anther (B), and is released when mature (C). Each mature pollen grain
contains two sperm cells. In self-pollinating plants, the pollen lands on the stigma of the same
flower, but in cross-pollinating plants—the majority of plants—the pollen is carried by wind,
water, insects, or small animals to another flower. If the pollen attaches to the stigma of a flower
from the same species, the pollen produces a pollen tube, which grows down the neck of the
style, transporting the sperm to the ovule (D). Within the embryo sac of the ovule, one sperm cell
fertilizes the egg, which develops into a seed. The second sperm cell unites with two cells in the
embryo sac called polar nuclei, and this results in the development of the endosperm, the starchy
food that feeds the developing seed. The ovary enlarges (E) and becomes a fruit.
Embryo sac and its fertilization
One of the two male nuclei fuses with the female nucleus (ovum) to form the zygote and the
second male nucleus fuses with the secondary nucleus to form endosperm. The zygote later
forms the embryo, the ovule form the seed and the ovary forms the fruit. A fruit which develops
without fertilization is described as Pathenocarpic.

A seed is a dormant embryo sporophyte with stored food and protective coats.

A seed consists of;

i. a plumule, made up of two embryonic leaves which will become the first true leaves of
the seedling and a terminal (apical) bud.
ii. the hypocotyle and radicle which will grow into the stem and primary root.

Angiosperms that produce seeds with two cotyledons are called dicotyledons e.g. bean and those
that have a single cotyledon are called monocotyledons e.g. maize grain and other grass seeds.

Seeds

Differences between Pollination And Fertilization

POLLINATION FERTILIZATION
1. No fusion of male and female gamete 1. Involves fusion of male and female gametes
2. Pollination takes place externally 2. Fertilization takes place internally
3. Germination tube not formed 3. Germination tube formed
4. Agent is required 4. Agent is not required
5. Involve the transfer of pollen grains 5. Pollen grains not involved.
6. Zygote not formed 6. Zygote formed
7. One gamete is involved 7. Two gametes are involved.

EVALUATION:
Describe the process of fertilization in flowering plants

SUB-TOPIC 3: GERMINATION OF SEEDS

Germination is the stage when embryo develops into a seedling and it also refers to all the
changes that occur when the embryo in a seed resumes its growth and development to become an
independent seedling.
When seed is about to germinate, it absorbs several times its own weight of water and swells up.

TYPES OF GERMINATION
There are two types of germination:
i. Epigeal germination: This is when the hypocotyl grows rapidly and elongates carrying the
cotyledon above the soil where they carry out photosynthesis before the first foliage leaves
develop.
Epigeal germination is also referred to as a type of germination in which the cotyledon is carried
above the soil.
Examples of plants with epigeal germination are castor and cowpea plant

Description of Epigeal Germination

i. Seed absorbs/imbibes water and swells.
ii. Testa splits and the radicle emerges
iii. The hypocotyls of the germinating seed elongates
iv. It pushes the seed out of the soil.
v. The cotyledon(s) become exposed to the sunlight
vi. Cotyledons turn green to photosynthesize
vii. The plumule develops into a green shoot
viii. The cotyledon(s) dry up/shrink and fall off.

ii. Hypogeal Germination

The epicotyls grow rapidly and elongates, leaving the cotyledons in the soil. Hypogeal
germination is the type of germination in which the cotyledons remain in the soil.
Examples of plants with hypogeal germination are maize, gram seed and yam bean.
 Hypogeal and Epigeal germination

Differences between Epigeal And Hypogeal Germination

Epigeal germination Hypogeal germination
1. Hypocotyl elongates 2. Epicotyl elongates
2. Cotyledon emerges out of the soil 2. Cotyledon remains in the soil
3. Cotyledon(s) turns green/photosynthesis 3. Cotyledons do not photosynthesis
4. Plumule does not emerge simultaneously Plumule emerges simultaneously with the
with the radical radical
5. Food/energy derived from cotyledon 5. Food/energy derived from endosperm

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR GERMINATION

External conditions are:
i. Availability of water,
ii. Temperature/warmth and
iii. Availability of oxygen.
Internal conditions are:
i. Enzymes
ii. Energy/food and
iii. Viability of seed

EXPERIMENT 1: to show the conditions necessary for germination.

Put some cotton wool at the bottom of four test tubes marked 1-4 and place five cowpea seeds in
each test tube.
Test tube 1: Put in a warm place so that there is warmth and oxygen but no water.
Test tube 2: Add boiled but cooled water and cover the water surface with oil. Put in a warm
place so that there is water and warmth but no air.
Test tube 3: Add some water just to moisten the cotton wool. Put in a warm place so that air,
water and warmth are provided.
Test tube 4: set as in test tube 3 but keep in a refrigerator so that air and water are present but
there is no warmth.
Germination will occur in tube 3, showing that air, water and warmth are necessary conditions
for germination.

EXPERIMENT 2: To show that oxygen is necessary for germination

Prepare two gas jars as in test tube 3 of Experiment 1. Label the first jar A and the second jar B.
Add some progallic acid dissolved in sodium hydroxide to jar A and leave the set up for a few
days.
Note:
The pyrogallic acid dissolved in sodium hydroxide absorbs oxygen from the air in gas jar A
Both gas jars are placed in a warm place and made air tight by applying grease.
Gas jar B is the control, having normal air, water, warmth but no pyrogallic acid.
Germination will be observed only in gas jar B

SEED DORMANCY
This is an inactive period of a seed during which growth slows/completely ceases due to certain
internal or external factors

EVALUATION
1. Define the term germination
2. State four differences between epigeal and hypogeal germination.
3. What is seed dormancy?
4. What are the conditions necessary for germination?

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. A fruit which develops without fertilization is described as (a) simple (b) aggregate (c)
multiple (d) compound (e) pathenocarpic
2. Epigeal germination can be found in sorghum (b) maize (c) millet (d) groundnut (e) wheat
3. Hypogeal germination is characterized by the (a) emergence of plumule out of the ground (b)
provision of nourishment by the endosperm (c) elongation of the hypocotyls (d) elongation of the
epicotyls elongation of the epicotyls and hypocotyls
4. A seed has the following features except (a) embryo (b) testa (c) a helium (d) pericarp
5. What is the fate of the ovary of a flower after fertilization? (a) becomes the seed (b) withers
away (c) becomes the fruit (d) develops more nuclei

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Carry out some planting exercise using cowpea and maize seeds and note your observations

WEEK 5

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

TOPIC: FRUIT

CONTENT: 1. Structure of fruits

2. Types of fruits
3. Dispersal of fruits
4. Agents of dispersal

SUB-TOPIC I: MEANING OF FRUIT

Fruit is the structure that developed from the matured ovary after fertilization which contains the
seed. Some fruits do not develop from fertilized ovary and are called parthenocarpic fruit.

Fruit contains the pericarp (epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp).

Structure of a fruit

Fruits

Simple Aggregate Multiple

Dry Dehiscent Dry Indehiscent Fleshy

Legume or pod Achene Drupe

Follicle Cypsela Berry
Capsule Caryopsis Pome
Schizocarp Nut Hesperidium
Siliqua Samara

TYPES OF FRUITS
Fruits can be classified based on their origin or structure. These include:
i. True and false fruit
ii. Simple, aggregate and composite (multiple) fruit
iii. Fleshy and dry fruit
iv. Dehiscent and indehiscent fruits

Simple fruits: Formed from one flower having either a monocarpous or syncarpous pistil.
Aggregate fruits: Formed from one flower having an apocarpous pistil
Multiple fruits: these are fruits formed from many flowers whose ovaries unite together with
other parts of the flower after fertilization or one that develops from several flowers
inflorescence e.g. pineapple, bread fruit etc.

SIMPLE FRUITS
The simple fruits can be divided into dry and fleshy fruits. A dry fruit is the type of fruit in which
the pericarp becomes dry, hard and woody or fibrous when the fruit ripens. Dry fruit may be
dehiscent or indehiscent.

DRY DEHISCENT FRUIT: These are fruit with hard and dry pericarp which can split to
release their seeds. The dry dehiscent fruit can be divided into five namely: the follicle, legumes,
schizocarps, capsule and Siliqua
Follicle: The follicle are fruits that are formed from one carpel and which can split along one
side only e.g. kola
Legume: These are fruits that are formed from one carpel that splits along two sides e.g. cowpea,
crotolaria and all bean species
Capsule: These are fruits formed from fused carpels and split longitudinally along two or more
lines e.g. okra, castor oil and cotton
Schizocarps: These are many seeded fruits which break up into one seeded parts called mericarp
e.g. Mimosa pudica (sensitive plant) and Desmodium
Siliqua: A long narrow capsule formed from bicapellary ovary. It has two chambers separated by
a false septum or reptum. It dehisces by the sutures e.g. Teconia

DRY INDEHISCENT FRUITS: These are the fruits that do not split to release their seeds. Dry
indehiscent fruits are divided into five.
Achene: The fruit has dry pericarp and contain one seed e.g. cashew, nut, sunflower fruit, four
O’clock plant, rose and clematis
Caryopsis: the caryopsis is a one-seeded dry indehiscent fruit in which the pericarp becomes
fused with testa. Examples are rice, maize and millet
Cypsela: the cypsela is one-seeded dry fruit with hairy pappus and hairy pericarp. Examples are
Tridax, Emilia and goat weed.
Nut: A nut is a dry fruit with a very hard or woody or tough pericarp e.g. the hard part of cashew
fruit, ground nut, palm nut and cola nut, walnut, and almond.
Samara: A samara has the pericarp extended to form one or more wings e.g. Combretum,
Obeche tree and pterocarpous (African rose wood)

FLESHY FRUITS: Fleshy fruits are juicy, succulent and indehiscent. They store large
quantities of water and carbohydrate in their tissue. There are six main types of fleshy fruits
namely:
Drupe: This is a true simple fruit with a well-developed pericarp. The epicarp is thin, the
mesocarp is fleshy or fibrous and the endocarp is hard and stony. The latter encloses one or more
seeds. The hard endocarp with its seed is known as the stone of the fruit e.g. mango, coconut and
oil palm fruit.
Berry: A berry is a true simple fruit with a well-developed pericarp. The endocarp is not stony as
in drupe. The endocarp is usually a thin membrane covering which is closely attached to fleshy
mass made up of the mesocarp and endocarp. Sometimes the whole fruit is eaten. Examples are
guava, tomatoes, banana, lemon grape, cucumber date.
Pome: A Pome is a simple false fruit. Examples are apples and pears. In a Pome, the outer
covering and the fleshy edible part are formed by the swelling of the receptacle. Only the core is
formed from the ovary.
Hesperidium: A Hesperidium is a true simple fruit made up of chambers separated by a sheet of
endocarp. The epicarp and mesocarp are fused together in form of a skin (or rind) e.g. orange,
lemon, etc.
 Differences between fruit and seed
Fruit Seed
1. Formed from ovary Formed from ovule
2. has two scars or points: Has one scar or point
-the remains of style or stigma -where it was attached to the placenta
-where it was attached to the floral
receptacle
3. Consist of a seed or seeds Consist of an embryo
4. Has pericarp Has testa

Differences between drupe and berry

Drupe Berry
1. Pericarp consists of epicarp, fleshy Pericarp also consist of three layers but the
mesocarp and hard endocarp endocarp is fleshy
2. Entire fruit is not eaten Entire fruit is eaten
3. Developed from flower with superior Developed from flowers with either
ovaries superior or inferior ovaries
4. One-seeded Several seeds
5. examples are mango, coconut, oil palm Examples are tomato, guava, banana,
fruit cucumber

EVALUATION:
1. Define the term fruit.
2. Differentiate between fruit and seed
3. List various kinds of fruits, sort the fruit and classify them
4. What are the three major classes of fruits?

SUB-TOPIC 2: DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS

After the formation and maturation of fruits and seeds, they sometimes fall from the parents to
the ground. The number of seeds produced by a single plant is often very large. Most of them
perish while some are eaten by animals.
Others may fall on the ground already occupied or unfavourable to the particular plant. When
seedlings develop close to the parent plant, they soon become overcrowded. They compete
among themselves and the parent plant for light, water, mineral salts and other essential soil
constituent so that the strongest seedlings finally survive.
To prevent this, fruits and seeds of most plants are adapted so that they can be scattered far away
from the parents, hence fruits and seeds are dispersed.
 milkweed; wind dispersal of seeds

ADVANTAGES OF DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS

i. Prevent overcrowding.
ii. Reduce degree of unhealthy competition between plants.
iii. Introduction of plant species into new environment where they may be better adapted.
iv. The dispersal of fruits and seeds also helps to cover barren pieces of land with vegetation.

EVALUATION
1. Why is dispersal necessary in flowering plants?
2. State three advantages of dispersal of fruits and seeds.

SUB-TOPIC 3: AGENTS OF DISPERSAL

The common agents that bring about dispersal are;
i. Wind
ii. Animal
iii. Water
iv. Man
v. Explosive mechanisms or explosion

i. By Wind: Fruits/seeds carried by the wind or air current must be light, small and have light
membranous wings and also having long hairy or thread-like structures which act as parachutes
in the air.
Wind dispersal is a wasteful process because a great number of seeds may be dropped on sterile
or unstable ground or may be carried out into the sea e.g. cotton, poppy, clematics, shorea and
augsana, tridax fruit and also Bouganvillea.

ii. By Animal: Animals like birds, fruit bats and monkeys may be agents of dispersal of fruits
and seeds. Many animals feed on the soft succulent fruits but they either discard the strong
protected seed of berries, the stony endocarp of drupes and achene or they may swallow them. In
the latter case, many of the hardened parts are resistant to enzymes that they pass through the gut
without harm and when later dropped can germinate successfully e.g. guava, tomato.
Fruits and seeds may be carried externally on an animal’s body by reason of the fact that special
hooks or spines which catch in the fur or wool (hairy coats of animals e.g. Desmodium)

iii. Dispersal by Water: The seed of certain water lilies have air spaces in the pericarp which
give the buoyancy required in water. Coconut fruit achieves dispersal of its single seed by
floating to new location.

iv. Dispersal by Man: Dispersal of many fruits and seeds have been aided by the agricultural
practices of man e.g. guava, sweet potato and cassava which are native to tropical America now
found in all tropical areas in the world.
Seeds of weeds are accidentally transported from one part of the world to another by man’s
activities.

v. Dispersal by Explosive Mechanism (Self Dispersal): when the fruit wall dries as in the
African oil bean, it splits and twists throwing the seed out. The legumes of many bean plants e.g.
(Acacia and Ceasalpinia) burst open when ripe. This is by the drying up of the pericarp which
causes contraction and splitting e.g. fruit of legumes, pride of Barbados and capsules (fruit of
okra-Hibiscus esculentus)

EVALUATION:
1. State four agents of dispersal and explain two of them
2. Why is dispersal necessary in flowering plants?

OBJECTIVE TEST:
1. Which of the following is not a dry indehiscent fruit? (a) legume (b) cypsela (c) samara (d)
caryopsis
2. An example of berry is (a) tomato (b) coconut (c) apple (d) pineapple
3. Which of the following is a simple dry dehiscent fruit? (a) berry (b) drupe (c) caryopsis (d)
achene
4. A dehiscent fruit formed from several fused carpels with many seeds is classified as (a) an
achene (b) a follicle (c) a legume (d) a nut
5. Air spaces are characteristics of seeds or fruits dispersed by (a) birds (b) water (c) wind (d)
explosive mechanism (e) man
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Write short notes on true and false fruits
2. Draw and label a longitudinal section of a named fruit, 10 – 12cm long.

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL
1. Arrange the following fruits into either simple or aggregate fruit group: beans, orange, tomato,
kola and strawberry
2. Classify orange, mango, pride of Barbados, cashew, apple, pineapple, okra, cotton seed as
follows
i. Fleshy fruits
ii. Dehiscent fruits
iii. False fruits
iv. Indehiscent fruits
v. Multiple fruits

WEEK: 6
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
TOPIC: REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOURS IN ANIMALS
CONTENT: 1. Paring
2. Territoriality
3. Display of body colours
4. Seasonal migration

SUB-TOPIC 1: COURTSHIP BEHAVIOURS IN ANIMALS

Courtship is a collection of ritualized behaviours unique to each species that lead up to and
enable animals to have successful sex union. Courtship may be simple, involving a small number
of chemical, visual or auditory stimuli. It may also be a highly complex series of act by two or
more individuals using several modes of communication. It helps strengthen pair bonds that may
last through rising of the young. It particularly helps birds to select compatible or best mates and
ensure viable offspring.

Types of Courtship Behaviour

Different species of animals show different methods and signs unique to them. Some courtship
behaviour of animals is as follows:

i. Paring
Many animal species exhibit pairing. These include toads, termites, fishes, human and some
mammals. Pairing refers to a behavior that involves a mature male and female choosing each
other and leaving their fold. They usually go together in twos (pairs)for a fresh or different place
leaving the others behind. For instance, winged termites pair up and eventually start a fresh
colony elsewhere. In the new place, the female becomes the king. Initially, the female attracts the
male by releasing a scanty hormone (pheromone).They shed off one wing and later the second,
first by the male and then followed by the female. These paired termites are usually seen at the
start of the rainy season, swarming at night, especially near electric bulbs or lanterns.

ii. Territoriality
Territoriality is the behavior by which animal lay claim and defends an area against others of its
species and sometimes members of other species. The territory defended could be hundreds of
square miles in size or only slightly larger than the animal itself. A single animal, a pair, a family
or entire herd may occupy the territory. Some animals use the territory as a source food and
shelter and thus hold and defend it year round. Other animals establish a territory only at a
certain time of the year, when it is needed for attracting a mate, breeding or raising a family.
The male Agama lizard exhibit territoriality. Usually there is only one adult male Agama lizard
in a territory which could be an exclusive portion of a lawn, part of a roof or garden. Several
female lizards and young males are usually the other members of this territory. The adult male
lizard leads others back to its territory where they would stay overnight for protection against
danger or predators. To gain dominance, the male becomes aggressive as soon as an intruding or
rival adult male lizard enters its territory. It may make loud noise, launch forward to an opponent
and even attempt to bite the rival male. It can threaten a rival by bobbing its head and expanding
its gular fold. If the rival does not leave, a fight may ensue.
Establishment of territories ensures that there are enough compatible mating partners, no
overcrowding or even under-crowding.
Humans also exhibit territoriality as they too defend their home out of jealousy.

iii. Display of Body Colours

Some animals carry out courtship exhibitions called displays. They are designed to show their
interest in mating. Such animals include birds (fowls, hens, turkey and peacock) cricket, winged
termite, lizard and he-goats. Display takes various forms in humans. They include the use of
perfume, voice (intonation), beauty, seductive walking, facial expression, dressing and
decoration. They use them to attract members of the opposite sex.
Display may be in the form of spreading beautiful feathers, making noise, wagging of tail, giving
a hot chase, singing, dancing, feeding and building nest.

Display is exhibited in the following ways in some animals;

i. Goat: - The he goat chases the she goats hotly and makes a peculiar noise.
ii. Lizards:-In their natural habitat, the female curves its back and rises up tail. The male in
turn wags its tail, nods its head and shows off its brightly coloured (red) head and body to
the female. The female could be attracted by this display.
iii. Cricket: - The male cricket attracts the female by making shrill noise with its outer
wings.
iv. Birds:-Different birds exhibit diverse types of display. These include singing, dancing,
feeding, building nests, preening and showing off their beautiful feathers and body.
v. Fireflies: - The male fireflies use flashes of light when flying around to seek mate.
Female fireflies will use the same flashes to communicate their readiness for the male if
interested. Some species even use different colours and intensities of light to signify their
intentions.

iv. Seasonal Migration

These are seasonal movement of animals in response to unfavorable climatic conditions, food
availability or to ensure reproduction. Animals migrate in order to bear their young in places
relatively safe from predators and rich in resources. The female green turtles swim from their
feeding grounds off the coast of Brazil when the time for laying their eggs draws near. They
swim to tiny Ascension Island over 2000km away, haul themselves unto the sandy beach, scrape
out shallow nest, and deposit their eggs. Once the eggs are deposited, they swim back to Brazil.
The fresh water eels spend most of their adult lives in the river of North America and Great
Britain. However, during the spawning season, the adult migrate more than 5000km to the weedy
Sargasso Sea between Bermuda and Puerto Rico to bread and spawn. The young eel take a year
or two to reach America shores and they are often three year old before they reach European
rivers where they feed and grow.

Types of migration include complete, partial, altitudinal, removal, latitudinal, reproductive,

nomadic and irruptive migration.

SUGGESTED PRACTICALS
1. Teachers should show students pictures of colourful birds such as peacock, turkey and big
cocks. He should encourage them to observe courtship features of these animals and discuss how
the birds display them and for what purpose.
2. Students should be taken to the school farms or lawns. They should be shown how to identify
the male lizard basking. Students should be shown how to identify the male lizard and how it
claims or defends its territory. They should observe and discuss how it exhibits its courtship
behavior.
3. Record and discuss your observation on the following:
(a) The aggressive nature of males to intruders
(b) Territorialism in Lizards
(c) Chasing strategy of cocks
(d) How the he-goat pursues the she-goat around the vicinity.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Reproduction behavior in animals include all of the following except ---------- (a) Territoriality
(b) displays (c) Pollination (d) Pairing.
2. Identify the false statement in this list: (a) He-goat often pursues she-goat for mating purpose
(b) Male crickets attract female by making shrill noise (c) Some birds such as cocks and hens
display dancing (d) Male toad often carries female toad during breeding.
3. Which of these animals exhibit seasonal migration? (a) Cattle egret (b) Peacock (c) Lizard (d)
Turkey
4. When two mature animals go away from the rest in twos, this is referred to as ----------- (a)
Migration (b) Territoriality (c) Pairing (d) display
5. Courtship behavior in cock or turkey does not include one of the following (a) Feeding (b)
Singing (c) dancing (d) Fee migration

EVALUATION
1. (a) State three courtship behavior in named animals
(b) Described any two of them concisely
2. (a) Explain the term pairing
(b) Described the behavior with a relevant example
3. (a) What is the meaning of territoriality in animals?
(b) Described this behavior in a named animal.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read about Biology of heredity: Transfer and expression of characters in organism. Modern
Biology for SSS by Ramalingam S.T. Pages 540-555

WEEKEND ACTIVITY
1. State the differences between (i) dominant and recessive character (ii) Genotype and
phenotype
2. Described the structure of DNA

WEEK 7

TOPIC: BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY

CONTENT:
1. Transmission and expression of characters in organisms
2. Chromosomes the basis of heredity.
3. Probability in genetics.
4. Applications of principles of heredity
5. Explanation on cross and self fertilization

BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY: GENETICS

Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation in living organism. Scientists who study
genetics are known as geneticists.
The laws of genetics were laid down by Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, in 1866 although the
work was not credited to him until 1900.
Johannsen, a Danish botanist called the ‘factors’ that transmitted Mendel’s characters, genes in
1909.
Thomas Morgan, an American geneticist showed that genes were on chromosomes, in 1912.

SUB-TOPIC 1: TRANSMISSION AND EXPRESSION OF CHARACTERS IN

ORGANISMS
Character is a distinct structural or functional feature of an organism. Heredity is the
transmission of inherited characters from parent to offspring through genes.
Common experience has shown that plants and animals produce offspring which look like them
but are still not exactly like the parents.
Every member of a species shares in common a set of traits. These traits or characters distinguish
one species from the other.

Hereditary Variations
Hereditary variations refer to differences among individuals which can be passed from parents to
their offspring (progeny). Variations are due to a new combination of genes. If variation makes
an offspring more suited to the environment more suited to the environment, it stands a better
chance of surviving and reproducing to pass on its genes to the next generation.

Characters that can be Transmitted

Only characters controlled by genes can be transmitted. A gene (or genes) controlling a character
direct the development of one or more proteins. These proteins lead to the visible expression of
the character/trait.

These characters include:

i. Colour of the skin,
ii. Colour Eye
iii.Shape and colour of teeth
iv. Hair texture,
v. Length of neck,
vi. Voice,
vii. Intelligence,
viii. Composure and
ix. sickle cell anaemia in animals.

While in plants variations is characterized by

i. Height of plants,
ii. Colour of leaves and flowers,
iii. Size of seed and fruits and
iv. Pigmentation may be observed.

The sum total of genes that an offspring inherits from its parents is referred to as its genotype or
genetic make-up. The actual physical expression of the character is the organism’s phenotype.
The phenotype is due to the interaction between an organism’s genotype and its environment.
For instance, a person may inherit genes for growing tall, but malnutrition may result in the
individual becoming stunted. This is a modification of the inherited character brought about by
the environment and cannot be transmitted by the individual to its offspring. Such traits are
called acquired traits and they do not change the structure of genes. A change in the structure of
genes is called a mutation and can only be inherited if it occurs in the gamete, gamete- producing
cells or in the zygote (germline mutations).

These variations may be described as;

i. Discontinuous hereditary variations
ii. Continuous hereditary variations
1. Discontinuous Hereditary Variations: In this type of variation there is no in-between feature
of the trait or character e.g.
(a) Sex is either male or female.
(b) A person is either a tongue roller or not.
(c) A person either has sickle cell anaemia, is a carrier or has no sickle cell trait.
(d) An individual may only have one blood group i.e. A, B, AB or O

2. Continuous Hereditary Variations: In this form of variation there is a range of ever

changing intermediate values of a given trait e.g.
(a) The height of a plant or person at a given period of time
(b) Size of leaves, fruits and roots of plants.

How Characters Get Transmitted

All the body (somatic) cells of plants and animals have a characteristic number of chromosomes
fixed for a particular species. These are referred to as the diploid (2n) number. Humans have a
diploid number of forty six (46) chromosomes, there are twenty three kinds of chromosomes
meaning there are two of each kind present in the diploid set. These paired chromosomes are
alike and are said to be homologous.

Each chromosome is made up of genes and so controls the major features of heredity. A gene for
a particular character e.g. colour of the eye exist at the same location or locus on two
homologous chromosomes. Genes that occupy the same relative position or loci on homologous
chromosomes but separate during meiosis are referred to as alleles; the pair is known as allelic
pair.

Alleles produce contrasting characters e.g. a tall or short pea plant, have alleles T and t
respectively. A gene may affect more than one character and some characters may be affected by
more than one gene e.g. intelligence, hair texture and hair colour.
When gametes are formed during meiosis, the homologous chromosomes separate so that each
gamete will contain one allele or allelomorphic gene. During sexual reproduction, gametes of the
male and female parent fuse (fertilization) to form the zygote. The zygote is diploid (2n) because
one haploid set of chromosomes is contributed by each parent. Thus the offspring that develops
from the zygote combine characters inherited from parents.
The male and female individual contributing gametes are referred to as the parent generation.
The offspring are the first filial (f1) genetration.

How Characters manifest from Generation to Generation

To understand how characters behave when transmitted from generation to generation, the
inheritance pattern of a character controlled by a single pair of genes can be investigated. This is
referred to as a single factor or monohybrid inheritance. An example is the flower colour of pea
plants which is determined by two alleles; one for red colour (R) and the other for white colour
(r).
If a red flowered pea plant (RR) and the cross produces only red-flowered offspring (RR), the
red flowered pa rent is said to breed true. The plant is said to produce a pure stock or pure line.
The red flowered parent plant has two genes, RR for red colour. Similarly, the white flowered
pea plant that breeds true has two genes for white colour (rr).

Parent Generation

(a) RR x RR (b) rr x rr
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
R R r r
 Sperm (n) egg cell (n) sperm (n) egg cell (n)
↘↙ ↘↙
↓ ↓
F1 generation RR rr
(Offspring 2n)

All these pea plants that breed true are said to be homologous for flower colour because the
genes controlling the flower colour in either case are identical i.e. RR or rr.
When a pure stock of red flowered pea plants is crossed with a pure stock of white flowered
plants (monohybrid cross), the offspring are all red flowered pea plants (Rr) and they form the
F1 generation. The character for red colour is said to be dominant. The white colour which does
not appear in the F1 generation is said to be recessive.

(a) Parental gametes

RR x rr
↓ ↓
R r
Sperm (n) egg cell (n)
↘↙
↓
F1 generation Rr
(Offspring 2n, all red flowered)

The result of this type of cross shows that the dominant form of a character masks the recessive
form in the F1 generation. The white flowered colour can only appear when the plant has
identical alleles (rr) for that colour i.e. the dominant allele R, for red colour is absent.

(b) F1 Parents Rr x Rr

↓ ↓

Gametes R r R r

F2 generation RR Rr Rr rr

In the F2 generation the phenotype shows three red flowered and one white flowered pea plant.
The genotype however reveals one homozygous and two heterozygous red flowered pea plants
and one homozygous white flowered pea plant.

In the F2 generation, there are two types of red flowered pea plants;
(i) one in which the two alleles for red flower colour are identical (RR) i.e. it is
homozygous for red colour.
(ii) one in which the two alleles for red flower colour are different (Rr), i.e. it is
heterozygous for red flower colour.

An individual is said to be heterozygous for a character that has more than one form of
expression, if the two copies of the gene controlling that character are different.

The homozygous and heterozygous red-flowered pea plants are said to show the same
phenotype but different genotypes. These heterozygous plants are referred to as hybrids.
Crossing the hybrids will produce a mixture of red and white flowered pea plants with roughly
three quarters bearing red flowers and one quarter bearing white flowers. These results show
that;

(i) Heterozygotes do not breed through.

(ii) The recessive form of the flower colour masked in the F1 generation can appear in the F2
generation (a recessive gene can skip some generations and appear in a latter one).
(iii) The majority of members of the F1 and F2 generations exhibit the dominant form of flower
colour (more members of a population exhibit the dominant form of a character).

EVALUATION
1. How are characters transmitted in living organisms?
2. What is heredity?
3. Describe variation.
4. What determines the characters inherited by an individual?
5. How are characters transmitted from parents to offspring?

ASSIGNMENT
Making use of a punnet square, show how seed colour and seed shape are transmitted in two
generations assuming you cross a pure stock of pea plants bearing round (RR), yellow (YY)
seeds with a pure stock of pea plants bearing wrinkled (rr), green (yy) seeds.

MENDELIAN LAWS
Gregor Mendel (1882 – 1884) was an Austrian monk who carried out simple experiments on
heredity for nine years (1856 – 1865) using the common garden pea. He published his research
findings “Experiments on Hybridization” in the journal of Natural History in Austria in 1866/67.

He formulated two principles of inheritance;

(i) First Mendelian law
The law of segregation; states that “ the two factors segregate or separate from one another
unaltered and unblended as they pass from one generation to the next”. The pair of factors
(genes) segregate during the formation of gametes (meiosis). Only one passes into a single
gamete. During fertilization genes pair up in new ways.

(ii) Second Mendelian law

The law of Independent assortment; states that “two pairs of factors in the same cross assort or
separate independently of each other”. In other words, a member of a pair of genes can combine
separately with any other member of another pair. It acts randomly and it is thus inherited.

Mendel arrived at this law from his findings on the experiment he carried out with two pairs of
contrasting characters (dihybridization). For example, in the crossing of round yellow seeds
with wrinkled green seeds, the F1 generation showed the dominant character of round and
yellow (RRYY), but the F2 generation showed a proportion that was the square of 3: 1.

The result was 16 combinations with four phenotypes in the ratio 9:3:3:1
i. Nine round yellow
ii. Three round yellow
iii. Three wrinkled green
iv. One wrinkled green.
There were nine genotypes which include four homozygous and five heterozygous conditions.

SUB-TOPIC 2: CHROMOSOMES; THE BASIS OF HEREDITY

Chromosomes are located in the nucleus of living cells of plants and animals.
All plants and animals possess two types of cells;
(i) somatic or vegetative cells and
(ii) gametes or sex cells

i. Somatic cells are the body cells which are not concerned with reproduction. They carry the
diploid (2n) set of chromosomes. They are obtained as a result of fertilization, i.e. the
contribution of a set of chromosomes from a male and a female individual. Nuclear division in
somatic cells is referred to as mitosis.

ii. Sex cells (gametes) are cells which are found in the reproductive organs of male and female
organisms. The gametes (e.g. sperm, Ovum, pollen grain) are haploid i.e. they carry half the
number of chromosomes of somatic cells. Nuclear division which results in their formation is
referred to as meiosis (reduction division).

Each organism has a specific number of chromosomes in its somatic cells i.e. the number of
chromosomes in a species is constant. Every human has 23 pairs (46) of chromosomes in each
somatic cell, while each gamete has half i.e. 23 chromosomes. Drosophila (fruit fly) has 4 pairs
and tomato plant has 10 pairs of chromosomes each.

Structure of Chromosomes
Each chromosome is thread like in appearance and made up of two nuclear threads called
chromatids held in the middle by a centromere. Homologous or identical chromosomes occur in
pairs. Each chromosome has several transverse bands along its length. Numerous hereditary
materials (genes) are located on these bands. Genes are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules.
It is estimated that there are 2-3million genes in every human cell.
The DNA consists of a double chain formed by repeating small chemical units called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a deoxyribose sugar (S), a phosphate group (P) and
a nitrogenous compound base which may be Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) or
Thymine (T).These nucleotides are arranged in a structure depicting a ladder. Each pair of the
ladder consists of a pair of nitrogenous bases linked together by a hydrogen bond. Adenine pairs
only with Thymine (A-T), and Guanine with Cytosine (G-C). The two chains are coiled like a
spring to give a double helix structure.
 The structure of the chromosome

DNA double helix structure

During cell division, the chromosomes reproduce themselves. This is achieved by the replication
of DNA molecules. As the two strands unwind, free nucleotides in the cell are joined to each
strand appropriately to form two new double helices of DNA. When T is exposed, only A is
added from the nuclear fluids (cytoplasm). Similarly when C is exposed, only G is added.
Heredity information exists in coded form in the DNA. The DNA determines the makeup of
proteins, enzymes and other substances in a cell. It controls the physical and chemical activities
of each cell as well as the entire organism. The DNA molecule is structurally the same in all
organisms but instruction or genetic codes are arranged in different sequences for every species.
It is these codes that determine the pattern of growth and behaviour of every member of a
species.
Role of Chromosomes in Transmission of Hereditary Characters
There is a segregation of genes at meiosis to produce haploid gametes. These genes (from the
parents) recombine during sexual reproduction (fertilization) to produce a zygote that develops
into an offspring.

The role of chromosomes in making this possible is as follows;

(a) Formation of gametes
As a result of the meiotic division of cells, gametes are formed.
During meiosis, members of a homologous pair of chromosomes separate first, then the sister
chromatids of each chromosome separate. The result is one diploid cell giving rise to four
haploid cells (gametes), thus meiosis is a reduction division. Each gamete has one set of
chromosomes and hence one copy of genes.

(b) Crossing Over

During the process of meiosis, exchange of genetic materials takes place between chromatids of
a homologous pair of chromosomes; this is referred to as crossing over. This process gives rise to
a new combination of alleles on a chromosome and hence more types of allele combinations in
gametes.

(c) Fertilization
The process of fertilization also shows the role of chromosomes in transmitting hereditary
characters. When a sperm fertilizes an egg to form a zygote, only the nuclei of the two cells fuse.
This shows that chromosomes are the actual structural materials that transmit genes from the
parents to the offspring.
Fertilization restores the homologous pair of chromosomes. Fertilization occurs randomly and
brings about new chromosome combinations, hence new allele combinations.

EVALUATION
1. What causes the variations among living organisms of the same species?
2. Give five examples of hereditary variations that can be passed down from parents to offspring.
3. What are chromosomes and what role do they play in transmission of characters from parents
to their offspring?
4. State and explain the two laws of Mendel

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Discuss the following:
i. single-factor inheritance
ii. albinism
iii. gamete formation

WEEK: 8

TOPIC: VARIATION AND EVOLUTION

CONTENT: 1. Morphological variations

2. Physiological variation
3. Application of variation

INTRODUCTION
Evolution is the cumulative changes in the characteristics of population or organisms occurring
in the course of successive generations related by descent. Variations are differences in traits or
characteristics between individuals of the same species.
Variation can be:
I. Discontinuous or
II. Continuous.

I. In Discontinuous variation, individuals fall into distinct categories e.g. Pea plant with either
red flowers or white flowers. There are no intermediate forms between these traits. They are
easily distinguishable and are not affected by environmental conditions.

Examples of such traits are

i. The ability to roll the tongue
ii. Taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTB),
iii. ABO blood groups in man and
iv. Normal and vestigial wings in Drosophila.
Such discontinuous variation is brought about by one or a few genes.

II. In Continuous variation, there is a complete range of measurements from one extreme to
another. In other words individuals do not fall into discrete categories,

Examples includes:
i. The colour of skin
ii. Height etc
Man is not just dark or fair, nor is he either tall or short. There are many intermediate skin
colours and heights. Such characteristics show a continuous variation from one extreme to the
other. A continuous variation is brought about by the combined (or additive) effects of many
genes.

There may be genes for dark skin and gene for fair skin. The more dark-skin genes a person has,
the darker will his skin colour be. Continuous variations are also affected by the environmental
conditions for example; a greater exposure to sunlight may cause a person to have a darker skin
colour. This is also known as acquired variation. Other examples of continuous variation in man
are intelligence and weight.
Variation found in or among organizations could be physical (morphological) or behavioural
(physiological).
 Black or White?

SUB-TOPIC 1: MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATION

Variations in physical traits or outward appearances in organizations are known as
morphological variations.

Examples include:
i. Height,
ii. weight,
iii. colour of the eye, hair or coat of animals,
iv. facial features
v. finger print patterns.

i. Variation in Height: if you measure the heights of all the students in your class that are
of the same age, there is likely to be a steady graduation from the students who are very
short to those who are very tall.

ii. Variations in weight can be due to genetic heredity or certain environmental factor such
as i. lifestyle, diet or whether one is affected by an illness.
Weight of individual organisms in a population can vary greatly from newborn babies to
teenagers and mature adults there is a continuous variation form one extreme to another
(underweight to overweight).

iii. Colour of the eye varies from person to person. It could be brown, amber, grey, green or
blue. This continuous variation depends on the amount of melanin present in the iris of
the eye. Brown eyes contain high levels of melanin while blue eyes contain low level of
melanin.
iv. Hair colour in humans varies from blonde, brown to black. There are many
intermediate shades between light coloured hair and dark-coloured hair. Variations in fur
colour can also be seen in animals such as cows and rabbits.
v. Facial features: Although humans general look similar in physical form, our facial
features vary. Some of our facial features like our nose or mouth resembles our parents
but none looks exactly like theirs. The shapes of our face can range from oblong, round to
squarish.
vi. Fingerprints are patterns formed by the ridges in the dermis of the skin on our fingertips.

Variations in finger-prints can be broadly classified into;

i. arch,
ii. loop,
iii. whorl and
iv. compound.
Due to small variations in the fingerprints of different individuals, each person has a
morphological variation.

Morphological variations in plants that are continuous are

i. Height
ii. shape of the body parts
iii. leaf size
iv. root size
v. size of petals and sepals
 vi. length of internodes.

Types of Fingerprints
Human fingerprint patterns fall into three main groups: whorls, loops, and arches. Loops are the
most common type, accounting for about 65 percent of all fingerprints. Whorls account for 30
percent of fingerprints, and arches for 5 percent. Despite these broad patterns, each individual
has a unique set of fingerprints, which can be used as a means of personal identification.

EVALUATION
1. Define evolution and variation.
2. State three differences between continuous and discontinuous variation.
3. What is morphological variation?
4. State four morphological variation in (i) plant (ii) animals

Sub-Topic 2: Physiological Variation

Physiological variation refers to differences in the bodily functions of organisms.

Examples of physiological variation are;

i. Disparities in ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC)
ii. Ability to roll ones tongue and
iii. Having different types of blood groups.

Members of the same species behave or react to certain things and conditions in their
environment in different ways.

Examples of discontinuous variations in human population include:

i. Some people can perceive smell while others cannot.
ii. Some people (taster) may be able to detect taste of certain materials like bitter leaf, while
others (non-taster) cannot. Similarly, some can detect high, moderate and low salt
concentration in cooked meal while others cannot.
iii. Few people can roll their tongues. There are no in-between or intermediates.
iv. Some people can detect the taste of certain substances even at very low concentrations
while others can only do so at very high concentrations e.g. phenylthiocarbamide (PTC).
v. Every human possesses one of the four blood groups called A, B, AB and O. This is
based on the cell factor called antigen.

The features of discontinuous variation are genetically determined. You cannot alter your blood
group by changing your diet. They are under the control of a number of genes.
The absence of one gene for pigmentation causes albinism.
Examples of discontinuous variation in plants of the same species are;
i. Colour of flower petals
ii. Colour of fruits
iii. Colour of seeds
iv. Shape of seeds and fruits

EVALUATION
1. Define physiological variation
2. Give three examples of Physiological variation in
i. Animals
ii.Plants.

SUB-TOPIC 3: APPLICATION OF VARIATION

The knowledge of variations in human population is applied in many ways include the following:
i. Crime Detection: Detectives use finger prints in identifying people suspected to have
committed certain crimes. This is based on the assumption that no two persons possess exactly
the same fingerprints and that human fingerprint remain the same throughout one’s life span.
Hence, if the fingerprints of a suspect are exactly like those at the scene of a crime, the suspect
might be held as being responsible for the crime.
Fingerprints on dangerous weapons can also be investigated to detect criminals such as assassins
using riffles or pistol.

Fingerprint Analysis
Storing fingerprint records in computers has made it much easier for the FBI to identify latent
fingerprints—fingerprints left at the scene of a crime.
Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.

ii. Classification of the Human Race: variations in physical characteristics (e.g. skin colour)
among human population have been used to classify the human race into four major grouping of
Caucasoid, Negroid, Mongoloid and Australoid.

iii. Blood Groups: Every human being belongs to any of the four blood groups A, B, AB or O.
The knowledge of human blood group is used as follows:
 a. Blood transfusion: If the transferred blood does not match that of the recipient, the
recipient’s blood will clump or agglutinate. Death, within minutes can result from the
agglutination. The table below shows the blood groups that will clump and those that
will not during blood transfusion.

COMPATIBLE AND INCOMPATIBLE HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS

BLOOD GROUP COMPATIBLE DONOR INCOMPATIBLE DONOR
A A or O B or AB
B B or O A or AB
AB A, B, AB, O NONE
O O A, B, AB, O

People in blood group O can donate blood to people in all other groups. Hence, they are called
universal donors. People in blood group AB can receive blood from people in other groups. Thus
they are called universal recipients.

b. Crime detection: When blood stains got from the scene of a crime is analysed, the
result can be used by detectives to identify arrested suspects and hence detect the
actual criminals.
c. Determination of paternity: when there is a dispute as to the actual father of a baby,
the knowledge of blood groups can be used to prove the paternity of the child. For
example, if the baby’s blood falls under blood group AB and its mother is in blood
group A, the baby's genotype will be IA IB and the mother IA; or IA IA, certainly,
the IB gene of the baby must have been inherited from the father. Supposing the
alleged father is in blood group O, it is not likely that the baby belongs to him. If he is
real father, the baby’s genotype ought to be be IA.

EVALUATION
1. List four ways by which the knowledge variation in human population is useful to us.
2. State the blood group types that can be transmitted for individuals in blood groups A, AB, O

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of these statements about variation is false?
(a) It is the difference found among members of the same species
(b) Variations among members of the same species are usually more.
(c) Variations can be inherited.
(d) Variations can be continuous or discontinuous.
2. Which of the following is not a continuous variation?
(a) Height (b) weight (c) skin colour (d) ability to smell.
3. Which of the following is not one of the applications of the knowledge of variation?
(a) Determination of paternity (b) crime detection (c) Blood transfusion
(d) Determination of genotype
4. All the following are discontinuous variations except …………..
(a) Tongue rolling (b) crime detection (c) blood transfusion (d) determination of genotype
5. Which of the following is a discontinuous variation in plant?
(a) Height (b) root size (c) size of petals (d) shape of body parts

ESSAY TEST
1 (a). Define variation and evolution.
(b). Distinguish between morphological and physiological variations.
2 (a). What is the main difference between continuous and discontinuous variations?
(b) Explain two possible causes of variation.
3 (a) state five examples of continuous variations in (i) humans (ii) plants.
 (b) State five examples of discontinuous variations in (i) human (ii) plants
4. In what ways is the knowledge of variation in human population useful to us?
5. List and describe four types of human races.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
Read about Evolution: Progressive changes in structure and anatomy of organisms and structural
adaptations; Modern Biology for SSS by Ramalingam S.T. Pages 529-539

WEEK 9

TOPIC: EVOLUTION

CONTENT: 1. Progressive change in structure and anatomy of organisms.

2. Structural adaptation: Adaptive colouration
3. Structural adaptation: For obtaining food.
4. Different castes of termites.
5. Different castes of bees.

SUB-TOPIC 1: PROGRESSIVE CHANGE IN STRUCTURE AND ANATOMY OF

ORGANISMS.

Definition of Evolution
Organic evolution is the sum total of adaptive changes that have taken place over a long period
of time in the life history of an organism. This process usually leads to the development of new
species from pre- existing ones.
Organic evolution suggests that all living things have arisen from pre-existing ones by a gradual
process of change over a long period of time.

Evolution proposes that life started in water; from marine water to fresh water to land and then to
air. Progressive changes in the structure and anatomy of organisms have been going on as they
inhabited these habitats at one time or the other. These changes enabled the organisms to be well
adapted to the various habitats.
Organisms that live in water environment have streamlined body shape, soft and moist skin,
water dependent reproductive system, efficient osmoregulator and other structural and
anatomical adaptations.

The fore limbs of aquatic animals are also modified for swimming and orientation in water.
These fore limbs in the course of progressive evolution changes are modified into crawling and
hopping as in amphibians; running in reptiles; flight for birds and bat; climbing and swinging as
in monkeys and walking and grasping as in humans and chimpanzees respectively.
All these animals have the same anatomical pattern of forelimbs but diversified structures for
various adaptations in their respective habitats.

Similar structures that perform similar functions are called homologous structures. Dissimilar
structures that perform similar functions are said to be analogous.

In the process of their evolution from water to land, Organisms progressively changed by
possessing;
i. complex body posture to withstand gravity,
ii. dry skin to prevent desiccation (drying up),
iii. internal fertilization mechanism to ensure reproduction on land and
 iv. a modified osmo-regulator to conserve water on land.

EVALUATION
1. Describe how organisms evolved from one habitat to another.
2. State the changes that occurred in limb structure as organisms progressively evolved from one
habitat to another.

Galapagos Finches

SUB-TOPIC 2: STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS

To survive in their environments, organisms show different adaptations in their form and
function. The following are some of the special adaptations shown by organisms for survival:

i. Adaptive Colouration: Many organisms posses bright, attractive colour with special
markings on their bodies to help them obtain food, escape or hide from enemies and to
secure mates. Some flowering plants have brightly coloured flowers which attract animal
pollinators.

ii. Warning Colouration: Many vulnerable preys develop bright colours and are bitter and
unpalatable to their vertebrate predators. Distasteful insects are brightly coloured and
conspicuous with contrasting pattern of different colour bands. Examples are lady bird
beetles, wasps and butterflies. Even insects with nice taste but with colours like that of
the unpalatable ones also survive.

iii. Mimicry: This is the close resemblance of an animal called a mimic to another different
object referred to as a model in order to increase its chances of survival. A harmless
organism is usually protected from its predator by mimicking a dangerous species. A
mimic and a model are naturally unrelated. For good success a mimic must also behave
like the model in some ways.

iv. Camouflage: Many animals are protected from their predators by the close matching of
their body appearance with their surrounding background. Many grasshoppers and
praying mantis have green pigments in their cuticles making them look like green
 vegetation. The rattlesnakes easily fit into the colour of the green environment. Another
example is the chameleon.

v. Colouration: Some animals possess bright body colouration which helps during mating.
The bright colouration usually attracts the opposite sex for mating. Birds like peacock,
turkey and cock exhibit colouration.

vi. Counter Shading: In some animals, the upper part of the body has a different colour
from the lower part of the body. Such animals are said to be counter shaded. Most fishes
have dark dorsal colour which tend to blend with the dark coloured water while their
ventral sides are light in colour which blend with the sky above.

EVALUATION
List and discuss four structural adaptations for survival

SUB-TOPIC 3: STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION FOR OBTAINING FOOD

Some animals have special structural adaptations that enable them obtain food. For instance the
beaks of birds are adapted to their individual diets.

Bird Structure of beak Food Eaten

Eagle, Falcon, Hawk, Kite Hooked, sharp beak used to Flesh
kill and tear off flesh.
Heron Long, strong pointed beak Fish
Humming bird Long beak and tubular-tipped Nectar
tongue.
Swallow Short beak held wide open Insects in flight
Weaver bird Short, cone-shaped beak Seeds
Wood pecker Long, narrow, pointed beak Insect in tree bark

The mouth parts of some insects are also adapted to their feeding habits.
Flies and mosquitoes have proboscis as feeding organs with these they can freely feed on fluids
by sucking (e.g. housefly) or piercing and sucking (e.g. Tse-tse fly and mosquitoes).
Grasshoppers, termites and caterpillars of butterflies and moths have sharp mouth parts
(mandible and Maxillae) for biting and chewing.

Structural Adaptations for Protection and Defence

Many organisms have exoskeletons by which they protect themselves from predators and other
unfavourable environmental conditions.
Crabs, centipedes, snails, tortoise and turtle all have hard coverings or bony plates for protection.
Others include the sharp thorns on some plants like acacia or spines on plants like Asparagus.
Mammals like cows, deer and buffalo use horns to defend and protect themselves. Other animals
defend and protect themselves with poisonous and toxic secretions when attacked. Some snakes
spray poisonous venom on their predators.
For attack and defence, many animals bite their prey, predators or intruders with their teeth or
mouthparts. Examples are insects (ants and termites), mammals (cat, dog, lion) and reptiles
(snakes).
The swimming of fish and the flying of insects and birds aid them in moving away from
predators.

Structural Adaptation for Regulating Body Temperature

The skin of mammals is well adapted to regulate body temperature.
The feathers of birds, the scales of some fish and reptiles and the shells of snails and crustaceans
all help in regulating their body temperature.
Lizards are poikilothermic; their body temperature is determined by the temperature of their
surrounding environment. They bask in the sun to raise their body temperature and rest in the
shade when their temperature rises above a critical level.

EVALUATION
1. Name and describe the structures used by four birds to obtain their food.
2. Mention two insects and describe the structure they use to obtain food.
3. List five animals and discuss their structural adaptation for protection and defence.
4. State two differences between homiotherms and poikilotherms.

ASSIGNMENT
Write short notes on the following:
i. hibernation,
ii. aestivation and
iii. migration

SUB-TOPIC 4: DIFFERENT CASTES OF TERMITES AND THEIR ROLES

Termites are social animals. They live in highly organized groups. They usually live in
underground tunnels. Termites feed on cellulose thereby damaging wooden materials, crops and
young trees. They help in maintaining soil fertility by breaking down dead materials into humus.

Termites in a colony

A colony of termites is made up of the following castes:

i. Queen and King: These are the reproductive members of the castes with the responsibility of
mating and laying eggs. There is always only one king and one queen at any point in time though
there could be other fertile potential kings and queens. A fully grown queen is about 9cm long.

ii. Workers: There are sterile females with no eyes, soft and pale exoskeleton and well
developed mouthparts. Workers are responsible for building the termitarium, searching for and
bringing in food for other members in colony. They also tend fungal gardens, collect eggs and
care for the nymphs structural adaptations for regulating body temperature.
After eating they regurgitate the partially digested food to feed the other members of the colony.
iii. Soldiers: These are sterile, blind and wingless males with large heads, thick exoskeletons and
huge mandibles. They are responsible for protecting the colony from invaders and also protect
the workers as they gather food for the colony.

EVALUATION
1. What is a caste?
2. Name, describe and state the functions of the individuals that make up a termite caste.
3. What is/are the economic importance of termites?

SUB-TOPIC 5: DIFFERENT CASTES OF BEES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A honey bee colony lives in a hive.

It is composed of:
i. a single queen,
ii. a few hundred drones and
iii. several thousand workers.

Bees undergo complete metamorphosis unlike termites which undergo incomplete

metamorphosis.
Drones hatch from unfertilized eggs. The drones are responsible for fertilizing eggs.
The queen and workers hatch from fertilized eggs. Larvae feeding on pollen grains and honey
become workers. If fed on royal jelly which contains vitamins, a larva develops into a queen.
The queen then secretes a queen substance that suppresses the development of ovaries in the
workers.
The queen does the service of reproduction to replenish the castes.
The workers labour for the colony.

Bees in a colony

EVALUATION
1. Mention the castes in a bee colony.
2. What are the functions of the castes mentioned above?
3. What determines the caste a larva will develop into?
4. What is/are the economic importance of bees?

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The yellow and black stripes on the body of wasps is an example of
(a) counter shading (b) cryptic colouration (c) mimicry (d) warning colouration
2. The main force that regularly produces evolutionary change is
(a) gene flow (b) genetic variation (c) mutation (d) natural selection
3. Which is the odd one out? (a) bee (b) butterfly (c) termites (d) wasp
4. The tendency for two or more genes to segregate together in a cross is known as (a) co-
dominance (b) incomplete dominance (c) sex-linkage (d) polygenic inheritance
5. Organic evolution proposes that life started from (a) air (b) fresh water (c) Land (d) marine
water

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the statement “individuals do not evolve; only populations evolve”
2. What advantages do animals get by forming social groups?
3. What are the differences between specialized insect and vertebrate societies?

WEEK 10

TOPIC: EVOLUTION

CONTENT: (i) Theories of Evolution.

(ii) The theories of evolution according to Charles Darwin, Jean Baptist de Lamark
(iii) Evidence of evolution.
(iv) Forces responsible for evolution: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift.

INTRODUCTIION
Adaptation is the process by which organisms change their structure, physiology and behaviour
in order to survive. This has led to diversity in form, in structure and function among organisms.

The theory of evolution is an attempt to explain how this diversity has taken place. Many
scholars made some discoveries on evolution, some of them are;
i. George Louis Buffon (1707-1777)
ii. Carl Linnaeues (1707-1778)
iii. Jean Lamarck (1744-1829)
iv. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
v. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
vi. Alfred R. Wallace (19th century)

SUB-TOPIC 1: THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

I. LAMARCK’S THEORY (1744-1829)

In the early 19th century, French biologist Jean Baptist Lamarck embraced the idea of progressive
change in living world based in part on his study of marine invertebrate fossils.
He was the first biologist to suggest that organisms undergo evolution. He propounded his
systematically organized theory of evolution in 1801. This theory is based on the following
ideas.
i. The use and disuse of organs
ii. The inheritance of acquired characteristics.

Lamarck believed that species do change over time (through use and disuse of the body parts)
and that animals evolve because of unfavourable conditions that the animals try to adapt to.
In his explanation, Lamarck cited example of giraffe and said their ancestors had short neck but
kept stretching their necks to reach leaves in high trees during the period of food scarcity.
Lamarck posited that this voluntary, constant stretch of their neck slightly changed the hereditary
characteristics controlling neck growth and that giraffe transmitted these acquired characteristics
to its offspring.

Lamarck was right when he posited that we could acquire traits through voluntary use of body
parts but was wrong when he concluded that these acquired characteristics are inheritable.

The following are the main points of the theory;

i. The environment forces an organism to have some needs.
ii. To satisfy these needs, the organism may use an organ.
iii. The organ that is frequently used develops.
iv. Characteristics developed by an organism while satisfying the environmental needs are
transferred to the offspring.
v. The organ that is not used degenerates.

Although the inheritance of acquired characteristics seems to be logical, no evidence has been
found to support this view. Genetic materials are contained in the chromosomes. Except for rare
mutations, genetical information is passed on unchanged from generation to generation. If
acquired characteristics could be inherited, then children of a great sport person would be born
with the knowledge of sports. Acquired skills are usually developed anew in each generation.
They are certainly not inherited.

II. DAWIN’S THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

About 50 years after Lamarck proposed his theory of evolution, the British naturalist Charles
Darwin, revolutionalized the thinking of most Biologists. In 1859, Darwin published a book
called origin of species by means of natural selection. Like Lamarck, Darwin stated that living
organisms gradually evolved adaptations to the environment. However, Darwin recognized the
variations among members of a species. It is these variations rather than the acquired
characteristics that aid natural selection.

Darwin’s theory of natural selection can be summarized as follows:

i. Species have the ability to produce a large number of offspring.
ii. The resources of the natural world are limited. Therefore, there must be competition for
survival among the offspring in each generation.
iii. There is great variability within the population of organism.
iv. No two individuals are the same.
v. Much of these varieties are inherited.
vi. The organisms that survive and produce offspring are those that have inherited the most
beneficial traits for surviving in a particular environment.
vii. As this process continues through many generations, the population gradually becomes
better adapted to the environment.
Modern genetic research supports Darwin’s theory. Both Lamarck and Darwin recognized the
importance of the environment in evolution. Many biologists generally accept that it is by natural
selection of the better adapted organisms by chance and the elimination of the much less adapted
ones that evolution or chance occurs.
However, while Darwin recognized that organisms vary, he had no idea of why they vary. This
became better understood through the works of Gregor Mendel, and modern discovery in
genetics resulting in the modern theories of evolution.

EVALUATION
1. Name four scientists that contributed to the discovery of evolution.
2. Explain the contribution of Lamarck to evolution theory.
3. State three facts presented by Darwin in his theory.

SUB-TOPIC 2: EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

Since evolution is an extremely slow process, occurring over a long period of time, it is very
difficult to observe evolution visibly or to obtain direct evidence of evolution in action.
However, scientists from many fields have gathered at great deal of indirect evidence that
supports the theory of evolution.

The following are the sources of such evidences.

i. Evidence from Fossil Records.

ii. Evidence from Embryology;
iii. Evidence from comparative Anatomy
iv. Evidence from vestigial organs
v. Evidence from Biochemisty and Genetics.

i. Evidence from Fossil Records.

Fossils are remains of organisms preserved mainly in sedimentary rocks. It is believed that the
history of life on earth is recorded in fossils. The age of rocks in which fossils are found are
determined by using radioisotope or carbon dating. The history of a particular evolutionary
change can be traced through a series of fossils when carefully arranged according to their age
from the oldest fossils the most recent ones. An example is the evolution of the most modern
horse (Equus) from the dawn horse; Eohippus, 60 million years ago.

ii. Evidence from Embryology;

When comparing the development of closely related organisms, it is often difficult to tell the
early stages of one species from the early stages of another. The similarity of organisms often
used as evidence of evolution. If two organisms descended from a common ancestor, they may
still have developmental stages that are very similar.

iii. Evidence from comparative Anatomy

All vertebrates show a basic plan which points to a common ancestry. These are features
showing progressive complexity in the structure of vertebrates from fishes to mammals. For
instance, there are progressive evolutionary changes in the anatomy of the heart among the
classes of vertebrates.
Fishes have a simple heart with one auricle and one ventricle; reptiles have two auricles and a
partially divided ventricle. In the course of these changes, the circulation of blood also changed
from a single to a double circulation.
iv. Evidence from vestigial organs
Vestigial organs are small or incomplete organs that have no apparent function. They have
become reduced and useless. The presence of vestigial organs helps to explain evolution.
According to the evolutionary theory, vestigial organs are the remaining parts of previous
functioning organs. For examples, the muscles of the ear in man is a vestigial organ while in
horse it plays important role in twisting back the ear to catch sound. The appendix in man is
vestigial while it functions as caecum in herbivores.

v. Evidence from Biochemisty and Genetics.

Modern genetics also provides evidence of evolution. All organisms use the same genetic code to
synthesis proteins. A universal genetic code is consistence with the idea that all organisms
evolved from a single organism that used the code.
Biochemists have compared the amino acid sequence of proteins found in different organisms.
Organisms that are closely related often have proteins with similar amino acid. In dissimilar
organisms, the amino acid sequences of protein show many more differences.

EVALUATION
State the evidence of evolution and discuss any one of them.

SUB-TOPIC 3: FORCES RESPONSIBLE FOR EVOLUTION

The modern theories of evolution are referred to as Neo-Darwinism. This makes use of present
day knowledge of genes and chromosomes to explain the sources of genetic variation upon
which natural selection works. It also postulates that other forces play a part in evolution
although natural selection is more regular. Scientists have identified mutation theory, gene flow
and genetic drift as other natural forces responsible for evolutionary changes.

I. MUTATION
In 1901, Hugo de Vries, a Dutch botanist, presented his mutation theory of evolution. He based
his theory on many years of work with primrose plants. Of the 50,000 plants, about 800 showed
spectacular new trait not present in the parent plant. Yet, these new trait were passed on to the
offspring of the plants in which mutation had occurred. De Vries concluded that, mutation must
occur often in other organisms too, and that the change by mutation was the basis of evolution. It
has also been confirmed that chromosomal mutations though occurring less often than gene
mutation, result in larger and better adapted plants. Today, many biologists believe that
mutations contribute significantly to evolution.
Evolution is believed to occur when new species of organisms are formed. Other ways besides
mutations, in which evolution is believed to occur in modern times include isolation and the
migration of a population to different environments.

II. GENE FLOW

A phenomenon whereby individuals more from one population to another introducing a new
gene to the populations is referred to as gene flow. Gene flow moves alleles among populations
through the process of interbreeding and migration of breeding individuals.
Gene flows increases variation within a population by introducing new alleles produced in
another population. For example, chance dispersal can occur between two populations of related
wildflowers, one red and the other white wildflower population. Due to the chance dispersal by
strong wind, the gene for the red flowers may be introduced to the white population gene pool.
Persistent gene flow tend to decrease diversity among populations, causing gene pools to become
similar. Restriction of gene flow between populations is important for the development of new
species.
III. GENETIC DRIFT
Genetic drift is changes in allele frequencies of a gene pool due to chance or random events. It
can cause the loss of an allele in a population even if the allele results in greater evolutionary
fitness. It can also cause a situation where the allele can be found in every member of the
population i.e. fixed even if the allele decreases fitness. Genetic drift is believed to be more
widespread in small population where a chance or random event can wipe out the carriers of the
allele completely from the population or drastically reduce their numbers.

EVALUATION
1. List three forces or factors that are responsible for evolutionary changes.
2. Define mutation
3. How does mutation contribute to evolutionary changes?

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following biologists proposed the theory of acquired characteristics? (a) Lamark
(b) Darwin (c) Wallace (d) De Vries
2. Which of the following evidences is not used to support the theory of evolution? (a)Analysis
of fossil records (b) Mutation (c) Embryology (d) Vestigial organs
3. The origin of species by natural selection is a contribution by ..........
(a) Lamarck (b) Button (c) Linnaeus (d) Darwin
4. Remains of organism preserved in rocks are called
(a) Fossils (b) Evolution (c) organic evolution (d) embryology

ESSAY TEST
1. Discuss how three named animals are adapted for feeding procreation and securing mates for
reproduction
2. Discuss the contributions of Lamarck or Darwin to evolution
3. (a) Outline any four evidences you could use to convince your friend that evolution is a
continuous process
4. Explain two of the factors that are responsible for evolution
5. Draw the progressive evolutionary changes in the anatomy of the vertebrate’s heart.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY
1. Discuss briefly the relationship between classification and evolution.
2. Treat several past questions on evolution (SSCE)