Motives

Social media is increasingly important in daily life and is an especially important social interaction mechanism for young people. Although research has been conducted evaluating user types based on motives for using social media, no such framework has been extended to social media websites. We extend previous research by evaluating the underlying structure of social media website usage motivations using a 13 item survey and evaluations from 19 different social media websites administered to 1686 young Americans. Using a multidimensional scaling approach, we uncover 2 major motive dimensions underlying social media website use: fun-related and content-specific. Based on the derived dimensions, we generate a graphical “quadrant” system for classifying social media websites and depict all 19 social media sites based on their quadrant. We propose that our quadrant system can be used by other researchers to further refine understanding of social media website usage motives.

Attitude-related research in the existing sport literature has focused on measurement of the affect component to examine existing attitudes towards sport teams. Recent studies question sole reliance upon affective reactions to assess sport consumers’ attitudes towards sport teams. Current thinking conceptualises attitudes as possessing distinct structural properties such as importance, extremity, accessibility, certainty, and so on, whose combined presence is believed to be a better measure of attitude formation towards a focal object. This paper presents a conceptual model to advance our understanding of attitude formation relative to sport and athletic teams. The Fan Attitude Network (FAN) Model proposes a process through which the fulfilment of dispositional needs serves as a catalyst for the internalisation of a sport team. The internalisation process culminates in a sport identity that mediates the formation of the structural property importance, which in turn influences the formation of additional structural properties that subsequently impact attitude consequences such as fan loyalty. Based upon the proposed FAN Model, two directions for future research are offered for the systematic study of attitude formation among sport consumers.

This paper investigates the personal and property characteristics of landowners who use EU Rural Development agri-environmental schemes (AES), as well as their motives for participation or non-participation in such schemes. The study is based on a questionnaire survey with landowners, in selected study areas in the Netherlands, Denmark, Austria, Italy and Greece. Our principal findings show that AES tend to attract more the owners of larger farms, who are frequently full-time, younger, post-primary school educated and agriculturally-trained farmers. The latter findings are contingent on local geographical particulari-ties and on subjective factors, farmers' individualities, different rural cultures, landscape types, EU and national policies and special needs of the study areas—all areas where agricultural production is increasingly marginalized, for different reasons. Subsidy scheme participation motives did not seem to be strictly economic; they also regarded personal satisfaction. They are all together generally appeared to be place specific, since the respondents from peri-urban Northern European areas were more motivated to participate in AES than respondents from Central and Southern European areas with marginal potential for agriculture. Motives for non-participation were also found to be dependent on the level of farming engagement and on case-area landscape types.

En este artículo, Roger Crisp nos presenta una interpretación de la teoría de la virtud de Hume. Crisp sostiene que el lugar central de la virtud en la ética de Hume le proporciona a Hume una posición extremadamente sofisticada que la ética de la virtud no puede ignorar. En particular, argumenta que aunque la posición de Hume pueda al final ser descrita como un utilitarismo de motivos, constituye en todo caso una forma extremadamente sofisticada de utilitarismo de motivos, una forma de utilitarismo que puede volver imposible una ética de la virtud de raíz no-utilitarista.

A cross-cultural explanatory sequential mixed method design was utilized to investigate the implementability of social networking services for educational purposes. It was aimed to shed light on the nature of relationship between the use of social networking services and pre-service teachers’ personality, motivation to use
Facebook, motives to use Facebook, and attitude towards using Facebook. In addition to that, it was aimed to understand the perceived usefulness and feasibility of Social networking services as educational tools and the feelings of the future teachers about
the “appropriateness” of Facebook as an educational implementation. In the quantitative phase of the research, which was carried out in both Turkey and then the United States of America, a correlational study was utilized. For scaling motives,
motivation, personality, Facebook use, and attitude towards using Facebook, five questionnaires which were developed and used in English were translated into Turkish. Multiple linear, ordinal logistic, and binomial logistic regression analyses were conducted for quantitative data analysis. In the qualitative phase, Turkish pre-service teachers were interviewed and a constant comparative analysis was conducted on the transcripts. It was found that personality is not a major predictor of Facebook
use. Pre-service teachers have a positive perception of the use of Facebook for educational purposes in both countries. However, there have been many differences between the two countries’ pre-service teachers in terms of Facebook use and motives. It was demonstrated that pre-service teachers associate Facebook mostly with relationship, communication, and learning and they see Facebook as educationally implementable.

Was macht gute Führung aus? Wer eignet sich als Führungskraft und warum? Und welche Motive stehen dahinter? All dies könnten Fragen sein, mit denen Personalreferenten und Diagnostiker regelmäßig konfrontiert werden. Obwohl der Großteil der kleinen Unternehmen immer noch auf „die Bauchentscheidung“ bei der Personalauswahl setzt, ist bei einigen Großkonzernen die Notwendigkeit des Einsatzes valider Testverfahren mit einiger Verzögerung angekommen. Die nachfolgende Studie untersucht mögliche Einflussfaktoren der Persönlichkeit und deren Wirkung auf verschiedene Motivstrukturen und welche Auswirkung diese auf berufliches Verhalten haben können. Die daraus abgeleiteten Ergebnisse werden mit bestehenden theoretischen Betrachtungen in Verbindung gebracht und Handlungsempfehlungen für die Leistungsdiagnostik gegeben. Die Resultate zeigen insbesondere Zusammenhänge zwischen Offenheit und Gewissenhaftigkeit auf die intrinsische Motivation. Zudem werden Verbindungen zwischen Extraversion, Gewissenhaftigkeit und deren Einfluss auf das Machtmotiv festgestellt, welches gleichsam eine mögliche Vorhersage für den Willen darstellt, berufliche und akademische Herausforderungen anzunehmen.

Since Internet gaming disorder recently appeared in the section III of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 (DSM-5), little investigation has been performed. Besides, more data on Internet gaming behaviors is needed in French samples. Therefore, the
main purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of Internet gaming disorder in a sample of French young Internet users and to explore the relationships between Internet gaming disorder, time spent on the Internet, gaming time and motives, game genre, and psychopathology. Our sample consisted of 418 online gamers recruited online, aged from 18 to 30 years (M = 22; SD = 3) and constituted of 206 women (49%) and 212 men. They completed several scales assessing characteristics of Internet use and gaming behaviors as well as depression and self-esteem. The prevalence of Internet gaming disorder was nearly 2% (n = 8). Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that time spent on the Internet, gaming
motives and depressive symptoms were significant predictors of Internet gaming disorder scores, with differences according to gender. Problematic gamers had higher mean scores of social, escape, coping and fantasy motives and psychopathology than non-problematic gamers. This study highlights the relationships between Internet gaming disorder, motives, game genres and psychopathological variables, as differences between gamers with and without Internet gaming disorder. Motives such escape appears as a highly important factor, highlighting why internet gaming disorder could be considered as a dysfunctional coping strategy.

Stressing that the pronoun "I" picks out one and only one person in the world (i.e., me), I argue against Hunt (and other like-minded Rand commentators) that the supposed "hard case" of destructive people who do not care for their own lives poses no special difficulty for rational egoism. I conclude that the proper response to a terse objection like "What about suicide bombers?" is the equally terse assertion "But I don't want to get blown up."

Статья посвящена «Последним песням» – последнему прижизненному сборнику Н. А. Некрасова, до сих пор не становившемуся объектом монографического исследования с точки зрения поэтики. Выявление и анализ мотивного каркаса сборника позволили сделать ряд наблюдений относительно смысловой и эмоциональной нагрузки отдельных текстов, а также общих принципов построения этой поэтической книги и ее восприятия современниками.
Ключевые слова: Н. А. Некрасов, сборник «Последние песни», поэтический мотив, авторская стратегия.

This article is dedicated to “The Last Songs” – the last collection of poems by N.A. Nekrasov published in his lifetime, the poetics of which has still not become the object of a monographic research.Exposure and analysis of the motive frame of the collection allow to make some observations on the semantic and emotional strain of several texts as well as on general concepts constructing this poetic book and on its perception by contemporaries.

La fuga en Do menor del primer libro del WTC de Bach (BWV 847) es considerada un modelo para entender el funcionamiento general de la fuga, como es afirmado por Paul Walker en su artículo sobre la fuga: Esta fuga en particular es frecuentemente citada como un paradigma, y es solo a través de un análisis de este tipo que a través de los años muchos músicos se han encontrado con la fuga por primera vez. El análisis introduce la terminología estándar más importante y demuestra los tipos de normas que muchos músicos consideran esenciales para definir el género. (Walker, Paul M.) Tanto para la interpretación como para el análisis es muy importante la profundización sobre la construcción melódica; En el caso específico de las fugas es muy relevante hacer un análisis profundo de los sujetos, pues estos determinan la construcción melódica de toda la pieza;

The purpose of the present study is to highlight the ways in which a philologist's motivation and computer self-efficacy are enhanced when using ICT in his teaching. Ten philologists, active during the current school year, participated in the research, while data was collected through semi-structured interviews conducted by telephone. The qualitative analysis of the research results was based on three pillars: motivation, self-efficacy in relation to ICT and the way of their incorporation into philological courses. The results show that a philologist’s personal relationship with new technologies, the available technological equipment of his school, as well as training on ICT constitute his motivation to use ICT. With regard to self-efficacy in ICT, philologists say they feel comfortable and more effective when they use ICT, while most of them believe that their students and colleagues treat them positively. Finally, examples from philological courses teaching are analyzed, while reference is made to the most common web pages they use.  The research is completed by philologist’s suggestions as to what they would like to change at school and educational policy levels in order to facilitate the use of ICT in their school environment.

Objective: Our aim was to conduct a systematic review of the literature on psychological masochism to identify hypotheses for examination in clinical studies. Method: We identified defenses, conflicts, and motives using standardized measures in 23 psychoanalytic papers. Results: Three primary and three secondary subtypes of masochism emerged in the literature. Overall Gratification Inhibition (subtype I.1) was the " healthiest " form, associated with higher developmental level motives and neurotic defenses. The Global Conflict (I.2) was the least healthy form of masochism, consistent with personality disorder. It was associated with early developmental level motives and immature defenses, including depressive defenses, often associated with depression. Dominant Other (I.3) represented masochistic attachment problems, associated with early developmental level motives, object-related, image-distorting defenses, and narcissism. Of the secondary types, Separation–Abandonment (II.1) reflected object-related defenses, and separation-related motives. Rejection of Others (II.2) represented a sadistic-narcissistic form, associated with image-distorting and disavowal defenses, with both early and later developmental level motives. Finally, Sexual Pleasure vs. Guilt (II.3) was associated with autistic fantasy, and both early and later developmental level motives, suggesting a distinct traumatic origin and representing the juncture of sexual and psychological masochism. Conclusions: Analysts described six distinguishable types of masochism. Future studies should examine their validity.

This grounded theory study examines the motives for relationships between local churches and missionaries: What motivates churches to enter into a relationship with a missionary, to continue this relationship, and to end it? Similarly, what motivates missionaries to begin, continue, or end relationships with a local church? We used purposive stratified sampling to select 17 missionaries and church mission leaders to interview for this study. We performed semi-structured interviews with both groups to discover their understanding of why they form, maintain, and dissolve relationships with each other. Multiple motives influenced all participants. These motives can be broadly categorized as either relationship-focused motives or task-focused motives. Furthermore, the task-focused motives can either be centered on specific goals shared by churches and missionaries (e.g., starting a reproducing church among a specific people group) or on specific processes (e.g., evangelizing or feeding the poor). Although all participants had multiple motives, each participant emphasized some motives over others. The motives present in each party influence many aspects of their relationship, including their communication, financial involvement, and the purpose of the church's short-term mission trips to the missionary's setting. In contrast to social exchange theory which provides a framework to understand conditions under which a relationship will be maintained or ended, the Multiple Motive Theory of Church and Missionary Relationships goes further; it describes specific motives that exist which influence whether a relationship begins, continues, or ends.

Người mẫu cực hấp dẫn đã được sử dụng rộng rãi trong quảng cáo để gây ảnh hưởng về tâm lý đối với người nhận thông điệp trong nỗ lực gia tăng hiệu quả của quảng cáo. Tài liệu nghiên cứu về tiếp thị ghi nhận rất nhiều bằng chứng về hiệu ứng tích cực của việc sử dụng những người mẫu như thế. Tuy nhiên, ý kiến về hiệu quả của cách làm này lại ít nhiều trái ngược nhau. Nghiên cứu này nhằm đóng góp vào khối kiến thức chung về vấn đề trên thông qua khảo sát tác động của các biến về khác biệt cá nhân (đặc điểm của người mẫu, loại sản phẩm, động cơ so sánh và văn hóa) lên hiệu ứng tiêu cực. Nghiên cứu cũng tìm hiểu liệu tính hoài nghi với quảng cáo do nền văn hóa định hình có ảnh hưởng gì đến hiệu ứng tiêu cực xuất phát từ việc so sánh với người mẫu trong quảng cáo không? Nghiên cứu sử dụng một thiết kế thử nghiệm giữa các đối tượng gồm 3 [mẫu nhan sắc] x 2 [loại sản phẩm] x 2 [động cơ so sánh]. Mẫu nghiên cứu là nữ sinh viên đa văn hóa đang theo học những chương trình và đại học quốc tế tại VN. Kết quả nghiên cứu ủng hộ hầu hết các giả thuyết; chỉ có biến loại sản phẩm không có tác động. Nghiên cứu cũng thừa nhận rằng có mối tương quan giữa biến văn hóa và tính hoài nghi trong quảng cáo. Những phát hiện này có nhiều hàm ý cho người làm quảng cáo, nhà nghiên cứu và nhà hoạch định chính sách về ảnh hưởng tiêu cực có thể có từ việc sử dụng người mẫu cực hấp dẫn trong quảng cáo.

Whilst  there  are  numerous  studies  on  young  people’s  engagement  in  academic   study, the internal relationship between young people and academic study is still unclear.  This thesis seeks to explain the relation of young people to their academic study, in the context of Brunei Darussalam, through analysing young people’s  motive  hierarchy.    The  research  is  based  on  the  understanding  that   young people are faced with multiple contradicting demands from the society, which evolve with their developmental age.  The contradicting demands generate conflicts for young people as they participate across the different institutional practices in their everyday lives.
The research entailed a semi-participatory research approach, which emphasised young  people’s  lived  experiences,  from a first-person perspective. Eight (8) young people aged 16-18 years who are studying for their GCE A Level examinations, played roles as both trained Student Researchers, as well as participants in this research.  Data were collected from focus group discussions, annotated photo albums (MyAlbum)  and  a  ‘participant  self-generated’  questionnaire   (MyQuestionnaire).  The focus of the data collection was on the young  people’s   experiences of conflicts with respect to their academic study and the different agendas in their everyday lives.  Intermediary tools were developed to focus the data analysis to identify motive-orientations and their relative importance in the construct of the motive hierarchy of a young person. An initial general model of motive hierarchy was developed from this study too.
It is a societal demand for young people in late adolescence to be vocational and career oriented.  However this study shows the eight (8) young people are also oriented towards other objects, apart from being future oriented.  They can still have a dominant motive-orientation towards intimate personal relations, which usually prevails for early adolescence. Two other motive-orientations have also emerged from this study, i.e. the societal value system and self-comfort related.  These different motive-orientations of the young people contradict the societal demands and create conflicts for the young people as they participate in and across the practices.  These findings are important in informing intervention programmes  to  improve  young  people’s  engagement  in  academic  study.

Sport managers are beginning to view their teams, leagues, and properties as “brands” to be managed.  Yet, while there is increased discussion of teams and sport entities as brands, there is little understanding as to what creates a strong brand in the sport setting, other than winning.  This study broadens the understanding of brand management by creating the Team Association Model, whereby a scale is validated that identifies the underlying dimensions of brand associations, a major contributor to the creation of brand equity (Aaker, 1991).  Utilizing Keller’s (1993) theoretical framework of consumer-based brand equity as a starting point, a thorough review of the sport literature was conducted which identified 16 potential dimensions.  In order to evaluate the applicability of each potential dimension, a scale is developed, pre-tested, and validated on a national sample of sport consumers.  Results of the confirmatory factor analysis of provided support for this paper’s theoretical notion that 16 distinct constructs underlie attributes, benefits, and attitudes associated with professional team sports.  Further, this study supports Keller’s (1993) conceptualization of consumer-based brand associations as being comprised of benefits, attributes, and attitudes.

The ability to draw attendees to performances is vital to the success of a sport organisation.  As a result, sport managers and academics attempt to investigate motivations that drive decisions to attend events.  In order to make predictions, academic demands have lead to the proliferation of constructs to capture a wide variety of motives while practitioners demand shorter scales to increase efficiency.  The purpose of this research is to provide a hybrid approach to provide a parsimonious measuring tool of motives for sport event attendance.  Five facets of motivation are proposed: Socialisation, Performance, Excitement, Esteem and Diversion (SPEED) and tested in two studies.  The first study (N=333) was conducted at a sport event, while the second study (N=909) was administered to the general population using multiple sports.  Results suggest that the SPEED facets show promise as valuable measures of sport consumers’ motivation to attend events.  The scale is concise and demonstrates validity, as well as the ability to predict spectator behaviour and intentions.

The recent study of recognition in international relations allows one to challenge the dominant model of “rational” actors seeking to maximize their material interests (safety and profit). However, these new studies concentrate on “recognition of equality,” that is to say, collective actors’ desire to be recognized by others as equals. These approaches thus
put aside “recognition of superiority,” that is to say the will to be recognized as superior to others. While this second type of superiority appears problematic from a normative standpoint, it is not to be expected that it will disappear from the horizon of international affairs. The paper will first analyze the contribution made by studies of recognition in the international relations literature and the manner in which this new orientation has focused principally on “recognition of equality.” Using empirical and anthropological observations, it will then suggest approaches to studying “recognition of superiority.”

Active processes of alteration and evolution of the conceptual and artistic paradigm were taking place in European architecture at the beginning of the 20th century. It is known, that these changes were related to various global factors, like the urbanization of more territories and the advent of new technologies and industries. The drastically mutated appearances of architecture and constructions were
reflected in the artworks, where corresponding interpretation was created. We now find it in the production of many European authors, regardless of their belonging to different generations, art schools, styles, etc. In this context, the analysis of the varying stylistic solutions revealed the changing role of architectural visions and elements – still inspired and transformed on the basis of the existing urban environment.
We investigated a narrow aspect of this phenomenon in the article: the architectural images in the pieces of some of the earliest and most significant European artists (surrealists).
We chose the classified here paintings according to two conditions: the existence of building motives and structures used in the compositions; as well as the following visions and replicas that appeared in contemporary architectural practice. In the first direction, we traced the typology of the involved elements and their organization in the picture space. In the second, we regarded the relationship of the depicted and imagined architecture with later implementations.
The expected results are in the field of history and theory of contemporary art and architecture.

Keywords: 20th century, Europe, paintings, art, surrealism, architectural motives

The domestic as well as global organic food market is experiencing a massive growth in recent years because of its multiple health benefits. Several studies focused on consumer perceptions towards organic food products in different contexts. However, in spite of the emergence of studies on this topic, the information about the key factors driving consumer intention to purchase, as well as their actual purchase behaviour, is still scarce. The aim of this research is to explore the key drivers of purchase intentions of organic food products, and develop a conceptual framework based on personal characteristics, motives, perceptions, subjective knowledge, reference groups, attitudes, perceived behavioural control, purchase intention, and actual buying behaviour. This extensive literature review has analysed thee top-quality poll of papers published in the past two decades. As a result, it contributes to a better understanding of this focal phenomenon by identifying the key drivers of consumers' intention to purchase organic food products. Furthermore, future research directions are provided, in order to extend the existing knowledge of consumer behaviour towards organic food products.

This article explores how best to cultivate sustainable behavior change, whether that means sticking to an exercise regimen or a nutrition plan for a lifetime of health. Benefits of both internal and external motivation are explained. By re-branding health as well-being, happiness, or quality of life, it is easier to motivate older adults to do the right thing when it comes to self-care behaviors.

My aim in this paper is to tease out and assess Ryle’s position on the relationship between motives and actions, in particular his claim that this relation is not causal and that, therefore, the corresponding explanations are not causal explanations. I shall argue that, although Ryle mistakenly assimilated explanations by motives to explanations by character traits, he nonetheless has much of interest to say about how motives and character traits are related to the actions they explain, respectively, and also about whether we should think of explanations of either kind as causal explanations.

ABSTRACT
The Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences was established by historian Count József
Teleki, the first President of the Academy in 1826. It, growing with help from various sources, was
opened in 1844 for scholars after the necessary organizing and processing and since 1867, it was
opened for the use of all citizens of the country.
There are 810 Turkish manuscripts in four separate collections in the library. The artworks
written in different centuries and on various subjects, enriched by the donations of collectors, are
valuable treasures waiting for researchers to examine in terms of book arts.
In the selection of the artworks in the library collection, the application methods of the rosettes
used on their binders, as well as the understanding of pattern design that has changed over the
centuries, has also been effective.
The rosette form has been studied in the Turkish decorative arts with its applications on
illumination, binder, tile, carpet and many different materials by developing and changing over the
centuries.
The first artwork examined is Hüsrev-name-i Firaki with no. Török, O 254. The rosette on the
binder of poetic hymnal which had no colophon page and dated on 16th century had been applied as
cold pressing. Bahrü’l Cevahir, the second artwork with no. Török, O 227 is a masnavi and is the poetic
artwork dated M. 1622 written by poet Muhammed Hilmi. The rosette used on binder of the artwork was
worked as bottom separation. The third artwork with no. Török, Qu 28 dated M. 1733 and named Cemnüme fi- Fenni’l- Cografya is a geography book translated from French. Binder of the book is colourful
and its rosette, bracket and ruler with three thread rumi were applied by using the yekşah technique.
In the scope of this study, improvement of the rosette form of such three manuscripts dated in
16th, 17th and 18th centuries and selected from the Oriental Collection of the Library of the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences in Budapest will be handled by comparing to pattern designs (hatayi group, rumi,
cloud) in the rosettes.

Inclusionary housing is one of the urban interventions that are adopted by cities that mainly face with social-economic segregation among citizens in the housing context, with the aim of transforming urban settlements that are able to integrate low-income and any other vulnerable groups while promoting better quality and affordable housing for them.

Looking at some middle-income neighborhoods of some developing cities like Kigali, a considerable number of backyard houses are observed and mainly used to accommodate low-income and lower middle-income tenants in form of small-scale rental housing market. This research intends to explain why this process takes place and to investigate to what extent provided houses are affordable and lead to the integration of low-income groups, hence the name bottom-up inclusionary housing.

Findings reveal that intrinsic-egoistic motives are the main reasons that drive small-scale landlords with a hope to generate income from their housing properties in both short and long-term. Moreover, circumstances such as death, unemployment, advanced age and larger household size were found to play a key role in influencing landlord’s investment decisions. It is also important to note that due to rigid housing regulations as well as increasing housing demand for cheaper rental housing play an important role in this process as extrinsic motives.

Հոդվածում ամփոփված են Արցախյան պատերազմում կամավորական շարժման սոցիոլոգիական իմաստավորումներն ու պատերազմի սոցիալական դեմքը կամավորների շրջանում բացահայտելու նպատակով իրականացված սոցիոլոգիական հետազոտության արդյունքները։ Վերջիններս մի կողմից բացահայտում են կամավորագրվելու շարժառիթները, պարզում, թե ինչպես են կամավորականները գնահատում ստեղծված իրավիճակը և ինչ բնութագրիչներով են օժտված նրանք։ Մյուս կողմից՝ խնդիրը դիտարկվում է հասարակություն-բանակ փոխհարաբերությունների շրջանակներում՝ ընդգծելով կամավորական շարժման ինստիտուցիոնալացման նախապայմաններն ու հեռանկարները։

The article covers the results of the sociological research conducted with a view to studying the sociological interpretations of Nagorno-Karabakh voluntary movement and the social image of the war among the volunteer soldiers. On the one hand the results uncover the personal motives for volunteering, as well as find out how the volunteers understand and assess the situation, and what personal features are typical of them. On the other hand the issue is being observed within the framework of society – army interrelations, thus highlighting the preconditions and prospects for institutionalization of the voluntary movement.

This grounded theory study examines the motives for relationships between local churches and missionaries: What motivates churches to enter into a relationship with a missionary, to continue this relationship, and to end it? Similarly, what motivates missionaries to begin, continue, or end relationships with a local church? We used purposive stratified sampling to select 17 missionaries and church mission leaders to interview for this study. We performed semi-structured interviews with both groups to discover their understanding of why they form, maintain, and dissolve relationships with each other. Multiple motives influenced all participants. These motives can be broadly categorized as either relationship-focused motives or task-focused motives. Furthermore, the task-focused motives can either be centered on specific goals shared by churches and missionaries (e.g., starting a reproducing church among a specific people group) or on specific processes (e.g., evangelizing or feeding ...

There are two traditions of determining the foundation of legal validity – metaphysical and anti-metaphysical. At the beginning of the 20th century the anti-metaphysical tradition was supplemented by psychological realism, which was developed in the framework of the Uppsala School and the psychological school of Leon Petrażycki. It is possible to trace the common line of reasoning on the problem of legal validity within Continental or psychological legal realism: from Petrażycki (and his students) and Axel Hägerström (and his students, including Alf Ross) to Enrico Pattaro. Psychological legal realism is an approach to law that can be characterized by 1) an orientation toward the study of law in the context of facts of psychophysical reality; 2) the idea of the psychological nature of law; 3) recognition of the authoritative-mystical nature and objectification of legal experiences; 4) the irreducibility of law to the behavioral aspect; etc.
The term “Uppsala School of Legal Realism” denotes the theoretical legal position of scholars from Uppsala – Hagerström and his most faithful students, Anders Vilhelm Lundstedt and Karl Olivekrona – within the framework of a broader Scandinavian legal realism as part of the continental realistic tradition. The philosophical foundations of the Uppsala School of Legal Realism include: rejection of subjectivism and metaphysics, naturalism, non-cognitivism. This school paid special attention to questions about the possibility of scientific knowledge about law, the construction of a value-neutral theory, and the search for reliable methodological foundations for the science of law. The revolt against subjectivism and metaphysics led to the assertion that there is – and can be the subject of scientific knowledge – only one reality, namely spatio-temporal, psychophysical. Since legal concepts do not directly correspond to the facts of such a reality, they are considered as illusions and even magical formulas, which, however, are based on actual psychological facts and have an effect on people's consciousness.
In the framework of the Uppsala School from a realistic point of view law appears as a machinery of coercion, as a factual order based on the organized social force. Within that order the rules of law are independent imperatives and motives of behavior, which have a suggestive, binding effect on the consciousness and behavior of people. The validity of law is determined by the power of organized social coercion and is regarded as a complex phenomenon of the people’s inner world. As a complex psychical fact, legal validity is considered a psychological self-binding engendered by the physical coercion machinery in action and the influence of cultural, social and even biological factors.