f3 Biology Simplified Notes SP

BIOLOGY NOTES
FORM 3 SIMPLIFIED VERSION
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CLASSIFICATION II
 Classification, in biology is the identification, naming, and grouping of organisms into a
formal system based on similarities such as internal and external anatomy, physiological
functions, genetic makeup, or evolutionary history.
Study Question 1
General Principles ofClassification
Organisms that have similar and common features are grouped together while those that have
different features are grouped separately.
Taxonomy is the study of grouping of organisms according to their relationship.Thereareseven
majortaxonomicunits(taxa).
 Kingdom
 Phylum (phyla) or Division in plants
 Class
 Order
 Family
 Genus
 Species
 As you move from the kingdom to the species the differences decrease as the similaritiesincreases.
 Species is a group of organisms that can freely interbreed to give rise to viable/fertileoffsprings.
 Sometime members of different species may interbreed to give an offspring which is sterile. E.g. a
donkey and a horse can interbreed to give rise to a mule which is infertile.
Binomial Nomenclature
This is the double naming system of organisms where organisms are assigned two names i.e.
the generic name and the specific name.
Examples
In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed.
i.) Generic name is written first followed by the specific name.
ii.) First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in small letters.
iii.) Specific name is written in small letters.
iv.) The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or italicized when printed.

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Study Question 2
The Five Kingdoms of Classification
CarolusLinnaeusinitiallyintroduced the two kingdomsystem of classification. However many
new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a
more accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are;
 Monera
 Protoctista
 Fungi
 Plantae
 Animalia. Fig. 1.2
Kingdom Monera
The kingdom is made up of mainly the bacteria e.g. nitrobacter, azotobacter. Vibrio choleraeetc.
General characteristics
i.) They are unicellular and microscopic. Some are single cells while others are in colonies. They
have different body shapes.
Fig. 1.4
ii.) Most are heterotrophic, feeding either saprophytically or parasitically. Some areautotrophic.
iii.)They are prokaryotic i.e. their nuclear material is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
iv.) They have few organelles which are not membrane bound.
They don’t havemitochondria.
v.) They have a cell wall though not made of cellulose.
vi.) Theyreproduce asexually mainlythrough binaryfission.
vii.)Most of them respire an-aerobically but some respireaerobically.
viii.)Most of them move by use of flagella.

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Study question 3
Kingdom Protoctista
Examples include paramecium, amoeba, plasmodium, chlamydomonas, euglena, spirogyra, and
trypanosome.
i.) They are eukaryotic whereby their nuclei is bound by a nuclear membrane.
ii.) Some are heterotrophic while others are autotrophic.
iii.)They have may organelles including mitochondria all of which are membrane bound.
iv.) They have different body forms; some are unicellular or colonial while others are multicellular.
v.) Reproduction is mainly asexual by fission, fragmentation or sporulation. Some reproduce
sexually by conjugation.
vi.) They are mobile and move by means of cilia, flagella or pseudopodia.
vii.)Some may have specialized structures that perform specific functions such as contractile
vacuole for osmoregulation.
Practical Activities 1 and 2
Kingdom Fungi
Examples
 Saprophytic ones include mushrooms, toadstools, bread moulds, penicilia, yeast etc.
 Parasitic ones cause plant diseases such as wheat rust, potato and tomato blight and animal
diseases such as athlete’s foot and ringworm.

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i.) They are eukaryotic.

ii.) Most have cell walls made of chitin but a few have cellulose cell walls.
iii.)They store food particles in their cytoplasm in the form of glycogen or oil droplets but not starch.
iv.) The basic unit is the hyphae. Hyphae are thin filaments and many of them make up structures
called mycelium.
v.) Fungi have neither the chloroplasts nor the chlorophyll. They feed on already manufactured
food. Hyphae act as the roots and are sent into the food material to obtain nutrients. In
saprophytic fungi the hyphae are referred to as rhizoids and in parasitic ones as haustoria.
vi.) Theyreproduce sexually (fusion of nuclei in hyphal branches) and asexually (spores and
budding).
Kingdom Plantae
General Characteristics
i.) They are eukaryotic and multicellular.
ii.) In most their body is differentiated into leaves, stem and roots.
iii.)Theyreproduce both sexually and asexually.
iv.) Their cells have cellulose cell walls
v.) Theyhave photosynthetic pigment hence are autotrophic.
vi.) Majority have a transport system
vii.)They show alternation of generation.
The kingdom Plantae is divided into three main divisions.

 Bryophyta.
 Pteridophyta.
 Spermatophyta.

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Division Bryophyta
These are the mosses and the liverworts.
i.) The lack the vascularsystem

ii.) Contain chlorophyll and are therefore photosynthetic. iii.) They have rhizoids for anchorage
and water and mineral salts absorption.
iv.) They show alternation of generations.
v.) Fertilisationdependsofavailabilityofwater.Malegametes are produced bythe antheridia and
female gametes bythe archegonia.
vi.) They grow on damp substratum such as walls, rocks and marshes.
vii.)They are thalloid as in liverworts or differentiated into simple leaf like and stem like
structures as in mosses.

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Division Pteridophyta
This includes ferns andhorsetails.
They are more advanced compared to the bryophytes.
i.) They have leaves, stems and roots but no flowers.

ii.) They are photosynthetic.
iii.)They have a clearly defined vascular system made of xylem and phloem.
iv.) They have compound leaves with leaflets called pinna.
v.) On the lower side of mature leaves are the spores bearing structures (sporangia) which occur in
groups called sori (sorus-singular). see diagram.
vi.) They show alternation of generations where the sporophyte (fern plant) is the dominant one
while the gametophyte is a heart shaped structure called Prothallus. See diagram.
vii.) They have sexual reproduction which is dependent of water.
Study Question 6
Practical Activity 4
Study Question 7

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Division Spermatophyta
This comprises of all the seed bearing plants.
i.) They contain chloroplasts hence are photosynthetic.
ii.) The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and seed bearing structures.
iii.)Vascular system is highly developed with xylem tissue consisting of both xylem vessels and
tracheids.
iv.) Sexual reproduction is well defined.
v.) Seedsareproducedafterfertilisation.
vi.) Theyshow alternation of generation.
The division Spermatophyta is made up of two main subdivisions i.e.
 Gymnospermaphyta
 Angiospermaphyta
Gymnospermaphyta
 They bear male and female cones.
 After fertilisation seeds are borne on the female cones and they are naked i.e. they are not
enclosed in a fruit wall.
 They show xerophytic characteristics such as needle like leaves, rolled leaves, thick waxy
cuticle and sunken stomata.
 Phloem doesn’t contain companion cells and xylem mainly consists of tracheids.
This subdivision has three main classes.

 Coniferales
 Cycadales
 Ginkgoales
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Class Coniferales
 These include all the common gymnosperms.
 They are found in areas of little water.
 They have small needle-shaped leaves with waxy cuticle.
 They have cones and most of them are ever green.
 Maleconesareinformofclustersatthebaseoftheterminal bud.
 Femaleconesareonlateralbudsof youngshootsandthey contain naked seeds.
Diagrams.
Class Cycadales
 They resemble the palm trees by appearance.
 They have long compound leaves which are clustered at the apex of a thick short un-branched
stem.
 They bear cones at the apex of the trunk.
Class Ginkgoales
 Members here are very rare.
 They include the Ginkgo biloba of China.
 They are deciduous with fan like leaves.
Angiospermaphyta
 Are usually bisexual and flower bearing.
 Seeds are enclosed in an ovary which develops into a fruit.
 Xylem has tracheids and vessels while the phloem has companion cells.
 They have doublefertilisation.
This subdivision is divided into two classes.
 Monocotyledonae. –examples
Dicotyledonae. –examples

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ClassMonocotyledonae Class Dicotyledonae.
 They have seeds with one cotyledon.  Have two cotyledons.
 They have narrow-long leaves with parallel  Broadleaveswithreticulate venation.

venation.
 Most of their leaves have a  Leaves have distinct petioles.
modified petiole to form a leaf sheath.
 Their stems havescattered vascular bundle.  Vascular bundles arearranged to form a

concentric ring.
 Pith is usuallyabsent.  Pith is present.
 Vascular cambium is usually  Vascular cambium is present
absent hence no secondary growth. hence there is secondary growth.
 They have a fibrous root system  They have a tap root system
 Floral parts are in threes or in multiples of  Floral parts are in fours, fives or their
three. multiples.
 In the root vascular bundles are arranged  In roots, the xylem is centrally placed and
in a ring with phloemandxylemalternating. star shaped with
the phloem alternating with the arms of the
xylem.
Study question 8
Practical activity 6
v.)Kingdom Animalia
i.) Most show locomotion but a few are sessile
ii.) Most reproduce sexually and a few asexually
iii.) They are eukaryotic and multicellular
iv.) All are heterotrophic
v.) Their cells have no cell walls
Kingdom Animalia has nine phyla but only two will be discussed
i.e. Arthropoda and chordata.

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Phylum Arthropoda
i.) They are segmented.
ii.) They are bilaterally symmetrical.
iii.)They have open circulatory system where blood flows in open cavities called haemocoel.
iv.) Head is well developed with eyes, sensory structures and a fairly developed brain.
v.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system which opens through the spiracles to the
outside. Some aquatic ones use gills.
vi.) Reproduction is mostlysexual with internal fertilization.They have different sexes.
vii.)They have jointed appendages hence the name arthropoda. V
viii.)They have a body covered with exoskeleton made of chitin.This provides a surface for muscle
attachment. It is shed periodically to allow growth through a process called moulting.
ix.) Most have their body divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
In some, the head and the thorax are fused to form Cephalothorax.Thethoraxandtheabdomenare
all segmented.
The phylum arthropoda is divided into five classes.
 Crustacea
 Chilopoda
 Diplopoda
 Arachnida.
 Insecta.
Different members of the phylum are placed to their respective classes based on;
 Number of limbs
 Presence and number ofantennae
 Number of bodyparts.

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Class Crustacea
Examples. Daphnia, crayfish. Crab and prawn.
i.) Head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax.
ii.) They have two pairs of antennae.
iii.)They have between five and twenty pairs of limbs modified fordifferentfunctions e.g. locomotion
defenceandfeeding.
iv.) They have a pair of compound eyes.
v.) Gaseous exchange is through thegills.
vi.) They have three pairs of mouth parts made of one pair of mandibles (lower) and two pairs of
maxillae (upper).
Class Chilopoda
These are the centipedes.
i.) Body is divided into two parts, the head and the trunk.
ii.) The body is dorsa-ventrally flattened.
iii.)Body is made up of 15 or more segments.
iv.) Head has a pair of simple eyes.
v.) segment has a pair of walking legs.
vi.) Head has a pair of antennae.
vii.)Have poison claws n the head and are therefore carnivorous.
viii.)Have a tracheal system for gaseous exchange.
ix.) Have separate sexes.

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Class Diplopoda
These are the millipedes. Diagram
i.) They have cylindricalbody.
ii.) Have three body parts, head, and thorax and body trunk.
iii.)They have two clumps of many simple eyes.
iv.) They have no poison claws and are therefore herbivorous.
v.) Heads has a pair of short antennae and mandibles.
vi.) Each body segment has a pair of spiracles for breathing.
vii.)Body has between 9-100segments.
viii.)Each segment has two pairs of walking legs except the first thoracic segment.
Class Arachnida
These include the scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites. Diagrams
i.) Body has two parts, cephalothorax and abdomen.
ii.) Cephalothorax has two chelicerae which produce poison to paralyse the prey.
iii.)Cephalothorax has four pairs of walking legs each having seven joints.
iv.) At the end of each leg are two toothed claws.
v.) Cephalothorax has eight simple eyes.
vii.)They have no antennae but have a pair of pedipalps which are sensitive totouch.

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Class Insecta
 They include grasshoppers, bees, houseflies, butterflies, termites, beetles etc.
 Insects form half the population of animals on earth. They occupy all habitats i.e. air, water, and
land. Their food is varied such as plant tissues, animal fluids, dead animals and excretions of animals
making them to be found almost everywhere on earth.
i.) Body is divided into three parts, head, thorax and abdomen.
ii.) Thorax is made up of three segments with three pairs of legs.
Some have one or two pairs of wings on the thorax.
iii.)Head has one pair of antennae.
iv.) They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis.
v.) Excretion is through the malpighian tubules which remove uric acid.
vi.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system but they breathe through thespiracles.
vii.)The head a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes.
viii.)Abdomen is made up of 11 or fewer segments. The terminal segments are modified for
reproduction.
ix.) Mouth parts consist of the mandibles, maxillae and labium.
The mouth parts are modified according to their feeding habits such as sucking, biting, chewing etc.
Assignment
Discuss the economic importance of arthropods. Study Question 10
Phylum Chordata
 Chordate, common name for animals of the phylum Chordata, which includes vertebrates as well
as some invertebrates that possess, at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod called a
notochord lying above the gut. About 43,700 living species are known, making the chordates the
third largest animal phylum.
 In animals such as the Amphioxus the notochord persists but in others it is replaced at later
stages of development by the vertebral column.
 Members in this phylum inhabit both aquatic (marine and fresh water)andterrestrial(burrowersand
arboreal)environments.

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 possess, at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod called a notochord lying above the gut.
About 43,700 living species are known, making the chordates the third largest animal phylum.
 In animals such as the Amphioxus the notochord persists but in others it is replaced at later
stages of development by the vertebral column.
 Members in this phylum inhabit both aquatic (marine and fresh water)andterrestrial(burrowersand
arboreal)environments.
i.) Members have a notochord at some stage of their development.
ii.) They are bilaterallysymmetrical.
iii.)Heart is ventrallyplaced. Blood flows fromthe heart through the arteries and gets back to the heart
through the veins.
iv.) They have a post anal tail although it is greatly reduced in some.
v.) They have anendoskeleton.
vi.) They have a closed circulatory system.
vii.)They have visceral clefts where in fish they become the gills in higher chordates they are only
present in the embryo.
viii.)Theyhave a tubular dorsalnerve cord. It develops anteriorly into brain and posteriorly as the
spinal cord. Spinal cord is enclosed by the vertebral column.
ix.) They have segmented muscle blocks called myotomes on either side of the body.
The main classes of the phylum chordata are;
 Pisces
 Amphibia
 Reptilia.
 Aves.
 Mammalia
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Pisces
Diagram
These are the fishes. They include those with a skeleton made of cartilage e.g. shark and those with
a bony skeleton such as the tilapia, Nile perch, lung fish, dog fish, and cat fish etc.
i.) The move by fins
ii.) Bodies are covered withscales
iii.)Have gills for gaseous exchange in water.
iv.) They don’t have a middle or inner ear.
v.) They have streamlinedbodies.
vi.) They have a lateral line for sensitivity.
vii.)Their heart has two main chambers i.e. the auricle and the ventricle.
viii.)They are poikilothermic/ectothermic.
ix.) Eyes are covered by a nictating membrane.
Amphibia
They include the toads, newts, salamanders and frogs.
The toad is the most advanced amphibian. Its skin is less moist and therefore uses the lungs
more for gaseous exchange. They therefore stay mostly on land and only return to the ponds
during reproduction.
Diagrams
i.) They have a double circulatory system.
ii.) Theyhave a three chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle.
iii.)Fertilisation is external and they breed in water.
iv.) Gaseous exchange is through the skin, lungs and gills.
iv.) They have two eyes and an eardrum behind the eyes.
v.) They are ectothermic.
vii.)They have 4 well developed limbs. The hind limbs are more muscular than theforelimbs.

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Reptilia
Examples include tortoise, turtles, snakes, crocodiles, lizards and chameleons.
i.) They are ectothermic.
ii.) They have a well developed lung for gaseous exchange.
iii.)Theyhave double circulatory system with the heart having
threechambersi.e.twoatriaandapartiallydividedventricle. Crocodiles however have a four
chambered heart.
iv.) The body is covered with a dry scaly skin reducing desiccation.
v.) Some have four limbs while others don’t have any limbs such as the snakes.
vi.) Fertilisation is internal. They layeggs with a leatheryshell to avoid desiccation. Some species of
chameleons give birth to young ones.
Aves
Examples include doves, chicken, hawks, eagles and turkeys. They are terrestrial and arboreal while
some have been adapted for aquatic life.
i.) Bodies are covered with feathers for in insulation.
ii.) They have beaks.
iii.)They internal auditory canal/ meatus
iv.) Fertilisation is internal and they lay hard calcareous eggs.
v.) They have lungs for gaseousexchange.
vi.) They have air sacs which store air in them reducing their body density forflight.
vii.)They are endothermic.
viii.)They have hollow bones.
ix.) They have scales on their hind limbs.
x.) They have double circulatory system with a four chambered heart.
xi.) The sternum is enlarged to form keel for attachment of flight muscles.

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Mammalia
Study Question 11
 Some are arboreal such as the tree squirrels, and some monkeys.
 Some are terrestrial either on the surface of the earth or in tunnels.
 Some are aquatic such as the dolphins and whales.
i.) They have double circulatory system
ii.) They have mammary glands hence the name Mammalia.
iii.)Their body is usually covered with fur or hair.
iv.) Theyhave two eternal ears (pinna)
v.) They have sweat glands.
vi.) They have lungs for gaseous exchange.
vii.)They have fourlimbs.
viii.)They have a diaphragm which separates the body cavity into thoracic and abdominalcavities..
ix.) The brain is highly developed.
x.) Theyhave seven cervical vertebrae at their neck.
xi.) They are endothermic.
xii.)Theyhave heterodont type of dentition where the teeth are differentiated into four types,
incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars. The number varies in relation to feeding habits.
 Although most mammals give birth to live young ones, some are egg laying such as the
duck billed platypus. After hatching, the young ones are fed on milk.
Practical Activity10.

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The Dichotomous Key
 The word dichotomous means separating into two. I.e. Separation of different or contradictory
things:a separation into two divisions that differ widely from or contradict each other.
 As you move down the key you progress from general characteristics to more specific
characteristics. The last single choice reveals the identity of the unknown organism.
Rules Used in Constructing a Dichotomous Key

i.) Use morphological features as far as possible.
ii.) Start with the major characteristics and proceed to lesser variations that separate the organisms
into smaller groups.E.g. in leaves start with type of leaf i.e. simple or compound.
iii.)Select a single characteristic at a time and identify it by a number such as.
 Type of leaf
 Type of venation
iv.) Use identical forms of words for the two contrasting statements e.g.
1. a) leaf simple.
b) Leaf compound
2. a) Leafnet veined.
b) Leaf parallel veined.
v.) The statements should always be written in positive form.
Where a negative statement cannot be avoided, the first statement must be in the positive form
e.g.
a) Animal with wings
b) Animal without wings
vi.) Avoid overlapping statements or generalizations such as
 Short plants
 Tall plants
Be very specific in your description such as
 Plant I metre tall and above.
 Plant 15cm to 60cmtall.

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Some common Featres Used For Identification.
 In animals
i.) Locomotory structures (legs, wings and fins)
iv.) Number of bodyparts
v.) Body segmentation
vi.) Type of skeleton present
vii.)Feeding structures
viii.)Presence of hair, fur, scales or feathers on the body
In plants
Part of plant Some characteristics.
Leaf  Phylotaxy
 Leaf type
 Leaf venation
 Margin
 Lamina
 Colour
Flower  Inflorescence
 Flower shape
 Number of floral
Stem  Type of stem( woody, herbaceous or fleshy)
 Shape (rectangular orcylindrical)
 Texture of the stem (smooth or spiny/thorny)
Roots  Root system (taproot orfibrous)
 Storage roots.

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ECOLOGY
Introduction
Ecology is the study of the interrelationships of organisms to each other and to their environment
(biotic and Abiotic factors). Autecology; study of single species within a community and how it
relates with both the biotic and Abiotic factors.
Synecology. This is the study of many different species of organisms’ interacting among
themselves within an ecosystem. Ecology helps to address the following issues.
 Sustainable food production

 Pollution control
 Natural resources conservation
 Pest and diseasecontrol
 Population control
 Eco-tourism
 Prediction of adverse weather conditions
Concepts of ecology
 Biosphere/ecosphere.Thisisthe partof theearth and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms.
 Habitat.Thisisa specific localitywith a particular set of conditions where an organism lives.

Habitats can be terrestrial or aquatic.
 Ecological niche. This is the position occupied by an organisminahabitat.Itincludesthe

physicalspacewhere an organism is found and its role in the habitat.
 Population. This refers to all members of a given species in particular habitat.
 Community. This refers to all organisms belonging to different species interacting in the same
habitat. Many populations make up acommunity.
 Ecosystem. This is a natural unit made of biotic and Abiotic factors whose interactions lead to a
self sustaining system.
E.g. a tropical rain forest, a small pond etc.
 Biomass. This is the total dry weight of living organisms at a particular Trophic (feeding) level or
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per unit area.
 Carrying capacity. This is the maximum number of organisms an area can comfortably
support without depletion of the available resources. E.g. the maximum number of cows a
pasture land can comfortably hold without overgrazing.
Study Question 1
Factors in an Ecosystem They are divided into two:
1. Abiotic factors or the non living factors
2. Biotic or the living factors
Abiotic Factors
 Light. This is required by plants and photosynthetic bacteria to manufacture food. The sun is the
source of light energy. Light intensity and quality (wavelength) affects the rate of
photosynthesis, flowering and germination in plants, while in animals it affects migration,
hibernation and reproduction. Light intensityis measured using a Photographic Light meter
while a Seechi disc measures light penetration in water.
 Atmospheric pressure. Variation in atmospheric pressure affects the availability of oxygen and
carbon (IV) dioxide in the atmosphere. These two gases in turn affect the distribution of living
organisms. Low atmospheric pressure increases the rate of transpiration. Barometer is used to
measure it.
 Humidity. This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. It affects the rate of water
loss from plants and animals surfaces through transpiration and sweating respectively.The
higherthehumiditythelowertherateof loss and vice versa. It is measured using the hygrometer.
 Salinity.Thisreferstothesalt concentrationofthewater. This divides the aquatic environment into

marine, estuarine and fresh water. Only organisms with adaptable osmoregulatory features
can comfortably occupy such habitats. In estuaries, there are fluctuations of salt concentrations
at different times. When the sea tide is low, the salt concentrations are low due to the greater diluting
effect of the fresh water being discharged. High tide raises the salt level. Estuarine organisms
must therefore be adapted to cope with such wide salt variations.

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 Wind. This is moving air. It increases the rate of water loss from organisms affecting their
distribution. It also influences rain formation. It helps in formation of sand dunes in deserts which
become habitats for the growth of deserts plants. Its an agent of seed and fruit dispersal
 Temperature. This affects the distribution of organisms in anyhabitat.Verylow temperature may

inactivate enzymes whileveryhightemperaturesdenaturethem.Temperature varies due to
seasons, altitude, and latitude and diurnally in hot deserts.
 pH (hydrogen ion concentration.)

This is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of water in aquatic habitats or soil solution. This
influences the distribution of plants and animals in soil and aquatic habitats. Different
organisms have different pH requirements. pH is determined using the pH meter.
Biotic Inter-Relationships Competition

Living organisms compete for resources such as nutrients, space,light and mates. There are two
types of competition.
i.) Inter-specificcompetition.Thisisthecompetitionbetween individuals of different species for the
same resources. For example. An experiment6 was carried out on two closely related species
of paramecia- Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium aurelia. It was observed that when
each species is grown separately in controlled cultures with constant food supply, they show
normal population growth. When they are grown together in the same culture, thre is competition
and Paramecium caudatum is eliminated. See graphs.
Paramecium aurelia
Paramecium caudatum.

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Paramecium
Paramecium
caudatum.
However, closely related species can live together without competition. For example, when
Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium bursoria are grown in the same culture, there is no
competition because each species occupies a different part of the culture. Similarly, browsers
and grazers can occupy same habitatwithoutcompetitionbecausetheyfeedatdifferentlevels of
the same plants. For example, the zebras eat the softer shoots, followed by the wild beasts, and the
gazelles which eat the fibrous left over of the same grass.
Study Question 4
ii.) Intra-specific competition. This is the competition between members of the same species for
the same resources.
When there is competition the best adapted organisms survive while the less adapted ones may die or
be forced to migrate.
Predation
This is the relationship where one organism kills another for food and feed on it either as a whole or a
part of it. The predator is the one which kills while the prey is the one being killed for food.
Predators have various adaptations to enable them to be efficient in capturing the prey. These
include;
 Sharp eyesight as in eagles, kites and hawk
 Fast flight,
 Modified beaks
 Strong jaws with carnassial’s teeth as in leopards and lions.
 Large claws on strong forelimbs.
 Colour camouflage such as the spotted pattern oftheleopard blends well with the background
colour of the bushes and trees.
 Moving against the wind while stalking the prey. Preys alsohave structural and behavioural
adaptations. These include:
 Swift movement e.g. the antelope and gazelle
 Camouflage e.g. in gazelles and stripes of the zebra.
 Large eyes on the sides of the head to giving them a w id
efield of view
 Confrontational display in porcupine
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NB/.When the numberof the preyincreasesthatofthepredators also increases. An increase in the
number of predators leads to a decrease in the population of the prey. This decrease in prey
population leadsto a fallin predator population which in turn gives space for the increase in the
population of the prey. This is the basis of biological control.
See the graph below.

Prey and predator population.
Prey
Predator
Parasitism
Time
This is the relationship where an organism [parasite] obtains nutrients from another live organism
[host] without killing it. The parasite obtains food and shelter from the host causing some
harmful effects. Parasites may weaken the host and also transmit diseases which may kill their
host thus reducing their number an d distribution. There are two types of parasites;
Ecto-parasites
Endo-parasites
Symbiosis
This is an association between two of different species in which both benefit. For example the
association of colon bacteria with humans and other animals, especially plant-eating animals, the
ox-pecker bird and the ox etc.
TheRhizobiumbacteriahelpthe leguminous plantstofixnitrogen while the bacteria obtain shelter
and carbohydrates from the plants.
 Saprophytism
This is where organisms obtain nutrients from dead organisms causing decomposition hence
releasing nutrients into the ecosystem. Saprophytes include the bacteria and fungi.
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The Nitrogen Cycle

 This refers to the cycling of nitrogen and its compounds in the natural environment.
 Although nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere as nitrogengas, it cannot be utilised by plants. It has
to be converted into a form that can be absorbed by plants through a process called nitrogen
fixation.
 Nitrogen fixation is done in two ways;
 Biological fixation. This can occur in two forms
1. Nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteria such as Rhizobium spp. They are found in the
root nodules of legumes. They convert nitrogen gas into ammonia which is then converted into
nitrates for plant utilisation.
2. Nitrogen fixation by free living bacteria e.g. Clostridium, Azotobacter, and some algae such as
Anabaena, chlorella and Nostoc.
 Non-Biological nitrogen fixation. This is done by lightning.

 During thunderstorms, lightning energy combines atmospheric nitrogen gas with oxygen to form
nitrous and nitric acid. These are then converted into nitrates.
 Plants absorb nitrates and convert them into plant proteins.Animalsfeedontheseplantsandobtainthe
proteins.They arethendigestedintoaminoacidsandbecomeassimilated into animal proteins.
 When living organisms die, saprophytic bacteria and fungibreak down the proteins in their bodies into
ammonia.
 Nitrifying bacteria convert this ammonia into nitrates thorough a process called nitrification.
Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus convert ammonia into nitrites and Nitrobacter convert nitrites
intoNitrates.
 Some soil micro organisms such as Pseudomonas denitrificans & Thiobacillus denitrificans
utilize the oxygen in the nitrates reducing it to nitrites, ammonia and eventually into nitrogen gas.
This is called de-nitrification.
This reduces the amount of nitrogen available to plants bufrees
ti the nitrogen so that it becomes available
for the cycle to continue.

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Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

The sun is the natural source of energy. This energy is transferred to the following feeding levels;
 Producers
 Primary consumers
 Secondary consumers
 Tertiary consumers
 Quaternary consumers
 These feeding levels are called Trophic levels
Decomposers
They break down organic materials into simple substances which are made available for re-use by
other organisms.
Decomposers are mainly fungi and bacteria. Food Chains
This is the representation of energy flow from a producer to other organisms linearly. Green plants
are eaten byherbivores which are eaten by carnivores.
Producers’ Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary
consumers Quaternary consumers

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Some energy is lost as it is moved from one trophic level to the next. This is through respiration,
defecation, excretion and in form of heat.
Examples
When the decomposers are included in a food chain, they are placed at theend.
Food Webs
These are several interconnected food chains. Simple food chains rarely exist since in any
ecosystem, many populations interact.
Examples
Study Question 8
Ecological Pyramids
These give a simplified representation of feeding relationships and energy flow in an ecosystem.
They are of three types.
 Pyramid of numbers
 Pyramid of biomass
 Pyramid of energy

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Pyramid of Numbers
There is a progress decrease in the number of organisms as one move from the producers all the
way to the quaternary consumers. Producers have the greatest number followed in a decreasing
order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers.
consumers.
Tertiary consumers
Primary consumers
Producers
Construction of Pyramid of Numbers

i.) Use data provided or collected.
ii.) From the data, identifyand draw the most suitable food chain.
iii.)Indicate the numbers at each trophic level in the food chain.
iv.) Choose a suitable scale for the data.
v.) Using the chosen scale draw a horizontal rectangular bar to represent the number of the
producers as the base of the pyramid.
vi.) Progressively draw horizontal bars of the other trophic levels in their ascendingorder.
Ensure that the width ofthe bars is uniform. Study Question 9

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Interpretation of Pyramid of Numbers

 Generally the body size of organisms increases at each trophic level from the base to the apex of
the pyramid as their number decreases.
 At each trophic level much energy is lost through respiration, excretion, sweating, defecation etc.
therefore less energy is transmitted to the succeeding trophic level. Fewer organisms can
therefore besupported.
 Inverted pyramid of numbers also exist. For example where one mango tree supports several
monkeys each being fed on by several fleas.
Fleas
Monkeys
Pyramid of Biomass
Biomass of an organism is its constant dry weight. In an ecosystem, the producers have the
highest biomass followed in decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
consumers.

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Population
Populations change in size, structure and organisation.
Characteristics of apopulation.
 Density.Thisisthenumber ofindividuals perunitarea.E.g. 50 gazelles per Km2.
 Dispersion. This is the distribution or spread of organisms in a habitat.
 Populationgrowth.Thisreferstotherateofincreasein numbers.
Population Estimation Methods

Usually a representative sample is used to estimate the population of organism in a big habitat.
A sample is a small number of individuals taken from the habitat that is a representative ofthe
wholepopulation.Thefollowingmethods are used whensampling.
 Quadrat method.
 Line transect.
 Belt transect.
 Capture-recapture method.
Quadrat Method
 A Quadrat is a square, made of woos metal/hard plastic.
 It can also be established on the ground using pegs, rope/permanent coloured ink,
using metre rule or measuring tape.
 The size is usually one square metre (1M2), in grassland.
 In wooded or forest habitat it is usually larger, and can reach upto 20 m2 depending on
particular species under investigation.
 The number of each species found within the quadrat is counted and recorded.
 Total number of organisms is then calculated by, finding the average quadrats and multiplying it
with the total area of the whole habitat.
 The number of quadrats and their positions is determined by the type of vegetation studied.
 In a grassland, the quadrat frame can be thrown at random.
 In other habitats of forest, random numbers that determine the locus at which to establish a
quadrat are used.
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Line Transect
 A line transect is a string or rope that is stretched along across the area in which all the plants
that are touched are counted.
 It is tied on to a pole or tent peg.
 It is particularly useful where there is change of populations traversing through grassland, to
woodland to forest land.
 This method can also be used in studying the changes in growth patterns in plants over a period
of time.
Belt Transect
 Two line transects are set parallel to each other to enclose a strip through the habitat to be studied.
 The width is determined by the type of habitat, i.e., grass or forest and by the nature of
investigation.
 In grassland it can be 0.5 m or 1 m.
 Sometimes it can be 20 metres or more especially when counting large herbivores.
 The number of organisms within the belt is counted and recorded.
Capture-recapture method
 This is used for animals such as fish, rodents, arthropods and birds.
 The animals are caught, marked, counted and released.
 For example, grasshoppers can be caught with a net and marked using permanentink.
 After sometime, the same area is sampled again, i.e., the grasshoppers are caught again.
 The total number caught during the second catch is recorded.
The number of marked ones is also recorded:

 Let the number caught and marked be a.
 The total number in the second catch be b.
 The number of marked ones in the second catch be c.
 The total number of grasshoppers in the area be T.
The total number T can be estimated using the following formula: Total Number =

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The following assumptions are made:

 No migration, i.e., no movement in and out of the study area.
 There is even distribution of the organisms in the study area.
 There is random distribution of the organisms after the first capture.
 No births or deaths during the activity.
 After the estimation, the results can be used to show anyone of the following population
characteristics:
Density:
 Density is calculated by dividing the number of organisms by the size of the area studied.
Frequency:
 Frequency is the number of times that a species occurs in the area beingstudied.
Percentage Cover:
 This is the proportion of the area covered by a particular species.
 For example, a given plant species may cover the whole. of a given area.
 In this case the plant is said to have 100% cover.
Dominance:
 This is the term used to describe a species that exerts the most effect on others.
 The dominance may be in terms of high frequency or high density.
Adaptations of plants to various Habitats

An adaptation is a change to suit environment: the development of physical, physiological or
behavioural characteristics that allow organisms to survive and reproduce in their habitats.
There are four main groups of plants namely;
 Xerophytes.
 Mesophytes.
 Hydrophytes.
 Halophytes.

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Xerophytes
These are plants adapted to survive in the dry habitats. These habitats have the following
characteristics.
i.) Unpredictable and poorly distributed rainfall between 250- 350mm per year.
ii.) Veryhigh day temperatures and very low night temperatures hence high diurnal temperature
range.
iii.)Theyareverywindy.
iv.) Low humidity.
Adaptations of Xerophytes
i.) Shedding of leaves during the dry season to reduce the surface exposed totranspiration.
ii.) Reduced leaves in size such as in pine or modified into spines as in cactus. This reduces the
surface area over which transpiration occurs.
iii.)Leaves have a thick waxy cuticle to reduce the rate of transpiration.
iv.) Some store water in large parenchyma cells contained in succulent stems and leaves.
v.) Some have reversed stomatal rhythm.
vi.) Sunken stomata
vii.)Folded leaves reduced the surface area.
viii.)Reduced number of stomata
ix.) Some have deep roots to absorb water from deep in the soil.
Others have superficial roots growing horizontally close to the surface to absorb water after a light
Mesophytes
These are plants growing in well watered areas. Such habitats have the following general
characteristics.
 Adequaterainfall;950-1800mmthatiswelldistributed throughout the year.
 Relatively high humidity
 Thick clouds
 Moderate to hightemperatures
 Shallow water table
 Less windy

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Adaptations of Mesophytes
They show various adaptations depending on where they grow. Some of these adaptations are for
reduction of water loss, others for increased water, loss and some are also adapted to light
conditions.
Forest Ecosystem
i.) Vegetation grows fast to compete for light. ii.) Trees grow very tall to compete for light.
iii.)Some develop buttress roots or prop roots for extra support such as the Ficus natalensis.
iv.) Climbers such as lianas support themselves on stems of tall trees to reach light.
v.) Epiphytes support themselves on the branches of tall trees. vi.) Others are adapted to carry out
photosynthesis under low light intensity by having many chloroplasts that are sensitive to low
lightintensity.
vii.) They show leaf mosaic pattern to minimise overlapping enhancing trapping of light for
photosynthesis.
 Those in areas with a lot of water have broad leaves, thin cuticle and many stomata on both
surfaces to encourage high rate oftranspiration.
 Thoseindryareashavewaxyandshinycuticletoreflectlight. Othersaredeeprootedtoobtainwater
fromdeepinthesoil.
Hydrophytes
Theseareplantsgrowinginfreshwatereitherpartiallyorwholly. Such habitats have the following
general characteristics.
 Low concentration of dissolved gases such asoxygen
 Presence of waves andcurrents
 Inadequate light inwater
Hydrophytes (Water plants) are either submerged, emergent or floating.
Submerged Plants
 The leaves have an epidermis with very thin walls and a delicate cuticle.
 They have nostomata.
 Water is excreted from special glands and pores at the tips.
 Other adaptations include the following:
 Presence of large air spaces and canals (aerenchyma) for gaseous exchange and buoyancy.
 Some plants have filamentous leaves In order to increase the surface area for absorption of
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light, gases and mineral salts.
 Some plants are rootless, hence support provided by water.
 Mineral salts and water absorbed by all plant surfaces.
 In some plants, the stem and leaves are covered with a waxy substance to reduce absorption
of water. e.g. Ceratophyllum and Elodeasp.
Floating Plants
 Their structure is similar to that of mesophytes.
 The leaves are broad to increase the surface area for water loss.
 They have more stomata on the upper surface than on the lower surface to increase rate of
water loss.
 Examples are Pistia sp. (water lettuce), Salvinia and
Nymphea.
Halophytes
These are plants which are able to tolerate very salty conditions in soil and marine water. Such habitats
have the following general characteristics.
 High concentration of mineral salts
 Low concentration of dissolved gases
 Low light intensity in marine water
 Presence of waves and currents in marine water
Adaptations of Halophytes
i.) They root cells which concentrate a lot of salts to enable them to absorb water by osmosis.
ii.) Some have salt glands that secrete excess salts.
iii.)Many have water storagetissues.
iv.) Some like the mangroves have breathing roots called pneumatophores.Theseriseabovethe
watersurfaceto obtain oxygen from the atmosphere.
v.) Mangroves growing on mud flats have buttress roots for support.
vi.) Submerged halophytes are adapted to photosynthesise under low lightintensity.
vii.)Their fruits are adapted for dispersal by having aerenchymatous tissue for air storage to
make them buoyant.

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POLLUTION
NOTE!
This is a Sample of the Well Organized Detailed Simplified Notes
Available.
Call/Text/WhatsApp 0746-222-000 for the Complete Notes.

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BIOLOGY NOTES

FORM 3 SIMPLIFIED VERSION

QUICK REVISION NOTES

THIS IS A FREE SAMPLE OF THE

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of brief quotations in a book review.

Mwalimu Consultancy Ltd.

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Practical Activities 1 and 2

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i.) They are eukaryotic.

The kingdom Plantae is divided into three main divisions.

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i.) The lack the vascularsystem

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i.) They have leaves, stems and roots but no flowers.

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This subdivision has three main classes.

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ClassMonocotyledonae Class Dicotyledonae.

 They have seeds with one cotyledon.  Have two cotyledons.

 They have narrow-long leaves with parallel  Broadleaveswithreticulate venation.

 Their stems havescattered vascular bundle.  Vascular bundles arearranged to form a

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 Presence and number ofantennae

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The main classes of the phylum chordata are;

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 Some are terrestrial either on the surface of the earth or in tunnels.

 Some are aquatic such as the dolphins and whales.

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Rules Used in Constructing a Dichotomous Key

b) Animal without wings

vi.) Avoid overlapping statements or generalizations such as

 Plant I metre tall and above.

 Plant 15cm to 60cmtall.

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 Sustainable food production

 Habitat.Thisisa specific localitywith a particular set of conditions where an organism lives.

 Ecological niche. This is the position occupied by an organisminahabitat.Itincludesthe

 Population. This refers to all members of a given species in particular habitat.

 Salinity.Thisreferstothesalt concentrationofthewater. This divides the aquatic environment into

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 Temperature. This affects the distribution of organisms in anyhabitat.Verylow temperature may

 pH (hydrogen ion concentration.)

Biotic Inter-Relationships Competition

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See the graph below.

The Nitrogen Cycle

 Non-Biological nitrogen fixation. This is done by lightning.

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Energy Flow in an Ecosystem