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Biology SS2 2ND Term E-Notes
Biology SS2 2ND Term E-Notes
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SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
CLASS: SS 2
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEKS TOPICS
10 Revision.
11. Revision.
12. Examination.
WEEK 1: Revision of last term’s work.
WEEK 2
TOPIC: NUTRIENT CYCLING IN NATURE
CLASS: SS2
CONTENT: 1.The water cycle
2. The nitrogen cycle
3. Decomposition in Nature
i. Evaporation
ii. Transpiration
iii. Respiration
iv. Condensation
v. Precipitation
vi. Infiltration
vii. Percolation.
1. PRECIPITATION
2.
3.
4.
5.
WATER CYCLE
EVALUATION
1. Describe the water cycle.
2. Of what importance is the water cycle to living organisms?
3. Make a simple diagram of the water cycle.
Intensive cultivation of soil over the years has depleted the nitrogen content of soil. To
improve soil fertility, farmers now replenish soil-nitrogen content by the addition of
inorganic fertilizers and organic manure.
EVALUATION
1. State three ways by which nitrogen is (i) added to soil (ii) removed from soil
2. Enumerate two importance of nitrogen to living things.
Sulfur Fungus
A member of the phylum Basidiomycetes, the sulfur fungus is one of the largest of the edible
fungi, reaching a width of several meters and a weight of several kilograms. It typically
grows on trees, sometimes at heights that make harvesting these fungi difficult.
Role of decomposers
i. They enrich the soil with nutrients required for plant growth.
ii. They make the recycling of nutrients possible thus enabling the ecosystem to
function.
iii. They are used in industries for production of cheese and yoghourt.
iv. Production of linen threads.
v. Production of compost.
vi. Used for sewage disposal.
vii. Used in the process of fanning.
viii. They produce carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis.
ix. They prevent unsightly accumulation of remains of living organisms on the surface of
the earth.
x. They contribute to environmental pollution.
EVALUATION
1. What is decomposition?
2. Define the term ‘decomposers’.
3. Outline the process of decomposition in nature.
4. Mention five roles of decomposers.
OBJECTIVES
1. Which of the following is a decomposer? (a) Rhizopus (b) Snail (c) Spirogyra (d) Tadpole
2. Water is added to the atmosphere by the following processes except ….. (a)
Decomposition (b) photosynthesis (c) respiration (d) volcanic eruption
3. Which of the following is a nitrifying bacterium? (a) Azotobacter (b) Nitrobacter (c)
Nitrosomonas (d) Rhizobium
4. Which is the odd one out? (a) Mould (b) Mushroom (c) Toadstool (d) Yeast
5. In which of the following food substances are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen
always present? (a) Fats (b) Proteins (c) Sugar (d) Starch
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the following terms;
(a) Autotrophs
(b) Heterotrophs
(c) Decomposers
2. Making use of a diagram only, explain the nitrogen cycle
WEEK 3
TOPIC: ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT: ASSOCIATION
CLASS: SS2
CONTENT:
(a) Types of associations
(b) Features of biological importance possessed by organism of an association
SYMBIOSIS
Symbiosis is a term for all associations in which all or some of the species involved benefits
or loses. It is interdependence of different species, which are sometimes called symbionts.
Based upon the specific relationship between the species involved in a symbiotic association,
at least one member benefits. There are three main types of symbiosis
I. PARASITISM
It is a type of antagonistic association occurring between two species, in which a specie
called the parasite, is gaining at the expense of the other – the host, which is losing.
Parasitism is a mode of life. The benefits the parasite derives from a host may include food,
oxygen, living space and support. The host is usually much bigger than the parasite.
Parasitism does not usually lead to the death of the host. It can however lead to a number or
harms such as reduction in growth, predisposition of the host to attack by diseases and
weakening.
Life Cycle of Human Blood Flukes
Flukes of the genus Schistosoma parasitize two hosts. The young hatch from their eggs in
rivers and lakes and enter a specific kind of aquatic snail, where they develop into tadpole-
like larvae called cercariae. When the cercariae leave the snail, they burrow through the skin
of a human host swimming or wading in infested water. Adult flukes mature in the host’s
bloodstream and settle in the veins of the gut. Their eggs, deposited in the lining of the
human intestine and bladder, pass back into water via the sewage system, and the cycle
begins again. More than 200 million people worldwide suffer from schistosomiasis, a disease
characterized by the abscesses and bleeding caused by the flukes’ infestation.
In parasitism, the parasite can be of varying types among which are the following:
(a) Ectoparasite i.e parasite living in the outside of the host tissue e.g. tick, lice, (among
animal parasites and dodder – a plant parasite.
(b) Endpoparasite i.e. a parasite that lives in the inside of the host tissue, e.g. tapeworm,
round worm, malaria parasite (plasmodium), bacteriophages which are viruses that
attacks bacteria.
Examples of plant parasites are mistletoe and dodder (cuscuta) and many other fungal and
bacterial parasites.
Examples of animal parasites include tapeworm, roundworm, plasmodium, lice, jigger and
tick, bed bug.
Ebola Virus Infection
Much research remains to be carried out on the Ebola virus, a highly infectious
and deadly virus that spreads through the use of unsterilized needles, through
contact with an infected individual, or the corpse of someone who has died
from the disease. About one week after infection, the virus begins attacking
blood and liver cells (1). As the disease swiftly progresses, the virus may
destroy vital organs such as the liver and kidneys (2), leading to massive
internal bleeding (3). Shock and respiratory arrest soon follow, then death.
Currently, there is no vaccine to prevent infection, and no drugs to halt the
disease.
II. MUTUALISM
Mutualism is a type of association which is beneficial to all the species involved, none
looses. It is a mode of life.
III. COMMENSALISM
Commensalism is a type of association which one of the species involved benefits from the
association and the other neither gains nor looses (i.e unharmed and unaffected).
Examples include:
i. The association between trees and the epiphytes that use their trunks as the
subtraction for the anchorage of their roots.
ii. Another association between the shark and the small fish called Remora that fasten
their mouth near the mouth of shark which provides such fish with small bits of food
that fall off from the mouth of the shark.
iii. Some bacteria live in the human large intestine. They feed on the food in the gut
and do not harm the host.
EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms; (a) ecology (b) association (with respect to ecological
management).
2. List four types of association between organisms in an ecosystem with a relevant
example of each.
3. State the main different between mutualism and parasitism.
4. Explain the term commensalism, giving one example.
EVALUATION
1. List three adaptive features of parasite that facilitate their mode of life.
2. Give specific examples of the organisms and their adaptive structures.
3. Define the term association with respect to ecological management.
4. Explain the term, commensalism, give two examples
5. State the difference between mutualism and commensalism.
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. An ecological unit in which two or more species of organisms occur in close proximity is
known as (a) adaptation (b) assimilation (c) association (d) protocooperation
2. Which of the following is not a term used to describe the interactions between plants and
animals in an environment? (a) association (b) symbiosis (c) adaptation (d) biotic
interaction
3. Parasite that posses boring organ for penetrating the host body are called (a) endoparasite
(b) indoparasite (c) exoparasite (d) ectoparasite
4. Which of the following is not an example of commensalism (a) epiphytes growing on stem
of large plant (b) bacteria living in the large intestine of human (c) association between
remora and shark (d) tape-worm living in the small intestine
5. Which of the following is not a parasite of animal (a) tick (b) dodder (c) nematodes (d)
flukes
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Write short notes on the following
i. Tolerance range.
ii. lower lethal temperature
iii. Upper lethal temperature
iv. Physiological stress.
WEEK 4
TOPIC: TOLERANCE
CLAAS: SS2
CONTENT:
(a) Concept of minimum and maximum range of tolerance.
(b) Geographic range graph illustrating maximum and minimum range of tolerance
The law of minimum tolerance was introduced in 1840 by Justice Liebig and the law states
that “the growth of a plant will be limited by whichever requisite factor is most deficient in a
local environment”.
This law was expanded in 1913 by V.E. Shelfore by applying it to animals and considered the
fact that too much of anything could be as bad as too little of it. Hence, Shelford’s law of
tolerance states “the distribution of species will be limited by the environmental factor for
which the organism has the narrowest range of adaptability.
Since organism can only live within certain minimum and maximum limits for each abiotic
factor, the range between the upper and lower limit is 0oC and the maximum limit is 42oC.
Their tolerance range is 0 – 42oC.
Based on the law of tolerance, an organism may have a wide range of tolerance for one
abiotic factor and a narrow range for another factor. An organism with a wide range of
tolerance for all factors is likely to have a wide distribution.
Ostriches
The distribution of the world’s flightless birds, called ratites, is indicative of the shifting of
continents in the earth’s distant past. Ratites evolved on a landmass called Gondwanaland,
which broke apart to give rise to Africa, South America, and Australia. Following this
separation, the ratites of each of these continents gradually evolved into one or more distinct
species—the ostrich of Africa (shown here), the rhea of South America, and the cassowary
and emu of Australia.
DIAGRAM: Tolerance range, optimum range and population size (Modern biology by
sarojimi, page 142 figure 7.4).
EVALUATION
1. State the law of tolerance.
2. Explain the term ‘tolerance range’.
3. Define tolerance and list five abiotic factors that determines. The survival of an
organism in an environment.
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The ability of an organism to withstand extreme variations in the environmental
condition is known as --- (a) resistance (b) tolerance(c) adaptation (d) toughness.
2. Which of the following is the tolerance range for most animals? (a) 0 o-100oC (b) -5-
35oC (c) 0o-42oC (d) 0o-45oC
3. Law of minimum tolerance was introduced by (a) Carl shoe (b) Gregor Mendel (c)
Justice Liebig (d) V.E. Shelford
4. Which of the following is incorrect (a) a species can only found in area having its
range of tolerance (b) variation in abiotic factors are responsible for distribution of a
species (c) an ecological niche is also known as biomes (d) the ability of an organism
to withstand extreme variation in environment is tolerance.
5. “The distribution of species will be limited by the environmental factors for which the
organism has the narrowest range of adaptability” is 9a) Max Shoe (b) Justice Liebig
(c) V.E. Shelford (d) Carl Shoe
ASSIGNMENTS
Read Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini, Pages 141-142 and:
1. Define adaptation
2. State five adaptive features of terrestrial organisms
ADAPTATION OF PLANTS
Plants are grouped into three on the basis of the environmental conditions under which they
grow, especially on availability of water in the soil. The three groups are hydrophytes,
mesophytes and xerophytes.
Adaptation of Hydrophytes
Hydrophytes are plants that have adapted to living in the aquatic environment. They are
either submerged of floating on the water surface. The plants can also grow in the soil that is
permanently saturated with water. Their adaptive features include the following:
i. Possession of large air cavities called parenchyma that serve as a means of buoyancy
and storing gases for respiration.
ii. Possession of photosynthetic chloroplast that make use of less light in water for
photosynthesis.
iii. Possession of breathing roots (pneumatophores) by some of the hydrophytes, which
grows above the water level to get enough oxygen for respiration.
iv. Possession of hairy leaves and thin and waxy cuticle to repel rain water as they do not
meet it.
v. Surface plants float on water have broad leaves that contain numerous stomata on the
upper side of the leaf, which trap maximum light for photosynthesis.
vi. Possession of small feathering roots.
vii. Less rigid structure because water pressure support them.
viii. They have succulent stem.
ix. Numerous stomata are opened at all times.
Examples of hydrophytes include water lily, water lotus and water hyacinth.
Adaptation of Mesophytes
Mesophytes are terrestrial plants that grow in areas of moderate water supply. They are the
large ecological group of terrestrial plants. Their adaptive features are:
i. Possession of well developed root system.
ii. Presence of well developed vascular bundle.
iii. Possession of large thin leaves.
iv. Presence of large number of stomata on the under surface of the leaves.
v. Presence of erect and branded stem.
vi. Possession of mesophyll layer that is well differentiated with many intercellular
spaces.
Examples include maize, sunflower, cassava, hibiscus, mango and orange.
Adaptation of Xerophytes
Xerophytes are plants that grow in dry areas with little water or moisture such as desert. Their
adaptive features are:
i. Reduced leaves that are reduced to spines and tiny scales to reduce water loss.
ii. Reduced number of stomata to reduce water loss.
iii. Sunken stomata reduce transpiration.
iv. Large hairs on surface to reduce water loss.
v. Succulent leaves and stems to store water.
vi. Deep root system to absorb water from depth.
vii. Possession of thick, waxy cuticle that reduces water loss through cuticular
transpiration.
viii. Shedding of leaves during day season to prevent water loss through transpiration.
ix. Possession of ability to fold their leaves during the day to decrease the number of
stomata that is exposed, thus reducing the rate of transpiration.
Examples are cactus, euphorbia, Aacia, pine and opuntia.
Jeweled Lizard
This beautiful species also goes by the name of eyed lizard, Lacerta lepida, not because it has
eyes, although of course it does, but for the ocelli ("little eyes"), or ringed spots, that adorn its
back and flanks. Native to southern Europe and northwestern Africa, the eyed lizard is the
largest member of a group of rather unspecialized Old World lizards. The oldest males may
reach 80 centimeters (30 inches) from nose to tail tip. Better known to many Europeans are
two smaller members of the genus, the wall lizard and the common or live-bearing lizard,
which has the unusual habit of producing its young not in the leathery-shelled eggs typical of
reptiles but in a thin membrane whose confines they immediately tear out of to assume life as
full-fledged lizardlings.
Bonito
Bonito, a relative of the tuna and mackerel, are buit for speed. Bonitos have streamlined,
torpedo-shaped bodies that taper to a thin junction with a large, forked tail.
EVALUATION
1. What is adaptation?
2. Name three forms of adaptation that are notable in organisms.
3. Define the following and give two examples of each: (a) hydrophytes (b) mesophytes
(c) xerophytes
4. State five ways by which xerophytes adapt themselves to arid condition.
5. List five ways animals adapt to terrestrial habitat.
Becoming a Frog
The legless tadpoles that hatch from a floating mass of frog eggs are the animal’s
fishlike larval stage. Part of a true metamorphosis, they have gills and a tail, both
of which disappear as the tadpole feeds and grows. When limbs and air-breathing
lungs develop, the young frog, now a miniature replica of its parents, emerges
from water to land.
EVALUATION:
1. State three structural adaptations of tadpole to aquatic life.
2. State three structural adaptations of birds to their feeding habits.
3. Classify plants into three groups on the basis of availability of water to the soil in their
environment.
4. State five adaptive features of xerophytes to arid environment.
5. List adaptive features of animals to terrestrial habitat.
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The features that helps an organisation to survive and exploit its environment is
known as (a) modified feature (b) adaptive features (c) enhanced feature (d) structural
features.
2. The characteristics that increase and organism’s potential to survive in its
environment is called (a) association (b) adaptation (c) modification (d) tolerance
3. Which of the following adapts tad-pole to aquatic life? (a) presence of sharp claws
(b) presence of external gills (c) presence of spines (d) possession of short beak
4. Which of the following does not illustrate adaptation to the environment? (a) Colour
changes by chameleon (b) streamline (c) light bones in birds (d) development of big
muscles by a weight lifter (e) possession of fins by fish
5. Which of the following does not illustrate adaptation to the environment? (a) water
leaf (b) water hyacinth (c) cactus (d) pines
6. The changing of colour by a chameleon to that of the environment is an example of ---
(a) adaptive radiation (b) protective colouration (c) courtship display (d) display of
body colour
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Discuss the effects of air pollution as a result of oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and dust.
WEEK 5
TOPIC: POLLUTION
CLASS: SS2
CONTENT:
1. Air Pollution
2. Noise pollution
3. Water pollution,
Pollution can be defined in the contamination of the environment due to main activities
which releases. Harmful substances into our surrounding in quantities that is dangerous to
man and his resources.
Types of pollution
Types of pollution include the following:
i. Air pollution,
ii. Noise pollution
iii. Water pollution,
iv. Soil pollution,
Substances that pollute the environment are called pollutants thus: there are Air, water, soil
and noise pollutants.
Czech Air Pollution
Factory smoke darkens the sky above Prague, Czech Republic. The Czech
Republic faces a severe air pollution problem that is choking the nation’s land. Air
pollution and subsequent acid rain has killed or damaged many of the country’s
trees and badly degraded its soil.
EVALUATION
1. Define (i) pollution (ii) pollutant
2. List the different types of pollution
3. Explain the nature and sources of air pollutants
4. Outline five Air pollutants and explain their effects on man.
5. Explain ways of controlling air pollutant.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the process whereby harmful waste materials are deposited into water
bodies making unfit for aquatic life and human consumption.
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following is air pollutant (a ) detergent (b) crude oil (c) untreated
sewage (d) smoke
2. Which of these is not an Air pollutant? (a) carbon (ii) dioxide (b) oxide of nitrogen (c)
carbon (iv) oxide (d) sulphur (iv) oxide
3. One of these cannot cause noise pollution? (a) smoke (b) high intensity and
unpleasant noise (c) industrial (d) actions (d) generation
4. One of these is false (a) soil is polluted by clearing refuse dumps (b) oil spillage
cripples economic life of fishermen (c)water pollution is dangerous to water supply
(d) noise pollution may cause restlessness
5. Long term effects of air pollution does not include (a) lung cancer (b) irritation of the
eyes (c)chronic respiratory diseases (d) heat damage
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Define soil pollution
2. State three sources of soil
3. State three effects of soil pollution
4. Give three control measures of soil pollution.
WEEK 6
TOPIC: CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: CONTENT:
(1) Meaning of conservation and natural resources
(2) Ways of ensuring conservation of natural resouces
(3) Benefits of conservation.
Conservation is the diligent and wise use of the earth’s resources to achieve the highest
quality of living for all mankind on sustainable basis.
Natural resources simply mean the endorsement of nature from which man satisfies his
basic needs.
b. Natural Biotic resources which are living or replaceable e.g. wildlife, forest, water,
air, sunlight etc.
EVALUATION
1. What is meant by conservation of natural resources?
2. What are the divisions of natural resources?
3. State 4 reasons why conservation of natural resources is important to a nation.
4. Mention 5 natural resources that need urgent conservation in your area.
ii. Legislation: these are usually law and treaties put in place by National and
international governments and organization to protect undue exploitation of
endangered species and other forms of resources. Examples are Anti-whaling law,
prohibition of bush burning and tree felling and law against gas flaring.
iii. Conservation Education: this effort aims at bringing awareness and public
enlightenment to the general public on the essence of conservation. Special
programmes aimed at involving all and sundry in the practical activities of
conservation are also effective.
iv. Erection of parks and reserves: this strategy involves the identifying of unique
areas and setting them aside for the protection and conservation of plants and animals.
E.g. Yankari, Kainji, Olokemeji forest.
Tanzania Game Reserves
Tanzania devotes a substantial portion of its land to conservation areas in order to
preserve its indigenous east African wildlife. These reserves, which include Serengeti
National Park, Selous Game Reserve, and Ngorongoro National Park, provide a home
to animals such as elephants, baboons, zebras, and giraffes. This picture shows a
migration of gnu at Ngorongoro.
Nutria or Coypu
It is an irony of conservation biology that a species might be in need of protection in its native lands while it is persecuted
as a rampant pest in places where it has been introduced. That is the case of the nutria, or coypu, Myocastor coypus, an
aquatic rodent that hails originally from the marshes, streamsides, and lakeshores of southern South America. Overtrapping
and wetlands destruction have caused many South American nutria populations to decline to the point that they have been
granted official protection. Yet populations of nutrias introduced as furbearers to parts of North America and Eurasia have
proved so successful that vigorous control measures must be applied to keep the numbers of these destructive rodents in
check.
Some problems militating against the above efforts at conservation are:
i. Over population which leads to increase demand on limited resources thereby
causing undue exploitation of resources.
iii. Poor funding resulting in the poor or non-implementation of government policies and
programmes on conservation.
iv. Limited land for the establishment and maintenance of games and forest reserves and
other related conservation projects.
EVALUATION
1. Who should bear the responsibility of conserving natural resources in a nation?
2. Mention and explain 3 ways of ensuring conservation of natural resources.
3. Why is it difficult to achieve effective conservation of natural resources.
4. In what practical ways can you contribute to the national effort of conservation.
EVALUATION
1. Define conservation of natural resources.
2. With two examples each distinguishes between abiotic and biotic natural resources.
3. State three reasons why conservation of natural resources is important to a nation.
4. Explain the reasons why water as a resource need to be given special attention to
conservation.
5. In what practical way can conservation education be used as an effective tool in government’s
hand to control natural resources?
6. Discuss any four challenges facing the nation in her effort to effectively conserve essential
natural resources.
7. In what ways has conservation of resources benefited the nation? Give practical examples.
OBJECTIVES TEST
1. Effective control of natural resources by man is described as (a) Utilization (b)
Evaluation (c) Conservation (d) Integration (e) Development
2. The following natural resources are renewable except (a) water (b) Crude oil (c) Air
(d) Soil (e) Plants.
3. One of the methods of ensuring conservation of natural resources may be by (a) bush
burning (b) felling of tree (b) mechanised farming (d) establishment of forest reserves
(e) continuous cropping.
4. The need for preserving and conserving natural resources is most urgent these days
due to _____ (a) fast depletion of natural forest resources (b) high rate of corruption
(c) low prices of materials from the forest (d) bad government policies (e) slow rate of
desert encroachment.
5. One of these is not a benefit of conservation of natural resources (a) poor patronage
by tourists to waterfalls (b) great scientific value (c) preservation of natural beauty (d)
sustained availability of resources (e) conservation of endangered species.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
1. List 5 challenges facing conservation of natural resources in Nigeria and suggest possible
solutions to them.
2. List 5 game reserves in Nigeria and where they are located.
3. State four conservation agencies in Nigeria.
4. State two methods each of conserving the following natural resources.
i. Natural forest
ii. Animal/wild life
iii. Water
iv. Soil
v. Air
vi. Mineral resources
WEEK 8
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: PEST AND DISEASES OF CROPS
CONTENT:
(I) Life cycles of pests
(II) Control of pests
(III) Diseases caused by pest and their agents
(a) Fungal diseases
(b) Viral diseases
(c) Bacterial diseases
(IV) Control of pest.
DEFINITION OF PESTS
Pests are organisms that carry disease or cause damage to other organisms. Pests may be
plants or animals. Plant pests are usually called weeds. Pests are very important to man
because of their detrimental effects to humans and other organisms of concern to man e.g.
agriculture or livestock production.
Crop pests are those that affect agricultural produce important to man, e.g. insects, birds etc.
Livestock pests attack livestock useful to man e.g. Mites, Lice, Tapeworms.
Pests usually decrease the quantity and quality of agricultural production, especially when
present in large numbers.
Crop-Destroying Weevils
Weevils are among the most destructive of pests that attack agricultural crops. Adult weevils
lay their eggs in stalks or seeds of crops such as cotton, wheat, rice, and alfalfa. As larvae,
weevils then feed on these plant tissues, extensively damaging the plant in the process.
EVALUATION
1. What are pests?
2. What make pest so important to man?
3. Mention 3 common pests you know.
EVALUATION
1. Briefly describe how pests affect root tubers.
2. Explain the term Pests. What make them so important to man?
3. In what ways do Pests affect the quality and quantity of agricultural livestock
produce?
4. Mention 5 pests and describe the ways they attack crops and their effect on crops.
5. In what way has mono-cultural practice in commercial agriculture contributed to the
emergence of pests as a production factor?
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Pests are important to man because (a) they are rich source of protein (b) they
contribute greatly to soil fertilizer (c) they affect valuable agricultural produce (d)
they reproduce profusely (e) they are lower than man.
2. Which of the plant part is usually NOT attacked by pests? (a) flowers (b) stems (c)
leaves (d) roots (e) fruits.
3. Which of the following crops is attacked by a stem-boring pest? (a) mango (b)
cassava (c) maize (d) yam (e) groundnut.
4. An example of an invertebrate pest is ______ (a) adult housefly (b) aphids (c)
Mosquito (d) Butterfly (e) amoeba
5. Which of the following vertebrate is not a known pest (a) Dog (b) birds (c) Squirrel
(d) rabbit (e) Monkey
EVALUATION
1. What is meant by life cycle?
2. Explain the two types of life cycles.
3. Draw the life cycle of a named pest.
EVALUATION
1. What is pest control?
2. For an effective control of pests, what should be the focus?
3. List 3 methods of pests’ control.
4. Mention 3 pests and indicate the chemical agent used in their control.
EVALUATION
1. What are the causative agents of pest diseases in crops?
2. List 3 symptoms of viral diseases.
3. Which plant parts are usually affected by fungal diseases?
EVALUATION
1. How are fungal diseases by pests controlled in crops?
2. What is usually involved in the cultural methods of the control of plant diseases
caused by pest?
3. In a tabular form, outlines 5 common pests of crops, their symptoms and their control.
4. Explain 4 pest control methods applicable to crops.
5. Discuss the benefits and disadvantages of the use of Biological and chemical methods
of pest control.
6. What is crop rotation? Explain its benefits to pest control.
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following sequence is true (a) egg-adult- Nymph- Pupa (b) egg-pupa-
larva-adult (c) egg-larva-pupa-adult (d) egg-nymph-adult (e) egg-larva-nymph-pupa-
adult.
2. Which of these stages causes the least damage to crops? (a) Nymph and Adult (b)
Pupa and Larva (c) Larvae and Adult (d) Adult and Pupa (e) egg and Nymphs.
3. Pest control involves the following except (a) reduction of pest population (b)
protection of crops (c) good knowledge of life cycle of pests (d) good knowledge of
pest habits (e) good study of the structure of the pests.
4. The use of sterile male technique is relevant in the _______ (a) study of the sex of
insects (b) study of the population of insect (c) study of economic importance of
insects (d) chemical method of pest control (e) modern means of pest control
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Read about “Reproductive System in vertebrates” and differentiate between male and female
reproductive organ in fishes.
WEEK 9
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS IN VERTEBRATES
CONTENT:
(a) Reproductive systems in fish and reptile
(i) Structures of the male and female reproductive systems
(ii) Parts of the reproductive systems and their functions
(iii) Structures of the male and female gamete (sperm and ovum)
(iv) Differences between male and female reproductive organs.
FISH
In bony fishes like Tilapia, the male reproductive system is made up of two elongated testes
that are surrounded from the abdomen. The testes join a simple duct which opens at a genital
opening known as Cloaca. In the females, the ovaries are contained in sac-like structures
also suspended from the abdomen. The ovaries are connected in a simple duct which leads to
the genital opening.
In cartilaginous fish like shark the male reproductive system consists of the testes, vasa
efferentia, vas deferens urino genital papilla, clasper and other inclusion that enhance
reproduction. The testes are long cylindrical organs. The female reproductive system is
made up of two ovaries.
Shark Egg Case with Embryos
These two dogfish egg cases show the developing embryos inside. Each egg case
contains enough yolk to sustain the nutritional needs of the embryo until it hatches.
The outer covering of the egg case is a tough, horny material. Each of the corners of
the egg case is drawn out into a long coiled filament, or tendril, that wraps around
rocks, kelps, or other materials on the sea floor, preventing the egg case from being
carried away by currents and exposed to possible predation.
REPTILES
In reptiles e.g. lizard, the male has two testes located in the abdominal region. Tiny vessels
emerge from the testes where sperm cells led to the epididymis. These vessels are known
as vasa efferentia. Each epididymis opens into two protusitle penes.
In the female lizard the ovaries are found at the two sides of the abdomen. The oviducts
open into the cloaca. During mating, the male penis penetrated through the female cloaca
into the opening of the oviduct while the seminal fluid that contains sperm is released into the
oviduct.
EVALUATION
1. What is reproduction?
2. Mention any parts of the reproductive system of a bony fish (male)
3. Mention any parts of the reproductive system of a reptile (female).
Some parts of the reproductive system of fish and their functions are as follows:
i. Testis – Production of sperms.
ii. Ovary – production of ovaries
iii. Seminal vesicle – storage of sperms
iv. Cloaca – genital opening.
Some parts of the reproductive system of reptile and their functions are:
i. Ovoid testes: produces sperm cells.
ii. Vas deferens: tiny vessels that carry sperms to the epididymis.
iii. Ovaries: produce eggs.
iv. Male penis: releases sperm into the oviduct
EVALUATION
1. What are functions of the following parts of a fish reproductive system:
(a) Testes
(b) Vasa efferentia
(c) Seminal vesicle
(d) Epididymus
2. In what way are the functions of the testes related to that of the ovary.
EVALUATION
1. Briefly describe the male gamete of a fish.
2. Name the structures that produce the male and female gametes in reptiles.
For the fish, the basic differences are as indicated in the table below:
Male Reproductive Organ Female Reproductive Organ
EVALUATION
1. State two differences between the male and female reproductive organs of a named
fish.
2. Mention two differences between the male and female reproductive organs of agama
lizard.
3. State 4 differences between the reproductive systems of a male and a female fish.
4. State the functions of the following structures in the reproductive organs in reptiles.
5. Seminal vessicle (b) Epididymis (c) Testis (d) Cloaca.
6. Tabulate the differences in the fish male and female reproductive organs.
OBJECTIVES TEST
1. Which of the following structures is absent in the reproductive system of a fish? (a)
Claspers (b) Epididymis (c) Bile duct (d) testis (e) Vasa efferentia
2. Mature male gametes in a fish are stored in the ________ (a) Gall bladder (b) Urethra
(c) Seminal vesicle (d) Urethra (e) Claspers
3. The female gamates in the lizards are (a) ovary (b) ovules (c) Organelles (d) Ova (e)
Sperms.
4. The genital opening in reptiles is also called ______ (a) Epididymis (b) Vas deferens
(c) Follide (d) Penis (e) Cloaca.
5. One similarity between the male and the female reproductive system is the presence
of _________ (a) Oviduct (b) Cloaca (c) Epididymis (d) Vasa efferentia (e) Eggs.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Modern Biology for SSS by S.T. Ramalingam; Pages 455-457 and write short notes on
the following:
1. Wolfian duct
2. Hemipenes
WEEK 10 & 11: Revision