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NAME:…………………………..………………………… CLASS:…..

……

DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL


www.dlhschools.org, www.dlhschools.com, [email protected]

SECOND TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS 2

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS

1. Revision of last term’s work.


2. Nutrient Cycling in Nature: (a) The water cycle (i) The process of water cycling (ii)The
importance of water to living organisms (b) Nitrogen cycle (i) The importance of nitrogen to
plants and animals (ii)The process of nitrogen cycling (c) Decomposition in Nature (i) Micro
and macro decomposers (ii) Role of decomposers.
3. Ecological Management: Association (a) Types of association (i) Symbiosis –mutual
benefits (ii) Parasitism-harmful to host (iii) Mutualism (iv) Commensalisms (b) Features of
biological importance possessed by organisms of an association.
4. Tolerance: (a) Concepts of minimum and maximum range of tolerance (b) Geographic
range graph illustrating maximum and minimum range of tolerance (c) Adaptation in form
and function of living organisms due to environmental conditions (d) Effects of availability
of water on adaptive modifications (e) Structural adaptation of Tadpoles and fish to life in
water (f) Structural adaptation in birds.
5. Pollution: (a) Pollution of the atmosphere (i) Nature, names and sources of air pollutants
(iii) Effects of noise (b) Pollution of water and soil (i) Types of composition of pollutants (ii)
Sides effects.
6. Conservation of natural resources: (a) What it means (b)Ways of ensuring conservation
(c) Benefits of conservation .
7. Mid-Term Break
8. Pest and diseases of crops: (a) Pest (i) Definition of pest (ii) Classification of pest by the
part they attack, their animal type and vertebrate pests (iii) life cycle of pests (iv) control of
pests (b) diseases caused by pests and agents (c) control of diseases caused by pests
9. Reproductive Systems in Vertebrates: (a) Reproductive systems in fish and reptile (i)
Structures of the male and female reproductive systems (ii) Parts of the reproductive systems
and their functions (iii) Structures of the male and female gamete (sperm and ovum) (iv)
Differences between male and female reproductive organs.

10 Revision.

11. Revision.

12. Examination.
WEEK 1: Revision of last term’s work.

WEEK 2
TOPIC: NUTRIENT CYCLING IN NATURE
CLASS: SS2
CONTENT: 1.The water cycle
2. The nitrogen cycle
3. Decomposition in Nature

SUB-TOPIC 1: THE WATER CYCLE


Water circulates mainly within the abiotic environment. Only a small proportion recycles
through living organisms. Plants take up water from the soil in large amounts. They use a
little part of it in photosynthesis and other metabolic reactions and lose most of the water to
the atmosphere by transpiration. Animals take in water through their food and drink, and lose
most of it through respiration, urination and defecation. Water is also released into the
atmosphere by decomposition and combustion.
The water cycle is maintained mainly by the evaporation and condensation of water in the
abiotic environment. The endless cycling of water on earth as rain, back to the atmosphere
through evaporation, then back to the earth again as rain maintains the various aquatic
environments and the supply of water which is necessary for life on land. The water cycle
carries many chemical nutrients through the ecosystem and it is an important factor in
modifying environmental temperature.

Summarily, processes involved in the completion of the water cycle include

i. Evaporation
ii. Transpiration
iii. Respiration
iv. Condensation
v. Precipitation
vi. Infiltration
vii. Percolation.

1. PRECIPITATION
2.

3.

4.

5.
WATER CYCLE

The Importance of Water to Living Organisms


i. Water constitutes about 90% of the protoplasm.
ii. It is important in the circulation of blood, food, hormones and enzymes in the body.
iii. It is necessary for the digestion of food.
iv. It facilitates the absorption of digested food.
v. It is necessary for the excretion of wastes materials like urea.
vi. Metabolic chemical reactions for building up complex compounds in living cells take
place in the presence of water.
vii. Mineral salts are absorbed from the soil in solution.
viii. Water is required for photosynthesis to take place.
ix. Mineral salts and organic substances are carried to and from the leaves in solution.
x. Water provides herbaceous land plants and aquatic plants with mechanical support.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the water cycle.
2. Of what importance is the water cycle to living organisms?
3. Make a simple diagram of the water cycle.

SUB-TOPIC 2: THE NITROGEN CYCLE


This involves the series of processes by which nitrogen is circulated between the biotic and
abiotic components of the ecosystem. In the biotic component, nitrogen is found incorporated
in amino acids and proteins. In the abiotic component, it is found in the atmosphere as
gaseous nitrogen and as inorganic salts (e.g. nitrates) in the soil.
Nitrogen is fixed into the soil by;
i. The activities of soil bacteria such as Azotobacter and Clostrdium which fix
atmospheric nitrogen into the soil.
ii. Activities of nitrogen fixing bacteria living in the root nodules of leguminous plants
e.g. Rhizobium.
iii. Thunderstorms.
iv. Putrefaction (decomposition) of dead plants and animals and the excretory products of
animals.
Nitrogen is removed from the soil by;
i. Absorption by the roots of plants.
ii. Denitrification by bacteria.
iii. Leaching.

Intensive cultivation of soil over the years has depleted the nitrogen content of soil. To
improve soil fertility, farmers now replenish soil-nitrogen content by the addition of
inorganic fertilizers and organic manure.

Importance of Nitrogen to Plants and Animals


i. Plants absorb nitrogen from the soil as nitrates or ammonium salts and use it to make
proteins and other nitrogen containing compounds needed for proper growth and
development.
ii. Animals obtain their nitrogen in form of proteins in plants and use it to build new
cells and repair worn out tissue.
iii. Some soil bacteria obtain energy by oxidizing ammonium salts and nitrates.
iv. Symbiotic bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants synthesize organic
substances (protein) from atmospheric nitrogen.

EVALUATION
1. State three ways by which nitrogen is (i) added to soil (ii) removed from soil
2. Enumerate two importance of nitrogen to living things.

SUB-TOPIC 3: DECOMPOSITION IN NATURE


Decomposers are organisms which feed on dead and decaying organisms and on their excreta
(urine and faeces). They bring about the decay of these materials. Decomposers are
saprophytes and can be grouped into two classes;
1. Micro-decomposers: these are microscopic bacteria and fungi.
2. Macro-decomposers: these include mushrooms, toadstools and mould. Others are detritus-
eating animals such as earthworms, termites, millipedes, wood lice, lobsters and clams.
Decomposers secrete enzymes onto their food source. These enzymes break down complex
organic compounds like carbohydrates and proteins into simple, soluble, inorganic
compounds and also release a lot of heat in the process. The decomposers use only a small
portion of the nutrients and energy for their metabolic activities. The remaining nutrients are
released into the soil, air and water. The heat energy released is lost into the atmosphere.
When decomposers die, other decomposers feed on them.
Products of decomposition include gases like carbondioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide
and water vapour, and salts like nitrates, sulphates, and phosphorus and potassium ions.
Green plants absorb the nutrients released into the soil and air through their roots and leaves
and use them to manufacture energy rich food used in supporting consumers in the
ecosystem.

Sulfur Fungus
A member of the phylum Basidiomycetes, the sulfur fungus is one of the largest of the edible
fungi, reaching a width of several meters and a weight of several kilograms. It typically
grows on trees, sometimes at heights that make harvesting these fungi difficult.

Role of decomposers
i. They enrich the soil with nutrients required for plant growth.
ii. They make the recycling of nutrients possible thus enabling the ecosystem to
function.
iii. They are used in industries for production of cheese and yoghourt.
iv. Production of linen threads.
v. Production of compost.
vi. Used for sewage disposal.
vii. Used in the process of fanning.
viii. They produce carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis.
ix. They prevent unsightly accumulation of remains of living organisms on the surface of
the earth.
x. They contribute to environmental pollution.

EVALUATION
1. What is decomposition?
2. Define the term ‘decomposers’.
3. Outline the process of decomposition in nature.
4. Mention five roles of decomposers.

OBJECTIVES
1. Which of the following is a decomposer? (a) Rhizopus (b) Snail (c) Spirogyra (d) Tadpole
2. Water is added to the atmosphere by the following processes except ….. (a)
Decomposition (b) photosynthesis (c) respiration (d) volcanic eruption
3. Which of the following is a nitrifying bacterium? (a) Azotobacter (b) Nitrobacter (c)
Nitrosomonas (d) Rhizobium
4. Which is the odd one out? (a) Mould (b) Mushroom (c) Toadstool (d) Yeast
5. In which of the following food substances are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen
always present? (a) Fats (b) Proteins (c) Sugar (d) Starch

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the following terms;
(a) Autotrophs
(b) Heterotrophs
(c) Decomposers
2. Making use of a diagram only, explain the nitrogen cycle

WEEK 3
TOPIC: ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: ASSOCIATION
CLASS: SS2
CONTENT:
(a) Types of associations
(b) Features of biological importance possessed by organism of an association

SUB TOPIC 1: TYPES OF ASSOCIATIONS


Ecology is defined as the study of living organisms and the relationships or interactions
between them and their environment. The interactions between plants and animals in their
environment are usually described as biotic interactions or associations. There is a close
association between the biotic and abiotic components of the environment. Both affect each
other and are equally important for the ecosystem.

SYMBIOSIS
Symbiosis is a term for all associations in which all or some of the species involved benefits
or loses. It is interdependence of different species, which are sometimes called symbionts.
Based upon the specific relationship between the species involved in a symbiotic association,
at least one member benefits. There are three main types of symbiosis

Symbiotic relationships may be grouped as:


i. Parasitism
i. Mutualism
ii. commensalism

Lichens of the Splash Zone of the Intertidal Region


Lichens are actually a combination of two entirely different types of living organisms, an alga
and a fungus. This association is called a symbiotic relationship. In this particular type of
symbiotic relationship neither partner can live independent of the other. Lichens are very
slow growing and can survive very harsh environmental conditions and are ecologically
significant in that they contribute to the weathering of solid rock.

I. PARASITISM
It is a type of antagonistic association occurring between two species, in which a specie
called the parasite, is gaining at the expense of the other – the host, which is losing.
Parasitism is a mode of life. The benefits the parasite derives from a host may include food,
oxygen, living space and support. The host is usually much bigger than the parasite.
Parasitism does not usually lead to the death of the host. It can however lead to a number or
harms such as reduction in growth, predisposition of the host to attack by diseases and
weakening.
Life Cycle of Human Blood Flukes
Flukes of the genus Schistosoma parasitize two hosts. The young hatch from their eggs in
rivers and lakes and enter a specific kind of aquatic snail, where they develop into tadpole-
like larvae called cercariae. When the cercariae leave the snail, they burrow through the skin
of a human host swimming or wading in infested water. Adult flukes mature in the host’s
bloodstream and settle in the veins of the gut. Their eggs, deposited in the lining of the
human intestine and bladder, pass back into water via the sewage system, and the cycle
begins again. More than 200 million people worldwide suffer from schistosomiasis, a disease
characterized by the abscesses and bleeding caused by the flukes’ infestation.

In parasitism, the parasite can be of varying types among which are the following:
(a) Ectoparasite i.e parasite living in the outside of the host tissue e.g. tick, lice, (among
animal parasites and dodder – a plant parasite.
(b) Endpoparasite i.e. a parasite that lives in the inside of the host tissue, e.g. tapeworm,
round worm, malaria parasite (plasmodium), bacteriophages which are viruses that
attacks bacteria.

Examples of plant parasites are mistletoe and dodder (cuscuta) and many other fungal and
bacterial parasites.

Examples of animal parasites include tapeworm, roundworm, plasmodium, lice, jigger and
tick, bed bug.
Ebola Virus Infection
Much research remains to be carried out on the Ebola virus, a highly infectious
and deadly virus that spreads through the use of unsterilized needles, through
contact with an infected individual, or the corpse of someone who has died
from the disease. About one week after infection, the virus begins attacking
blood and liver cells (1). As the disease swiftly progresses, the virus may
destroy vital organs such as the liver and kidneys (2), leading to massive
internal bleeding (3). Shock and respiratory arrest soon follow, then death.
Currently, there is no vaccine to prevent infection, and no drugs to halt the
disease.

II. MUTUALISM
Mutualism is a type of association which is beneficial to all the species involved, none
looses. It is a mode of life.

Common examples of mutualism include:


i. Relationship between legumes and nitrogen.
ii. Fixing bacteria (rhizobium) in their root nodules of leguminous plants.
iii. Association between termites and the protozoan inhabiting their gut.
iv. Lichens which is an association between algae and fungi.
v. Mycorrhiza which is an association between plant roots and fungi

III. COMMENSALISM
Commensalism is a type of association which one of the species involved benefits from the
association and the other neither gains nor looses (i.e unharmed and unaffected).

Examples include:
i. The association between trees and the epiphytes that use their trunks as the
subtraction for the anchorage of their roots.
ii. Another association between the shark and the small fish called Remora that fasten
their mouth near the mouth of shark which provides such fish with small bits of food
that fall off from the mouth of the shark.
iii. Some bacteria live in the human large intestine. They feed on the food in the gut
and do not harm the host.

EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms; (a) ecology (b) association (with respect to ecological
management).
2. List four types of association between organisms in an ecosystem with a relevant
example of each.
3. State the main different between mutualism and parasitism.
4. Explain the term commensalism, giving one example.

SUB-TOPIC 2: FEATURES OF BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE POSSESSED BY


ORGANISMS IN ASSOCIATION
Living organisms possess a number of different adaptations which enable them to survive in
their environment.

Adaptive features found in parasites


i. Possession of organs for piercing the host and sucking nutrients from the host.
ii. Possession of structures for attachment to the host such as claws or suckers.
iii. Ability to secrete enzymes that could dissolve tissues, thus facilitating entry into
host’s body.
iv. Ability to produce a large number of offspring to increase chances of survival.
v. Protective body surface (cuticle) to withstand host’s digestive enzymes (for intestinal
parasites).

NOTE: Diagram of adaptation of ectoparasites is found in Modern Biology for Senior


Secondary School page 135, figure 7.1

EVALUATION
1. List three adaptive features of parasite that facilitate their mode of life.
2. Give specific examples of the organisms and their adaptive structures.
3. Define the term association with respect to ecological management.
4. Explain the term, commensalism, give two examples
5. State the difference between mutualism and commensalism.

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. An ecological unit in which two or more species of organisms occur in close proximity is
known as (a) adaptation (b) assimilation (c) association (d) protocooperation
2. Which of the following is not a term used to describe the interactions between plants and
animals in an environment? (a) association (b) symbiosis (c) adaptation (d) biotic
interaction
3. Parasite that posses boring organ for penetrating the host body are called (a) endoparasite
(b) indoparasite (c) exoparasite (d) ectoparasite
4. Which of the following is not an example of commensalism (a) epiphytes growing on stem
of large plant (b) bacteria living in the large intestine of human (c) association between
remora and shark (d) tape-worm living in the small intestine
5. Which of the following is not a parasite of animal (a) tick (b) dodder (c) nematodes (d)
flukes

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Write short notes on the following
i. Tolerance range.
ii. lower lethal temperature
iii. Upper lethal temperature
iv. Physiological stress.

WEEK 4
TOPIC: TOLERANCE
CLAAS: SS2
CONTENT:
(a) Concept of minimum and maximum range of tolerance.
(b) Geographic range graph illustrating maximum and minimum range of tolerance

SUB-TOPIC 1: CONCEPT OF MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM RANGE OF


TOLERANCE
Tolerance is the ability of an organism to withstand extreme variation in the environmental
conditions. Living organisms posses the ability to withstand minor unfavourable changes in
the factors (biotic and abiotic) or their environment which affect their survival. Biotic
components interact with abiotic components such as temperature, rainfall, high light
intensity, salinity and soil factor. The abiotic factors play a significant role in the distribution
of living organisms. For example temperature can prevent a plant from growing and
surviving in an environment. The limits within which organisms can withstand changes in the
abiotic factors depend on what is prevalent such environment.
House Mouse
The ubiquitous house mouse, Mus musculus, had its origins in Eurasia. Its precise original
distribution isn't known, and the relationship between wild forms and commensals-mice that
live in proximity to, and depend upon, people-is a matter of dispute among zoologists. Today
there are few places on Earth to which the house mouse has not been inadvertently introduced
by people, who are more or less tolerant of its presence. Although capable of building up to
pest proportions, destroying crops in the field, and depleting or contaminating stores of grain,
as happens periodically in the notorious mouse plagues of Australia, house mice in other
places seem able to live with their human hosts without causing much damage. In this, they
differ from their larger and generally more dangerous and destructive cousins, the commensal
brown rats and black rats.

Concepts of minimum and maximum range of tolerance


Organisms have a minimum and maximum limit to which they can tolerate their environment
which influence their survival or success in such environment. This range is known as their
limit of tolerance. Most organisms cannot exist outside their limits of tolerance. They
therefore escape from such environment once these limits are being exceed or risk dying in
such environment.
Variation in Rooster Combs
The comb in domestic fowl, a naked, fleshy crest on the top of the heads of both adult male
and female birds, is more developed in the male. The structure of the comb can be quite
variable, ranging from a simple, single, erect or drooping, serrated appearance to more
elaborate forms, depending on the variety of the domestic fowl.

The law of minimum tolerance was introduced in 1840 by Justice Liebig and the law states
that “the growth of a plant will be limited by whichever requisite factor is most deficient in a
local environment”.
This law was expanded in 1913 by V.E. Shelfore by applying it to animals and considered the
fact that too much of anything could be as bad as too little of it. Hence, Shelford’s law of
tolerance states “the distribution of species will be limited by the environmental factor for
which the organism has the narrowest range of adaptability.
Since organism can only live within certain minimum and maximum limits for each abiotic
factor, the range between the upper and lower limit is 0oC and the maximum limit is 42oC.
Their tolerance range is 0 – 42oC.
Based on the law of tolerance, an organism may have a wide range of tolerance for one
abiotic factor and a narrow range for another factor. An organism with a wide range of
tolerance for all factors is likely to have a wide distribution.
Ostriches
The distribution of the world’s flightless birds, called ratites, is indicative of the shifting of
continents in the earth’s distant past. Ratites evolved on a landmass called Gondwanaland,
which broke apart to give rise to Africa, South America, and Australia. Following this
separation, the ratites of each of these continents gradually evolved into one or more distinct
species—the ostrich of Africa (shown here), the rhea of South America, and the cassowary
and emu of Australia.

DIAGRAM: Tolerance range, optimum range and population size (Modern biology by
sarojimi, page 142 figure 7.4).

SUB-TOPIC 2: GEOGRAPHIC RANGE GRAPH ILLUSTRATING MAXIMUM AND


MINIMUM TOLERANCE
A species can only be found in areas that are within the minimum and maximum limits of its
tolerance. These limits, therefore give the geographic range or distribution of a species. The
branch of biology that deals with geographical distribution of animals and plants is known as
biogeography.
Variations in abiotic factors are responsible for the major biomes such as tropical rain forest,
grassland (savanna), desert, freshwater and marine biomes. These have diverse species of
plants and animals, which occur in micro habitats that support it within the overall range.
An organism’s ecological niche is the dwelling place as well as its activities, requirements
and effects on the environment.

EVALUATION
1. State the law of tolerance.
2. Explain the term ‘tolerance range’.
3. Define tolerance and list five abiotic factors that determines. The survival of an
organism in an environment.

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The ability of an organism to withstand extreme variations in the environmental
condition is known as --- (a) resistance (b) tolerance(c) adaptation (d) toughness.
2. Which of the following is the tolerance range for most animals? (a) 0 o-100oC (b) -5-
35oC (c) 0o-42oC (d) 0o-45oC
3. Law of minimum tolerance was introduced by (a) Carl shoe (b) Gregor Mendel (c)
Justice Liebig (d) V.E. Shelford
4. Which of the following is incorrect (a) a species can only found in area having its
range of tolerance (b) variation in abiotic factors are responsible for distribution of a
species (c) an ecological niche is also known as biomes (d) the ability of an organism
to withstand extreme variation in environment is tolerance.
5. “The distribution of species will be limited by the environmental factors for which the
organism has the narrowest range of adaptability” is 9a) Max Shoe (b) Justice Liebig
(c) V.E. Shelford (d) Carl Shoe

ASSIGNMENTS
Read Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini, Pages 141-142 and:
1. Define adaptation
2. State five adaptive features of terrestrial organisms

SUB-TOPIC 3: ADAPTATION IN FORM AND FUNCTION OF LIVING


ORGANISMS DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Adaptation refers to any feature or characteristics possessed by an organism that contributes


to its fitness and survival in its environment. In order to survive and fit into their
environment, living organisms usually possess some adaptive features that make them to
withstand life-threatening and unfavourable environmental conditions and promote their
well-being and proliferation.
Adaptations are inherited characteristics of organisms. They are display in three main
features of organisms, their physiology and their behaviour. Some insects mimic leaves in
order to escape predators, while some plants produce toxins, which prevent other plants from
growing near them, thus reducing competition.
Stems
The stem of a plant provides pathways for the distribution of water and nutrients between the
roots, leaves, and other parts of the plant. The herbaceous stem of the dandelion (top, center)
lacks lignin, the stiffening material in rigid, supportive woody stems. For this reason,
herbaceous plants are generally limited in their physical size. Spurges and cacti (bottom, left),
their leaves reduced to needles to prevent evaporation in a dry climate, consist entirely of
stem material. Tubers, such as potatoes (top, right), are swollen, food-storing, underground
stems that nourish growing buds. The stems of some plants are adapted for protection, as in
the hawthorn (bottom, right). Others actively compete for sunlight, using touch-sensitive,
curling tendrils (top, left) or other structures to climb upwards.

ADAPTATION OF PLANTS
Plants are grouped into three on the basis of the environmental conditions under which they
grow, especially on availability of water in the soil. The three groups are hydrophytes,
mesophytes and xerophytes.

Adaptation of Hydrophytes
Hydrophytes are plants that have adapted to living in the aquatic environment. They are
either submerged of floating on the water surface. The plants can also grow in the soil that is
permanently saturated with water. Their adaptive features include the following:
i. Possession of large air cavities called parenchyma that serve as a means of buoyancy
and storing gases for respiration.
ii. Possession of photosynthetic chloroplast that make use of less light in water for
photosynthesis.
iii. Possession of breathing roots (pneumatophores) by some of the hydrophytes, which
grows above the water level to get enough oxygen for respiration.
iv. Possession of hairy leaves and thin and waxy cuticle to repel rain water as they do not
meet it.
v. Surface plants float on water have broad leaves that contain numerous stomata on the
upper side of the leaf, which trap maximum light for photosynthesis.
vi. Possession of small feathering roots.
vii. Less rigid structure because water pressure support them.
viii. They have succulent stem.
ix. Numerous stomata are opened at all times.
Examples of hydrophytes include water lily, water lotus and water hyacinth.

Adaptation of Mesophytes
Mesophytes are terrestrial plants that grow in areas of moderate water supply. They are the
large ecological group of terrestrial plants. Their adaptive features are:
i. Possession of well developed root system.
ii. Presence of well developed vascular bundle.
iii. Possession of large thin leaves.
iv. Presence of large number of stomata on the under surface of the leaves.
v. Presence of erect and branded stem.
vi. Possession of mesophyll layer that is well differentiated with many intercellular
spaces.
Examples include maize, sunflower, cassava, hibiscus, mango and orange.

Adaptation of Xerophytes
Xerophytes are plants that grow in dry areas with little water or moisture such as desert. Their
adaptive features are:
i. Reduced leaves that are reduced to spines and tiny scales to reduce water loss.
ii. Reduced number of stomata to reduce water loss.
iii. Sunken stomata reduce transpiration.
iv. Large hairs on surface to reduce water loss.
v. Succulent leaves and stems to store water.
vi. Deep root system to absorb water from depth.
vii. Possession of thick, waxy cuticle that reduces water loss through cuticular
transpiration.
viii. Shedding of leaves during day season to prevent water loss through transpiration.
ix. Possession of ability to fold their leaves during the day to decrease the number of
stomata that is exposed, thus reducing the rate of transpiration.
Examples are cactus, euphorbia, Aacia, pine and opuntia.
Jeweled Lizard
This beautiful species also goes by the name of eyed lizard, Lacerta lepida, not because it has
eyes, although of course it does, but for the ocelli ("little eyes"), or ringed spots, that adorn its
back and flanks. Native to southern Europe and northwestern Africa, the eyed lizard is the
largest member of a group of rather unspecialized Old World lizards. The oldest males may
reach 80 centimeters (30 inches) from nose to tail tip. Better known to many Europeans are
two smaller members of the genus, the wall lizard and the common or live-bearing lizard,
which has the unusual habit of producing its young not in the leathery-shelled eggs typical of
reptiles but in a thin membrane whose confines they immediately tear out of to assume life as
full-fledged lizardlings.

Adaptation of animals to Terrestrial Habitat


i. Most terrestrial organisms possess well developed supporting or skeletal systems.
ii. The flight birds and mammals possess light skeleton to enable them swing in the air.
iii. The climbing animals possess long curved claws for support or nuptial pads to help
them grip surfaces.
iv. Some grassland and desert animals exhibited protective colouration to prevent easy
detection by predators or prey e.g. chameleons.
v. The herbivores grace on a variety of forage.
vi. Most weak animals possess keen eyesight and can run fast to escape from their
predators.
vii. They have well developed sense organs.
viii. Some possess impermeable coverage to prevent water loss e.g. monitor, lizard and ant
eater.

Adaptation of Animals to aquatic environment


i. Possession of streamlined body that reduce friction during movement in water e.g.
fishes.
ii. Possession of dense, waterproof feathers that keep cold water away from bird’s skin
and prevent wetting of feather e.g. birds.
iii. Possession of webbed feet, formed from their skin between the toes that work like
paddles e.g. ducts.
iv. Possession of gills in fishes and tad poles for gaseous exchange.
v. Possession of hooks, suckers, sticky under surfaces by stationary organisms for
attachment to rock surface e.g. snails, flatworms.
vi. Possession of swim bladder to aid buoyancy in water e.g. Tilapia fish.

Bonito
Bonito, a relative of the tuna and mackerel, are buit for speed. Bonitos have streamlined,
torpedo-shaped bodies that taper to a thin junction with a large, forked tail.

EVALUATION
1. What is adaptation?
2. Name three forms of adaptation that are notable in organisms.
3. Define the following and give two examples of each: (a) hydrophytes (b) mesophytes
(c) xerophytes
4. State five ways by which xerophytes adapt themselves to arid condition.
5. List five ways animals adapt to terrestrial habitat.

SUB-TOPIC 4: EFFECTS OF AVAILABILITY OF WATER ON ADAPTIVE


MODIFICATION
All terrestrial organisms face he problem of water loss from their body fluids to the
environment. The body fluids of these organisms are maintained by specialized by
osmoregulation or excretory organs such as malphighian tubules and kidney. A balance must
be achieved between the amount of water lost and gained.
Many aquatic organisms especially those fresh water environment have their body fluids
more concentration than their surroundings and as such gain water by osmosis. In order to
minimise this, they have impermeable outer covering. On the other hand, those with body
fluids less concentrate than their surrounding would lose water to their environment. The
water lost is replaced by drinking much water from the environment.

Structural adaptation of Tadpole and fish to aquatic life


i. Possession of stream-lined body without neck that enhance movement in water.
ii. Possession of a trial fin, which aid in changing of reduction during swimming.
iii. Presence of external gills, which serve as the respiratory organ used for oxygen uptake in
water.

Becoming a Frog
The legless tadpoles that hatch from a floating mass of frog eggs are the animal’s
fishlike larval stage. Part of a true metamorphosis, they have gills and a tail, both
of which disappear as the tadpole feeds and grows. When limbs and air-breathing
lungs develop, the young frog, now a miniature replica of its parents, emerges
from water to land.

Structural Adaptation in birds


i. Seed-eating birds like sparrow, cardinals and weaver birds have short, thick, conical
beaks adapted for cracking seeds or nuts.
ii. Birds of prey like hawks, eagles and owls have sharp, curved breaks for tearing flesh,
they also have strong chawlike feet, which they use to capture and kill their prey.
iii. Aquatic birds like duck and seagulls have long, flat beaks adapted for straining small
plants and animals from the water and for gripping fish and sieving muddy water for
food. They also have webbed feet adapted for swimming.
iv. Birds are insect eaters like woodpeckers have beaks that are long and chisel-like for
boring into wood to eat insects. Other insect eaters like the nobblers have thin pointed
beaks.
v. Some birds like crows have a multi – purpose beak that is adapted to eat fruits, seeds,
insects, fishes and other animals.
Ostrich
The ostrich, Struthio camelus, is a bird of the savannas and deserts of Africa. Its closest
cousins-the rheas, cassowaries, emu, and kiwis, as well as the extinct moas and elephant
birds-also have or had a southern distribution, in South America, Australia, New Guinea,
New Zealand, Africa, and Madagascar. How did these species, none of which can fly, spread
across these southern continents and islands? In the time before scientists accepted the theory
of continental drift and seafloor spreading, the distribution of the ostrich and its relatives was
one of the unaccountable mysteries of biogeography. Now it is considered a classic example
of the result of the breakup of the former supercontinent of Gondwanaland, over which the
ancestor of all these species is believed to have roamed.

EVALUATION:
1. State three structural adaptations of tadpole to aquatic life.
2. State three structural adaptations of birds to their feeding habits.
3. Classify plants into three groups on the basis of availability of water to the soil in their
environment.
4. State five adaptive features of xerophytes to arid environment.
5. List adaptive features of animals to terrestrial habitat.

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The features that helps an organisation to survive and exploit its environment is
known as (a) modified feature (b) adaptive features (c) enhanced feature (d) structural
features.
2. The characteristics that increase and organism’s potential to survive in its
environment is called (a) association (b) adaptation (c) modification (d) tolerance
3. Which of the following adapts tad-pole to aquatic life? (a) presence of sharp claws
(b) presence of external gills (c) presence of spines (d) possession of short beak
4. Which of the following does not illustrate adaptation to the environment? (a) Colour
changes by chameleon (b) streamline (c) light bones in birds (d) development of big
muscles by a weight lifter (e) possession of fins by fish
5. Which of the following does not illustrate adaptation to the environment? (a) water
leaf (b) water hyacinth (c) cactus (d) pines
6. The changing of colour by a chameleon to that of the environment is an example of ---
(a) adaptive radiation (b) protective colouration (c) courtship display (d) display of
body colour

WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Discuss the effects of air pollution as a result of oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and dust.

WEEK 5
TOPIC: POLLUTION
CLASS: SS2
CONTENT:
1. Air Pollution
2. Noise pollution
3. Water pollution,

Pollution can be defined in the contamination of the environment due to main activities
which releases. Harmful substances into our surrounding in quantities that is dangerous to
man and his resources.

Types of pollution
Types of pollution include the following:
i. Air pollution,
ii. Noise pollution
iii. Water pollution,
iv. Soil pollution,

Substances that pollute the environment are called pollutants thus: there are Air, water, soil
and noise pollutants.
Czech Air Pollution
Factory smoke darkens the sky above Prague, Czech Republic. The Czech
Republic faces a severe air pollution problem that is choking the nation’s land. Air
pollution and subsequent acid rain has killed or damaged many of the country’s
trees and badly degraded its soil.

SUB-TOPIC I. Air Pollution:


From man’s daily activities pollutants such as smoke, gasses and solids are disposes into the
atmosphere. Air pollution can also be said to be presence of mixture of gases and solid
patches in the air.

Nature of Air Pollution


Pollutants of the atmosphere (Air) include; gases, smoke, oxides of carbon, sulphur and
nitrogen such as; carbon (iv) oxide, carbon (ii) oxide, sulphur (iv) oxide and oxides of
nitrogen respectively as well as smoke, dust etc. Manufacturing industries, fumes from city
Motor vehicles, power stations, combustion of fuels of automobiles and jet planes also
release pollutants into the atmosphere. Herbicides, pesticides, aerosol, dust particles, pollen
grains fluorides and smog are all pollutants of the atmosphere.

Sources of air pollutants


Fumes, dust, wastes from Construction sites, industries, mines, power station, farmlands,
domestic fires, sprayed herbicides and pesticides are sources of air pollutants.
Industrial Smokestacks
Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and other types of contaminants pouring from industrial
smokestacks contribute largely to the world’s atmospheric pollution. Carbon dioxide
contributes significantly to global warming, while sulfur dioxide emissions are the principal
cause of acid rain in the northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and eastern Europe.

Effects of air pollution


Pollution of the atmosphere which is Air pollution affects man and his resources in various
ways:
i. Smoke particles make streets and building dirty.
ii. Smoke reduces visibility within the environment.
iii. Smoke smog and dust can reduce intensity and quality of sunlight which in turn
reduces photosynthesis and automatically crop yields.
iv. Oxide of nitrogen in very high concentration can cause death of animals.
v. Nitrogen (iv) oxide cause irritation of the eyes in humans.
vi. Carbon (ii) oxide can easily combine with haemoglobin that can reduce the oxygen
carrying capacity of blood.
vii. Sulphur (iv) oxide a pollutant resulting from the activities of petroleum refineries,
poisons plant and lower their yield.
viii. Sulphur (iv) oxide causes respiratory diseases as it damages respiratory organs.
ix. It makes the soil highly acidic as it forms tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid in rain water and
affects plant growth negatively.
x. Dust particles in the atmosphere reduces visibility and intensity of sunlight, dust in
water spoils its quality for drinking.
xi. Pollen grains present in dust trigger off bouts of lung disorders such as asthma.
xii. Smog reduces visibility, hours of sunlight and could be dangerous for motorists.
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Cleanup
Workers wash the shoreline on Latouche Island, Alaska, after the Exxon Valdez
oil tanker ran aground in 1989, dumping more than 38 million liters (more than 10
million gallons) of oil into Prince William Sound. The resulting environmental
damage prompted the United States Congress to pass federal safety requirements
for oil tankers and barges and to assign the principal cost of spill cleanup to oil
companies.

Control of air pollution


i. Industries should be sited for away from residential and commercial areas.
ii. Chimney pieces should be used in houses, industries and similar places to release their
pollutants for from ground level.

II. NOISE POLLUTION


Noise is defined as any unpleasant and unwanted sound in the air. Noise pollutants therefore
include the followings: blowing of vehicles horns sounds from factories, loud music,
foundries, electric generators, sounds from mosque, some churches bomb blasts, cannon and
artillery gum fires.

Sources of noise pollutants


1. Low flying aircraft.
2. Factory or industrial noise
3. Automobiles
4. Locomotive engines
5. Car horns and sirens
6. Guns of various types
7. Bombs; especially atomic bombs.
8. Musical sets, Radio and television tuned to highest volume.
9. Noise from generating plants
10. Noise from thunderstorms.

Effects of noise pollution


1. It causes restlessness as it quickens heartbeat and blood circulation.
2. It causes headache and discomfort
3. It could prevent some people from sleeping.
4. Prolonged high-intensity noise can damage ear drums and causes deafness.

Control of noise pollution


i. Legislation should be made against the use of loud speakers in public places
ii. There should be installation of sound proofs in industries and generators
iii. Rail ways and airports should be sited far away from residential areas.
iv. There should be reduction of noise from loud speakers and car sirens
v. In Quarries, airport and factories where noise levels cannot be reduced, ear-muffs
should be used.

EVALUATION
1. Define (i) pollution (ii) pollutant
2. List the different types of pollution
3. Explain the nature and sources of air pollutants
4. Outline five Air pollutants and explain their effects on man.
5. Explain ways of controlling air pollutant.

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the process whereby harmful waste materials are deposited into water
bodies making unfit for aquatic life and human consumption.

Sources of water pollution


Water bodies such as estuaries, rivers, streams, lakes and seas get polluted when diverse
materials and toxic wastes from domestic and industrial activities of man are dumped into
them. Rain water also get polluted as carbon (iv)oxide from the air get dissolve into it.
Industrial Water Pollution
Industrial pollutants that run into streams, rivers, or lakes can have serious effects on wildlife,
plants, and humans. In the United States there are strict rules for the amount and composition
of substances that factories can release into bodies of water. These rules are not always
enforced, and much industrial water pollution comes from accidental chemical or oil spills.

Types of water pollution


i. Refuse and sewage.
ii. Industrial waste.
iii. Agricultural wastes (herbicides, pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers)
iv. Crude oil spillage
Life of plants and animals in water bodies and even eliminated by water pollutants.

Effects of oil spillage


When oil tankers are loading and off –loading, some of the oil spills and get back to the river
and estuaries. Explosion at offshore rigs releases great quantities of oil and when oil tankers
wreckages results in oil spillage.
Oil spillage can cripple economic life of fisherman and farmers in affected areas. The spilled
oil forms a coat on the surface of the water cutting off oxygen supply from plants and animals
in the water.
Spilled oil also contaminates the source of drinking water for inhabitants of such areas
thereby making life difficult and uncomfortable.
Destructive Oil Spill
The Prestige, an aging, single-hulled oil tanker, ruptured in a storm off the coast of
northwestern Spain on November 13, 2002. The tanker sank six days later, spilling millions
of liters of oil that fouled beaches from northwestern Spain to southwestern France.

Control of water pollution


i. Refuse and sewage should be treated and efficiently disposed.
ii. Enlightenment of public on proper disposal of human faeces, wine and domestic
refuses.
iii. Indiscriminate dumping of industrial wastes in water bodies should be avoided.
Recycling of industrial effluents should be encouraged.
iv. Farmers should be educated on proper use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides ad
herbicides.
v. All necessary precaution should be employed to avert oil spillage.

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following is air pollutant (a ) detergent (b) crude oil (c) untreated
sewage (d) smoke
2. Which of these is not an Air pollutant? (a) carbon (ii) dioxide (b) oxide of nitrogen (c)
carbon (iv) oxide (d) sulphur (iv) oxide
3. One of these cannot cause noise pollution? (a) smoke (b) high intensity and
unpleasant noise (c) industrial (d) actions (d) generation
4. One of these is false (a) soil is polluted by clearing refuse dumps (b) oil spillage
cripples economic life of fishermen (c)water pollution is dangerous to water supply
(d) noise pollution may cause restlessness
5. Long term effects of air pollution does not include (a) lung cancer (b) irritation of the
eyes (c)chronic respiratory diseases (d) heat damage
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Define soil pollution
2. State three sources of soil
3. State three effects of soil pollution
4. Give three control measures of soil pollution.

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL WORK


1. Carry out an experiment to estimate the amount of pollution in rain water (page 154
of your modern biology text book).

WEEK 6
TOPIC: CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: CONTENT:
(1) Meaning of conservation and natural resources
(2) Ways of ensuring conservation of natural resouces
(3) Benefits of conservation.

SUB-TOPIC 1: MEANING OF CONSERVATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Conservation is the diligent and wise use of the earth’s resources to achieve the highest
quality of living for all mankind on sustainable basis.

Natural resources simply mean the endorsement of nature from which man satisfies his
basic needs.

Conservation of natural resources can therefore be referred to as “the controlled


exploitation and diligent use of available natural resources in such a way as to sustain
their availability”. It is the preservation of the amount of nature of the environment.
Recycling Aluminum Cans
The Alcoa Recycling Company in New Jersey processes aluminum cans into large bales at a collection point. In an effort to conserve
nonrenewable natural resources, many industries and individuals recycle waste aluminum.

Natural resources can be classified as a:


a. Natural abiotic resources which are non-living or non-replaceable. E.g. ores and
materials extracted from the ground.

b. Natural Biotic resources which are living or replaceable e.g. wildlife, forest, water,
air, sunlight etc.

Natural resources that need to be conserved are


i. Natural forest
ii. Animal/wild life
iii. Water
iv. Soil
v. Air
vi. Mineral resources

Importance of conservation of natural resources.


There is the urgent need for the effective conservation of natural resources if mankind is to
get maximum and lasting benefit from nature. The following reasons necessitate the
conservation of natural resources:
i. Fast depletion of natural forest through overlogging and over grazing.
ii. Risk of extinction of indigenous wildlife and fish species through uncontrolled
hunting and fishing.
iii. Rapid soil degradation through poor land use and obsolete agricultural practices.
iv. Pollution of surface and ground water resources through indiscriminate disposal of all
kinds of wastes.
v. Desert encroachment.
vi. Bad mining practice.
vii. High population growth.

Resources that need to be conserved are:


a. Non-renewable resources like fossil fuels (crude oil), minerals.

b. Renewable resources like water, wildlife, forest.

EVALUATION
1. What is meant by conservation of natural resources?
2. What are the divisions of natural resources?
3. State 4 reasons why conservation of natural resources is important to a nation.
4. Mention 5 natural resources that need urgent conservation in your area.

SUB-TOPIC 2: WAYS OF ENSURING CONSERVATION.


The responsibility of conservation of natural resources should be the collective effort of both
government and individuals.

These efforts should include the following:


i. Government agencies: the primary task of these bodies is to see to the protection and
conservation of specific areas of concern. Examples are Ministry of Agriculture and
Natural Resources, Forest Reserved Authority, Conservation Foundations etc.

ii. Legislation: these are usually law and treaties put in place by National and
international governments and organization to protect undue exploitation of
endangered species and other forms of resources. Examples are Anti-whaling law,
prohibition of bush burning and tree felling and law against gas flaring.

iii. Conservation Education: this effort aims at bringing awareness and public
enlightenment to the general public on the essence of conservation. Special
programmes aimed at involving all and sundry in the practical activities of
conservation are also effective.

iv. Erection of parks and reserves: this strategy involves the identifying of unique
areas and setting them aside for the protection and conservation of plants and animals.
E.g. Yankari, Kainji, Olokemeji forest.
Tanzania Game Reserves
Tanzania devotes a substantial portion of its land to conservation areas in order to
preserve its indigenous east African wildlife. These reserves, which include Serengeti
National Park, Selous Game Reserve, and Ngorongoro National Park, provide a home
to animals such as elephants, baboons, zebras, and giraffes. This picture shows a
migration of gnu at Ngorongoro.

Nutria or Coypu
It is an irony of conservation biology that a species might be in need of protection in its native lands while it is persecuted
as a rampant pest in places where it has been introduced. That is the case of the nutria, or coypu, Myocastor coypus, an
aquatic rodent that hails originally from the marshes, streamsides, and lakeshores of southern South America. Overtrapping
and wetlands destruction have caused many South American nutria populations to decline to the point that they have been
granted official protection. Yet populations of nutrias introduced as furbearers to parts of North America and Eurasia have
proved so successful that vigorous control measures must be applied to keep the numbers of these destructive rodents in
check.
Some problems militating against the above efforts at conservation are:
i. Over population which leads to increase demand on limited resources thereby
causing undue exploitation of resources.

ii. Inadequate awareness due in part to the failure of governments in conservation


education and ineffective public awareness campaign.

iii. Poor funding resulting in the poor or non-implementation of government policies and
programmes on conservation.

iv. Limited land for the establishment and maintenance of games and forest reserves and
other related conservation projects.

EVALUATION
1. Who should bear the responsibility of conserving natural resources in a nation?
2. Mention and explain 3 ways of ensuring conservation of natural resources.
3. Why is it difficult to achieve effective conservation of natural resources.
4. In what practical ways can you contribute to the national effort of conservation.

SUB-TOPIC 3: BENEFITS OF CONSERVATION


Apart from ensuring sustained availability of high quality resources for mankind basic needs,
conservation of natural resources will afford the following benefits:
i. Improvement of the quality of human life in a clean and healthy environment.
ii. Preservation of the beauty of the natural environment of scenery such as lakes,
waterfalls, mountains etc.
iii. Boost of tourism to national parks and reserves.
iv. Great scientific benefits as living organisms are studied in their natural habitats.
v. Protection of rare and/or endangered species of organisms.
vi. Prevention and control of erosion and desert encroachment.
vii. Prevention of exploitation of mineral resources.

EVALUATION
1. Define conservation of natural resources.
2. With two examples each distinguishes between abiotic and biotic natural resources.
3. State three reasons why conservation of natural resources is important to a nation.
4. Explain the reasons why water as a resource need to be given special attention to
conservation.
5. In what practical way can conservation education be used as an effective tool in government’s
hand to control natural resources?
6. Discuss any four challenges facing the nation in her effort to effectively conserve essential
natural resources.
7. In what ways has conservation of resources benefited the nation? Give practical examples.

OBJECTIVES TEST
1. Effective control of natural resources by man is described as (a) Utilization (b)
Evaluation (c) Conservation (d) Integration (e) Development
2. The following natural resources are renewable except (a) water (b) Crude oil (c) Air
(d) Soil (e) Plants.
3. One of the methods of ensuring conservation of natural resources may be by (a) bush
burning (b) felling of tree (b) mechanised farming (d) establishment of forest reserves
(e) continuous cropping.
4. The need for preserving and conserving natural resources is most urgent these days
due to _____ (a) fast depletion of natural forest resources (b) high rate of corruption
(c) low prices of materials from the forest (d) bad government policies (e) slow rate of
desert encroachment.
5. One of these is not a benefit of conservation of natural resources (a) poor patronage
by tourists to waterfalls (b) great scientific value (c) preservation of natural beauty (d)
sustained availability of resources (e) conservation of endangered species.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
1. List 5 challenges facing conservation of natural resources in Nigeria and suggest possible
solutions to them.
2. List 5 game reserves in Nigeria and where they are located.
3. State four conservation agencies in Nigeria.
4. State two methods each of conserving the following natural resources.
i. Natural forest
ii. Animal/wild life
iii. Water
iv. Soil
v. Air
vi. Mineral resources

WEEK 7: MID-TERM BREAK

WEEK 8
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: PEST AND DISEASES OF CROPS
CONTENT:
(I) Life cycles of pests
(II) Control of pests
(III) Diseases caused by pest and their agents
(a) Fungal diseases
(b) Viral diseases
(c) Bacterial diseases
(IV) Control of pest.

DEFINITION OF PESTS
Pests are organisms that carry disease or cause damage to other organisms. Pests may be
plants or animals. Plant pests are usually called weeds. Pests are very important to man
because of their detrimental effects to humans and other organisms of concern to man e.g.
agriculture or livestock production.
Crop pests are those that affect agricultural produce important to man, e.g. insects, birds etc.
Livestock pests attack livestock useful to man e.g. Mites, Lice, Tapeworms.
Pests usually decrease the quantity and quality of agricultural production, especially when
present in large numbers.

Crop-Destroying Weevils
Weevils are among the most destructive of pests that attack agricultural crops. Adult weevils
lay their eggs in stalks or seeds of crops such as cotton, wheat, rice, and alfalfa. As larvae,
weevils then feed on these plant tissues, extensively damaging the plant in the process.

EVALUATION
1. What are pests?
2. What make pest so important to man?
3. Mention 3 common pests you know.

SUB-TOPIC 1: CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS

Classification based on the various parts of a crop plant they attack:


i. Stem borers: these are usually larvae of certain moths that bore into the stems of
maize and feed on it. This result in the weakening and breaking of the stem.
ii. Root feeders: these are insect larvae or adults found in the soil. They burrow into the
ground and feed on yam tubers.
iii. Leaf feeders: snails, bettles, grasshoppers eat up leaves of crops.
iv. Young shoot feeders: aphids, mealy bugs and scale insects usually pierce and suck
out juices from young shoots. Many sucking pests also transmit disease-causing
organisms to the plants e.g. Cassava leaf mosaic virus is transmitted by white flies.
Such pests are known as vectors.
v. Fruits and seed feeders: these are moths, fruit flies, cotton strainers and some beetles
eat their way into fruits and seeds causing great damage.

Damaged Crops in North Korea


A North Korean farmer assesses the damage done to his corn crop by poor growing conditions. In the mid-1990s severe
flooding followed by droughts devastated the country's agricultural output and led to serious food shortages. By the late
1990s North Korea was experiencing widespread famine.

Other invertebrate and vertebrate pests include:


i. Insects like flies, aphids
ii. Mites and ticks.
iii. Snails
iv. Flatworms
v. Tapeworms
vi. Protozoa
vii. Birds
viii. Rodents
Aphids on a Cabbage Plant
Aphids are small insects found throughout temperate regions of the world. They parasitize a
variety of wild and commercially important plants by sucking out plant fluids. Because
aphids exude a sweet, sticky fluid that can be used by certain species of ants, herds of aphids
are often found guarded and tended by ants.

EVALUATION
1. Briefly describe how pests affect root tubers.
2. Explain the term Pests. What make them so important to man?
3. In what ways do Pests affect the quality and quantity of agricultural livestock
produce?
4. Mention 5 pests and describe the ways they attack crops and their effect on crops.
5. In what way has mono-cultural practice in commercial agriculture contributed to the
emergence of pests as a production factor?

OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Pests are important to man because (a) they are rich source of protein (b) they
contribute greatly to soil fertilizer (c) they affect valuable agricultural produce (d)
they reproduce profusely (e) they are lower than man.
2. Which of the plant part is usually NOT attacked by pests? (a) flowers (b) stems (c)
leaves (d) roots (e) fruits.
3. Which of the following crops is attacked by a stem-boring pest? (a) mango (b)
cassava (c) maize (d) yam (e) groundnut.
4. An example of an invertebrate pest is ______ (a) adult housefly (b) aphids (c)
Mosquito (d) Butterfly (e) amoeba
5. Which of the following vertebrate is not a known pest (a) Dog (b) birds (c) Squirrel
(d) rabbit (e) Monkey

SUB-TOPIC 2: LIFE CYCLES OF PESTS


Most insect pests have the following stages in their life cycle i.e. egg, larva, pupa, adult.
The adult pests usually feed on leaves and fruit of crops. Larva chews the bark of stems and
feed on the phloem thereby damaging the crop. Insect pests go through either complete or
incomplete life cycles but the larval and adult stages have been seen as causing most serious
damages to crops.

Some examples of insect pest life cycles:


i. Yam beetle (undergoes complete metamorphosis), The adult feed on yam tubers in the
ground.
ii. Cotton Stainer (undergoes incomplete metamorphosis), the adults attack and damage cotton
toll.

EVALUATION
1. What is meant by life cycle?
2. Explain the two types of life cycles.
3. Draw the life cycle of a named pest.

SUB-TOPIC 3: CONTROL OF PESTS


Control of pest refers to the management and prevention of pests with the sole aim of
minimizing their effect on crops and livestock thereby maximizing food production.

Pest control focuses on:


i. Reduction in pest population.
ii. Protection of crops.
For effective control of pests, a good knowledge of pests’ habits and life cycles is vital.
Careful study of the above will reveal the following for good use in control:
i. Stage and peak period of attack.
ii. Resting stage after attack.
iii. Most vulnerable stage for control.

Various methods have used to good effect in controlling pests.


i. Physical methods: these methods involve collection of pest by hand or traps are
killing them. Burning, flooding and the use of scare-crows are ll methods controlling
pests physically. This could be carried out in a limited are involving large-sized pests
as snails, beetles, birds etc. Physical experiences are usually tedious and strenuous.
ii. Cultural Methods: these involve modified farm practices like bush fallowing, crop
rotation, mixed cropping, closed-season practice and changing planting time. The aim
is make environmental condition unfavourable for the development of pests. Such
methods are most effective because most pests are plant specific.
iii. Biological methods: this involves the use of natural predators and parasites on the
pests. Extracts from sources can also be used in pest control. Such are inexpensive
and long lasting.
iv. Chemical methods: this involves the use of pesticides such as insecticides,
fungicides, herbicides, and rodenticide. The aim is to kill or reduce pest population
thereby protecting the crops from attack. Though effective the numerous negative side
effects of chemical pest control have posed serious concern.
Apart from the specified methods discussed above, there are modern developments in pest
control. Sterile male technique and use of chemicals attract and repel pests are in use. The
combination of control practices (integrated method) and knowledge of life cycle of pests
has also proved effective.

EVALUATION
1. What is pest control?
2. For an effective control of pests, what should be the focus?
3. List 3 methods of pests’ control.
4. Mention 3 pests and indicate the chemical agent used in their control.

SUB-TOPIC 4: DISEASES CAUSED BY PESTS AND AGENTS.


i. Fungal diseases: Fungi diseases in crops are caused by Fungi which are usually
microscopic and parasitic. Fungal diseases attack the leaves, roots and stem of plants.
E.g Smut, rust, blight, root rot, and downy mildew are fungal diseases.
ii. Viral diseases: these are diseases which are parasites. Common symptoms include
Mosaic motting, lesions, chlorosis, stunting and recrosis. Many plant viral infections
are spread by insect vectors like aphids, beetles and hoppers. Crops affected by viral
diseases are Tobacco, Cassava, and garden egg.
iii. Bacterial diseases: these are caused by bacteria which tend to form spotting of
leaves, stems and fruits. Bacteria also cause soft rots, bacterial blight, bacterial wilt
and bacteria galls.
Fungal Diseases of Plants
Most types of plant-related diseases are caused by fungi. The leaves of this plant have been infected by tar-spot fungus.
Fungi can infect all parts of the plant including leaves, stems, flowers, roots, and fruit. The physical manifestations of
fungal diseases of plants include wilting, club root, root rot, wood rot, cankers, various types of mildews, blights, lesions,
and leaf spots. The effects of fungal diseases can be devastating as evidenced by the potato blight that destroyed the Irish
potato harvest of 1845 and caused a widespread famine in Ireland.

EVALUATION
1. What are the causative agents of pest diseases in crops?
2. List 3 symptoms of viral diseases.
3. Which plant parts are usually affected by fungal diseases?

SUB-TOPIC 5: CONTROL OF DISEASES CAUSED BY PESTS


Control of diseases caused by pests involves:
i. Physical methods: this involves removal of diseased plants. Weed hosts are also
removed. Bush burning and soil flooding are other methods.
ii. Cultural methods: this involves the modification of farming practices to destroy
disease-causing agents. Early planting and use of balanced fertilizers enable plants to
be well established before the peak period of infection. Planting resistant varieties
also help control diseases.
iii. Chemical methods: this involves the use of chemical agents to either eradicate the
crops from such agents. These are best methods of diseases control.
iv. Integrated method: this involves the combination of two or more methods
highlighted above, for effective disease control.
Other methods are:
i. Prevention of crops from being infected by disease-causing agents.
ii. Destruction of disease-causing agents and their respective vectors.
iii. Prevention of disease plants or animals from entering into country by government.
iv. Distribution disease-free planting materials.

EVALUATION
1. How are fungal diseases by pests controlled in crops?
2. What is usually involved in the cultural methods of the control of plant diseases
caused by pest?
3. In a tabular form, outlines 5 common pests of crops, their symptoms and their control.
4. Explain 4 pest control methods applicable to crops.
5. Discuss the benefits and disadvantages of the use of Biological and chemical methods
of pest control.
6. What is crop rotation? Explain its benefits to pest control.
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following sequence is true (a) egg-adult- Nymph- Pupa (b) egg-pupa-
larva-adult (c) egg-larva-pupa-adult (d) egg-nymph-adult (e) egg-larva-nymph-pupa-
adult.
2. Which of these stages causes the least damage to crops? (a) Nymph and Adult (b)
Pupa and Larva (c) Larvae and Adult (d) Adult and Pupa (e) egg and Nymphs.
3. Pest control involves the following except (a) reduction of pest population (b)
protection of crops (c) good knowledge of life cycle of pests (d) good knowledge of
pest habits (e) good study of the structure of the pests.
4. The use of sterile male technique is relevant in the _______ (a) study of the sex of
insects (b) study of the population of insect (c) study of economic importance of
insects (d) chemical method of pest control (e) modern means of pest control

WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Read about “Reproductive System in vertebrates” and differentiate between male and female
reproductive organ in fishes.

WEEK 9
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS IN VERTEBRATES
CONTENT:
(a) Reproductive systems in fish and reptile
(i) Structures of the male and female reproductive systems
(ii) Parts of the reproductive systems and their functions
(iii) Structures of the male and female gamete (sperm and ovum)
(iv) Differences between male and female reproductive organs.

SUB-TOPIC 1: STRUCTURES OF THE MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE


SYSTEMS OF FISH AND REPTILE.
The reproductive system plays a vital role in the reproduction of organisms. Vertebrates like
the fish and reptile have distinctive systems that are involved in the process of their
reproductive reproduction.

FISH
In bony fishes like Tilapia, the male reproductive system is made up of two elongated testes
that are surrounded from the abdomen. The testes join a simple duct which opens at a genital
opening known as Cloaca. In the females, the ovaries are contained in sac-like structures
also suspended from the abdomen. The ovaries are connected in a simple duct which leads to
the genital opening.

Generalized Anatomy of a Fish


Both the digestive and circulatory systems in most fishes are rather simple. Although a few species can breathe atmospheric air, most fish
breathe by means of gills. The swim (or gas) bladder allows fish to maintain a constant buoyancy regardless of the changing water pressure
at varying depths.

In cartilaginous fish like shark the male reproductive system consists of the testes, vasa
efferentia, vas deferens urino genital papilla, clasper and other inclusion that enhance
reproduction. The testes are long cylindrical organs. The female reproductive system is
made up of two ovaries.
Shark Egg Case with Embryos
These two dogfish egg cases show the developing embryos inside. Each egg case
contains enough yolk to sustain the nutritional needs of the embryo until it hatches.
The outer covering of the egg case is a tough, horny material. Each of the corners of
the egg case is drawn out into a long coiled filament, or tendril, that wraps around
rocks, kelps, or other materials on the sea floor, preventing the egg case from being
carried away by currents and exposed to possible predation.

REPTILES
In reptiles e.g. lizard, the male has two testes located in the abdominal region. Tiny vessels
emerge from the testes where sperm cells led to the epididymis. These vessels are known
as vasa efferentia. Each epididymis opens into two protusitle penes.

In the female lizard the ovaries are found at the two sides of the abdomen. The oviducts
open into the cloaca. During mating, the male penis penetrated through the female cloaca
into the opening of the oviduct while the seminal fluid that contains sperm is released into the
oviduct.
EVALUATION
1. What is reproduction?
2. Mention any parts of the reproductive system of a bony fish (male)
3. Mention any parts of the reproductive system of a reptile (female).

SUB-TOPIC 2: PARTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS AND THEIR


FUNCTIONS

Some parts of the reproductive system of fish and their functions are as follows:
i. Testis – Production of sperms.
ii. Ovary – production of ovaries
iii. Seminal vesicle – storage of sperms
iv. Cloaca – genital opening.
Some parts of the reproductive system of reptile and their functions are:
i. Ovoid testes: produces sperm cells.
ii. Vas deferens: tiny vessels that carry sperms to the epididymis.
iii. Ovaries: produce eggs.
iv. Male penis: releases sperm into the oviduct

EVALUATION
1. What are functions of the following parts of a fish reproductive system:
(a) Testes
(b) Vasa efferentia
(c) Seminal vesicle
(d) Epididymus
2. In what way are the functions of the testes related to that of the ovary.

SUB-TOPIC 3: STRUCTURES OF THE MALE AND FEMALE GAMATES.


The male gamates of both fish and reptile are the sperm cells which are unicellular and
mobile.
The female gametes on the other hand are the ova (ovum; singular) which are also unicellular
but larger in size than the sperms, they are also called Eggs. They are produces by the ovary.
In reptiles the eggs have hair-like structures surrounding it which enable it to move into the
oviduct.

EVALUATION
1. Briefly describe the male gamete of a fish.
2. Name the structures that produce the male and female gametes in reptiles.

SUB-TOPIC 3: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE


ORGANS.
There are significant differences between the male and female reproductive organs of fish
and the reptile.

For the fish, the basic differences are as indicated in the table below:
Male Reproductive Organ Female Reproductive Organ

Gamete produced by testes Gametes produced by ovary

Presence of a pair of claspers Absence of claspers

Absence of oviduct Presence of oviduct.


In reptiles the basic differences in their reproductive organs are as follows:
Male Reproductive Organ Female Reproductive Organ

Ovoid testes produce gametes Ovaries produce gametes

Vasa efferentia present Vasa efferentia absent

Penis present Penis absent

Oviduct absent Oviduct present

EVALUATION
1. State two differences between the male and female reproductive organs of a named
fish.
2. Mention two differences between the male and female reproductive organs of agama
lizard.
3. State 4 differences between the reproductive systems of a male and a female fish.
4. State the functions of the following structures in the reproductive organs in reptiles.
5. Seminal vessicle (b) Epididymis (c) Testis (d) Cloaca.
6. Tabulate the differences in the fish male and female reproductive organs.
OBJECTIVES TEST
1. Which of the following structures is absent in the reproductive system of a fish? (a)
Claspers (b) Epididymis (c) Bile duct (d) testis (e) Vasa efferentia
2. Mature male gametes in a fish are stored in the ________ (a) Gall bladder (b) Urethra
(c) Seminal vesicle (d) Urethra (e) Claspers
3. The female gamates in the lizards are (a) ovary (b) ovules (c) Organelles (d) Ova (e)
Sperms.
4. The genital opening in reptiles is also called ______ (a) Epididymis (b) Vas deferens
(c) Follide (d) Penis (e) Cloaca.
5. One similarity between the male and the female reproductive system is the presence
of _________ (a) Oviduct (b) Cloaca (c) Epididymis (d) Vasa efferentia (e) Eggs.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Modern Biology for SSS by S.T. Ramalingam; Pages 455-457 and write short notes on
the following:
1. Wolfian duct
2. Hemipenes
WEEK 10 & 11: Revision

WEEK 12: Examination

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